IEEE Std C37.

99-2000
(Revision of
IEEE Std C37.99-1990)

IEEE Guide for the Protection

of Shunt Capacitor Banks

Sponsor
Power System Relaying Committee
of the
IEEE Power Engineering Society

Approved 30 January 2000

IEEE-SA Standards Board

Abstract: The protection of shunt power capacitor and filter banks are covered. Guidelines for
reliable applications of protection methods intended for use in many shunt capacitor applications
and designs are included. The protection of pole-mounted capacitor banks on distribution circuits
and the application of capacitors connected directly to routing apparatus are not included.
Keywords: capacitor, fuseless, power capacitor, protection, relaying, shunt, unbalance protection

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5997, USA

Copyright © 2000 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

All rights reserved. Published 2 June 2000. Printed in the United States of America.

Print: ISBN 0-7381-1978-4 SH94831

PDF: ISBN 0-7381-1979-2 SS94831

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Introduction
(This introduction is not a part of IEEE Std C37.99-2000, IEEE Guide for the Protection of Shunt Capacitor Banks.)

IEEE Std C37.99-2000 incorporates a significant number of additions and changes since the guide was
issued in 1990. Significant changes were made in the clauses dealing with capacitor bank and filter bank
protection, unbalance relaying methods, and calculations. The annexes underwent significant changes. Other
changes put this guide in line with present-day technologies related to the protection of externally fused,
internally fused, fuseless, and unfused capacitor banks.

This guide was revised by the Shunt Capacitor Bank Protection Guide Revision Working Group of the
Substation Protection Subcommittee of the Power System Relaying Committee of the IEEE Power
Engineering Society. The working group membership at the time of completion of this revision was as
follows:

Gerald E. Fenner, Chair

Simon R. Chano, Vice Chair
Stephen P. Conrad Philip J. Engel Pratap G. Mysore
Albert N. Darlington Stephen E. Grier Kevin A. Stephan
Paul R. Drum J. E. Harder James E. Stephens
Roger A. Hedding

The following members of the balloting committee voted on this standard:

John Appleyard Robert W. Haas Roger E. Ray
Robert W. Beckwith J. E. Harder John G. Reckleff
Kenneth Behrendt Roy E. Hart Thomas J. Rozek
Stuart H. Bouchey Irwin O. Hasenwinkle Donald R. Ruthman
John Boyle Roger A. Hedding Bob Ryan
Larry Budler Charles F. Henville Miriam P. Sanders
Mark Carpenter John J. Horwath Richard Sevigny
Simon R. Chano James D. Huddleston, III Tarlochan Sidhu
D. Mason Clark James W. Ingleson Mark S. Simon
Stephen P. Conrad K. J. Khunkhun Peter A. Solanics
Albert N. Darlington W. J. Marsh, Jr. Kevin A. Stephan
Douglas C. Dawson John R. Matras James E. Stephens
Robert W. Dempsey Michael J. McDonald William M. Strang
Randall L. Dotson Jeffrey L. McElray Charles. Sufana
Paul R. Drum M. Meisinger Malcolm J. Swanson
Walter Elmore Gary L. Michel Richard P. Taylor
Ahmed Elneweihi Daleep C. Mohla James S. Thorp
Philip J. Engel Brian Mugalian Joe T. Uchiyama
Karl Fender Pratap G. Mysore Eric A. Udren
Gerald E. Fenner George R. Nail Charles L. Wagner
Jonathan D. Gardell Bradley D. Nelson William P. Waudby
Jeffrey G. Gilbert Jeffrey H. Nelson David J. Zaprazny
Lawrence P. Gradin George R. Newcomb Karl Zimmerman
John Kenneth Greene Alan C. Pierce John A. Zipp
Stephen E. Grier Frank Plumptre Stan Zocholl
E. A. Guro John A. Zulaski

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. iii

When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this standard on 30 January 2000, it had the following
membership:

Richard J. Holleman, Chair

Donald N. Heirman, Vice Chair
Judith Gorman, Secretary
Satish K. Aggarwal James H. Gurney Louis-François Pau
Dennis Bodson Lowell G. Johnson Ronald C. Petersen
Mark D. Bowman Robert J. Kennelly Gerald H. Peterson
James T. Carlo E. G. “Al” Kiener John B. Posey
Gary R. Engmann Joseph L. Koepfinger* Gary S. Robinson
Harold E. Epstein L. Bruce McClung Akio Tojo
Jay Forster* Daleep C. Mohla Hans E. Weinrich
Ruben D. Garzon Robert F. Munzner Donald W. Zipse

*Member Emeritus

Also included is the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaison:

Robert E. Hebner

Greg Kohn
IEEE Standards Project Editor

iv Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

Contents
1. Overview.............................................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Scope............................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Purpose......................................................................................................................................... 1

2. References............................................................................................................................................ 1

3. Definitions............................................................................................................................................ 2

4. Basic considerations............................................................................................................................. 4

4.1 Capacitor unit capabilities............................................................................................................ 6

4.2 Arrangement of capacitor units.................................................................................................... 6
4.3 Capacitor bank design.................................................................................................................. 7
4.4 Overvoltage on remaining capacitor units ................................................................................... 9

5. Bank connections ............................................................................................................................... 10

5.1 Grounded wye-connected banks ................................................................................................ 10

5.2 Ungrounded wye-connected banks ............................................................................................ 11
5.3 Delta-connected banks ............................................................................................................... 12
5.4 H configuration .......................................................................................................................... 13

6. Other considerations .......................................................................................................................... 13

6.1 Single-point and peninsula grounding ....................................................................................... 13

6.2 Neutral grounding ...................................................................................................................... 15

7. Introduction to bank and system protection....................................................................................... 16

7.1 Bank protection.......................................................................................................................... 17

7.2 System protection....................................................................................................................... 21

8. Unbalance relaying methods.............................................................................................................. 24

8.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 24
8.2 General unbalance relay considerations..................................................................................... 25
8.3 Externally fused capacitor banks ............................................................................................... 34
8.4 Internally fused capacitor banks ................................................................................................ 45
8.5 Fuseless capacitor banks ............................................................................................................ 59
8.6 Unfused capacitor banks ............................................................................................................ 67

9. Protection of capacitor filter banks .................................................................................................... 73

9.1 Filter bank protection................................................................................................................. 73

9.2 Multifrequency harmonic filter protection considerations ........................................................ 76
9.3 Static var compensator (SVC) capacitor protection................................................................... 78
9.4 SVC filter protection.................................................................................................................. 80

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. v

10. Capacitor bank equipment considerations ......................................................................................... 80

10.1 Capacitor bank switching devices.............................................................................................. 80

10.2 Inrush control devices ................................................................................................................ 83
10.3 Surge arresters............................................................................................................................ 84
10.4 Voltage-sensing devices............................................................................................................. 84
10.5 Current-sensing devices ............................................................................................................. 84
10.6 Transient currents....................................................................................................................... 85
10.7 Control cables ............................................................................................................................ 90

11. System considerations........................................................................................................................ 91

11.1 Resonance .................................................................................................................................. 91

11.2 Harmonics .................................................................................................................................. 91
11.3 Telephone interference............................................................................................................... 91

12. Commissioning, operation, and maintenance .................................................................................... 92

12.1 Preparation for initial energizing ............................................................................................... 92

12.2 Response to alarm or lockout (trip) ........................................................................................... 93

Annex A (informative) Symbol definitions ................................................................................................... 95

Annex B (informative) Bibliography............................................................................................................. 97

Annex C (informative) Equations for effect of inherent unbalances............................................................. 99

Annex D (informative) Inrush current and frequency for switching capacitor banks ................................. 100

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. vi

IEEE Guide for the Protection
of Shunt Capacitor Banks

1. Overview

1.1 Scope

This guide applies to the protection of shunt power capacitor and filter banks. Included are guidelines for
reliable applications of protection methods intended for use in many shunt capacitor applications and
designs. The guide does not include a discussion of pole-mounted capacitor banks on distribution circuits or
application of capacitors connected to rotating apparatus.

1.2 Purpose

This guide has been prepared to assist in the application of relays and other devices for the protection of
shunt capacitor banks used in substations. It covers methods of protection for many commonly used shunt
capacitor bank configurations. Capacitor bank design trade-offs are also discussed because bank design
influences the protection. Additionally, this guide covers the protection of filter banks and large extra-high
voltage (EHV) shunt capacitor banks.

2. References

This guide shall be used in conjunction with the following publications. If the following publications are
superseded by an approved revision, the revision shall apply:

ANSI C37.06-1997, American National Standard AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetri-
cal Current Basis—Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities.1

ANSI C37.66-1969 (Reaff 1988), American National Standard for Requirements for Oil-Filled Capacitor
Switches for Alternating-Current Systems.

IEEE Std 18-1992, IEEE Standard for Shunt Power Capacitors.2

1ANSI publications are available from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor,
New York, NY 10036, USA (http://www.ansi.org/). The ANSI documents listed in Clause 2 are also available from the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331, Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331, USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 1

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

IEEE Std 469-1988 (Reaff 1994), IEEE Recommended Practice for Voice-Frequency Electrical-Noise Tests
of Distribution Transformers.

IEEE Std 525-1992 (Reaff 1999), IEEE Guide for the Design and Installation of Cable Systems in
Substations.

IEEE Std 1036-1992, IEEE Guide for Application of Shunt Power Capacitors.

IEEE Std 1143-1994, IEEE Guide on Shielding Practice for Low Voltage Cables.

IEEE Std C37.012-1979 (Reaff 1988), IEEE Application Guide for Capacitance Current Switching of AC
High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis.

IEEE Std C37.04-1979 (Reaff 1988), IEEE Standard Rating Structure for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers
Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis.

IEEE Std C37.2-1996, IEEE Standard Electrical Power System Device Function Numbers and Contact
Designations.

IEEE Std C37.48-1997, IEEE Guide for Application, Operation, and Maintenance of High-Voltage Fuses,
Distribution Enclosed Single-Pole Air Switches, Fuse Disconnecting Switches, and Accessories.

IEEE Std C37.90.1-1989 (Reaff 1994), IEEE Standard for Surge Withstand Capability (SWC) Tests for Pro-
tective Relays and Relay Systems.

IEEE Std C57.16-1996, IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code for Dry-Type Air-Core
Series-Connected Reactors.

IEEE Std C62.2-1987 (Reaff 1994), IEEE Guide for the Application of Gapped Silicon-Carbide Surge
Arresters for Alternating Current Systems.

IEEE Std C62.22-1997, IEEE Guide for the Application of Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for Alternating-
Current Systems.

3. Definitions

For the purposes of this guide, the following terms and definitions apply:

3.1 back-to-back capacitor bank switching: Switching a capacitor bank with and in close electrical prox-
imity to one or more other capacitor banks.

3.2 capacitor bank: An assembly at one location of capacitors and all necessary accessories, such as switch-
ing equipment, protective equipment, controls, etc., required for a complete operating installation. It may be
a collection of components assembled at the operating site or may include one or more piece(s) of factory-
assembled equipment.

3.3 capacitor control: The device required to automatically switch shunt power capacitor banks.

2IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331, Piscataway,
NJ 08855-1331, USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).

2 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

 IEEE
PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

3.4 capacitor element (or element): A device consisting essentially of two electrodes separated by a
dielectric.

3.5 capacitor inrush current: The transient charging current that flows in a capacitor when a capacitor bank
is initially connected to a voltage source.

3.6 capacitor line fuse (capacitor group fuse): A fuse applied to disconnect a faulted phase of a capacitor
bank from a power system.

3.7 capacitor outrush current: The high-frequency, high-magnitude current discharge of one or more
capacitors into a short circuit, such as into a failed capacitor unit connected in parallel with the discharging
units, or into a breaker closing into a fault.

3.8 capacitor unit (power capacitor): An assembly of dielectric and electrodes in a container (case), with
terminals brought out, that is intended to introduce capacitance into an electric power circuit.

3.9 discharge device: An internal or external device intentionally connected in shunt with the terminals of a
capacitor for the purpose of reducing the residual voltage after the capacitor is disconnected from an ener-
gized line.

3.10 filter capacitors: Capacitors utilized with inductors and/or resistors for controlling harmonic problems
in the power system, such as reducing voltage distortion due to large rectifier loads or arc furnaces.

3.11 fixed bank: A capacitor bank that does not have a capacitor control and must be manually switched.

3.12 fused capacitor: A capacitor having fuses mounted on its terminals, inside a terminal enclosure, or
inside the capacitor case, for the purpose of interrupting a failed capacitor.

3.13 fuseless capacitor bank: A capacitor bank without any fuses, internal or external, which is constructed
of parallel strings of series-connected capacitor units between line and neutral (wye connection) or between
line terminals (delta or single-phase). See also: unfused capacitor bank.

3.14 individual capacitor fuse: A fuse applied to disconnect an individual faulted capacitor from its bank.

3.15 internal fuse of a capacitor: A fuse connected inside a capacitor unit, in series with an element or a
group of elements.

3.16 internally fused capacitor (unit): A capacitor unit that includes internal fuses.

3.17 kilovar (1000 vars): The practical unit of reactive power, equal to the product of the root-mean-square
(rms) voltage in kilovolts (kV), the rms current in amperes (A), and the sine of the angle between them.

3.18 parallel-(element)-connected capacitor (unit): A capacitor unit with the elements connected in paral-
lel groups, with the parallel groups connected in series between the line terminals. A capacitor unit that has
only one string of capacitor elements between the capacitor terminals is considered to be parallel-connected.

3.19 series-(element)-connected capacitor (unit): A capacitor unit with the elements connected in series
with each other between the line terminals, with more than one such series strings within a capacitor unit
(see Figure 1).

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 3

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Figure 1—Series-connected capacitor unit with three strings of 10 elements

(showing two shorted elements in one string)

3.20 string (string of capacitors) (string of capacitor elements): Capacitors connected in series between
the line terminals.

3.21 switched bank: A capacitor bank designed for controlled operation.

3.22 thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR): The effective value of the reactor is changed by using thyristors
to control the flow of current by phase-controlling the turn-on signal to the thyristors.

3.23 thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC): A capacitor switched on and off by thyristor control action.

3.24 unfused capacitor bank: Any capacitor bank without fuses, internal or external.

3.25 unfused capacitor (unit): A capacitor without any internal fuses.

4. Basic considerations

Relay protection of shunt capacitor banks requires an understanding of the terminology (see Figure 2), capa-
bilities, and limitations of the individual capacitor units and associated electrical equipment. Four types of
shunt capacitor bank connections or designs may affect the relay selection for the protection scheme

a) Externally fused, with individual fuses for each capacitor unit.

b) Internally fused, with each element fused inside the capacitor unit.
c) Fuseless, with capacitor units connected in series strings between line and neutral (or between line
terminals).
d) Unfused, with the capacitor units connected in a variety of series and parallel arrangements.

See Figure 2 for examples of grounded wye-connected banks.

See Clause 2 for the applicable standards for the associated electrical equipment for the individual capacitor
units, individual capacitor-unit fuses, bank switching devices, power fuses, voltage- or current-sensing
devices, surge arresters, and reactors.

