Chapter 35

Complex numbers
√
35.1 Cartesian complex numbers Since x 2 + 4 = 0 then x 2 = −4 and x = −4

p √ √
(i) If the quadratic equation x 2 + 2x + 5 = 0 is solved i.e., x= (−1)(4) = −1 4 = j(±2)
using the quadratic formula then: √
= ± j2, (since j = −1)
p
−2 ± (2)2 − (4)(1)(5)
x= (Note that ±j2 may also be written as ± 2j).
2(1)
√ √
−2 ± −16 −2 ± (16)(−1)
= =
2 2 Problem 2. Solve the quadratic equation:
√ √ √
−2 ± 16 −1 −2 ± 4 −1 2x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0
= =
2 2
√
= −1 ± 2 −1
√ Using the quadratic formula,
It is not possible to evaluate −1 in real
terms.
√ However, if an operator j is defined as p
j = −1 then the solution may be expressed as −3 ± (3)2 − 4(2)(5)
x=
x = −1 ± j2. 2(2)
√ √ √
(ii) −1 + j2 and −1 − j2 are known as complex num- −3 ± −31 −3 ± −1 31
= =
bers. Both solutions are of the form a + jb, ‘a’ 4 4
being termed the real part and jb the imaginary √
−3 ± j 31
part. A complex number of the form a + jb is =
called a Cartesian complex number. 4
√
(iii) In pure
√ mathematics the symbol i is used to indi- 3 31
cate −1 (i being the first letter of the word Hence x=− +j or −0.750 ± j1.392,
4 4
imaginary). However i is the symbol of electric correct to 3 decimal places.
current in engineering, and to avoid possible con-
fusion the√next letter in the alphabet, j, is used to
(Note, a graph of y = 2x 2 + 3x + 5 does not cross the
represent −1
x-axis and hence 2x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0 has no real roots).

Problem 1. Solve the quadratic equation: Problem 3. Evaluate

−4
x2 + 4 = 0 (a) j3 (b) j4 (c) j23 (d)
j9
 314 Engineering Mathematics

(a) j3 = j2 × j = (−1) × j = −j, since j2 = −1 Imaginary

axis
(b) j4 = j2 × j2 = (−1) × (−1) = 1
B
(c) j23 = j × j22 = j × ( j2 )11 = j × (−1)11 j4

j3
= j × (−1) = −j
j2 A
(d) j9 = j × j8 = j × ( j2 )4 = j × (−1)4
j
=j×1=j
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Real axis
−4 −4 −4 −j 4j
Hence 9
= = × = 2 j
j j j −j −j
j2
4j
= = 4 j or j4 j3
−(−1) D
j4

Now try the following exercise j5

C

Exercise 127 Further problems on the Figure 35.1

introduction to Cartesian
complex numbers
35.3 Addition and subtraction of
In Problems 1 to 3, solve the quadratic equations.
complex numbers
1. x 2 + 25 = 0
Section 6

[±j5]
Two complex numbers are added/subtracted by adding/
2. 2x 2 + 3x + 4 = 0 subtracting separately the two real parts and the two
" √ #
3 23 imaginary parts.
− ±j or −0.750 ± j1.199
4 4 For example, if Z1 = a + jb and Z2 = c + jd,
3. 4t 2 − 5t + 7 = 0
" √ # then Z1 + Z2 = (a + jb) + (c + jd)
5 87
±j or 0.625 ± j1.166 = (a + c) + j(b + d)
8 8
and Z1 − Z2 = (a + jb) − (c + jd)
1 4
4. Evaluate (a) j8 (b) − 7 (c) 13 = (a − c) + j(b − d)
j 2j
[(a) 1 (b) −j (c) −j2] Thus, for example,

(2 + j3) + (3 − j4) = 2 + j3 + 3 − j4

35.2 The Argand diagram = 5 − j1

and (2 + j3) − (3 − j4) = 2 + j3 − 3 + j4
A complex number may be represented pictorially on
= −1 + j7
rectangular or Cartesian axes. The horizontal (or x) axis
is used to represent the real axis and the vertical (or y)
The addition and subtraction of complex numbers may
axis is used to represent the imaginary axis. Such a dia-
be achieved graphically as shown in the Argand dia-
gram is called an Argand diagram. In Fig. 35.1, the
gram of Fig. 35.2. (2 + j3) is represented by vector OP
point A represents the complex number (3 + j2) and is
and (3 − j4) by vector OQ. In Fig. 35.2(a), by vec-
obtained by plotting the co-ordinates (3, j2) as in graph-
tor addition, (i.e. the diagonal of the parallelogram),
ical work. Figure 35.1 also shows the Argand points B,
OP + OQ = OR. R is the point (5, −j1).
C and D representing the complex numbers (−2 + j4),
(−3 − j5) and (1 − j3) respectively. Hence (2 + j3) + (3 − j4) = 5 − j1
 Complex numbers 315

Imaginary
Problem 4. Given Z1 = 2 + j4 and Z2 = 3 − j
axis
determine (a) Z1 + Z2 , (b) Z1 − Z2 , (c) Z2 − Z1 and
show the results on an Argand diagram
P (2 ! j 3)
j3

j2
(a) Z1 + Z2 = (2 + j4) + (3 − j)

j = (2 + 3) + j(4 − 1) = 5 + j3
(b) Z1 − Z2 = (2 + j4) − (3 − j)
0 1 2 3 4 5 Real axis
j R (5 j ) = (2 − 3) + j(4 − (−1)) = −1 + j5

j2 (c) Z2 − Z1 = (3 − j) − (2 + j4)

j3 = (3 − 2) + j(−1 − 4) = 1 − j5

j4 Each result is shown in the Argand diagram of Fig. 35.3.

