Psychology Learning Objectives 1 of 2

Fifth Edition
2.1 Identify the parts of a neuron and the function of each.
2.2 Explain the action potential.
2.3 Describe how neurons use neurotransmitters to communicate with
each other and with the body.
Chapter 2 2.4 Describe how the brain and spinal cord interact and respond to
external experiences.
The Biological Perspective
2.5 Differentiate the roles of the somatic and autonomic nervous
systems.
2.6 Explain why the pituitary gland is known as the “master gland.”
2.7 Recall the role of various endocrine glands.
2.8 Describe how lesioning studies and brain stimulation are used to
study the brain.

Learning Objectives 2 of 2 Neurons and Nerves: Building the Network

• Nervous system
2.9 Compare and contrast neuroimaging techniques for mapping the
– An extensive network of specialized cells that carry
structure and function of the brain.
information to and from all parts of the body
2.10 Identify the different structures of the hindbrain and the function of
each. • Neuroscience
2.11 Identify the structures of the brain that are involved in emotion, – Deals with the structure and function of neurons,
learning, memory, and motivation.
nerves, and nervous tissue
2.12 Identify the parts of the cortex that process the different senses
and those that control movement of the body.
– Relationship to behavior and learning
2.13 Name the parts of the cortex that are responsible for higher forms
of thought, such as language.
2.14 Explain how some brain functions differ between the left and right
hemispheres.
2.15 Identify some potential causes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder.

Structure of the Neuron: The Nervous Structure of the Neuron: The Nervous
System’s Building Block 1 of 3 System’s Building Block 2 of 3
Learning Objective 2.1 Identify the parts of a neuron and the function of each.
• Parts of a neuron
• Neuron
– Dendrites: branch-like structures that receive
– The basic cell that makes up the nervous system and messages from other neurons
receives and sends messages within that system
– Soma: the cell body of the neuron, responsible for
maintaining the life of the cell
– Axon: long, tube-like structure that carries the neural
message to other cells
– Axon terminals: rounded areas at the end of the
branches at the end of the axon
▪ Responsible for communicating with other nerve cells

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 Figure 2.1 Structure of the Neuron: The Nervous
The Structure of the Neuron System’s Building Block 3 of 3

• Glial Cells
– Provide support for neurons to grow on and around
– Deliver nutrients to neurons
– Produce myelin to coat axons
• Myelin: fatty substances produced by certain glial
cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate,
protect, and speed up the neural impulse
– Clean up waste products and dead neurons

Generating the Message Within the Neuron: Generating the Message Within the Neuron:
The Neural Impulse 1 of 2 The Neural Impulse 2 of 2
Learning Objective 2.2 Explain the action potential.

• Action potential: the release of the neural impulse

• Ions: charged particles
consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge
– Inside neuron: negatively charged
within the axon
– Outside neuron: positively charged
– Allows positive sodium ions to enter the cell
• Resting potential: the state of the neuron when not
• All-or-none: a neuron either fires completely or
firing a neural impulse
does not fire at all

Figure 2.2 Neurotransmission 1 of 5

The Neural Impulse Action Potential Learning Objective 2.3 Describe how neurons use neurotransmitters to
communicate with each other and with the body.

• Sending The Message To Other Cells: The

Synapse
– Synaptic vesicles: sack-like structures found inside the
axon terminal containing chemicals
– Neurotransmitter: chemical found in synaptic vesicles
which, when released, has an effect on the next cell

In the graph, voltage readings are shown at a given place on the neuron over a period of 20
or 30 milliseconds (thousandths of a second). At first the cell is resting; it then reaches
threshold and an action potential is triggered. After a brief hyperpolarization period, the cell
returns to its resting potential.