4 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

 IEEE
PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Capacitor Internal Discharge

Unit Device

Bushing

Element

Case

(a)

Physical Connection of
Parallel Capacitor Units
in one Group
(b)

Physical Connection
of Series String
(c)

(d)

(a) Externally fused (c) Fuseless (can use multiple strings)

(b) Internally fused (d) Unfused

Figure 2—Wye-connected capacitor bank

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 5

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

4.1 Capacitor unit capabilities

IEEE Std 18-19923 specifies the standard ratings of the capacitors designed for shunt connection to ac trans-
mission and distribution systems. IEEE Std 1036-1992 gives application guidelines for these capacitors.
Capacitors are intended to be operated at or below their rated voltage and frequency. Capacitors are capable
of continuous operation under contingency system and bank conditions, provided the following limitations
are not exceeded:

a) Capacitor units should be capable of continuous operation including harmonics, but excluding tran-
sients, to 110% of rated terminal root-mean-square (rms) voltage and a crest voltage not exceeding
1.2 × 2 of rated rms voltage. The capacitor should also be able to carry 135% of nominal current.
The voltage capability of any series element of a capacitor unit shall be considered to be its share of
the total capacitor unit voltage capability.
b) Capacitor units should not give less than 100% nor more than 115% (110% for capacitor units man-
ufactured in conformance with IEEE Std 18-1992 after the year 2000) of rated reactive power at
rated sinusoidal voltage and frequency, measured at a uniform case and internal temperature of
25 ˚C.
c) Capacitor units mounted in multiple rows and tiers should be designed for continuous operation for
a 24 h average temperature of 40 ˚C during the hottest day, or −40 ˚C during the coldest day
expected at the location.
d) Capacitor units should be suitable for continuous operation at up to 135% of rated reactive power
caused by the combined effects of
1) Voltage in excess of the nameplate rating at fundamental frequency, but not over 110% of rated
rms voltage.
2) Harmonic voltages superimposed on the fundamental frequency.
3) Reactive power manufacturing tolerance of up to 115% of rated reactive power.
e) Capacitor units rated above 600 V shall have an internal discharge device to reduce the residual volt-
age to 50 V or less in 5 min. Capacitor units are available in a variety of voltage ratings (240 V to
24 940 V) and sizes (2.5 kvar to about 1000 kvar). Capacitor units designed for special applications
can exceed these ratings (see IEEE Std 18-1992). See IEEE Std 1036-1992 for capacitor short-time
overvoltage capability.

4.2 Arrangement of capacitor units

Depending on the application, any of the four connections (i.e., externally fused, internally fused, fuseless,
unfused) may be suitable.

4.2.1 Externally fused shunt capacitor banks

Externally fused substation shunt capacitor banks are configured using one or more series groups of parallel-
connected capacitor units per phase. Each capacitor unit is typically protected by an individual fuse,
externally mounted between the capacitor unit and the capacitor bank fuse bus. See Figure 2(a). The capaci-
tor unit can be designed for a relatively high voltage because the external fuse is capable of interrupting a
high-voltage fault. However, the kilovar rating of the individual capacitor unit may be smaller because a
minimum number of parallel units are required to allow the bank to remain in service with one fuse or unit
out.

3Information on references can be found in Clause 2.

6 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

 IEEE
PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

4.2.2 Internally fused shunt capacitor banks

Figure 2(b) illustrates a typical capacitor bank utilizing internally fused capacitor units. In general, banks
employing internally fused capacitor units are configured with fewer capacitor units in parallel and more
series groups of units than are used in banks employing externally fused capacitor units. The capacitor units
are normally large because a complete unit is not expected to fail.

An internal fuse is connected in series with each capacitor element. Each internally fused capacitor unit is
constructed with a large number of elements connected in parallel to form a group and with only a few
groups connected in series. This construction is the opposite to that found in externally fused capacitors,
which normally employ a large number of series groups made up of parallel connected elements, with corre-
spondingly fewer elements connected in parallel per series group. With internally fused capacitors, when a
capacitor element fails, the current through its individual fusible link will be considerably higher than the
normal current. This higher current will blow the fusible link, thereby isolating the failed element.

4.2.3 Fuseless shunt capacitor banks

Fuseless shunt capacitor banks are normally used for applications at or above 34.5 kV. The capacitor units
are normally designed with two bushings with the elements insulated from the case. The capacitor units are
connected in series strings between phase and neutral (or between line terminals for delta-connected or
single-phase installations). The protection is based on the capacitor element’s failing in a shorted mode. The
discharge energy is small because no capacitor units are connected directly in parallel. Another advantage is
that the unbalance protection does not have to be delayed to coordinate with the fuses. See Figure 2(c).

4.2.4 Unfused shunt capacitor banks

The unfused shunt capacitor approach uses a series/parallel connection of the capacitor units. The voltage
across the remaining elements will increase more than in the fuseless design. The unfused approach would
normally be used on banks below 34.5 kV (where series strings are not practical) or on higher voltage banks
with modest parallel energy. This design does not require as many capacitor units in parallel as an externally
fused bank. See Figure 2(d).

4.3 Capacitor bank design

4.3.1 Externally fused

An externally fused shunt capacitor bank of a given size and voltage rating may be made up of a number of
series and parallel groups. Use of capacitors with the highest possible voltage rating will result in a capacitor
bank with the fewest number of series groups. This arrangement generally provides the simplest rack struc-
ture and the greatest sensitivity for unbalance detection schemes. The available unbalance signal level
decreases significantly as the number of series groups of capacitors is increased or as the number of capaci-
tor units in parallel per series group is increased.

The number of capacitor units in parallel per series group is governed by both a minimum and maximum
limitation. The minimum number of capacitor units per group is determined by the overvoltage consider-
ations upon isolation of one capacitor unit in the group and also having sufficient overcurrent through a fuse
on a faulted capacitor unit to blow the fuse in a reasonably short time (so that the unbalance protection does
not require a long time delay). The general rule is that isolation of one capacitor unit in a group should not
cause voltage unbalance sufficient to place more than 110% of rated voltage on the remaining capacitors in
the group. The value of 110% is the maximum continuous overvoltage capability of capacitor units as per
IEEE Std 18-1992.

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 7

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

The minimum recommended number of capacitor units in parallel per series group may limit the maximum
capacitor-unit kilovar rating that can be used for relatively small banks. Capacitor units with the highest pos-
sible voltage rating and minimum number of series groups are used in order to obtain an adequate number in
each group.

The maximum number of capacitor units that may be placed in parallel per series group is governed by a dif-
ferent consideration. When a capacitor unit fails, other capacitors in the same parallel group will contain
some amount of charge. This charge will drain off as a high-frequency transient current that flows through
the failed capacitor unit and its fuse. The fuse holder and the failed capacitor unit should withstand this dis-
charge transient.

For a large number of parallel externally fused capacitors, to minimize the probability of failure of the expul-
sion fuse holder or rupture of the capacitor case, or both, NEMA CP1-1988 [B11]4 recommends that the
total energy stored in a parallel connected group of capacitors should not exceed 15 000 J for all-film dielec-
tric capacitor units (10 000 J for older all-paper or paper-film dielectric capacitor units) at maximum peak
voltage (rated voltage × 1.1 × 2 ). For 60 Hz applications, NEMA CP1-1988 recommends a total parallel
kilovar limit of 4650 kvar for all film dielectric capacitor units (3100 kvar for older capacitor units). All film
dielectric capacitor banks have been applied up to 9600 kvar in parallel with expulsion fuses (Mendis et al.
[B9]). Consult the capacitor and fuse manufacturer before exceeding the 4650 kvar limit to ensure that the
total available discharge energy (including energy from capacitors in a parallel wye and/or in parallel banks)
does not exceed the discharge energy capability of the fuse or the faulted capacitor.

If a capacitor bank having the minimum number of series groups has more than 4650 kvar per series group,
capacitors of a lower voltage rating requiring more series groups and fewer units in parallel per group may
be a suitable solution. However, this arrangement will reduce the sensitivity of the unbalance detection
scheme. The bank may be removed from service (for a reduced number of isolated capacitor units) because
the voltage across the remaining units exceeds 110% of their rated voltage. Splitting the bank into two sec-
tions, as a double wye, may be a preferred arrangement and may permit a better unbalance detection scheme.
Failure of fewer capacitor units can result in the removal of the bank. Another possibility is the use of
current-limiting fuses in a single wye configuration.

4.3.2 Internally fused

An internally fused shunt capacitor bank of a given size and voltage rating may be made up of a number of
series and parallel groups.

Use of capacitors with the highest possible kilovar rating will result in a capacitor bank with the fewest
number of capacitor units. This arrangement generally provides the simplest rack structure and the largest
number of element failures before unbalance tripping is required.

It is usually desirable to have at least two units in parallel in each series group. In the event of a large number
of internal fuse operations in one capacitor unit, the other capacitor helps keep the terminal voltage of the
affected capacitor down.

The maximum number of capacitor units that may be placed in parallel per series group is governed by the
parallel energy capability of the internal fuses. Placing too many capacitor units in parallel can jeopardize
the operation of the fuses. The manufacturer of the capacitor units should recommend the maximum number
of capacitor units to be connected directly in parallel.

If a proposed capacitor bank having the minimum number of series groups has too many capacitor units in
parallel, it may be possible to reduce the parallel energy by changing the number of series groups or by
rearranging the bank into multiple wyes.

4The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex B.

8 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

 IEEE
PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

4.3.3 Fuseless banks

Fuseless banks require a high system voltage (about 34.5 kV minimum). Capacitor units are connected in
series strings. The capacitor units usually have two bushings and may have additional insulation between the
capacitor elements and the case. Each string usually has more than 10 elements in series to ensure that the
remaining elements do not exceed 110% rating if an element in the string shorts. If a large fuseless bank is
required, several strings can be connected in parallel.

4.3.4 Unfused banks

An unfused bank would have a series/parallel arrangement. Relay settings normally require the bank to trip
when the voltage on remaining capacitor units exceeds 110% of rated voltage or the overvoltage on remain-
ing elements in a faulted capacitor unit is high enough that cascading failure on system transient overvoltage
is likely. On smaller banks, tripping may be based on the failure of a single element. (For small banks, the
probability of element failure may be small, given the small total number of elements.)

4.4 Overvoltage on remaining capacitor units

The overvoltages that occur when individual capacitor elements fail or internal or external fuses operate
determine whether the bank should be removed from service. Usually the larger the kilovar rating of an
individual capacitor unit, the simpler the bank design, but the unit size will affect the resulting overvoltages
following fuse operation or element shorting.

4.4.1 Externally fused bank

For an externally fused bank of a given size, use of a larger individual capacitor-unit kilovar rating decreases
the number of parallel capacitor units per group and increases the overvoltage change due to isolation of a
single capacitor. Failure of additional capacitors is likely to occur in the same parallel group as the first fail-
ure because these remaining capacitor units have the highest voltage stress. However, if two capacitors fail in
different parallel groups, the overvoltage percentage is less than that of the two capacitors failing in the same
parallel group.

4.4.2 Internally fused bank

An internally fused bank can connect the capacitor elements inside the capacitor unit in various series and
parallel configurations to minimize the overvoltage stress on the remaining internal elements and unaffected
capacitor units when fuses operate.

4.4.3 Fuseless bank

Fuseless bank design depends on the capacitor elements being connected in series, and the expected failure
mode of the capacitor element will be a short circuit. The higher the voltage for the bank, the more capacitor
elements in series. If an element shorts, the remaining capacitor elements will absorb the additional voltage.
The additional voltage on each element will be approximately equal to E/(E − 1) where E is the original
number of capacitor elements in the string.5 The continuous and overvoltage capability of the elements is
equal to the capability of the capacitor unit divided by the number of elements in series within the capacitor
unit.

5Many of the variables in this guide have not been specially formatted (i.e., using italics or superscripting and subscripting). This has
been done intentionally to match the appearance of the variables in the spreadsheets presented herein.

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 9

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

4.4.4 Unfused bank

The unfused capacitor bank has no fuses. Unbalance protection should be applied so that following failures,
the resulting voltage on the remaining healthy capacitor units does not exceed 110% of their rating or the
recommended level specified by the manufacturer.

5. Bank connections

Five capacitor bank connections are common. The optimum connection depends on the best utilization of
the available voltage ratings of capacitor units, fusing, and protective relaying. These connections can be
used for externally fused capacitor bank design, internally fused capacitor bank design, fuseless capacitor
bank design (if enough elements are connected in series for a protection scheme to be applied), and unfused
capacitor bank design. Virtually all substation banks are connected wye. Distribution capacitor banks,
however, may be connected wye or delta. Some banks use an H configuration on each of the phases with a
current transformer in the connecting branch to detect the unbalance.

The various types of connections are illustrated in Figure 3.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

(a) Delta
(b) Grounded wye
(c) Ungrounded wye
(d) Ungrounded double wye (neutrals may or may not be tied)
(e) Grounded double wye

Figure 3—Basic capacitor bank connections

5.1 Grounded wye-connected banks

Grounded wye capacitor banks, composed of series- and parallel-connected capacitor units per phase, may
require overvoltage/unbalance protection. Figure 2 shows typical bank arrangements.

Grounded capacitor banks provide a low-impedance path to ground for lightning surge currents and give
some protection from surge voltages. Some banks may be operated without surge arresters, taking advantage
of the capability of the capacitors to absorb the surge.

10 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Grounded capacitor banks also provide a low-impedance path to ground for triplen harmonic currents. These
harmonic currents may cause communication facility interference, if such circuits parallel power lines.
Additionally, an open phase produces zero sequence currents that may cause ground relay operations.
Harmonic resonance may also be a problem.

When the neutral is grounded, recovery voltages encountered during switching are reduced; however, careful
consideration should be given to the effect of inrush current on protective relay performance (see Clause 11)
and the method of grounding (see 6.2).

5.1.1 One unit phase to ground

There is no overvoltage across the remaining capacitor units if a failed, externally fused capacitor unit is iso-
lated with a fuse; therefore, unbalance relay protection is not required. The individual external capacitor
fuses shall be capable of interrupting the system available fault current.

Internally fused and unfused capacitor banks should have unbalance protection to avoid excessive element
voltages and to trip the bank for severe unbalance conditions.

5.1.2 Multiple units in series phase to ground—single wye

Grounded wye externally fused capacitor banks above 34.5 kV are commonly composed of two or more
series groups of parallel connected capacitor units per phase. The presence of multiple series groups of units
limits the maximum fault current so that individual current-limiting fuses are usually not required unless the
parallel kilovar exceeds 4650 kvar or the level specified by the manufacturer.

Internally fused capacitor units should be arranged in the bank design to ensure that energy in the parallel
group does not exceed the interrupting capability of the internal fuses. Relatively small banks can be
designed with internally fused capacitor units and still use large capacitor units for a simple design.

The fuseless design is not usually applied for system voltages less than about 34.5 kV. The reason is that
there shall be more than 10 elements in series so that the bank does not have to be removed from service for
the failure of one element because the voltage across the remaining elements would increase by a factor of
about E/(E − 1) where E is the number of elements in the string.

5.1.3 Multiple units in series phase to ground—double wye

When a capacitor bank becomes too large, making the parallel energy of a series group too great for the
capacitor units or fuses, the bank may be split into two wye sections. The characteristics of the grounded
double wye are similar to a grounded single wye bank. The two neutrals should be directly connected with a
single connection to ground.

The double wye design allows a secure and faster protection with a simple uncompensated relay because any
system zero sequence unbalance affects both wyes equally, but a failed capacitor unit will be detected in the
neutral unbalance. Time coordination may be required to allow a fuse to blow in or on a failed capacitor unit.
If it is a fuseless design, the time delay can be set short because no fuse coordination is required. If the cur-
rent through the string exceeds the continuous current capability of the capacitor unit, more strings shall be
added in parallel (for example, wye wye-wye wye).