Q (3 j4)

Imaginary
axis
(a)
( 1 ! j 5)
j5
Imaginary
axis j4
(5 ! j 3)
j3
S ( 1 ! j 7)
j7
j2
j6

Section 6
j
j5
Q9 j4 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Real axis
j
j3 P (2 ! j 3)
j2
j2
j3
j
j4

3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Real axis j5 (1 j 5)
j

j2 Figure 35.3
j3

j4 Q (3 j4) 35.4 Multiplication and division of

complex numbers
(b)

Figure 35.2 (i) Multiplication of complex numbers is achieved

by assuming all quantities involved are real and
then using j2 = −1 to simplify.
In Fig. 35.2(b), vector OQ is reversed (shown as OQ′ ) Hence (a + jb)(c + jd )
since it is being subtracted. (Note OQ = 3 − j4 and
OQ′ = −(3 − j4) = −3 + j4). = ac + a( jd) + ( jb)c + ( jb)( jd)

OP− OQ = OP + OQ′ = OS is found to be the Argand = ac + jad + jbc + j2bd

point (−1, j7). = (ac − bd) + j(ad + bc),
Hence (2 + j3) − (3 − j4) = −1 + j7 since j2 = −1
 316 Engineering Mathematics

Thus (3 + j2)(4 − j5) Z1 1 − j3 1 − j3 −3 + j4

(b) = = ×
Z3 −3 − j4 −3 − j4 −3 + j4
= 12 − j15 + j8 − j2 10
= (12 − (−10)) + j(−15 + 8) −3 + j4 + j9 − j2 12
=
32 + 4 2
= 22 − j7
9 + j13 9 13
= = +j
(ii) The complex conjugate of a complex number is 25 25 25
obtained by changing the sign of the imaginary
part. Hence the complex conjugate of a + jb is or 0.36 + j0.52
a − jb. The product of a complex number and its
complex conjugate is always a real number. Z1 Z2 (1 − j3)(−2 + j5)
(c) =
Z1 + Z 2 (1 − j3) + (−2 + j5)
For example,
13 + j11
= , from part (a),
(3 + j4)(3 − j4) = 9 − j12 + j12 − j2 16 −1 + j2
= 9 + 16 = 25 13 + j11 −1 − j2
= ×
−1 + j2 −1 − j2
[(a + jb)(a − jb) may be evaluated ‘on sight’ as
a 2 + b2 ] −13 − j26 − j11 − j2 22
=
(iii) Division of complex numbers is achieved by 12 + 2 2
multiplying both numerator and denominator by 9 − j37 9 37
the complex conjugate of the denominator. = = −j or 1.8 − j7.4
5 5 5
For example,
Section 6

(d) Z1 Z2 Z3 = (13 + j11)(−3 − j4), since

2 − j5 2 − j5 (3 − j4)
= × Z1 Z2 = 13 + j11, from part (a)
3 + j4 3 + j4 (3 − j4)
= −39 − j52 − j33 − j2 44
6 − j8 − j15 + j2 20
=
32 + 4 2 = (−39 + 44) − j(52 + 33) = 5 − j85
−14 − j23 −14 23
= = −j
25 25 25
Problem 6. Evaluate:
or −0.56 − j0.92 µ ¶2
2 1 + j3
(a) (b) j
(1 + j)4 1 − j2

Problem 5. If Z1 = 1 − j3, Z2 = −2 + j5 and

Z3 = −3 − j4, determine in a + jb form:
(a) (1 + j)2 = (1 + j)(1 + j) = 1 + j + j + j2
Z1
(a) Z1 Z2 (b) = 1 + j + j − 1 = j2
Z3
Z1 Z2 (1 + j)4 = [(1 + j)2 ]2 = ( j2)2 = j2 4 = −4
(c) (d) Z1 Z2 Z3
Z1 + Z2
2 2 1
Hence 4
= =−
(1 + j) −4 2
1 + j3 1 + j3 1 + j2
(a) Z1 Z2 = (1 − j3)(−2 + j5) (b) = ×
1 − j2 1 − j2 1 + j2
= −2 + j5 + j6 − j2 15
1 + j2 + j3 + j2 6 −5 + j5
= =
= (−2 + 15) + j(5 + 6), since j2 = −1, 2
1 +2 2 5
= 13 + j11 = −1 + j1 = −1 + j
 Complex numbers 317
µ ¶2
1 + j3
= (−1 + j)2 = (−1 + j)(−1 + j) 35.5 Complex equations
1 − j2
= 1 − j − j + j2 = −j2 If two complex numbers are equal, then their real parts
µ ¶2 are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. Hence
1 + j3
Hence j = j(−j2) = −j2 2 = 2, if a + jb = c + jd, then a = c and b = d
1 − j2
since j2 = −1
Problem 7. Solve the complex equations:

Now try the following exercise (a) 2(x + jy) = 6 − j3

(b) (1 + j2)(−2 − j3) = a + jb
Exercise 128 Further problems on
operations involving
Cartesian complex numbers
(a) 2(x + jy) = 6 − j3 hence 2x + j2y = 6 − j3
1. Evaluate (a) (3 + j2) + (5 − j) and Equating the real parts gives:
(b) (−2 + j6) − (3 − j2) and show the
results on an Argand diagram. 2x = 6, i.e. x = 3
[(a) 8 + j (b) −5 + j8]
2. Write down the complex conjugates of Equating the imaginary parts gives:
(a) 3 + j4, (b) 2 − j [(a) 3 − j4 (b) 2 + j] 3
2y = −3, i.e. y = −
2
In Problems 3 to 7 evaluate in a + jb form

Section 6
given Z1 = 1 + j2, Z2 = 4 − j3, Z3 = −2 + j3 and (b) (1 + j2)(−2 − j3) = a + jb
Z4 = −5 − j.
−2 − j3 − j4 − j2 6 = a + jb
3. (a) Z1 + Z2 − Z3 (b) Z2 − Z1 + Z4 Hence 4 − j7 = a + jb
[(a) 7 − j4 (b) −2 − j6]
Equating real and imaginary terms gives:
4. (a) Z1 Z2 (b) Z3 Z4
[(a) 10 + j5 (b) 13 − j13] a = 4 and b = −7
5. (a) Z1 Z3 + Z4 (b) Z1 Z2 Z3
[(a) −13 − j2 (b) −35 + j20]
Problem 8. Solve the equations:
Z1 Z 1 + Z3
6. (a) (b) √
Z2 (a) (2 − j3) = a + jb
· Z2 − Z4 ¸
−2 11 −19 43
(a) +j (b) +j (b) (x − j2y) + (y − j3x) = 2 + j3
25 25 85 85
Z1 Z3 Z1
7. (a) (b) Z2 + + Z3 √
Z1 + Z3 · Z4 ¸ (a) (2 − j3) = a + jb
3 41 45 9
(a) +j (b) −j Hence (2 − j3)2 = a + jb
26 26 26 26
1−j 1 i.e. (2 − j3)(2 − j3) = a + jb
8. Evaluate (a) (b)
1+j 1+j
· ¸ Hence 4 − j6 − j6 + j2 9 = a + jb
1 1
(a) −j
(b) − j
2 2 and −5 − j12 = a + jb
µ ¶
−25 1 + j2 2 − j5 Thus a = −5 and b = −12
9. Show that: −
2 3 + j4 −j
(b) (x − j2y) + (y − j3x) = 2 + j3
= 57 + j24
Hence (x + y) + j(−2y − 3x) = 2 + j3
 318 Engineering Mathematics

Equating real and imaginary parts gives: Z = r( cos θ + j sin θ) is usually abbreviated to
Z = r∠θ which is known as the polar form of
x+y =2 (1) a complex number.
and −3x − 2y = 3 (2)
i.e. two stimulaneous equations to solve Imaginary
axis
Multiplying equation (1) by 2 gives:
Z
2x + 2y = 4 (3)
r jy
Adding equations (2) and (3) gives:
q
−x = 7, i.e. x = −7 O A Real axis
x

From equation (1), y = 9, which may be checked

Figure 35.4
in equation (2)

(ii) r is called the modulus (or magnitude) of Z and

Now try the following exercise is written as mod Z or |Z|.
r is determined using Pythagoras’ theorem on
triangle OAZ in Fig. 35.4,
Exercise 129 Further problems on complex
equations q
i.e. r = x2 + y2
In Problems 1 to 4 solve the complex equations.
(iii) θ is called the argument (or amplitude) of Z and
1. (2 + j)(3 − j2) = a + jb [a = 8, b = −1] is written as arg Z.
Section 6

· ¸
2+j 3 1 By trigonometry on triangle OAZ,
2. = j(x + jy) x= , y=−
1−j 2 2
y
√ arg Z = θ = tan−1
3. (2 − j3) = a + jb [a = −5, b = −12] x

4. (x − j2y) − (y − jx) = 2 + j [x = 3, y = 1] (iv) Whenever changing from Cartesian form to polar

form, or vice-versa, a sketch is invaluable for
5. If Z = R + jωL + 1/jωC, express Z in (a + jb) determining the quadrant in which the complex
form when R = 10, L = 5, C = 0.04 and ω = 4 number occurs
[z = 10 + j13.75]

Problem 9. Determine the modulus and argument

of the complex number Z = 2 + j3, and express Z in
polar form
35.6 The polar form of a complex
number
Z = 2 + j3 lies in the first quadrant as shown in Fig. 35.5.
(i) Let a complex number Z be x + jy as shown in the √ √
Argand diagram of Fig. 35.4. Let distance OZ be Modulus, |Z| = r = 22 + 32 = 13 or 3.606, correct
r and the angle OZ makes with the positive real to 3 decimal places.
axis be θ.
3
From trigonometry, x = r cos θ and Argument, arg Z = θ = tan−1
2
y = r sin θ = 56.31 or 56◦ 19′
◦

Hence Z = x + jy = r cos θ + jr sin θ

In polar form, 2 + j3 is written as 3.606 ∠ 56.31◦ or
= r( cos θ + j sin θ) 3.606 ∠ 56◦ 19′
 Complex numbers 319