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Neurotransmission 2 of 5 Figure 2.3 The Synapse
• Synapse/Synaptic Gap
– Microscopic fluid-filled space between the rounded
areas on the end of the axon terminals of one cell and
the dendrites or surface of the next cell
• Receptor Sites
– Holes in surface of dendrites or certain cells of the
muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only
certain neurotransmitters

The nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal, triggering the release of
neurotransmitters from the synaptic vesicles. The molecules of neurotransmitter
cross the synaptic gap to fit into the receptor sites that fit the shape of the
molecule, opening the ion channel and allowing sodium ions to rush in.

Neurotransmission 3 of 5 Neurotransmission 4 of 5
• Neurons must be turned ON and OFF • Neurotransmitters: Messengers of the Network
– Excitatory neurotransmitter: neurotransmitter that – Agonists: mimic or enhance the effects of a
causes the receiving cell to fire neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell,
– Inhibitory neurotransmitter: neurotransmitter that increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell
causes the receiving cell to stop firing – Antagonists: block or reduce a cell’s response to the
action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters

Neurotransmission 5 of 5
Table 2.1 Some Neurotransmitters
and Their Functions • Cleaning Up the Synapse: Reuptake and
Enzymes
Neurotransmitters Functions – Reuptake: process by which neurotransmitters are
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Excitatory or inhibitory; involved in arousal, attention, taken back into the synaptic vesicles
memory, and controls muscle contractions
– Enzyme: complex protein that is manufactured by cells
Norepinephrine (NE) Mainly excitatory; involved in arousal and mood
Excitatory or inhibitory; involved in control of movement
Dopamine (DA)
and sensations of pleasure
Excitatory or inhibitory; involved in sleep, mood, anxiety,
Serotonin (5-HT)
and appetite
Gaba-aminobutyric Major inhibitory neurotransmitter; involved in sleep and
acid (GABA) inhibits movement
Major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning,
Glutamate memory formation, nervous system development, and
synaptic plasticity
Endorphins Inhibitory neural regulators; involved in pain relief

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 Figure 2.5
Figure 2.4 Neurotransmitters: Reuptake
An Overview of the Nervous System

The Central Nervous System: The “Central

Figure 2.6
Processing Unit” 1 of 4
The Spinal
Learning Objective 2.4 Describe how the brain and spinal cord interact and
respond to external experiences. Cord Reflex
• Central nervous system (CNS): part of the
nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal
cord
– Spinal cord: a long bundle of neurons that carries
messages to and from the body to the brain that is
responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes

The pain from the burning heat of the candle flame stimulates the afferent nerve fibers,
which carry the message up to the interneurons in the middle of the spinal cord. The
interneurons then send a message out by means of the efferent nerve fibers, causing the
hand to jerk away from the flame.

The Central Nervous System: The “Central The Central Nervous System: The “Central
Processing Unit” 2 of 4 Processing Unit” 3 of 4
• Sensory neuron: a neuron that carries information • Interneuron: a neuron found in the center of the
from the senses to the central nervous system spinal cord that receives information from the
– Also called an afferent neuron sensory neurons and sends commands to the
• Motor neuron: a neuron that carries messages muscles through the motor neurons
from central nervous system to muscles of body – Interneurons also make up bulk of neurons in brain
– Also called an efferent neuron

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The Central Nervous System: The “Central The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves
Processing Unit” 4 of 4 on the Edge 1 of 3
Learning Objective 2.5 Differentiate the roles of the somatic and autonomic
nervous systems.
• Damage to the Central Nervous System
– Damage once thought to be permanent • Peripheral nervous system (PNS): all nerves and
– Neuroplasticity: ability to constantly change both the neurons that are not contained in the brain and
structure and function of cells in response to spinal cord but that run through the body itself
experience or trauma – Somatic nervous system
– Neurogenesis: formation of new neurons – Autonomic nervous system

The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves

on the Edge 2 of 3

Figure 2.7 • Somatic nervous system: division of the PNS

The Peripheral consisting of nerves that carry information from
Nervous System the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the
voluntary muscles of the body
– Sensory pathway: nerves coming from the sensory
organs to the CNS consisting of sensory neurons
– Motor pathway: nerves coming from the CNS to the
voluntary muscles, consisting of motor neurons