5.2 Ungrounded wye-connected banks

Ungrounded wye banks do not permit zero sequence currents, third harmonic currents, or large capacitor
discharge currents during system ground faults. (Phase-to-phase faults may still occur and will result in large
discharge currents.) The neutral, however, should be insulated for full line voltage because it is momentarily

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 11

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

at phase potential when the bank is switched or when one capacitor unit fails in a bank configured with a sin-
gle group of units.

5.2.1 One unit phase to neutral

For systems with line-to-neutral voltages corresponding to available capacitor ratings, wye-connected capac-
itor banks with a single series group per phase may be used. The capacitor bank neutral may be ungrounded
in order to avoid the need for power fuses to interrupt the system short-circuit fault current or to minimize
the flow of triplen harmonics, which can cause telephone interference. This design requires that single-bush-
ing capacitor units be mounted on an insulated rack. If two-bushing capacitor units are used with a grounded
rack, a fault to the case will be a system line-to-ground fault. High system fault currents may lead to case
rupture. For externally fused capacitor banks, the fuses should be selected to interrupt the available phase-to-
ground short-circuit current. If lower rated fuses are used, a fault to the capacitor case may not be cleared by
the capacitor-unit fuse and will require that the fault be cleared by the capacitor bank overcurrent protective
devices. Ungrounded wye capacitor banks usually do not require current-limiting capacitor-unit fuses
because current through a faulted capacitor unit is limited to three times normal phase current. However,
caution needs to be exercised when re-fusing a bank of this type because faulted capacitors in different
phases could result in a phase-to-phase system fault.

5.2.2 Multiple units in series phase to neutral—single wye

Wye banks with multiple series groups may also be ungrounded. Such a bank does not provide a path to
ground for a surge voltage and provides no path to ground for third harmonic currents. The entire bank,
including the neutral, should be insulated for full line voltage.

Capacitor units with external fuses, internal fuses, or no fuses (fuseless or unfused design) can be used to
make up the bank. For unbalance protection schemes that are sensitive to system voltage unbalance, either
the unbalance protection time delay shall be set long enough for the line protections to clear the system
ground faults or the capacitor bank may be allowed to trip off for a system ground fault.

5.2.3 Multiple units in series phase to neutral—double wye

When a capacitor bank becomes too large for the 4650 kvar per group maximum for expulsion fuses and is
large enough to meet the minimum units per group requirement as outlined in 4.2, the bank may be split into
two wye sections. When the two neutrals are ungrounded, the bank has some of the characteristics of the
ungrounded single-wye bank. These two neutrals may be tied together through a current transformer or a
voltage transformer. As for any ungrounded wye bank, the neutral instrument transformers should be insu-
lated from ground, as should the phase terminals, for full line-to-ground voltage.

5.3 Delta-connected banks

Delta-connected banks are generally used only at distribution voltages and are configured with a single
series group of capacitors rated at line-to-line voltage. Delta-connected banks require a two-bushing capaci-
tor or single-bushing units with insulated racks. Delta-connected banks are frequently used at 2400 V
because capacitor units for wye connection at 2400 V are not readily available.

With only one series group of units, no overvoltage occurs across the remaining capacitor units from the iso-
lation of a faulted capacitor unit. Therefore, unbalance detection is not required for protection, but may be
used to detect the outage of units within the bank. No zero-sequence or third harmonic currents can flow into
a delta-connected capacitor bank.

Where one series group per leg is used, the individual capacitor fuses shall be capable of interrupting the
system short-circuit phase-to-phase fault current. This design may necessitate current-limiting fuses.

12 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

If internally fused capacitor units are used, unbalance detection is required to detect a capacitor with failed
elements. There is no visible indication of a blown fuse. Two or more series groups are normally required in
each capacitor unit to enable the internal fuses to interrupt the fault current.

Static var compensators usually use the delta connection for the thyristor-switched capacitors (TSCs) to
simplify the controls and optimize the use of the thyristor valve.

5.4 H configuration

Some larger banks use an H configuration in each phase with a current transformer connected between the
two legs to compare the current down each leg. As long as all the capacitors are normal, no current will flow
through the current transformer. If a capacitor fuse operates, some current will flow through the current
transformer. This bridge connection can be very sensitive. This arrangement is used on large banks with
many capacitor units in parallel.

6. Other considerations

The performance of the protection method can be influenced by the design of the capacitor bank. Therefore,
protection begins with bank design (see 4.3). In general, shunt capacitor bank design requirements necessi-
tate an increase in minimum bank size with system voltage. The higher the system voltage, the larger the
bank investment and risk of costly damage. Although capacitors having large kilovar ratings may reduce the
overall cost of the bank, they may also reduce the choice of different capacitor combinations.

6.1 Single-point and peninsula grounding

Where two or more grounded wye banks are at the same location, the neutrals should be directly connected,
with a single connection to ground (single-point grounding). The design of the substation ground grid and
the connections of the respective bank neutrals to the substation grid is of prime importance. Improper
grounding can result in neutral current transformer, voltage transformer, or control cable failures. Two meth-
ods of neutral grounding have been successfully used: single-point grounding and peninsula grounding. See
Figure 4.

With single-point grounding, the neutrals of all capacitor banks of a given voltage are connected together
with insulated cable, or an isolated bus, and tied to the substation ground grid at only one point. This
arrangement prevents high-frequency currents that flow between banks during back-to-back switching from
flowing in the ground grid. In the event of a nearby ground fault, however, this arrangement does not elimi-
nate high-frequency currents that flow back into the power system via the substation ground grid.

With peninsula grounding, one or more ground grid conductor(s) are carried underneath the capacitor rack
of each phase of each group and tied to the main station ground grid at one point at the edge of the capacitor
area. All capacitor bank neutral connections are made to this isolated peninsula ground grid conductor(s)
only (Rogers and Gillies [B12]). Although this arrangement allows the capacitor bank neutral potential (and
associated current transformers and voltage transformers) to rise during capacitor bank switching, it does
help reduce these transients in the rest of the substation. See Figure 4.

If single-point grounding is used, the voltage will be substantial (tens of kilovolts) between the ends of the
neutral bus and the single-point ground during switching. As a result, the primary-to-secondary insulation of
neutral current transformers, or voltage transformers, will be subjected to this voltage, increasing the possi-
bility of failure. A voltage transformer with two bushings should be used with the primary connected to the
capacitor bank neutral and to the station ground grid.

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 13

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

............ Insulated capacitor neutrals Capacitor bank neutral cables insulated, tied
1,2,3 Three-phase capacitor groups together, and connected to station ground grid
5 Substation ground grid at one point; all equipment grounds connected
6 High-voltage bus to station ground grid.
7 Single-point capacitor neutral ground
8 Capacitor group fence
(a) Single-point grounding

............ Peninsula ground grid (bare) Capacitor bank neutrals and all equipment
1,2,3 Three-phase capacitor groups grounds tied together and connected to station
5 Substation ground grid ground grid at one point; neutral leads routed
6 High-voltage bus beneath phase conductors.
8 Capacitor group fence
(b) Peninsula grounding
Figure 4—Single-point and peninsula grounding

This does not occur with peninsula grounding because all equipment at the neutral tends to rise to the same
potential. Peninsula grounding coordinated with control cable shielding and grounding will keep common
mode voltages, appearing on control cables in the control house, to safe levels.

Single-point grounding and peninsula grounding may be used together. It is desirable for all capacitor banks
of the same system voltage to use the same grounding scheme in the same substation.

When energizing a capacitor bank, the magnitude of voltage disturbances on the system is greatly reduced
by the presence of one or more additional banks of comparable size connected to the same bus. During a
closing operation or a restrike, however, the transient inrush current through the switching device between
the energized banks and the one being switched can be very large. These currents are oscillatory at very high
frequencies. The peak current may be on the order of 50–100 times the normal peak of the capacitor bank
current. Such a high instantaneous current can produce high forces in the interrupter of the switching device,
and such forces may be damaging to the contacts or linkage.

Because the severity of parallel bank switching is caused by the very sudden high current, which initially is
limited only by the very low resistance and inductance of the circuit between the banks, it can be reduced by
the addition of inductance to the circuit. An inductance with a 60 Hz reactance as low as 0.5–1% of the
60 Hz capacitive reactance of the banks placed in series with them will greatly reduce both the rate of rise

14 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

and the peak value of the inrush current. This inductance greatly reduces the severity of the switching device
duty. Additional inductance may be obtained by increasing the length of the bus between the capacitor banks
or adding current-limiting reactors. The reactors may be air core or consist of magnetic cores surrounding
the leads or bus.

Preinsertion resistors or inductors on the capacitor switching device, or synchronous (zero voltage) closing,
can also effectively limit the inrush current. The use of insertion resistors or reactors or zero-crossing closing
controls minimizes the switching transient on closing, but does not help reduce the outrush current for close
in faults (McCauley et al. [B8]). Fixed reactors may be required to reduce the transient currents in order to

— Minimize the possibility of induced voltages affecting the relaying.

— Avoid damaging other equipment (Rogers and Gillies [B12]; Alexander [B2]; McCauley et al. [B8]).

6.2 Neutral grounding

The application of large shunt capacitor banks with switched parallel banks in high-voltage transmission
systems involves a number of considerations, one of which is grounding. It is generally recommended that
the neutral of capacitor banks be grounded only to systems that are effectively grounded. In the event of a
phase-to-ground fault, a grounded capacitor bank neutral in an otherwise ungrounded system may lead to
high transient overvoltages in the system and capacitor bank as a result of restriking of the arcing fault to
ground.

One of the main advantages associated with neutral grounding concerns the severity of the recovery voltage
across the first pole of the switch to clear, interrupting the charging current of the capacitor bank. The recov-
ery voltage across the first pole to open consists of trapped charges on the capacitors and the variation in the
60 Hz voltage of the system. Due to system parameters and capacitor bank size, the recovery voltage can be
approximately two times normal peak voltage when the bank is grounded. On an ungrounded bank, the mag-
nitude of the first peak of the recovery voltage can be as high as three times the peak system line-to-ground
voltage when the bank is switched.

Because recovery voltage is a critical factor in determining the capability of a switching device to switch
capacitive reactive power, it may be desirable (in terms of switch performance) to ground the neutral of
shunt capacitor banks. IEEE Std C37.04-1979 and ANSI C37.06-1997 recommend that both the shunt
capacitor bank and the system be grounded at voltage levels of 121 kV and above. Many capacitor banks of
higher voltage are installed ungrounded, but the circuit breaker manufacturer should be consulted for the
application of a breaker if these conditions are not met.

While many shunt capacitor banks are directly connected to a high-voltage substation bus, switched capaci-
tor banks may be applied to tertiaries of power transformers that are connected to the line or possibly to the
bus. Grounding the neutral of the wye-connected capacitor bank should be done only on an effectively
grounded system. For instance, the delta tertiary of the auto transformer represents an isolated source;
grounding the capacitor bank neutral makes this side of the transformer capacitively grounded. Overvoltages
may be experienced during line-to-ground faults for certain ratios of X0/X1, depending on system, trans-
former, and capacitor bank parameters. If the neutral is to be grounded on a system that is not effectively
grounded, the application should be thoroughly analyzed for proper application of surge arresters, bank con-
figuration, bank switching devices, etc.

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 15

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

7. Introduction to bank and system protection

The protection of shunt capacitor banks involves both bank and system protection schemes.

Bank protection schemes are provided for faults within the capacitor bank itself. Bank protection may
include items such as a means to disconnect a faulted capacitor unit or capacitor element(s), a means to ini-
tiate a shutdown of the bank in case of faults that may lead to a catastrophic failure, and alarms to indicate
unbalance within the bank.

System protection schemes are provided to protect the capacitor bank from stresses that may be caused by
the system and to protect the substation and system from stresses that may be caused by the operation of the
capacitor bank. System protection may include items such as a means to limit overvoltage and excessive
transient overcurrents, and to disconnect the bank in the event of a major fault within the capacitor installa-
tion. System protection may also include alarms and/or a method to disconnect the entire shunt capacitor
bank in order to prevent further damage to the capacitors due to abnormal system conditions.

Table 1 lists various bank and system protection schemes typically applied to shunt capacitor banks. Each of
the conditions listed should be considered when providing protection for a shunt capacitor bank.

Table 1—Bank and system protection

Bank protection

Condition Type of protection Remarks

Faulted capacitor element. External or internal fuse for fused Fuses should be fast to coordinate with fast
banks; weld, which occurs at the fail- unbalance relay settings, but should not oper-
ure, for banks without fuses. ate during switching or external faults.
Fault from capacitor elements Fuse for externally fused capacitor; For externally fused capacitor banks, fuses
to case, bushing failure, faulty unbalance protection for internally should be fast to coordinate with fast unbal-
connection in capacitor unit. fused banks or banks without fuses. ance relay settings, but should not operate
during switching or external faults. For
internally fused banks or banks without
fuses, the unbalance protection should be
fast to avoid case rupture, but should not
operate during switching or external faults.
Fault in capacitor bank other Unbalance protection. Relay should Unbalance protection should be fast to mini-
than in unit (arcing fault in have a band-pass filter for the funda- mize damage to other units during a major
bank). mental current or voltage for security. fault. See 7.1.4.
Continuous overvoltage on Unbalance protection. Relay should Bank should be tripped for voltages > 110%
capacitor elements or units due have a band-pass filter for the funda- of rated voltage or as recommended by man-
to faulted elements or fuse mental current or voltage for security. ufacturer on healthy capacitor units. An
operations within the bank. alarm may be added for 5% unbalance or one
unit out. (In some critical applications an
alarm with delayed tripping above 110% of
rated voltage is used; see 7.1.4.)
Rack-to-rack flashover in two Phase overcurrent or negative Fast operation is required to minimize dam-
series group phase-over-phase sequence relay; unbalance current for age. See 7.1.4 and 7.1.5.
single wye banks. wye-wye capacitor banks.

System protection

Condition Type of protection Remarks

System surge overvoltage. Surge arresters. Selection of surge arrester may require con-
sideration of bank energy, particularly for
larger capacitor banks.
Power frequency system Phase voltage relays. For a distorted voltage waveform, the capaci-
overvoltage. tor dielectric is sensitive to the peak voltage.

16 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Table 1—Bank and system protection (continued)

System protection (continued)

Condition Type of protection Remarks

Harmonic current overloading. Relay sensitive to harmonic current. Where excessive harmonic currents are
anticipated, harmonic relaying may be
required.
Bus fault in capacitor installa- a) Circuit breaker or circuit switcher Relays or power fuses should be as fast as
tion or major capacitor bank with conventional relays, or possible without nuisance operations due to
failure. b) Power fuses. outrush currents into nearby faults.
Fault in or near substation, but Inrush and outrush limiting reactors. Reactors may be required to protect circuit
outside capacitor installation. breakers, current transformer circuits, and
other components against excessive currents
or induced voltages.
Excessive inrush current. a) Insertion resistor or reactor in Energizing a capacitor bank in close proxim-
switch, breaker, or circuit switcher, or ity to an energized capacitor bank may result
b) Inrush and outrush limiting reactors in excessive inrush currents, damaging cir-
between capacitor banks, or cuit breakers or switches, causing undesired
c) Synchronous (zero voltage) closing fuse operations, causing excessive voltages
of the switch or circuit breaker. in current transformers and relays, causing
arcing at gate latches, etc.
System outage. Undervoltage relays. Capacitor banks (which may be) energized
through a transformer without load on the
transformer may need to be switched off
before re-energizing the system.
Transmission line tripping (for a) Transfer tripping of the capacitor Capacitor banks directly connected to a
capacitor banks connected to a bank switch, or transmission line with no connected load
transmission line segment). b) Undervoltage relays. may need to be disconnected from the line
before reclosing the line.
Breaker failure. Conventional breaker failure relays. Local or remote breakers should have capac-
itor switching capability if they trip the bank
without parallel load due to breaker failure
considerations.