Imaginary Argument = 180◦ − 53.13◦ = 126.87◦ (i.e. the

axis argument must be measured from the positive real
axis).
j3
Hence − 3 + j4 = 5∠126.87◦
r (c) −3 − j4 is shown in Fig. 35.6 and lies in the third
quadrant.
q
0 2 Real axis
Modulus, r = 5 and α = 53.13◦, as above.
Hence the argument = 180◦ + 53.13◦ = 233.13◦ ,
which is the same as −126.87◦
Figure 35.5
Hence (−3 − j4) = 5∠233.13◦ or 5∠−126.87◦

Problem 10. Express the following complex (By convention the principal value is normally
numbers in polar form: used, i.e. the numerically least value, such that
−π < θ < π).
(a) 3 + j4 (b) −3 + j4
(d) 3 − j4 is shown in Fig. 35.6 and lies in the fourth
(c) −3 − j4 (d) 3 − j4 quadrant.
Modulus, r = 5 and angle α = 53.13◦ , as above.
Hence (3 − j4) = 5∠−53.13◦
(a) 3 + j4 is shown in Fig. 35.6 and lies in the first
quadrant.
√ Problem 11. Convert (a) 4∠30◦ (b) 7∠−145◦
Modulus, r = 32 + 42 = 5 and argument

Section 6
into a + jb form, correct to 4 significant figures
4
θ = tan−1 = 53.13◦ or 53◦ 8′
3
(a) 4∠30◦ is shown in Fig. 35.7(a) and lies in the first
Hence 3 + j4 = 5∠53.13◦
quadrant.
(b) −3 + j4 is shown in Fig. 35.6 and lies in the second
Using trigonometric ratios,
quadrant.
Modulus, r = 5 and angle α = 53.13◦ , from x = 4 cos 30◦ = 3.464 and y = 4 sin 30◦ = 2.000
part (a).
Hence 4∠30◦ = 3.464 + j2.000
Imaginary
axis
Imaginary
axis
( 3 ! j 4) (3 ! j 4)
j4

j3 4 jy
30°
r j2 r 0 Real axis
x
j
a q (a)
3 2 1a a1 2 3 Real axis
j x

r j2 r a Real axis
145°
j3 jy 7

4
( 3 j 4) (3 j 4) (b)

Figure 35.6 Figure 35.7

 320 Engineering Mathematics
π π
(b) 7∠−145◦ is shown in Fig. 35.7(b) and lies in the 10∠ × 12∠
2 = 10 × 2 ∠ π + π − − π
³ ³ ´´
third quadrant. (b) 4
π 6 4 2 3
6∠−
Angle α = 180◦ −145◦ = 35◦ 3
13π 11π
= 20∠ or 20∠− or
Hence x = 7 cos 35◦ = 5.734 12 12
and y = 7 sin 35◦ = 4.015 20∠195◦ or 20∠−165◦

Hence 7∠−145◦ = −5.734 − j4.015 Problem 14. Evaluate, in polar form:

Alternatively 2∠30◦ + 5∠−45◦ − 4∠120◦
7∠ − 145◦ = 7 cos (−145◦ ) + j7 sin (−145◦ )
Addition and subtraction in polar form is not possible
= −5.734 − j4.015 directly. Each complex number has to be converted into
Cartesian form first.

2∠30◦ = 2( cos 30◦ + j sin 30◦ )

35.7 Multiplication and division in = 2 cos 30◦ + j2 sin 30◦ = 1.732 + j1.000
polar form 5∠−45◦ = 5( cos (−45◦ ) + j sin (−45◦ ))
If Z1 = r1 ∠θ 1 and Z2 = r2 ∠θ 2 then: = 5 cos (−45◦ ) + j5 sin (−45◦ )
= 3.536 − j3.536
(i) Z1 Z2 = r1 r2 ∠(θ 1 + θ 2 ) and
4∠120◦ = 4( cos 120◦ + j sin 120◦ )
Z1 r1
Section 6

(ii) = ∠(θ 1 − θ 2 ) = 4 cos 120◦ + j4 sin 120◦

Z2 r2
= −2.000 + j3.464

Problem 12. Determine, in polar form: Hence 2∠30◦ + 5∠−45◦ − 4∠120◦

(a) 8∠25◦ × 4∠60◦ = (1.732 + j1.000) + (3.536 − j3.536)

(b) 3∠16◦ × 5∠−44◦ × 2∠80◦ − (−2.000 + j3.464)
= 7.268 − j6.000, which lies in the
fourth quadrant
(a) 8∠25◦ × 4∠60◦ = (8 × 4)∠(25◦ + 60◦ ) = 32∠85◦
µ ¶
p −6.000
= 7.2682 + 6.0002 ∠ tan−1
7.268
(b) 3∠16◦ × 5∠−44◦ × 2∠80◦
= (3 × 5 × 2)∠[16◦ + (−44◦ ) + 80◦ ] = 30∠52◦ = 9.425∠−39.54◦ or 9.425∠−39◦ 32′

Now try the following exercise

Problem 13. Evaluate in polar form:
π π
10∠ × 12∠ Exercise 130 Further problems on polar
16∠75◦ 4 2
(a) (b) π form
2∠15◦ 6∠ −
3 1. Determine the modulus and argument of
(a) 2 + j4 (b) −5 − j2 (c) j(2 − j).
" #
(a) 4.472, 63.43◦ (b) 5.385, −158.20◦
16∠75◦ 16 (c) 2.236, 63.43◦
(a) ◦
= ∠(75◦ − 15◦ ) = 8∠60◦
2∠15 2
 Complex numbers 321