The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves Figure 2.8 Functions of the

on the Edge 3 of 3 Parasympathetic and Sympathetic
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Divisions of the Nervous System
– Division of the PNS consisting of nerves that control all
of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands;
sensory pathway nerves coming from the sensory
organs to the CNS consisting of sensory neurons
– Sympathetic division (fight-or-flight system): part of the
ANS that is responsible for reacting to stressful events
and bodily arousal
– Parasympathetic division: part of the ANS that restores
the body to normal functioning after arousal and is
responsible for the day-to-day functioning of the organs
and glands

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Distant Connections: The Endocrine Figure 2.9 The Endocrine Glands
Glands
• Endocrine glands: glands that secrete chemicals
called hormones directly into the bloodstream
The endocrine
– Hormones: chemicals released into the bloodstream by glands secrete
endocrine glands hormones directly
into the
bloodstream,
which carries them
to organs in the
body, such as the
heart, pancreas,
and sex organs.

The Pituitary: Master of the Hormonal Other Endocrine Glands 1 of 2

Universe Learning Objective 2.7 Recall the role of various endocrine glands.

Learning Objective 2.6 Explain why the pituitary gland is known as the “master
gland.” • Pineal gland: endocrine gland located near the base
of the cerebrum that secretes melatonin
• Pituitary gland: gland located in the brain that secretes
human growth hormone and influences all other • Thyroid gland: endocrine gland found in the neck that
hormone-secreting glands regulates metabolism
– Also known as the master gland • Pancreas: endocrine gland that controls the levels of
sugar in the blood

Other Endocrine Glands 2 of 2 Methods for Studying Specific Regions of

the Brain 1 of 2
Learning Objective 2.8 Describe how lesioning studies and brain stimulation are
• Gonads: the sex glands; secrete hormones that used to study the brain.
regulate sexual development and behavior as well as
• Lesioning Studies
reproduction
– Insertion of a thin, insulated wire into the brain through
– Ovaries: the female gonads
which an electrical current is sent that destroys the
– Testes: the male gonads
brain cells at the tip of the wire
• Adrenal glands: endocrine glands located on top of
• Brain Stimulation
each kidney
– Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB): milder
– Secrete over thirty different hormones to deal with stress,
electrical current that causes neurons to react as if they
regulate salt intake
had received a message
– Provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the
sexual changes that occur during adolescence

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Methods for Studying Specific Regions of Neuroimaging Techniques 1 of 3
the Brain 2 of 2 Learning Objective 2.9 Compare and contrast neuroimaging techniques for
mapping the structure and function of the brain. ng Objective 2.6 Study of the
Brain and How It Works
• Invasive Techniques • Computed tomography (CT): brain-imaging
– Deep brain stimulation (DBS), impulse generator method using computer-controlled X-rays of the
implanted and sends impulses to implanted electrodes,
brain
stimulating brain areas of interest.
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): brain-imaging
• Noninvasive Techniques
method using radio waves and magnetic fields of
– Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), magnetic
pulses are applied to the cortex using special copper
the body to produce detailed images of the brain
wire coils that are positioned over the head
– Tepetitive TMS (rTMS)
– Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)

Figure 2.10 Mapping Brain Structure Neuroimaging Techniques 2 of 3

• Mapping Function
– Electroencephalogram (EEG): records electric activity
of the brain below specific areas of the skull
– Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
– Positron emission tomography (PET): radioactive sugar
is injected into the subject and a computer compiles a
color-coded image of brain activity of the brain; lighter
colors indicate more activity
Fig 2.10a: CT scan from a 5-year-old girl with a head injury and skull fracture, depicting the
brain and swelling associated with the injury. Fig 2.10b: Same CT scan highlighting the
skull fracture (indicated by the red arrow). Contrast the brain detail of Fig 2.10a with the
MRI scan in Fig 2.10c (different, adult individual). Note the scans are in the horizontal
plane, separating the brain into upper and lower portions. Fig 2.10d: Different type of MRI
image from an older adult, with cortical cell loss (atrophy) and white matter changes. Notice
the enlarged ventricles and widening of the grooves (sulci) in the outer cortex as compared
to 2.10c. Figs 2.10a, b, c, and d images created with OsiriX software; CT and MRI data
courtesy of N. White.