7.1 Bank protection

In externally fused capacitor banks, several capacitor element breakdowns may occur before the fuse
removes the entire unit. The external fuse will operate when a capacitor unit becomes (essentially) short cir-
cuited, isolating the faulted unit. Unbalance protection removes the bank from service when the resulting
overvoltage becomes excessive on the remaining healthy capacitor units.

Internally fused capacitors have individual capacitor elements within a capacitor unit that are disconnected
when an element breakdown occurs. The risk of successive faults is minimized because the fuse will isolate
the faulty element within a few cycles. Unbalance protection removes the bank from service when the result-
ing unbalanced voltage becomes excessive on the remaining healthy capacitor elements or units.

For fuseless or unfused capacitor banks, a failed element is short-circuited by the weld that naturally occurs
at the point of failure. Unbalance protection removes the bank from service when the resulting voltage
becomes excessive on the remaining healthy capacitor elements or units.

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 17

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

7.1.1 General fuse requirements (for banks with fuses)

The fuse selection should provide sufficient safety margins to ensure the availability of the capacitor banks.
The fuses shall be selected to quickly isolate dielectric failures and interrupt the available energy developed
at the fault location.

Capacitor fusing requires the careful protection considerations given in 7.1.2 and 7.1.3 for externally and
internally fused capacitor banks.

7.1.2 External fuse selection and operation

IEEE Std C37.48-1997 covers in detail the application guidelines for high-voltage external capacitor fuses.

The energy stored in the healthy capacitors of one series group of parallel-connected capacitors will dis-
charge into the failed capacitor unit of that group and its fuse. The fuse shall be able to interrupt the energy
supplied by the parallel group of capacitor units when they are charged to their peak voltage.

If the capacitor bank design has an available discharge energy higher than the capacitor units or expulsion
fuses can withstand, current-limiting fuses with adequate energy rating should be considered.

When ungrounded wye capacitor banks are supplied in an enclosure, current-limiting fuses shall be used to
eliminate the arc products that occur with the use of an expulsion fuse. These arc products in the confined
enclosure could cause further evolution of the fault. Current-limiting fuses may also be required on enclosed
single-group ungrounded wye banks that are designed with two bushing units. In this design, the first bush-
ing is used for the phase connection, the second bushing used for the neutral connection, and the case
connected to ground. This arrangement requires the capacitor fuses to interrupt system fault current in the
event of a failure of the unit insulation near the phase bushing.

NEMA CP1-1988 [B11] suggests a parallel energy limit of 15 kJ (4650 kvar) for all film dielectric capaci-
tors. Expulsion fuses are frequently applied with higher parallel energy (to 30 kJ) (Mendis et al. [B9]). This
higher energy application is acceptable if the total available discharge energy of the bank does not exceed the
discharge energy rating of the fuse or the capability of the faulted capacitor unit.

To determine proper fuse selection, the capacitor unit case rupture curve shall be available from the manu-
facturer. Case rupture curves are different for different capacitor unit constructions and designs. The total
clearing curve of the fuse or fuse link is then compared to the case rupture curve; adequate protection is
assured if the total clearing curve of the fuse is to the left of and below the rupture curve of the capacitor
unit.

Other important considerations for external fuse selection and operation include the following:

— Fuses should be designed and rated for the externally fused capacitor bank application.
— Fuses should provide for the fast isolation of a faulted capacitor unit.
— Voltage interruption capability of the fuse shall be coordinated with the voltage withstand capability
of the capacitor unit.
— Fuses shall handle the transient inrush and outrush current.
— Fuses shall be designed for the current loadability requirements, including harmonics and adequate
allowance factors.
— Fuses shall be designed for the inductive and capacitive current interruption capability.
— Fuse characteristics shall coordinate between the different shunt bank protection schemes and the
characteristics of the fuses (that is, expulsion, current-limiting, or a combination of both).

18 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

7.1.3 Internal fuse operation

The optimum performance of an internally fused capacitor bank relies on the design and selection of fuses.
Adequate fuse operation shall be assured in case of capacitor element breakdown. Element fuses in inter-
nally fused capacitor banks have current-limiting properties that are mainly dependent on the available fault
current, the discharge energy (≅ 1 kJ) from the elements connected in parallel with the faulty element, and
the voltage across the faulted element at the instant of failure.

The fuses shall properly isolate the faulted element after fuse operation. Fuses shall be designed with suffi-
cient overvoltage interruption capability to ensure reliable and safe operation under extreme transient
element overvoltage conditions, considering both the system transient overvoltage and the unbalance within
the capacitor unit resulting from previously blown fuses. Fuse selection shall consider the following:

— Overvoltage interruption capability.

— Transient conditions due to external faults where the fuse shall not operate.
— Inrush and outrush currents over the life of the capacitor units.

The fastest appropriate element fuse that meets the above requirements shall be selected. The remaining
healthy fuses in a faulted capacitor unit shall be capable of safely interrupting other internal element failures.

7.1.4 Capacitor unbalance protection

Unbalance protection normally provides the primary protection for arcing faults within a capacitor bank and
other abnormalities that may damage capacitor units and or fuses. Arcing faults may cause substantial dam-
age in a small fraction of a second. The unbalance protection should have minimum intentional delay in
order to minimize the amount of damage to the bank in the event of external arcing.

Capacitor unbalance protection is provided in many different ways, depending on the capacitor bank
arrangement. The variety of unbalance protection schemes that are used for internally fused, externally
fused, fuseless, or unfused shunt capacitor banks is illustrated in the figures of Clause 8 along with examples
of the required calculations.

Unbalance protection normally senses changes associated with capacitor element or unit failure and/or fuse
operation. It is not generally sensitive enough to detect a defective connection. Defective connections may
deteriorate until a fault occurs within the capacitor bank, causing the unbalance protection to operate. A
defective connection within a capacitor unit (usually a rare occurrence) may result in a pressure buildup and
capacitor unit rupture before the operation of the unbalance protection. The unbalance protection should
operate quickly for the external arcing following case rupture.

7.1.5 Protection for rack faults (arc-over within the capacitor rack)

With a shunt capacitor bank constructed so that the individual phases are well separated on separate struc-
tures, an arc-over within the capacitor bank will begin as an arc-over of a single series group. Such a fault
produces very little phase overcurrent. If an unbalance relay protection scheme fails to operate, more and
more series groups of the same phase can become involved until the bank overcurrent relays trip the bank or
fuses clear. This fault is accompanied by heavy damage to the bank, including many blown fuses and rup-
tured capacitor units. Instantaneous overcurrent relays are usually not effective for rack faults because of
their required high setting.

The most effective protection for an arc-over within the capacitor bank is provided by a fast unbalance relay.
A short time delay for the unbalance relays minimizes the damage caused by rack faults. Intentional delays
as short as 0.05 s have been used. This short unbalance time delay, however, should not be less than the max-
imum clearing time of the capacitor-unit or element fuse.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

An unusually long unbalance time delay may be required to coordinate with the line relays, unless the unbal-
ance relay scheme is a type that does not respond to (or uses compensation for) system voltage unbalance
(zero sequence voltage).

The setting of the unbalance trip relay shall be sensitive enough to protect the capacitor units or elements
from continuous overvoltages that result from individual unit or element failure and resultant fuse operation.
When set on this basis, the resultant sensitivity is quite adequate to detect the initial rack fault, assuming the
initial fault is across one series section of one phase.

Although the unbalance trip relay is the most effective protection for arc detection of a series section, the
neutral voltage type of unbalance relay [for instance, see Figure 12(b)] should not be relied upon for rack
fault protection on capacitor banks where all three phases are not well separated. For example, consider an
ungrounded single wye capacitor bank with two series groups per phase, where all three phases are installed
upon a single steel structure. The individual phases are stacked over each other so that the initial fault may
occur as a midrack phase-to-phase fault, as shown in Figure 5. This fault does not cause an unbalance of the
neutral voltage (or neutral current, if grounded); therefore, a neutral unbalance relay does not respond. The
initial fault may spread until it becomes severe enough to operate the time or instantaneous overcurrent
relays. However, there may be considerable damage involving all three phases before the bank trips.
Methods for protecting a midrack phase-to-phase arcing fault include the following:

— Using a fixed time overcurrent relay set at about 1.35 times normal phase current and using a short
time delay (≈ 0.1 s). The overcurrent relay shall have a fast dropout time.
— Using a current unbalance or negative sequence current relay. Negative sequence relays as a backup
protection can be set to be more sensitive than phase overcurrent relays, but tripping should be
delayed to coordinate with the other relays in the system. A setting of 10% of the rated capacitor
current, taking into consideration the maximum system voltage unbalance and the maximum
capacitance variation together with a time delay setting of 15–25 cycles, may provide adequate coor-
dination for faults external to the bank. However, it may not prevent damages due to arcing faults
within the bank structure.

For wye-wye banks, the unbalance protection will operate for this type of fault, provided the correct groups
are bonded to the rack (see 8.2.2).

Figure 5—Midrack phase-to-phase arcing fault

20 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

7.2 System protection

In order to provide redundancy in the bank protection, system protection may help reduce stresses and mini-
mize damage to capacitors upon the occurrence of the following events:

— External arcing
— Overvoltages, including harmonic distortions
— Bank overcurrent
— Loss of bus voltage
— System overvoltage
— Other considerations (such as loss of voltage transformer fuse, breaker failure protection, and surge
arrester protection)

7.2.1 External arcing

External arcing without the prompt operation of the unbalance protection may cause case ruptures or other
damage to capacitor units and may blow fuses. It may be desirable to provide the capacitor bank with redun-
dant unbalance protection and/or current unbalance or negative sequence current protection to minimize
damage. The overcurrent protection is not normally sensitive to arcing within a capacitor bank and, if it
senses a disturbance, is normally too slow.

7.2.2 Overvoltages

The capacitor bank and other equipment in the vicinity may be subjected to overvoltages resulting from
abnormal system operating conditions. If the system voltage exceeds the capacitor or equipment capability
with the capacitor bank on line, the bank should be removed with minimum time delay. (Removing the
capacitor bank from the system lowers the system voltage in the vicinity of the capacitor, reducing the over-
voltage on other system elements.)

In some cases, inverse time overvoltage relays may be required to protect the capacitor units from severe
system power frequency overvoltage conditions. In this case, a suitable overvoltage relay provided with ade-
quate protection algorithms should be used, set according to the capabilities provided by IEEE Std
1036-1992 or the capacitor manufacturer. If the capacitors are exposed to overvoltages as a result of a com-
bined fundamental and harmonic content, the manufacturer should be asked to provide the peak voltage
stress levels as a function of time and temperature. Modern all-film capacitors are affected by crest voltage;
therefore, peak overvoltage measuring relays are recommended for this application.

For very large EHV capacitor banks, it is advisable to install three-phase overvoltage relays (59B) to monitor
the bus voltage. The 59B relays in Figure 6 may trip the bank quickly for extreme overvoltage conditions. To
avoid nuisance tripping during transient overvoltage conditions, in some cases, tripping is delayed by a
timer. Because this tripping is not due to a fault within the capacitor bank, the capacitor bank is not locked
out.

7.2.3 Bank overcurrent protection

Each time a large grounded wye capacitor bank is energized, momentary capacitor charging currents in one
phase and in the neutral may approach the ground fault trip level. Where a parallel bank is already energized,
currents can be on the order of thousands of amperes (Abdulrahim et al. [B1]). Spurious relay operations,
relay failures, current transformer failures, charged substation fences, and ground mat problems may result.
The neutral connection between multiple banks should not be through the ground mat; instead single-point
or peninsula grounding should be used.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Protecting the capacitor bank against a major fault, such as a line-to-line fault or a line-to-ground fault, gen-
erally requires external protection, such as power fuses, circuit breakers, or circuit switchers with associated
relay circuits. For best protection, the relays should be set as low and fast as possible, with only enough
delay to avoid tripping on external system disturbances.

Time-overcurrent relays can be applied with normal settings without encountering false operations due to
inrush currents. The desirable minimum pickup is 135% of nominal phase current for grounded wye banks
or 125% for ungrounded banks. Instantaneous relays, if used, should be set high to override inrush or out-
rush transients.

Modern relays with fundamental frequency band-pass filters are not susceptible to inrush or outrush
currents. Successful operation may be obtained by setting instantaneous relays at three to four times the
capacitor rated current (or lower) to override back-to-back bank switching.

In some large capacitor banks, redundant overcurrent devices may protect for short circuits within the capac-
itor bank. Figure 6 illustrates two sets of three-phase overcurrent relays (50/51) with short-time overcurrent
and instantaneous functions. A low burden for this neutral overcurrent relay, 51N, reduces high voltages
across current transformer secondaries caused by high-frequency outrush currents from the bank during an
external fault.

For ineffectively grounded systems with ungrounded capacitor banks, the neutral overcurrent relay, 51N,
should be set to a low tap to detect and to provide fast clearing for ground faults of low magnitudes not
detected by phase overcurrent relays.

For effectively grounded systems with grounded wye capacitor banks, the high-frequency outrush current
into an external ground fault will not normally operate the 51N ground relay. The unbalanced capacitor bank
load current caused by the external ground fault may be sufficient to cause the relay to pick up and trip the
capacitor bank if the 51N is set too low. To prevent this inadvertent tripping, the trip of the 51N relay is nor-
mally set above the capacitor phase current.

Figure 6 illustrates one unbalance protection scheme in use on large EHV capacitor banks. Other schemes
are also in use (for example, midpoint taps, H-bridges, and wye-wye arrangements). Refer to Clause 8 for
unbalance protection schemes.

7.2.4 Loss of bus voltage

In some cases, it may be necessary to trip a shunt capacitor bank if the supply bus voltage is lost. Two condi-
tions that may need to be considered are

— Re-energizing a bank with a trapped charge.

— Energizing a capacitor bank without parallel load through a previously unenergized transformer.

Circuit breaker reclosure schemes and capacitor voltage discharging means should be considered to avoid
nuisance tripping or equipment damage upon loss of bus voltage with fast reclosing schemes.

Undervoltage relay, device 27B in Figure 6, will detect loss of system voltage and trip the capacitor bank
after a time delay. This delay prevents tripping of the bank for system faults external to the bank. The under-
voltage relay should be set so that the relay will not operate for voltages that require the capacitor bank to
remain in service. Because this tripping, like system overvoltage tripping, is also not due to a fault within the
capacitor bank, the bank is not locked out.

22 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Figure 6—Sample protection scheme for a very large EHV capacitor bank

7.2.5 Fusing for capacitor bank relaying

Many of the protective schemes used on large capacitor banks are sensitive to loss of voltage. For this
reason, primary fuses should not be installed on voltage transformers used for this purpose. In addition, the
circuit supplying the potential for the protective relays should be brought directly from the voltage trans-
former to the relay panel with no other connected loads. This arrangement prevents cable voltage drops,
especially from varying loads, from affecting the sensitive unbalance protection relays.