The effect of multiplying a phasor by j is to rotate it

In Problems 2 and 3 express the given Cartesian in a positive direction (i.e. anticlockwise) on an Argand
complex numbers in polar form, leaving answers diagram through 90◦ without altering its length. Sim-
in surd form. ilarly, multiplying a phasor by −j rotates the phasor
through −90◦ . These facts are used in a.c. theory since
2. (a) 2 + j3 (b) −4 (c) −6 + j certain quantities in the phasor diagrams lie at 90◦ to
" √ #
(a) 13∠56.31◦ (b) 4∠180◦ each other. For example, in the R–L series circuit shown
√ in Fig. 35.8(a), VL leads I by 90◦ (i.e. I lags VL by
(c) 37∠170.54◦
90◦ ) and may be written as jV L , the vertical axis being
3. (a) −j3 (b) (−2 + j)3 (c) j3 (1 − j) regarded as the imaginary axis of an Argand diagram.
" √ # Thus VR + jV L = V and since VR = IR, V = IX L (where
(a) 3∠−90◦ (b) 125∠100.30◦
√ XL is the inductive reactance, 2πf L ohms) and V = IZ
(c) 2∠−135◦ (where Z is the impedance) then R + jX L = Z.
In Problems 4 and 5 convert the given polar com-
plex numbers into (a + jb) form giving answers R L R C
correct to 4 significant figures.
I VR VL I VR VC
4. (a) 5∠30◦ (b) 3∠60◦ (c) 7∠45◦
V V
 
(a) 4.330 + j2.500
 (b) 1.500 + j2.598  Phasor diagram Phasor diagram
(c) 4.950 + j4.950 VR I
VL V f
5. (a) 6∠125◦ (b) 4∠π (c) 3.5∠−120◦
 
(a) −3.441 + j4.915 q

Section 6
l VC
 (b) −4.000 + j0  VR V
(c) −1.750 − j3.031 (a) (b)

In Problems 6 to 8, evaluate in polar form. Figure 35.8

6. (a) 3∠20◦ × 15∠45◦ Similarly, for the R–C circuit shown in Figure 35.8(b),
(b) 2.4∠65◦ × 4.4∠−21◦ VC lags I by 90◦ (i.e. I leads VC by 90◦ ) and
[(a) 45∠65◦ (b) 10.56∠44◦ ] VR − jV C = V , from which R − jX C = Z (where XC is
1
7. (a) 6.4∠27◦ ÷ 2∠−15◦ the capacitive reactance ohms).
2π f C
(b) 5∠30◦ × 4∠80◦ ÷ 10∠−40◦
[(a) 3.2∠4.2◦ (b) 2∠150◦ ]
Problem 15. Determine the resistance and series
π π inductance (or capacitance) for each of the
8. (a) 4∠ + 3∠
6 8 following impedances, assuming a frequency of
(b) 2∠120 + 5.2∠58◦ − 1.6∠−40◦
◦ 50 Hz:
[(a) 6.986∠26.79◦ (b) 7.190∠85.77◦ ] (a) (4.0 + j7.0) Ä (b) −j20 Ä
(c) 15∠−60◦ Ä

35.8 Applications of complex (a) Impedance, Z = (4.0 + j7.0) Ä hence,

numbers resistance = 4.0 Ä and reactance = 7.0 Ä.

There are several applications of complex numbers Since the imaginary part is positive, the reactance
in science and engineering, in particular in electri- is inductive,
cal alternating current theory and in mechanical vector
analysis. i.e. XL = 7.0 Ä
 322 Engineering Mathematics

Since XL = 2π f L then inductance, (c) Magnitude of impedance,

XL 7.0
p
L= = = 0.0223 H or 22.3 mH |Z| = 602 + (−100)2 = 116.6 Ä
2π f 2π(50) µ ¶
−1 −100
(b) Impedance, Z = − j20, i.e. Z = (0 − j20) Ä hence Phase angle, arg Z = tan = −59.04◦
60
resistance = 0 and reactance = 20 Ä. Since the
imaginary part is negative, the reactance is capac- V 240◦ ∠0◦
1 (d) Current flowing, I = =
itive, i.e. XC = 20 Ä and since XC = then: Z 116.6∠−59.04◦
2π f C
= 2.058∠59.04◦A
1 1
capacitance, C = = F The circuit and phasor diagrams are as shown in
2π f XC 2π(50)(20)
Fig. 35.8(b).
106
= µF = 159.2 µF
2π(50)(20)
(c) Impedance, Z Problem 17. For the parallel circuit shown in
Fig. 35.9, determine the value of current I, and its
= 15∠−60◦ = 15[ cos (−60◦ ) + j sin (−60◦ )] phase relative to the 240 V supply, using complex
numbers
= 7.50 − j12.99 Ä.
R1 ! 4 Ω XL ! 3 Ω
Hence resistance = 7.50 Ä and capacitive reac-
tance, XC = 12.99 Ä
R2 ! 10 Ω
1
Since XC = then capacitance,
Section 6

2π f C
1 106
C= = µF R3 ! 12 Ω XC ! 5 Ω
2π f XC 2π(50)(12.99) I
= 245 µF

240 V, 50 Hz

Problem 16. An alternating voltage of 240 V, Figure 35.9

50 Hz is connected across an impedance of
(60 − j100) Ä. Determine (a) the resistance (b) the
capacitance (c) the magnitude of the impedance and V
Current I = . Impedance Z for the three-branch
its phase angle and (d) the current flowing Z
parallel circuit is given by:
1 1 1 1
= + +
(a) Impedance Z = (60 − j100) Ä. Z Z1 Z2 Z3