Neuroimaging Techniques 3 of 3 Figure 2.11 Mapping Brain Function

• Mapping Function continued
– Single photon emission computed tomography
(SPECT): similar to PET, but uses different radioactive
tracers
– Functional MRI (fMRI): a computer makes a sort of
“movie” of changes in the activity of the brain using
images from different time periods

Various methods for mapping brain

function. An EEG record is shown
in 2.11a, a PET scan image in
2.11b, and an image from an fMRI
study in 2.11c. Data and figure for
2.11a courtesy of N. White.

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The Hindbrain 1 of 2 Figure 2.12 Major Structures of the
Learning Objective 2.10 Identify the different structures of the hindbrain and the
function of each.
Human Brain
• The Hindbrain
– Medulla: first large swelling at the top of the spinal
cord, forming the lowest part of the brain
▪ Responsible for life-sustaining functions such as breathing,
swallowing, and heart rate
– Pons: larger swelling above the medulla that connects
the top of the brain to the bottom
▪ Plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left–right body coordination,
and arousal

The Hindbrain 2 of 2 Structures Under the Cortex: The Limbic

System 1 of 3
Learning Objective 2.11 Identify the structures of the brain that are involved in
• Reticular formation (RF): area of neurons running emotion, learning, memory, and motivation.
through the middle of the medulla and the pons
and slightly beyond • A group of several brain structures located under
the cortex and involved in learning, emotion,
– Responsible for selective attention
memory, and motivation
• Cerebellum: part of the lower brain located behind – Thalamus: part of the limbic system located in the
the pons center of the brain
– Controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor ▪ Relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to
movement the proper areas of the cortex
▪ Processes some sensory information before sending it to its
proper area

Figure 2.13 The Limbic System Structures Under the Cortex: The Limbic
System 2 of 3

• Hypothalamus: small structure in the brain located

below the thalamus and directly above the
pituitary gland
– Responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep,
hunger, thirst, and sex
• Hippocampus: curved structure located within
each temporal lobe
– Responsible for the formation of long-term memories
and the storage of memory for location of objects

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Structures Under the Cortex: The Limbic The Cortex 1 of 6
System 3 of 3 Learning Objective 2.12 Identify the parts of the cortex that process the different
senses and those that control movement of the body.
• Amygdala: brain structure located near the
hippocampus • Cortex: outermost covering of the brain consisting
– Responsible for fear responses and the memory of fear
of densely packed neurons
– Responsible for higher thought processes and
• Cingulate cortex: the limbic structure actually interpretation of sensory input
found in the cortex – Corticalization: wrinkling of the cortex
– Plays important roles in cognitive and emotional ▪ Allows a much larger area of cortical cells to exist in the small
processing space inside the skull

Figure 2.14 The Lobes of the Brain

The Cortex 2 of 6
• Cerebral hemispheres: the two
sections of the cortex on the left
and right sides of the brain
• Corpus callosum: thick band of
neurons that connects the right
and left cerebral hemispheres

From top to bottom, a rat brain, sheep brain,

and human brain (not to scale!). Note the
differences in the amount of corticalization,
or wrinkling, of the cortex between these three
brains. Greater amounts of corticalization are
associated with increases in size and complexity.