When other codes or standards require primary fuses to be installed, the fuse operation shall not cause the
loss of protection. A voltage transformer with an open primary circuit may have a high impedance between
the secondary terminals, inhibiting relay operation.

Secondary fuses usually do not present a problem because they are sized to protect the cable (usually 30 A)
and the unbalance protection will trip before the fuses blow.

7.2.6 Capacitor bank breaker failure protection

If the capacitor switching device is a circuit breaker or a circuit switcher, a breaker failure protection scheme
may be incorporated to provide a local backup protection if the switching device fails. If the device does fail,
the capacitor bank is isolated from the system by tripping the adjacent breakers connected to the bank after a
set time delay. In some cases, remote transfer tripping may be necessary. It is important to verify the capaci-
tance switching capabilities of these adjacent devices for proper operation of the scheme.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

The local breaker failure detection logic is initiated by auxiliary relays. Standard breaker failure schemes
either have an overcurrent supervision logic to start a timer or have the output of the timer, supervised by
overcurrent logic. These overcurrent elements are set to operate for all types of capacitor faults. (Some cur-
rents can be less than the nominal rated current.) A phase overcurrent setting of 50% of the capacitor bank
normal rated current is generally considered adequate for both grounded and ungrounded banks.

7.2.7 Surge arrester protection

Lightning and switching transient overvoltages may be controlled by using standard overvoltage protection
equipment, such as surge arresters. A capacitor bank generally absorbs overvoltages because it acts tempo-
rarily as a short circuit for step voltage changes. Overvoltages around capacitor banks are greatly reduced,
but complete protection is not assured. The overvoltage on a bank depends upon the length of line between
the shunt capacitor bank, the point at which the transient voltage is generated, and the surge duration.

8. Unbalance relaying methods

8.1 Introduction

Unbalance protection utilizes the unbalance that occurs in a normally balanced capacitor bank to detect an
abnormality and initiate appropriate action. The most important function is to promptly remove the bank
from service for any fault that may result in further damage. An external fault in a capacitor bank is likely to
cause extensive damage (cascading failure) and may create a safety hazard if the bank is not tripped quickly.
(An external fault in a capacitor bank is a fault within the zone of protection of the unbalance relaying, but
external to a capacitor unit, for instance, across an insulator supporting a fuse rail or frame.)

The functions of unbalance relaying are normally to

a) Trip the bank promptly if an unbalance indicates the possible presence of external arcing or a cas-
cading fault within the capacitor bank.
b) Provide early unbalance alarm signal(s) to indicate the operation of fuses (internally or externally
fused capacitors) or failure of capacitor elements (fuseless or unfused capacitors).
c) Trip the bank for unbalances that are large enough to indicate that continuing operation may result in
1) Damage to remaining good capacitor units or elements from overvoltage.
2) Fuse malfunction.
3) Inappropriate filter operation (for capacitor banks that are a part of a harmonic filter).
4) Other undesirable consequences.

Functions a) and c) are frequently combined by setting the trip level based on function c) and with a very
short timing based on function a). This scheme works quite well for most applications.

Failure to provide adequate unbalance protection may lead to one or more of the following situations:

— Excessive damage to the capacitor bank.

— Adverse system effects.
— Spread of damage to adjacent equipment.
— Excessive period when the damaged equipment is unavailable.
— Possible case rupture and undesirable discharge of dielectric liquid and/or fire.

Unbalance protection systems do not operate fast enough to avoid catastrophic failure due to high system
short-circuit currents within capacitor units. Single series group grounded wye capacitor banks or capacitor
banks with grounded capacitor unit cases may have system short-circuit current for a single fault within a
capacitor unit. External fusing may be desirable to avoid major damage for these banks.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Most installations will require an individual engineering analysis to determine the most appropriate protec-
tion scheme. Bank design, fuse coordination, and selection of a sensing device will directly affect sensitivity
and the delay time requirements of the protection scheme. Selection of the bank configuration and design
should include an analysis of the amount of inherent unbalance that can be expected and tolerated by the
protection.

Unbalance protection normally senses changes associated with capacitor element or unit failure and/or fuse
operation. It is not generally sensitive enough to detect a defective connection. Defective connections may
deteriorate until a fault occurs within the capacitor bank, causing the unbalance protection to operate. A
defective connection within a capacitor unit (usually a rare occurrence) may result in a pressure buildup and
capacitor unit rupture before the operation of the unbalance protection. The unbalance protection should
operate quickly for the external arcing following case rupture.

8.2 General unbalance relay considerations

The unbalance relays should be set on the basis of maximum continuous system operating voltage.

8.2.1 Schemes with ambiguous indication

Ambiguous indications may come from two or more different conditions of the bank, but provide the same
indication. For instance, negligible current may flow through the current transformer between the neutrals of
an ungrounded wye-wye capacitor bank for a balanced bank, and this condition is desirable. However, the
same negligible current may flow through this current transformer if an equal number of units or elements
are removed from the same phase on both sides of the bank. This condition is undesirable, and the indication
is obviously ambiguous.

Where ambiguous indication is a possibility, it is desirable to have a sensitive alarm (preferably one fuse
operation for fused banks or one faulted element for fuseless or unfused banks) to minimize the probability
of continuing operation with canceling failures that result in continuing, undetected overvoltages on the
remaining units.

It may also be desirable to set the trip level based on an estimated number of canceling failures in order to
reduce the risk of subjecting capacitor units to damaging voltages and requiring fuses to operate above their
voltage capability when canceling failures occur.

Common schemes with ambiguous indication are as follows:

— In wye-wye banks (see Figure 7), the operation of fuses or short-circuiting of elements in one wye
may cancel the unbalance signal generated in the other wye.

C C C- c C C C- c

Figure 7—Wye-wye: Compensating failures result in no unbalance signal

even though the bank is unbalanced

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

— In H-bridge banks (see Figure 8), the operation of fuses or short-circuiting of elements in one leg of
the H may cancel the unbalance signal generated in another leg of the H.

C- c C- c C- c C

C C C- c C

Figure 8—H-bridge: Compensating failures results in no unbalance signal

even though the bank may be unbalanced

— In midpoint-tapped banks (see Figure 9), the operation of fuses or short-circuiting of elements above
the tap point may cancel the unbalance signal generated below the tap point.

C C C- c

C C C- c V

Figure 9—Midpoint taps: Compensating failures result in no unbalance signal

even though the bank may be unbalanced

8.2.2 Undetectable failure modes

For certain capacitor bank configurations, some faults within the bank will not cause an unbalance signal,
such as

— Rack-to-rack faults for banks with two series groups connected phase-over-phase and using neutral
voltage or current for unbalance protection.
— Rack-to-rack faults for certain H-bridge connections.

Refer to 7.1.5 for a discussion of these conditions.

For phase-over-phase wye-wye and H-bridge banks, correct bonding of the racks is required in order that the
unbalance protection will be responsive to rack-to-rack flashovers. See Figure 10 for an illustration of the
bonding for a wye-wye bank.

26 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

AO AO

Rack

BO BO

Post
Insulator

CO CO

(A) (B)

(A) Incorrect rack bonding (all on same side); no neutral current through the current transformer for a rack-to-rack
insulator flashover
(B) Correct rack bonding (on alternate sides); neutral current will flow though a current transformer for a rack-to-rack
insulator flashover
NOTE—Bonding is similar for a grounded wye-wye bank for a phase-over-phase design.

Figure 10—Bonding of the frames of an ungrounded wye-wye bank

8.2.3 Inherent unbalance, system unbalance, and other sources of error

a) In practice, the unbalance seen by the unbalance relay, due to loss of individual capacitor units or
elements, is somewhat different from the calculated value because of inherent unbalance. The pri-
mary unbalance, which exists on all capacitor bank installations (with or without fuses), is due to
system voltage unbalance and capacitor manufacturing tolerance. Secondary unbalance errors may
be introduced by sensing device tolerance and variation and by relative changes in capacitance due
to difference in capacitor unit temperatures in the bank.
The total inherent unbalance error will be a vectorial combination of the primary and secondary
effects. The error may be in a direction to prevent unbalance relay operation, or to cause a false oper-
ation. The amount of inherent unbalance for various configurations may be estimated using
equations in Annex C. A worst-case estimate can be made by assuming the unbalance errors to be
additive.
If the inherent unbalance error approaches 50% of the alarm setting, compensation should be pro-
vided in order to correctly alarm for the failure of one unit or element as specified. In some cases, a
different bank connection can improve the sensitivity without adding compensation.

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 27

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

For example, a wye bank can be split into a wye-wye bank, thereby doubling the sensitivity of the
protection and eliminating the system voltage unbalance effect.
b) Where unbalance due to system variations or capacitor manufacturing tolerances is not negligible, a
compensating means should be provided to negate the effect of this unbalance. Careful consideration
of bank design may also remedy the problem. Before attempting any adjustments to the compensa-
tion circuits, the load current of each phase and the capacitance (or load current) of each capacitor
should be checked for indication of failure of a single capacitor element within the capacitor unit.
The unbalance relay should be set taking the total unbalance into account.
To compensate for the resulting total unbalance, the unbalance relay system may nullify the inherent
capacitor bank and system unbalance. Figure 11 illustrates an arrangement for unbalance compensa-
tion where the neutral unbalance relay can be made to nullify the unbalances. The inherent
unbalance still exists, but the relay is no longer responsive to this unbalance component.

Figure 11—Neutral voltage unbalance protection method

A neutral unbalance protection method with compensation for inherent unbalance is normally
required for very large banks. The neutral unbalance signal due to the loss of one or two individual
capacitor units is such that the inherent unbalance can no longer be considered negligible. Unbal-
ance compensation should be used if the inherent unbalance exceeds one half of the desired setting.
c) Harmonic voltages and currents can influence the operation of the unbalance relay unless power fre-
quency band-pass or other appropriate filtering is provided.
d) For compensation of system voltage unbalance on single ungrounded banks, the voltage appearing at
the capacitor bank neutral due to system unbalance is the zero sequence component. An equivalent
zero sequence component can be derived utilizing three voltage-sensing devices with their high side
wye-connected from line to ground, and the secondaries connected in a broken delta. Often, the
voltage transformers are already available for station relaying, with the exception of low-voltage iso-
lation transformers to derive the broken delta. The difference voltage between the neutral unbalance
signal due to system unbalance and the broken delta output of the voltage transformers is then
adjusted to zero. Once this adjustment is made, the effect of system voltage unbalance will be
compensated for all conditions of system unbalance. A compensating circuit will compensate for the
remaining error appearing at the neutral due to manufacturer’s capacitor tolerance.

8.2.4 Unbalance trip relay considerations

a) The unbalance trip relay time delay should be minimized to reduce damage from an arcing fault
within the bank structure and prevent exposure of the remaining capacitor units to overvoltage con-
ditions beyond their permissible limits. For a single-phase or an open-phase condition, the time
delay should also be short enough to avoid damage to the current transformer or voltage transformer
and to the relay system.
b) The unbalance trip relay should have enough time delay to avoid false operations due to inrush,
system ground faults, switching of nearby equipment, and nonsimultaneous pole operation of the
energizing switch. For most applications, 0.1 s should be adequate. For unbalance relaying systems

28 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

that operate on a system voltage unbalance (ground fault), a delay slightly longer than the upstream
protection fault clearing time is required to avoid tripping due to a system fault. Longer delays
increase the probability of catastrophic bank failure.
c) With grounded capacitor banks, the failure of one pole of the switching device or the single phasing
from a blown bank fuse will allow zero sequence currents to flow in system ground relays. Capacitor
bank relaying, including the operating time of the switching device, should be coordinated with the
operation of the system ground relays to avoid tripping system load.
d) The unbalance trip relay may need to be delayed to account for the settling time of the protection
system on initial energization and for the transient response of certain capacitor voltage transform-
ers, etc., which may be a part of the unbalance protection system.
e) The unbalance trip relay scheme should have a lockout feature to prevent inadvertent closing of the
capacitor bank switching device if an unbalance trip has occurred.
f) To allow for the effects of inherent unbalance, the unbalance relay trip should be set to operate at a
signal level halfway between the critical step and the next lower step. The critical step is the number
of fuse operations or shorted elements that will cause an overvoltage on healthy capacitor units in
excess of 110% of the capacitor unit rated voltage or the capacitor unit manufacturer’s recom-
mended maximum continuous operating voltage. In addition, for internally fused capacitor units, the
critical step may be the number of internal fuse operations at which tripping should occur as recom-
mended by the capacitor manufacturer.
g) If switch failure or single phasing due to a blown main fuse could result in continuous voltage
exceeding the relay rating, operation of the lockout relay should de-energize the voltage relay. If
chattering of the seal-in unit is a problem when used on ac, a lockout relay contact can bypass the
voltage relay contact.
h) The neutral unbalance voltage trip relay and current transformer loading resistor should usually be
set to operate when the voltage across any capacitor element, unit, or fuse becomes unacceptably
high. The unbalance relay detects only the unbalance in the capacitor bank and in supply voltage and
will not respond to capacitor overvoltage due to a balanced system voltage above nominal. The max-
imum system operating voltage, with capacitor bank energized, should be used for setting unbalance
relays.

8.2.5 Unbalance alarm relay considerations

To allow for the effects of inherent unbalance within the bank, the unbalance relay alarm should be set to
operate at about one-half the level of the unbalance signal determined by the calculated alarm condition
based on an idealized bank. The alarm should have sufficient time delay to override external disturbances.

8.2.6 Comments on various protection schemes

8.2.6.1 Neutral voltage unbalance protection method for ungrounded wye banks

The voltage-sensing device may be a voltage transformer, capacitive potential device, or resistive potential
device. The voltage-sensing device should be selected for the lowest voltage ratio attainable, while still
being able to withstand transient and continuous overvoltage conditions to obtain the maximum unbalance
detection sensitivity. However, a voltage transformer used in this application should be rated for full system
voltage because the neutral voltage can under some conditions rise to as high as 2.5 per unit during switch-
ing. Under these conditions, a derated voltage transformer will be driven into deep saturation (Harner and
Owen [B6]).

The use of an underrated resistance potential device, with secondary voltage limiter, can permit relay
operation with an open phase to the capacitor bank. The resistive potential device should be capable of
withstanding this overvoltage condition.

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 29

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Figure 12(a) shows a neutral unbalance relay protection scheme for an ungrounded wye capacitor bank
using three line-to-neutral voltage transformers with their secondaries connected in broken delta to an over-
voltage relay. Compared to the scheme in Figure 12(b), this scheme has the advantage of not being sensitive
to system voltage unbalance. Also, the unbalance voltage to the overvoltage relay is three times the neutral
shift voltage as obtained from Figure 12(b). For the same voltage transformer ratio, there is a gain of three in
sensitivity over the single neutral-to-ground voltage transformer scheme. The voltage transformers should be
rated for line-to-line voltage.

A B C A B C

Neutral Unbalance Neutral

Neutral Unbalance
Relay
Unbalance
Relay
Relay

(a)
(b)
(a) Broken delta scheme
(b) Neutral-to-ground protection scheme
Figure 12—Unbalance measurements

8.2.6.2 Double wye unbalance protection method

Four methods of providing unbalance protection for double wye banks are illustrated in Figure 13.