Hence resistance = 60Ä where Z1 = 4 + j3, Z2 = 10 and Z3 = 12 − j5

(b) Capacitive reactance XC = 100 Ä and since 1 1
1 Admittance, Y1 = =
XC = then Z1 4 + j3
2π f C
1 4 − j3 4 − j3
1 1 = × = 2
capacitance, C = = 4 + j3 4 − j3 4 + 32
2π f XC 2π(50)(100)
106 = 0.160 − j0.120 siemens
= µF
2π(50)(100) 1 1
Admittance, Y2 = = = 0.10 siemens
= 31.83 µF Z2 10
 Complex numbers 323

1 1 = 10( cos 45◦ + j sin 45◦ )

Admittance, Y3 = =
Z3 12 − j5
+ 8( cos 120◦ + j sin 120◦ )
1 12 + j5 12 + j5
= × = 2 + 15( cos 210◦ + j sin 210◦ )
12 − j5 12 + j5 12 + 52
= (7.071 + j7.071) + (−4.00 + j6.928)
= 0.0710 + j0.0296 siemens
+ (−12.99 − j7.50)
Total admittance, Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 = −9.919 + j6.499
= (0.160 − j0.120) + (0.10)
Magnitude of resultant force
+ (0.0710 + j0.0296) p
= (−9.919)2 + 6.4992 = 11.86 N
= 0.331 − j0.0904
= 0.343∠−15.28◦ siemens Direction of resultant force
µ ¶
−1 6.499
V = tan = 146.77◦
Current I = = VY −9.919
Z
= (240∠0◦ )(0.343∠−15.28◦ ) (since −9.919 + j6.499 lies in the second quadrant).

= 82.32∠−15.28◦ A
Now try the following exercise
Problem 18. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the resultant of the three coplanar Exercise 131 Further problems on
forces given below, when they act at a point: applications of complex
10 N acting at 45◦ from the numbers

Section 6
Force A,
positive horizontal axis,
1. Determine the resistance R and series induc-
Force B, 8 N acting at 120◦ from the
tance L (or capacitance C) for each of the
positive horizontal axis,
following impedances assuming the frequency
Force C, 15 N acting at 210◦ from the
to be 50 Hz.
positive horizontal axis.
(a) (3 + j8) Ä (b) (2 − j3) Ä
The space diagram is shown in Fig. 35.10. The forces (c) j14 Ä  (d) 8∠ − 60◦ Ä 
may be written as complex numbers. (a) R = 3 Ä, L = 25.5 mH
 (b) R = 2 Ä, C = 1061 µF 
 
8N 10 N
 (c) R = 0, L = 44.56 mH 
(d) R = 4 Ä, C = 459.5 µF
210°

120° 2. Two impedances, Z1 = (3 + j6) Ä and

Z2 = (4 − j3) Ä are connected in series to
45° a supply voltage of 120 V. Determine the
magnitude of the current and its phase angle
relative to the voltage.
15 N
[15.76 A, 23.20◦ lagging]
Figure 35.10 3. If the two impedances in Problem 2 are con-
nected in parallel determine the current flow-
Thus force A, fA = 10∠45◦ , force B, fB = 8∠120◦ and ing and its phase relative to the 120 V supply
force C, fC = 15∠210◦ . voltage.
The resultant force [27.25 A, 3.37◦ lagging]
4. A series circuit consists of a 12 Ä resistor, a
= fA + fB + fC coil of inductance 0.10 H and a capacitance of
= 10∠45◦ + 8∠120◦ + 15∠210◦
 324 Engineering Mathematics

160 µF. Calculate the current flowing and its 8. In the hydrogen atom, the angular momen-
phase relative to the supply voltage of 240 V, tum, p, of
µ the¶de Broglie wave is given by:
50 Hz. Determine also the power factor of the jh
pψ = − (±jmψ).
circuit. 2π
[14.42 A, 43.85◦ lagging, 0.721] Determine an expression for p. · ¸
mh
5. For the circuit shown in Fig. 35.11, determine ±
2π
the current I flowing and its phase relative to
the applied voltage. 9. An aircraft P flying at a constant height has
[14.58 A, 2.51◦ leading] a velocity of (400 + j300) km/h. Another air-
craft Q at the same height has a velocity of
XC ! 20 Ω R1 ! 30 Ω (200 − j600) km/h. Determine (a) the veloc-
ity of P relative to Q, and (b) the velocity of
Q relative to P. Express the answers in polar
form, correct to the nearest km/h.
R2 ! 40 Ω XL ! 50 Ω
(a) 922 km/h at 77.47◦
· ¸
(b) 922 km/h at −102.53◦
R3 ! 25 Ω
10. Three vectors are represented by P, 2∠30◦ ,
Q, 3∠90◦ and R, 4∠−60◦ . Determine
in polar form the vectors represented by
l
(a) P + Q + R, (b) P − Q − R.
[(a) 3.770∠8.17◦ (b) 1.488∠100.37◦ ]
V ! 200 V
11. In a Schering bridge circuit,
Section 6