The Cortex 3 of 6 The Cortex 4 of 6

• Occipital lobe: section of the brain located at the • Parietal lobes
rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere – Sections of the brain located at the top and back of
containing the visual centers of the brain each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for
– Primary visual cortex: processes visual information touch, taste, and temperature sensations
from the eyes – Somatosensory cortex: area of neurons running down
– Visual association cortex: identifies and makes sense the front of the parietal lobes
of visual information ▪ Responsible for processing information from the skin and
internal body receptors for touch, temperature, body position,
and possibly taste

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The Cortex 5 of 6 The Cortex 6 of 6
• Temporal lobes: areas of the cortex located just • Frontal lobes: areas of the cortex located in the
behind the temples containing the neurons front and top of the brain; responsible for higher
responsible for the sense of hearing and mental processes and decision making as well as
meaningful speech the production of fluent speech
– Primary auditory cortex: processes auditory information – Motor cortex: section of the frontal lobe located at the
from the ears back; responsible for sending motor commands to the
– Auditory association cortex: identifies and makes muscles of the somatic nervous system
sense of auditory information

Figure 2.15 The Motor and The Association Areas of the Cortex 1 of 2
Somatosensory Cortex Learning Objective 2.13 Name the parts of the cortex that are responsible for
The motor cortex in the frontal higher forms of thought, such as language.
lobe controls the voluntary
muscles of the body. Cells at the
top of the motor cortex control
muscles at the bottom of the • Association areas: areas within each lobe of the
body, whereas cells at the
bottom of the motor cortex cortex responsible for the coordination and
control muscles at the top of the
body. Body parts are drawn interpretation of information, as well as higher
larger or smaller according to
the number of cortical cells mental processing
devoted to that body part. For
example, the hand has many
small muscles and requires a • Broca’s aphasia: condition resulting from damage
larger area of cortical cells to
control it. The somatosensory to Broca’s area (usually in left frontal lobe)
cortex, located in the parietal
lobe just behind the motor – Causes the affected person to be unable to speak
cortex, is organized in much the
same manner and receives fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly
information about the sense of
touch and body position.

The Association Areas of the Cortex 2 of 2 The Cerebral Hemispheres: Are You in
• Wernicke’s aphasia: condition resulting from Your Right Mind? 1 of 3
damage to Wernicke’s area (usually in left Learning Objective 2.14 Explain how some brain functions differ between the left
and right hemispheres.
temporal lobe)
– Causes the affected person to be unable to understand • Cerebrum: the upper part of the brain consisting of
or produce meaningful language the two hemispheres and the structures that
connect them
• Spatial neglect: condition produced by damage to
the association areas of the right hemisphere
– Results in an inability to recognize objects or body
parts in the left visual field

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 The Cerebral Hemispheres: Are You in The Cerebral Hemispheres: Are You in
Your Right Mind? 2 of 3 Your Right Mind? 3 of 3
• Split-Brain Research • Left side of the brain
– Study of patients with severed – Seems to control language, writing, logical thought,
corpus callosum analysis, and mathematical abilities
– Involves sending messages to – Processes information sequentially, and enables one to
only one side of the brain speak
– Demonstrates right and left brain
specialization • Right side of the brain
– Controls emotional expression, spatial perception,
recognition of faces, patterns, melodies, and emotions
Figure 2.16 – It processes information globally and cannot influence
The Split-Brain Experiment
Roger Sperry created this experiment to speech
demonstrate the specialization of the left
and right hemispheres of the brain.

Table 2.2 Paying Attention to Attention-Deficit /

Specialization of the Two Hyperactivity Disorder
Hemispheres Learning Objective 2.15 Identify some potential causes of attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder.

Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere

• Likelihood of more than one cause and more than
Controls the right hand Controls the left hand
one brain route to ADHD
Spoken language Nonverbal
Written language Visual-spatial perception • Current research looking at a variety of areas
Mathematical calculations Music and artistic processing
– Environmental factors such as low-level lead exposure
– Genetic influences
Logical thought processes Emotional thought and recognition
– Role of heredity and familial factors
Analysis of detail Processes the whole
– Personality factors
Reading Pattern recognition
Blank cell Facial recognition

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