In Figure 13, scheme (a) and scheme (b) (for ungrounded wye banks), use either a current transformer and
overcurrent relay (or a shunt and a voltage relay) or a voltage transformer and overvoltage relay connected
between the two neutrals. The effects of system voltage unbalances are avoided by both schemes, and both
are unaffected by third harmonic currents or voltages when balanced. The current transformer or voltage
transformer should be rated for system voltage.

The neutral current is one-half that of a single grounded bank of the same size. However, the current trans-
former ratio and relay rating may be selected for the desired sensitivity because they are not subjected to
switching surge currents or single-phase load currents as they are with the grounded neutral scheme.

The neutral voltage shift can be determined in the same manner as for a single wye bank of the same rating
as one section of the double wye bank. Although a low-ratio voltage transformer would be desirable, a volt-
age transformer rated for system voltage is required for the ungrounded neutral. Therefore, a high turns ratio
should be accepted. The resulting unbalance signal voltage may be very small.

Ungrounded banks can be split into two equal banks. This bank configuration inherently compensates for
system voltage unbalances because the neutral current or voltages are sensed differentially. However, the
effects of manufacturer’s capacitor tolerance will affect relay operation unless steps are taken to compensate
for this error. The equations in Annex C may be used to estimate the possible effect of the inherent unbalance
of the capacitor bank. Refer also to 8.2.3 for information on compensation of unbalance.

In scheme (c) in Figure 13 (for grounded wye banks), the neutrals of the two sections are grounded through
separate current transformers to a common ground. The current transformer secondaries are cross-connected
to an overcurrent relay so that the relay is insensitive to any outside condition that affects both sections of the
capacitor bank in the same manner. The current transformers can be subjected to switching transient currents

30 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

and, therefore, require surge protection. They should be sized for single-phase load currents if possible.
(Alternatively, the connections from neutral to ground from the two wyes may be in opposite directions
through a single-window current transformer.)

(a) Neutral current unbalance detection method (ungrounded)

(b) Neutral voltage unbalance protection method (ungrounded) (neutrals isolated)
(c) Neutral current differential protection method (grounded)
(d) Neutral voltage unbalance protection method (ungrounded) (neutrals tied together)
Figure 13—Shunt capacitor bank protection methods on double wye-connected banks

In scheme (d) in Figure 13 (for ungrounded wye banks), the neutrals of the two capacitor sections are
ungrounded, but tied together. A voltage transformer, or potential device, is used to measure the voltage
(shift) between the capacitor bank neutral and ground. The relay should have a harmonic filter.

8.2.6.3 Voltage differential protection method for grounded wye banks

Means of compensation for system and inherent capacitor bank unbalance in grounded wye capacitor banks
are illustrated in Figure 14(a) for a single wye-connected bank and Figure 14(b) for a double wye-connected
bank. This approach is, in essence, three single-phase voltage differential relays for each bank, as applicable.

A signal responsive to the loss of individual capacitor elements or units is derived by comparing capacitor
bank tap voltage with the bus voltage. The capacitor bank tap voltage is obtained by connecting a voltage-
sensing device across the ground end parallel group (or groups) of capacitors. This may be a midpoint tap,
where the voltage is measured between the midpoint of the phase and ground. Alternatively, the tap voltage
may be measured across low-voltage capacitors (that is, a capacitive shunt) at the neutral end of the phase.
The bus voltage is usually available.

After checking that all capacitors are good and no fuses have operated, the voltage levels are initially
adjusted to be equal. The initial difference signal between the capacitor bank tap voltage and the bus voltage
signals is zero, and the capacitor tolerance and initial system voltage unbalance is compensated. If the sys-
tem voltage unbalance should vary, the relay system is still compensated because a given percent change in
bus voltage results in the same percent change on the capacitor bank tap. Any subsequent voltage difference

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

between capacitor tap voltage and bus voltage will be due to unbalances caused by loss of capacitor units
within that particular phase. Secondary errors may be introduced by sensing device variation and
temperature differences between capacitor units within the bank. Loss of capacitor units in each phase is
detected independently (Alexander [B2] and Tom [B15]).

A
B
C
VT VT
60V

60V

60V

(a)
A
B
C
VT VT
60V

60V

60V

(b)
(a) Grounded single wye-connected capacitor bank
(b) Grounded double wye-connected capacitor bank
Figure 14—Voltage difference protection methods

The sensitivity of this method is high and it is particularly well suited for high-voltage banks or banks that
consist of a large number of capacitor units.

If the bank is tapped at the midpoint, the sensitivity is the same for failures within and outside the tapped
portion. If the bank is tapped below (above) the midpoint, the sensitivity for failures within the tapped
portion will be greater (less) than for failures outside the tap portion. This difference may cause difficulty in
achieving an appropriate relay setting. The sensitivity for a midpoint tap and a tap across low-voltage capac-
itors at the neutral end of the phase is the same.

Tapping across the bottom series groups or a midpoint tap is not appropriate for fuseless banks with multiple
strings because the strings are not connected to each other at the tap point. Tapping across the low-voltage
capacitors is suitable for fuseless capacitor banks.

8.2.6.4 Neutral current unbalance protection method for grounded wye banks

The protection is based on a current transformer connected between the capacitor bank neutral and ground.
The current transformer output can be put through a burden resistor. A sensitive voltage relay with a funda-
mental band-pass filter should be used for the unbalance protection.

This current transformer has unusual overvoltage and current requirements (Harder [B5]). See 10.5 and 10.6.
The ratio is selected to give both adequate overcurrent capability and appropriate signal for protection.

32 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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Because of the presence of harmonic currents (particularly the third, a zero sequence harmonic that flows in
the neutral-to-ground connection), the relay should be tuned to reduce its sensitivity to frequencies other
than the power frequency.

The voltage across the burden resistor is in phase with the neutral-to-ground current This neutral-to-ground
current is the vector sum of the three-phase currents, which are 90° out of phase with the system phase-to-
ground voltages. This scheme may be compensated for power system voltage unbalances, by accounting for
the 90° phase shift, and is not usually appropriate for very large capacitor banks requiring very sensitive
settings.

Some schemes have the logic where the voltage relay operates a latching or lockout relay to initiate the
opening of the capacitor switch and to block its closing. Contacts of the lockout relay should also short out
the neutral current transformer secondary.

8.2.7 Very large capacitor banks

Very large grounded wye-connected capacitor banks (i.e., at voltages of 345 kV and above) have created the
need for a protective device sensitive enough to detect the loss of a single capacitor unit in externally fused
banks or loss of a few elements in internally fused or fuseless banks. The voltage differential relay in Figure
6 compares voltages on secondaries of voltage transformers connected to the capacitor bank’s tap point and
the bus. A capacitor bank’s tap point connection depends on the type and configuration of the bank, as shown
in Figure 6. In the case of many capacitor banks (for example, externally fused, internally fused, and fuseless
banks), low-voltage protection capacitors are used, as shown in Figure 6. Resistors may be used in series
with voltage transformers to avoid ferroresonance problems. In many externally fused banks, the voltage
transformer in each phase is connected across one or more series groups depending on the sensitivity
requirement.

For very large EHV capacitor banks, a backup (redundant) capacitor bank neutral voltage unbalance protec-
tion scheme is generally provided. The unbalance protection relay in Figure 6 is connected to a voltage
transformer that measures the voltage across a low-voltage capacitor unit in the capacitor bank neutral. The
unbalance relay is set to detect the loss of a specified number of capacitor units or elements depending on the
type of the capacitor bank. The relay is set to trip after a time delay if overvoltage greater than allowable
levels occurs on the remaining units or elements. Relay criterion is described in detail in 8.2 through 8.6.
Relay setting philosophies may differ from one application to another. However, a short time delay should be
provided to prevent nuisance tripping (of a capacitor bank in an alarm state) on a system overvoltage
transient.

The overvoltage relay mentioned above should be equipped with a fundamental frequency band-pass filter to
avoid false operations due to harmonic currents. A third harmonic blocking filter may not prevent all false
operations of this relay.

Some relays provide compensation schemes to overcome the effects of system unbalance on sensitivity. In
this regard, the neutral voltage is compared either with the open delta voltage on the bus voltage transformer
in grounded wye-connected banks or with voltage across another low-voltage capacitor (not shown in
Figure 6) in case of double wye-connected banks.

8.2.8 Protection of unbalance relays

a) The unbalance relay should be protected against damaging transient voltages appearing on control
wiring (see IEEE Std C37.90.1-1989).
b) To prevent protective equipment damage if a switching device fails, the latching or lockout relay
should have contacts wired to short out the neutral current transformer secondary after the relay has
operated. A current transformer loading resistor, if used, should be able to withstand rapid heating in
the event of single phasing until the unbalance protection voltage relay and lockout relay operate.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

8.2.9 Current transformers for unbalance relaying

Current transformers used to measure neutral current may be subject to damaging high-voltage transients
associated with capacitor switching or capacitor discharge into nearby faults and may require special protec-
tion. Current transformers installed neutral to ground for unbalance protection are particularly vulnerable
because of the sensitivity requirements. If metal oxide varistors (MOVs) are used to protect the current trans-
formers or relays, care should be taken to ensure that the MOVs have adequate energy-absorbing capability.
A capacitor switching or fault transient may have very high energy. A shorted MOV may disable the unbal-
ance protection (Harder [B5]). See 10.5 for additional comments.

8.3 Externally fused capacitor banks

8.3.1 General considerations

The unbalance relay should coordinate with the individual capacitor unit fuses so that the fuses operate to
isolate a defective capacitor unit before the protection switches the bank out of service. [Reliable fuse opera-
tion provides a convenient, visual means for locating the defective capacitor unit(s).]

Where possible, the unbalance relay should be sensitive enough to alarm for the loss of one unit within a
group. It should also trip and lock out on the loss of additional capacitor units that cause a group overvoltage
in excess of 110% of capacitor unit rated voltage (or the capacitor unit manufacturer’s recommendation).

8.3.2 Using the calculated values

The trip level is based on protecting the capacitor units and fuses from excessive voltages. The alarm level is
based on providing an early indication of failures within the bank.

The number of blown fuses for trip can be determined by knowing the voltage on the capacitor units in
parallel with the blown fuses (Vcu) (for instance, the second column from right in Figure 16 or the second
column from left in Figure 17) and the capability of the units based either on industry standards or the docu-
mentation provided by the manufacturer. In the example calculated in Figure 16 and Figure 17, for standard
units applied at rated voltage with a continuous contingency overvoltage capability of 110%, tripping should
occur following the operation of the first fuse. At this point, the voltage on the capacitor units in parallel with
the blown fuses is greater than 111% (above the 110% overvoltage capability).

Normally a bank this size would be built single wye with 14 units in parallel in each series group. (The
uneven double wye is used only to illustrate the technique.) This arrangement would result in less than 110%
voltage on parallel units following the operation of the first fuse. Alternatively, the bank might be made of
slightly higher voltage units so that the resulting overvoltage would not be above 110% following the opera-
tion of the first fuse.

The trip level would be normally set to operate reliably following the operation of the fuse that results in
more than 110% of capacitor unit rated voltage on parallel units. The relay may be set midway between the
unbalance signal with that fuse having operated and the unbalance signal with one less fuse having operated.
(Alternatively, the trip relay could be set at an unbalance that would result in 110% of capacitor unit rated
voltage on the remaining elements, regardless of whether this condition could be anticipated in service.)

The alarm would normally be set to operate reliably on the operation of the first fuse. This alarm set point
would typically be 50% to 75% of the signal associated with one fuse having operated.

The actual unbalance signal will depend upon the protection scheme employed for the bank. A wide variety
of protection schemes are in use on externally fused shunt capacitor banks. Sample calculations of unbalance

34 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

signals for some of the protection schemes are given in Figure 16 and Figure 17. Other calculated values are
given in 8.3.5 and 8.3.6 under separate discussions of tap voltage and H-bridge protection schemes.

8.3.3 Introduction to capacitor bank unbalance calculations

The sample calculations in 8.3.4 through 8.3.6 are in three groups

a) Wye, delta, and single-phase (see 8.3.4 for discussion, Figure 15 for bank diagram, and Figure 16
and Figure 17 for tabulated calculations). These calculations provide the information required for
setting the unbalance protection based on the following:
1) Neutral-to-ground voltage for ungrounded wye banks.
2) Neutral current for ungrounded wye-wye banks.
3) Neutral voltage difference for ungrounded wye-wye banks.
4) Neutral-to-ground current for grounded wye banks.
5) Voltage across low-voltage capacitors at the neutral end of each phase or in the neutral-to-
ground connection of grounded wye banks.
6) Difference in neutral-to-ground currents for grounded wye-wye banks.
7) Delta and single-phase bank protection based on schemes similar to a) 1) through a) 6).
b) Tap voltage protection schemes (see 8.3.5 for discussion, Figure 19 for bank diagram, and Figure 20
for tabulated calculations). These calculations provide the information required for setting the unbal-
ance protection based on the following:
1) “Midpoint”-to-ground tap voltages for grounded wye banks.
2) “Differential” protection for comparing the voltage across one or more series groups with the
system line-to-ground voltage for grounded wye banks.
3) Delta and single-phase bank protection based on schemes similar to b) 1) and b) 2).
c) H-bridge protection schemes (see 8.3.6 for discussion, Figure 21 for bank diagram, and Figure 22
for tabulated calculations). These calculations provide the information required for setting the unbal-
ance protection based on the current between midpoints of two similar legs connected phase to
neutral or ground, phase to phase, or in the phase (series capacitors).

The system of units used for most of these calculations assumes every normal non-zero voltage, capacitance,
and current is 1 per unit under normal conditions, with no fuses having operated.

Some of the examples are not realistic. For instance, for high-voltage banks with several series groups, it is
desirable to have at least 10 parallel capacitor units in each series group so that voltage is not excessive on
the remaining capacitor units in a group following the operation of one fuse. Also, having many parallel
units gives substantial overcurrent for fast fuse operation on a faulted unit. Fewer parallel units have been
used in some of the examples in this clause in order to keep the diagrams simple enough to read.

In addition to providing the necessary information for protective relay settings, this type of tabulation gives a
good feel for the performance of the bank with varying numbers of fuses having operated.

For specific bank configurations it is possible to combine the calculations of the various columns and calcu-
late only

— The current through the fuse on a shorted capacitor unit.

— The voltage on the capacitor units in parallel with blown fuses.
— The unbalance signals for the type of protection to be utilized.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

For some cases, because of the complexity of the configuration, the resulting equations become onerous. The
layout of the tabulated calculations in 8.3.4 through 8.3.6 is general and allows for the analysis of a wide
variety of capacitor bank configurations.

Tabulations like those illustrated in 8.3.4 through 8.3.6 have been helpful in understanding the performance
of a proposed bank before purchase. In addition, a copy of the tabulation at the capacitor bank location can
be helpful for those concerned with the future maintenance of the bank. Some manufacturers of capacitor
banks may provide this type of tabulation for the banks they propose or supply.

8.3.4 Unbalance calculations—wye, delta, and single-phase

Step-by-step calculations for the capacitor bank of Figure 15 are illustrated in the tabulations of Figure 16
and Figure 17. In these spreadsheets, the values for the “Capacitor Bank Construction” are entered into the
spreadsheet of Figure 16, and automatically copied to the spreadsheet of Figure 17.