Figure 35.11 Zx = (RX − jXCX ), Z2 = −jXC2 ,

(R3 )(−jXC3 )
6. Determine, using complex numbers, the mag- Z3 = and Z4 = R4 where
nitude and direction of the resultant of the (R3 − jXC3 )
1
coplanar forces given below, which are act- XC =
ing at a point. Force A, 5 N acting horizontally, 2π f C
Force B, 9 N acting at an angle of 135◦ to force At balance: (ZX )(Z3 ) = (Z2 )(Z4 ).
A, Force C, 12 N acting at an angle of 240◦ to C3 R4
force A. [8.394 N, 208.68◦ from force A] Show that at balance RX = and
C2
7. A delta-connected impedance ZA is given by: C2 R3
CX =
R4
Z1 Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z3 Z1
ZA =
Z2
Determine ZA in both Cartesian and polar form
given Z1 = (10 + j0) Ä, Z2 = (0 − j10) Ä and
Z3 = (10 + j10) Ä.
[(10 + j20) Ä, 22.36∠63.43◦ Ä]
 Chapter 36
De Moivre’s theorem
36.1 Introduction = 2197∠742.14◦
= 2197∠382.14◦
From multiplication of complex numbers in polar form,
(since 742.14 ≡ 742.14◦ − 360◦ = 382.14◦ )
2
(r∠θ) × (r∠θ) = r ∠2θ = 2197∠22.14◦
Similarly, (r∠θ) × (r∠θ) × (r∠θ) = r 3 ∠3θ, and so on. (since 382.14◦ ≡ 382.14◦ − 360◦ = 22.14◦ )
In general, de Moivre’s theorem states:
[r∠θ]n = rn ∠nθ Problem 2. Determine the value of (−7 + j5)4 ,
expressing the result in polar and rectangular forms
The theorem is true for all positive, negative and frac-
tional values of n. The theorem is used to determine µ ¶
p 5
powers and roots of complex numbers. (−7 + j5) = (−7)2 + 52 ∠ tan−1
−7
√
= 74∠144.46◦
36.2 Powers of complex numbers
(Note, by considering the Argand diagram, −7 + j5
For example, [3∠20◦ ]4 = 34 ∠(4 × 20◦ ) = 81∠80◦ by must represent an angle in the second quadrant and not
de Moivre’s theorem. in the fourth quadrant).
Applying de Moivre’s theorem:
Problem 1. Determine, in polar form: √
(−7 + j5)4 = [ 74∠144.46◦ ]4
(a) [2∠35◦ ]5 (b) (−2 + j3)6 √
= 744 ∠4 × 144.46◦

(a) [2∠35◦ ]5 = 25 ∠(5 × 35◦ ), = 5476∠577.84◦

from De Moivre’s theorem = 5476∠217.84◦ or

= 32∠175◦ 5476∠217◦ 15′ in polar form.

µ ¶
p
2 2 −1 3 Since r∠θ = r cos θ + jr sin θ,
(b) (−2 + j3) = (−2) + (3) ∠ tan
−2
√ 5476∠217.84◦ = 5476 cos 217.84◦
= 13∠123.69◦ , since −2 + j3
+ j5476 sin 217.84◦
lies in the second quadrant
√ = −4325 − j3359
(−2 + j3)6 = [ 3∠123.69◦ ]6
√ i.e. (−7 + j5)4 = −4325 − j3359
= 136 ∠(6 × 123.69◦ ), in rectangular form.
by De Moivre’s theorem
 326 Engineering Mathematics

Now try the following exercise µ ¶

−1 12
p
2 2
(5 + 112) = 5 + 12 ∠ tan = 13∠67.38◦
5
Exercise 132 Further problems on powers
When determining square roots two solutions result.
of complex numbers
To obtain the second solution one way is to
1. Determine in polar form (a) [1.5∠15◦ ]5 express 13∠67.38◦ also as 13∠(67.38◦ + 360◦ ), i.e.
(b) (1 + j2)6 13∠427.38◦ . When the angle is divided by 2 an angle
[(a) 7.594∠75◦ (b) 125∠20.61◦ ] less than 360◦ is obtained.
2. Determine in polar and Cartesian forms Hence
(a) [3∠41◦ ]4 (b) (−2 − j)5
√ √
(a) 81∠164◦ , −77.86 + j22.33
· ¸ p
52 + 122 = 13∠67.38◦ and 13∠427.38◦
(b) 55.90∠ −47.18◦ , 38 − j41
= [13∠67.38◦ ]1/2 and [13∠427.38◦ ]1/2
3. Convert (3 − j) into polar form and hence
evaluate (3 − j)7 , giving the answer in polar = 131/2 ∠ 21 × 67.38◦ and
¡ ¢
form.
√ 131/2 ∠ 21 × 427.38◦
¡ ¢
[ 10∠ −18.43◦ , 3162∠ −129◦ ]
√ √
In Problems 4 to 7, express in both polar and = 13∠33.69◦ and 13∠213.69◦
rectangular forms: = 3.61∠33.69◦ and 3.61∠213.69◦
4. (6 + j5)3
Thus, in polar form, the two roots are: 3.61∠33.69◦
[476.4∠119.42◦ , −234 + j415]
and 3.61∠−146.31◦
Section 6

√ √
5. (3 − j8)5 13∠33.69◦ = 13( cos 33.69◦ + j sin 33.69◦ )
[45 530∠12.78◦ , 44 400 + j10 070]
= 3.0 + j2.0
6. (−2 + j7)4 √ √
13∠213.69◦ = 13( cos 213.69◦ + j sin 213.69◦ )
[2809∠63.78◦ , 1241 + j2520]
= −3.0 − j2.0
7. (−16 − j9)6
(38.27 × 106 )∠176.15◦ , Thus, in Cartesian form the two roots are:
· ¸

106 (−38.18 + j2.570) ±(3.0 + j2.0)

Imaginary axis

36.3 Roots of complex numbers j2

3.61
The square root of a complex number is determined by 213.69°
33.69°
letting n = 21 in De Moivre’s theorem,
3 3 Real axis
√ 1 √ θ 3.61
i.e. r∠θ = [r∠θ]1/2 = r 1/2 ∠ θ = r∠
2 2 j2

There are two square roots of a real number, equal in

Figure 36.1
size but opposite in sign.

From the Argand diagram shown in Fig. 36.1 the two

Problem 3. Determine the two square roots of the
roots are seen to be 180◦ apart, which is always true
complex number (5 + j12) in polar and Cartesian
when finding square roots of complex numbers.
forms and show the roots on an Argand diagram
 De Moivre’s theorem 327

In general, when finding the nth root of complex num- Hence (5 + j3)]1/2 = 2.415∠15.48◦ and
ber, there are n solutions. For example, there are three
solutions to a cube root, five solutions to a fifth root, 2.415∠195.48◦ or
and so on. In the solutions to the roots of a complex ± (2.327 + j0.6446)
number, the modulus, r, is always the same, but the
arguments, θ, are different. It is shown in Problem 3
that arguments are symmetrically spaced on an Argand
360◦ Problem 5. Express the roots of (−14 + j3)−2/5
diagram and are apart, where n is the number of the in polar form
n
roots required. Thus if one of the solutions to the cube
roots of a complex number is, say, 5∠20◦ , the other two √
360◦ (−14 + j3) = 205∠167.905◦
roots are symmetrically spaced , i.e. 120◦ from
3 ◦
this root, and the three roots are 5∠20 , 5∠140◦ and p
(−14 + j3)−2/5 = 205−2/5 ∠ − 25 × 167.905◦
£¡ ¢ ¤
5∠260◦ .
= 0.3449∠−67.164◦ or

Problem 4. Find the roots of (5 + j3)]1/2 in 0.3449∠−67◦ 10′

rectangular form, correct to 4 significant figures There are five roots to this complex number,
µ ¶
√ −2/5 1 1
(5 + j3) = 34∠30.96◦ x = 2/5 = √ 5 2
x x
Applying de Moivre’s theorem: The roots are symmetrically displaced from one another
360◦
, i.e. 72◦ apart round an Argand diagram.

Section 6
√ 1/2 1 5
(5 + j3)1/2 = 34 ∠ 2 × 30.96◦ Thus the required roots are 0.3449∠−67◦ 10′ ,
= 2.415∠15.48◦ or 2.415∠15◦ 29′ 0.3449∠4◦ 50′ , 0.3449∠76◦ 50′ , 0.3449∠148◦ 50′ and
0.3449∠220◦ 50′ .

The second root may be obtained as shown above, i.e.

360◦ Now try the following exercise
having the same modulus but displaced from the
2
first root.
Exercise 133 Further problems on the
roots of complex numbers
Thus, (5 + j3)1/2 = 2.415∠(15.48◦ + 180◦ )
In Problems 1 to 3 determine the two square roots
= 2.415∠195.48◦ of the given complex numbers in Cartesian form
and show the results on an Argand diagram.
In rectangular form: 1. (a) 1 + j (b) j
· ¸
(a) ±(1.099 + j0.455)
2.415∠15.48◦ = 2.415 cos 15.48◦ (b) ±(0.707 + j0.707)
2. (a) 3 − j4 (b) −1 − j2
+ j2.415 sin 15.48◦ · ¸
(a) ±(2 − j)
= 2.327 + j0.6446 (b) ±(0.786 − j1.272)
3π
and 2.415∠195.48◦ = 2.415 cos 195.48◦ 3. (a) 7∠60◦ (b) 12∠
2
+ j2.415 sin 195.48◦
· ¸
(a) ±(2.291 + j1.323)
(b) ±(−2.449 + j2.449)
= −2.327 − j0.6446
 328 Engineering Mathematics

In Problems 4 to 7, determine the moduli and 8. For a transmission line, the characteristic
arguments of the complex roots. impedance Z0 and the propagation coefficient
γ are given by:
4. (3 + j4)1/3
Moduli 1.710, arguments 17.71◦ ,
· ¸ s
R + jωL
137.71◦ and 257.71◦ Z0 = and
G + jωC
5. (−2 + j)1/4 p
Moduli 1.223, arguments 38.36◦ , γ = (R + jωL)(G + jωC)
· ¸
128.36◦ , 218.36◦ and 308.36◦
Given R = 25 Ä, L = 5 × 10−3 H,
6. (−6 − j5)1/2 · ¸ G = 80 × 10−6 S, C = 0.04 × 10−6 F and
Moduli 2.795, arguments ω = 2000π rad/s, determine, in polar form,
109.90◦ , 289.90◦ Z0 and γ.
Z0 = 390.2∠−10.43◦ Ä,
· ¸
7. (4 − j3)−2/3
γ = 0.1029∠61.92◦
Moduli 0.3420, arguments 24.58◦ ,
· ¸
144.58◦ and 264.58◦
Section 6