The principal equation for each column of Figure 16 and Figure 17 is given in Table 2 and Table 3. [Some
equations for the conditions where a capacitor unit has faulted, but the fuse has not yet blown (SU), are
different from the equations in the tables. Also for cases where the equations shown in the tables result in
dividing by zero, different equations are used. Some of these equations for unusual conditions are not given
in the tables.]

These tabulations illustrate the unbalance that occurs in the affected parts of this bank as a result of individ-
ual fuse operations.

The column headings in the tabulations are based on wye-connected three-phase capacitor banks. For delta-
connected banks, the same formulae and tabulation(s) can be used by treating a leg of the delta as one phase
of a grounded wye bank; all of the formulae are identical. For a delta bank, the currents shown as per-unit-
of-phase current become per-unit-of-leg current (phase current divided by 3 ). The difference current
(equal wyes) becomes the difference in current between two equal delta-connected legs.
A
B
C

Blown
Fuses
TR

S = 4 series groups line to neutral,

n = 2 blown fuses,
Pt = 14 parallel units per phase,
Pa = 8 parallel units per phase in left wye,
G = ? (0 = grounded; 1 = ungrounded).
TR is a current transformer on an ungrounded wye-wye bank; a resistor potential device, capacitor voltage transformer,
or voltage transformer on an ungrounded single wye bank; a current transformer or low-voltage capacitor (capacitor
shunt) on a grounded wye bank; etc.
Figure 15—Illustration of an uneven double wye-connected capacitor bank

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*** Shorted capacitor unit before fuse operation

* Use 0 for grounded wye, delta, or single-phase banks
NOTE—Additional information for setting of protection is given in Figure 17. The formulae for the various calculations
are given in Table 2.
Figure 16—Tabulation of performance of bank illustrated in Figure 15 with n blown fuses

Figure 17—Additional data for setting various unbalance protection schemes

for the externally fused wye capacitor bank in Figure 15

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 37

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Table 2—Details for Figure 16

Column title Formula and comment

Blown capacitor The number of fuses that have blown in one parallel group of capacitor units. n = 0 is the system
unit fuses normal condition. n = SU is the condition with a faulted capacitor unit (SU) before the operation
n of the fuse.

Parallel group Pa – n
Cg = ---------------
per-unit Pa
capacitance The capacitance of the parallel group of capacitors that includes the blown fuse(s).
Cg

Affected wye S × Cg
Cs = ----------------------------------
capacitance Cg ( S – 1 ) + 1
Cs The per-unit phase-to-neutral capacitance of the series/parallel group of capacitor units that
includes the blown fuse(s). For the group including the affected unit, the per-unit capacitance is
Cg. For all other groups, the per-unit capacitance is 1.

Per-unit ( Cs × Pa ) + Pt – Pa
Cp = -----------------------------------------------
capacitance, Pt
phase with The per-unit capacitance of the phase (both wyes) that includes the blown fuse(s). For single wye
blown fuses banks, Pa = Pt and Cp = Cs.
Cp

Neutral-to- 3
Vng = G  ---------------- – 1
ground voltage  2 + Cp 
(per unit of Vlg)
Vng For grounded banks (G = 0), this voltage is always 0. For ungrounded wye banks, the calculation
is made assuming the affected phase has a capacitance Cp and the other two phases each have a
per-unit capacitance of 1.

(It is convenient to develop this equation based on an instant in time when the affected phase has
one per-unit voltage and the other two phases have −0.5 per-unit voltage. For this condition the
two unaffected phases can be paralleled, and the voltage divider between −0.5 per unit and +1 per
unit can be calculated for the midpoint voltage, which is recorded as Vng.)

Voltage on Vln = 1 + Vng

affected phase
Vln The voltage line to neutral across the phase that includes the blown fuse(s). The operation of the
fuse(s) reduces the capacitance of that phase and increases the voltage across the affected phase;
therefore, the numbers are always greater than one except before the operation of the fuse on a
faulted capacitor unit.

Voltage on Vln × Cs
Vcu = ---------------------
affected series Cg
group
Vcu (If Cg = 0, Vcu = Vln × S)

The per-unit voltage on the capacitor units in the group with the blown fuse(s), based on the
capacitance division of the actual voltage on the affected phase (Vln).

Current through Iu = Vcu × Cu

affected
capacitor(s) The current through the individual capacitor units in the group with the blown fuse(s), per unit of
Iu the value with no fuses blown. The value for SU indicates the power frequency current available
to blow the fuse on a faulted capacitor unit. This value may be used to estimate the maximum
clearing time of the fuse (assuming no discharge from parallel capacitor units into the faulted
one).

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The first four columns of Figure 17 are copied from Figure 16 to make those numbers easily available when
considering the unbalance signals. Table 3 briefly discusses the remaining columns in Figure 17.

Table 3—Details for Figure 17

Column title Formula and comment

Current in Iy = Cs × Vln
affected wye
Iy The per-unit current in the series/parallel group with the blown fuse(s). This valve may be useful
for differential schemes comparing the current in different series/parallel groups.

Current in Iph = Cp × Vln

affected phase
Iph The current in the phase with the blown fuses. This may be useful for setting protection based on
phase current.

Ground current Ig = ( 1 – G ) ( 1 – Iph )

change
Ig The change in current to ground, which is used with protective relay schemes utilizing either
neutral-to-ground current, or the voltage across a low-voltage capacitor(s) in the neutral or in
each phase.

The per-unit change in current to ground is the per-unit change in voltage across a low-voltage
capacitor in the affected phase. It is also the per-unit change in voltage across a low-voltage
capacitor in the neutral-to-ground connection because the other two phase currents do not change
in a grounded wye bank.

Neutral current 3 × Vng × G

In = ------------------------------
between wyes 2
In Unbalance current for ungrounded wye-wye banks. [The current is calculated assuming the
neutral-to-ground (zero sequence) voltage is applied at the neutral of the wye with no blown
fuses.]

Difference Id = Vln ( 1 – Cp )
current, equal
wyes For grounded wye-wye banks, where the difference in the neutral current between the two equal
Id wyes is used as a basis for protection (see Figure 18). Values are per unit of total phase current.

Blown
Fuses

Figure 18—One phase of a capacitor bank arranged to measure the difference current
between two equal legs of each phase

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

8.3.5 Unbalance calculations—tap voltage

A variety of protection schemes, primarily for grounded wye banks, are based on the measurement of a volt-
age across some number of series groups of the bank. Two common schemes are to

— Measure a voltage near the middle of a phase (midpoint tap; see Figure 19).
— Measure the voltage across the bottom series group(s).

In either case, the measured voltage may be compared with the phase voltages (differential protection) or
combined with each other to determine unbalance.

Regardless of the relay type used, the schemes are based on the change in tap voltage caused by a change in
the effective capacitance of one series group, resulting from a failure and/or capacitor fuse operations. This
change may depend on whether the affected capacitor units are located outside or inside the tap portion of
the bank. The calculations assume all of the blown fuses are in one series group in one phase (either inside or
outside the tap portion, but not both places at the same time).

Figure 19 illustrates a midpoint-tapped capacitor bank. Figure 20 and Table 4 give the unbalance calcula-
tions for grounded wye, delta, or single-phase banks.

For delta or single-phase banks, tap is from the tap point to the reference end of the leg or bank (instead of
the neutral). The calculations are made in the same way as shown for three-phase grounded wye banks.

A
B
C

Blown fuses -
Outside tap portion

VT VT VT

Blown fuses -
Inside tap portion

S = 5 series groups—total,
St = 2 series groups within tap portion,
Pt = 11 parallel units per phase.

Figure 19—Illustration of a tapped externally fused capacitor bank

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Figure 20—Spreadsheet illustrating unbalance calculations

for tap voltage protection schemes (Figure 19)

Table 4—Details for Figure 20

Column title Formula and comment

Affected phase Pt ( Pt – n )
Cp = -----------------------------------------------
capacitance Pt + ( Pt – n ) ( S – 1 )
Cp The capacitance of the phase from end to end, assuming the capacitance of one healthy capacitor
unit is 1 per unit.

Voltage on Cp × S
Vcu = ----------------
affected Pt – n
capacitor group Voltage across the group of capacitors that includes the affected capacitor unit, per unit of the
Vcu normal voltage across that group.

Current through Iu = Vcu × Cu

affected
capacitor The current through the affected capacitor unit(s), per unit of the value with no fuses blown. The
Iu value for SU indicates the power frequency current available to blow the fuse on a faulted capac-
itor. This value may be used to estimate the maximum clearing time of the fuse (assuming no
discharge from parallel capacitor units into the faulted one). For healthy capacitor units Cu = 1,
and the equation can be simplified to Iu = Vcu.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Table 4—Details for Figure 20 (continued)

Column title Formula and comment

For blown fuses outside tap portion

Capacitance tap Pt
Ctu = -----
to neutral St
Ctn The capacitance of the tap portion of the phase, assuming the capacitance of one healthy capaci-
tor unit is 1 per unit.

Tap voltage, Cp
Vtg = --------
per unit of Vlg Ctn
Vtg The voltage across the tap, assuming 1 per-unit voltage is the actual voltage on the phase.

Tap voltage Vtg – Vtg ( n = 0 )

dVtg = ------------------------------------------
change, per unit Vtg ( n = 0 )
of normal The per-unit change in the tap voltage, assuming 1 per unit is the normal tap voltage.
dVtg

For blown fuses inside tap portion

Capacitance tap Pt ( Pt – n )
Ctn = -------------------------------------------------
to neutral Pt + ( Pt – n ) ( St – 1 )
Ctn The capacitance of the tap portion of the phase, assuming the capacitance of one healthy capaci-
tor unit is 1 per unit.

Tap voltage per Cp

Vtg = --------
unit of Vlg Ctn
Vtg The voltage across the tap, assuming 1 per-unit voltage is the actual voltage on the phase.

Tap voltage Vtg – Vtg ( n = 0 )

dVtg = ------------------------------------------
change, per unit Vtg ( n = 0 )
of normal The per-unit change in the tap voltage, assuming 1 per unit is the normal tap voltage.
dVtg

8.3.6 Unbalance calculations—H-bridge

An H-bridge may be used for unbalance protection in a variety of capacitor bank connections: grounded
wye, ungrounded wye, delta, and single-phase (series capacitors). The H-bridge is based on a current mea-
surement in a leg connecting two strings of capacitors together near the midpoints of the strings. The current
transformer for unbalance detection appears on the crossbar of the capital letter H (see Figure 21), thus the
designation H-bridge. Any change in the capacitance of any capacitor in the bridge will cause a change in the
H current.

Calculations (see Figure 22) are based on fuse operations in one parallel group of capacitor units. The ambi-
guity resulting from the operation of fuses in another part of the bank that may cancel the unbalance signal
needs a sensitive alarm level (preferably one fuse) so that the defective unit can be replaced before there are
many scattered fuse operations. In addition, assuming that one or two “canceling” fuse operations occur at
the time of unacceptably high voltages on the affected capacitor units, it may be desirable to set the trip level
somewhat lower than suggested by the overvoltages of Figure 22.

For an unsymmetrical arrangement such as shown in Figure 21, the effects of blowing fuses in units in other
parts of the bank on the overvoltages H current, etc., may easily be investigated by changing the values of St
and Pa so that the affected unit appears to be in the lower left quadrant of Figure 21. All of these calculations
assume that all blown fuses are in one parallel group of capacitor units on one side of the H only.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

The example illustrated in Figure 21 and Figure 22 is not a recommended H-bridge design, as the overvolt-
age on remaining units may be excessive following the first fuse operation. Better practice would normally
be to have more parallel units or fewer series groups, so that there could be an alarm before trip.

Line End

Neutral or Reference End

S = 5 series groups—total,
St = 3 series groups, H leg to neutral,
Pt = 15 parallel units per phase,
Pa = 8 parallel units on left side of H,
G = ? (0 = grounded wye; 1 = ungrounded wye).

Figure 21—Illustration of one phase or leg of an H-bridge capacitor bank

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Figure 22—Spreadsheet illustrating unbalance calculations for the

H-bridge configuration illustrated in Figure 21

Table 5—Details for Figure 22

Column title Formula and comment

Blown fuses The number of fuses that have blown in one parallel group of capacitor units. n = 0 is the system
n normal condition. n = SU is the condition with a faulted capacitor unit (SU) before the operation
of the fuse.

Capacitance ( Pa – n )Pa Pt – Pa
Chn = --------------------------------------------------- + -----------------
H-bridge to ( Pa – n ) ( St – 1 ) + Pa St
neutral The capacitance from the H leg to the neutral or reference end of the phase, assuming the capaci-
Chn tance of one capacitor unit is 1 per unit.

Affected phase Chn × Pt

Cp = -----------------------------------------
capacitance Chn ( S – St ) + Pt
Cp The capacitance of the phase from end to end, assuming the capacitance of one capacitor unit is
1 per unit.

Affected phase 3
Vln = 1 + G  ----------------------------------- – 1
voltage  2 + Cp ⁄ Cp ( 0 ) 
Vln The voltage across the affected phase will be 1 for grounded wye or delta, where G = 0. For
ungrounded wye, this voltage is the per-unit voltage across the affected phase including the effect
of the neutral shift from capacitance unbalance.

H leg voltage, Cp
Vhn = ----------
per unit of Vln Chn
Vhn The voltage of the H leg, per unit of the actual voltage on the affected phase.

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Table 5—Details for Figure 22 (continued)

Column title Formula and comment

“H” current, per St 1 1 S ( Pt – Pa )

Ih = – Vln  ----- – Vhn  -------------- + -----  -------------------------
unit of total S   S – St St  Pt 
phase current The current in the H leg, per unit of the normal total phase current for a wye-connected or single-
Ih phase bank or per unit of total leg current for a delta bank.

Voltage on Vln × Vhn × Pa × S

Vcu = ---------------------------------------------------
affected Pa + ( St – 1 ) ( Pa – n )
capacitor units The voltage across the capacitor units in parallel with the blown fuses, per unit of the value with
Vcu no fuses blown.

Current through Iu = Vcu × Cu

affected
capacitor(s) The current through the capacitor units in the group with the blown fuse(s), per unit of the value
Iu with no fuses blown. The value for SU indicates the power frequency current available to blow
the fuse on a faulted capacitor unit. This value may be used to estimate the maximum clearing
time of the fuse (assuming no discharge from parallel capacitor units into the faulted one).

8.4 Internally fused capacitor banks

8.4.1 General considerations

Internally fused capacitor units (see Figure 23) are subject to overvoltage across elements and fuses within
the unit as internal fuses blow and remove elements from a parallel group. The overvoltage on these remain-
ing elements and fuses shall be considered in addition to the overvoltage on units without blown fuses. The
bank design will affect the protection sensitivity.

Blown fuses

N = 14 parallel elements in a group,

Su = 3 series groups in the capacitor unit,
f = 2 blown fuses in one group.
Figure 23—Schematic of an internally fused capacitor unit

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 45

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

The setting of the unbalance protection of an internally fused capacitor bank shall take into consideration the
capability of the internal fuses, the transient overvoltage capability of the elements, and the consequences of
a failure to the case or the failure of an internal fuse. These considerations are in addition to the usual
considerations of external arcing within the bank and avoiding exposure of healthy capacitor units to volt-
ages in excess of 110% of their rated voltage.

In an internally fused capacitor bank, the unbalance detection gives an indication of the total number of
failed capacitor elements within a capacitor unit. In practice, the actual number of failed elements can be
determined only by a complete measurement of all units in a bank. This measurement may be recommended
only when a relay alarm or trip occurs, and may or may not be a part of the regular maintenance schedule.

8.4.2 Using the calculated values

The trip level should be set so that

— The number of operated fuses in the affected capacitor unit does not exceed the maximum number
recommended by the manufacturer.
— The voltage on the healthy capacitors does not exceed the contingency overvoltage capability of the
capacitor units (usually 110% of rated voltage). Note that the element voltage in the unit with blown
fuses may exceed 110% of normal.

For instance, for the example shown in Figure 24 through Figure 26, the number of blown fuses is shown in
the left column of Figure 25 and Figure 26. If the capacitor manufacturer recommends that the bank should
be tripped following the operation of the seventh fuse, to assure reliable operation, the trip relay set point
would be midway between the unbalance signal with six fuses having operated and the unbalance signal
with seven fuses having operated. For this example, the voltage on the healthy capacitor units with seven
fuses blown in one capacitor is about 1.069 per unit (third column from the right in Figure 25 and third col-
umn from the left in Figure 26), which is less than 10% overvoltage. For banks where the voltage on the
healthy units becomes excessive before the maximum number of blown fuses recommended by the manu-
facturer, the trip relay set level would be set half way between the signal associated with the maximum
number of blown fuses with acceptable voltage on healthy capacitor units and the signal associated with the
number of fuses that results in excessive voltage on healthy capacitor units.

The alarm would be set above natural errors so that it would operate reliably on the loss of the first or second
fuse. This alarm set point would typically be halfway between the signal associated with the selected number
of fuses having operated and the signal associated with one fewer fuse having operated.

The actual unbalance signal will depend upon the protection scheme employed for the bank. A wide variety
of protection schemes are in use on internally fused shunt capacitor banks. The unbalance signals for some
of the more common connections are given in Figure 24 and Figure 25. Other calculated values are given in
8.4.5 and 8.4.6 under separate discussions of H-bridge and tap voltage protection schemes.

In addition to providing the necessary information for protective relay settings, this type of tabulation gives a
good feel for the performance of the bank with varying numbers of internal fuses having operated. Some
manufacturers of internally fused capacitor banks will provide this type of tabulation for the banks they pro-
pose or supply.

Of course, it is possible to combine the calculations of the various columns and calculate only

— The voltage on the affected elements.

— The voltage on the affected unit (which is also the voltage on the parallel units).
— The unbalance signal for the type of protection to be utilized.

46 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Because of the complexity of the configuration (for example, parallel elements and series groups in a capac-
itor unit, parallel capacitor units in a group, series groups in a string, and parallel capacitor units in a phase),
the resulting equations become complex.

The time delay for tripping should be minimized in order to reduce the probability of case rupture in the
event of a fault to the case or fuse failure within a capacitor unit. In addition to the considerations of 8.2.4, it
may be desirable to coordinate with the melting of an individual fuse element where there is no parallel
energy to speed up the fuse operation. [The manufacturer of the capacitor units should be able to supply the
maximum clearing time (curve) for the internal fuses.] There is no need to wait to coordinate for fuse opera-
tion with unbalance signals that are larger than would occur for a shorted element before fuse operation.

Normally a time delay of 0.01–0.05 s is adequate for this coordination. With this intentional time delay in
the trip relay, the additional time required for the lockout relay and breaker operation may result in total
clearing times of the order of 0.1 s for a capacitor unit with an internal fault or a capacitor bank with an arc-
ing fault. A time of 0.1 s is reasonably achievable to clear a capacitor bank with a problem, but still may
result in substantial damage. Once parts of a capacitor bank start to become damaged, further damage will
escalate rapidly. Such escalation will increase the risk of major damage and fire and may result in increased
damage to the capacitor bank. Keeping the clearing time short is important to minimizing damage in the
event of a fault within a bank.

With internally fused capacitors it is not appropriate to use protection schemes with enough delay to override
the effect of system faults (which may persist for cycles).

Generally the most appropriate alarm level is the lowest level that can be set without resulting in false alarms
from thermal variations in capacitance within the bank, practical initial bank balance, etc. (The earliest reli-
able alarm gives maximum opportunity to repair the capacitor bank during a scheduled outage.) Responding
reasonably to early alarms and maintaining the bank in the best possible condition tend to minimize the
probability of further element failures and forced or unscheduled outages and maximize the availability of
the bank. False or unreliable alarms can be costly, and they decrease the credibility of the capacitor
protection.

In unbalance protection schemes with ambiguous indication, it is desirable to use an alarm setting sensitive
to the loss of the first element to avoid the ambiguity. This alarm should seal in so that it shall be manually
reset following the removal of the failed capacitor units from the bank. It would be undesirable to have the
alarm shut off following the operation of a subsequent fuse that cancels the unbalance signal.

The timing of the alarm should be long enough to avoid operation during system faults or temporary
overvoltages, but short enough in the case of ambiguous schemes to minimize the probability of two com-
pensating fuse operations before the initiation of the alarm. Usually about a 10 s delay is appropriate for the
alarm.

In managing the protection of an internally fused capacitor bank, the unbalance protection should not be
reset or “rebalanced” without first ensuring that all capacitor units with failed elements have been removed
from the bank.

If the installation is to be rebalanced with units having one (or two) failed elements remaining in service, the
trip level should be adjusted downward so that the fuses and elements in these units do not exceed their capa-
bility before operation of the trip relay.

8.4.3 Introduction to capacitor bank unbalance calculations

The sample calculations in 8.4.4 through 8.4.6 are in three groups:

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 47

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

a) Wye, delta, and single-phase (see 8.4.4 for discussion, Figure 24 for bank diagram, and Figure 25
and Figure 26 for tabulated calculations). These calculations provide the information required for
setting the unbalance protection based on
1) Neutral-to-ground voltage for ungrounded wye banks.
2) Neutral current for ungrounded wye-wye banks.
3) Neutral voltage difference for ungrounded wye-wye banks.
4) Neutral-to-ground current for grounded wye banks.
5) Voltage across low-voltage capacitors at the neutral end of each phase or in neutral-to-ground
connection of grounded wye banks.
6) Difference in neutral-to-ground currents for grounded wye-wye banks.
7) Delta and single-phase bank protection based on schemes similar to a) 1) through a) 6).
b) Tap voltage protection schemes (see 8.4.6 for discussion, Figure 30 for bank diagram, and Figure 31
for tabulated calculations). These calculations provide the information required for setting the unbal-
ance protection based on
1) Midpoint to ground tap voltages for grounded wye banks.
2) Differential protection, comparing the voltage across one or more series groups with the system
line to ground voltage for grounded wye banks.
3) Delta and single-phase bank protection based on schemes similar to b) 1) and b) 2).
c) H-bridge protection schemes (see 8.4.5 for discussion, Figure 28 for bank diagram, and Figure 29
for tabulated calculations). These calculations provide the information required for setting the unbal-
ance protection based on the current between midpoints of two similar legs connected phase to
neutral or ground, phase to phase, or in the phase (series capacitors).

The system of units used for most of these calculations assumes every normal non-zero voltage, capacitance,
and current is 1 per unit under normal conditions, with no fuses having operated (exceptions are indicated).

In addition to providing the necessary information for protective relay settings, this type of tabulation gives a
good feel for the performance of the bank with varying numbers of internal fuses having operated. Some
manufacturers of internally fused capacitor banks will provide this type of tabulation for the banks they pro-
pose or supply.

It is, of course, possible to combine the calculations of the various columns and calculate only the voltage on
the affected elements, the voltage on the affected unit (which is also the voltage on the parallel units), and
the unbalance signal for the type of protection to be utilized. Because of the complexity of the configuration
(for example, parallel elements and series groups in a capacitor unit, parallel capacitor units in a group,
series groups in a string, and parallel capacitor units in a phase), the resulting equations become complex.

8.4.4 Unbalance calculations—wye, delta, and single-phase

The principal equation for each column of Figure 25 and Figure 26 is given in Table 7. [Some equations for
the conditions where an element has faulted, but the fuse has not yet blown (SE), are different. Different
equations are also used for cases where the equations in Table 7 result in dividing by zero.]

These tabulations illustrate the unbalance that occurs in the affected phase of the bank as a result of individ-
ual fuse operations.

The column headings in the tabulations are based on wye-connected three-phase capacitor banks. For delta-
connected banks the same formulae and tabulation(s) can be used by treating a leg of the delta as one phase
of a grounded wye bank; all of the formulae are identical. For a delta bank, the currents shown as per-unit-
of-phase current become per-unit-of-leg current (phase current divided by 3 ). The difference current
(equal wyes) becomes the difference in current between two equal delta-connected legs.

48 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

A
B
C

CT
Affected Unit(s)

VT
S = 4 series groups line to neutral,
Pt = 11 parallel units per phase,
Pa = 6 parallel units per phase in left wye,
P = 3 parallel units in affected string,
G = ? (0 = grounded; 1 = ungrounded).
CT is a current transformer on ungrounded wye-wye banks.
TR is a resistor potential device, capacitor voltage transformer, or voltage transformer on an ungrounded bank or a cur-
rent transformer or low-voltage capacitor (capacitor shunt) on a grounded wye bank.
Figure 24—Illustration of an uneven double wye capacitor bank

Figure 25—Tabulation/spreadsheet of unbalance calculations

for the capacitor bank defined in Figure 24

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 49

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Figure 26—Additional data for protection data, continued from

the spreadsheet of Figure 25

Table 6—Details for Figure 25

Column title Formula and comment

Blown fuses The number of fuses that have blown in one parallel group of elements inside one capacitor unit.
f f = 0 is the system normal condition. f = SE is the condition with a faulted element (SE) before
the operation of the element fuse.

Internal group N–f

Ci = ------------
per-unit N
capacitance The per-unit capacitance of the group, based on the number of blown fuses. The value for N is
Ci input at the top of the page and for f is from column one. For this and all subsequent columns, an
“if” statement has been included so that if f > N, nothing is printed.

Internal group Su × N
Vg = ------------------------------------------------
voltage (for ( Su – 1 ) ( N – f ) + N
capacitor unit at The voltage that would occur across the affected group of elements where the fuses are blowing
1 per-unit if there was 1 per-unit voltage on the capacitor unit. For the calculation, the capacitance of all
voltage) groups except the affected group is 1 per unit. The capacitance of the affected group is Ci.
Vg

50 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Table 6—Details for Figure 25 (continued)

Column title Formula and comment

Capacitor unit Su × Ci
Cu = -----------------------------------------
per-unit Ci × ( Su – 1 ) + 1
capacitance The capacitance of the affected capacitor unit, assuming all groups except the affected group
Cu have 1 per-unit capacitance and the affected group has the capacitance Ci.

Parallel group P – 1 + Cu
Cg = -------------------------
per-unit P
capacitance The capacitance of the group of capacitors that includes the affected unit. For all of the units in
Cg that group except the affected unit, the per-unit capacitance is 1. For the affected unit, the per-unit
capacitance is Cu.

Affected string S × Cg
Cs = ----------------------------------
capacitance Cg ( S – 1 ) + 1
Cs The per-unit capacitance of the string of (parallel groups of) capacitor units from phase to neutral
that includes the affected capacitor unit. For the group including the affected unit, the per-unit
capacitance is Cg. For all other groups, the per-unit capacitance is 1.

Per-unit ( Cs × P ) + Pt – P
Cp = -----------------------------------------
capacitance, Pt
phase with The per-unit capacitance of the phase (all parallel strings) that includes the affected unit. For this
affected unit calculation the capacitance of the affected string is Cs. The capacitance of all the other strings is
Cp 1 per unit.

Neutral-to- 3
Vng = G  ---------------- – 1
ground voltage  2 + Cp 
(per unit of Vlg) The neutral-to-ground voltage. For grounded banks (G = 0), this voltage is always 0. For
Vng ungrounded wye banks, the calculation assumes the affected phase has a capacitance Cp and the
other two phases each have a per-unit capacitance of 1.

(It is convenient to develop this equation based on an instant in time when the affected phase has
1 per-unit voltage and the other two phases have −0.5 per-unit voltage. For this condition the two
unaffected phases can be paralleled, and the voltage divider between −0.5 per unit and +1 per unit
can be calculated for the midpoint voltage, which is recorded as Vng.)

Voltage on Vln = 1 + Vng

affected phase
Vln The voltage line to neutral across the phase that includes the affected unit. With fused units, the
operation of the fuse reduces the capacitance of that phase and increases the voltage across the
affected phase; therefore, the numbers are always greater than one except before the operation of
the fuse on a faulted element.

Voltage on Vln × Cs
Vcu = ---------------------
affected unit Cg
Vcu (If Cg = 0, Vcu = Vln × S)

The actual per-unit voltage on the affected capacitor unit, based on the capacitance division of the
actual voltage on the affected phase (Vln).

Voltage on Ve = Vcu × Vg
affected elements
Ve The actual per-unit voltage on the affected elements, based on the actual voltage on the affected
unit.

Current through Iu = Vcu × Cu

affected
capacitor The current through the affected capacitor unit, per unit of the value with no fuses blown. The
Iu value for SE indicates the power frequency current available to blow the fuse on a faulted ele-
ment. This value may be used to estimate the maximum clearing time of the fuse (assuming no
discharge from parallel elements into the faulted one).

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

The first five columns of Figure 26 are copied from Figure 25 to make those numbers easily available when
considering the unbalance signals. Table 7 briefly discusses the columns in Figure 26.

Table 7—Details for Figure 26

Column title Formula and comment

Voltage on Ve = Vcu × Vg
affected elements
Ve The actual per-unit voltage on the affected elements, based on the actual voltage on the affected
unit.
Vln × Cs
Voltage on the Vcu = ---------------------
Cg
affected unit
Vcu (If Cg = 0, Vcu = Vln × S)

The actual per-unit voltage on the affected capacitor unit based on the capacitance division of the
actual voltage on the affected phase.

Current through Iu = Vcu × Cu

affected
capacitor The current through the affected capacitor unit, per unit of the value with no fuses blown. The
Iu value on the second line (SE) indicates the power frequency current available to blow the fuse on
a faulted element. This value may be used to estimate the maximum clearing time of the fuse
(assuming no discharge from parallel elements into the faulted one).
3
Neutral to Vng = G  ---------------- – 1
 2 + Cp 
ground voltage
(per unit of Vlg) This column indicates the neutral to ground voltage for use with protection schemes on
Vng ungrounded wye capacitor banks that are based on the neutral to ground voltage. The value is
copied from the spreadsheet of Figure 25.

Current in Ist = Cs × Vln

affected string
Ist The per-unit current in the affected string. This value may be useful for differential schemes com-
paring the current in parallel strings.

Current in Iph = Cp × Vln

affected phase
Iph The current in the affected phase. This equation may be useful for setting protection based on
phase current.

Ground current Ig = ( 1 – G ) ( 1 – Iph )

change
Ig For use with protective relay schemes utilizing neutral-to-ground current, or the voltage across a
low-voltage capacitor in the neutral or in each phase.

The per-unit change in current to ground is the per-unit change in voltage across a low-voltage
capacitor in the affected phase. It is also the per-unit change in voltage across a low-voltage
capacitor in the neutral-to-ground connection because the other two phase currents do not change
in a grounded bank.

Neutral current 3 × Vng × G ( Pt – Pa )

In = ----------------------------------------------------
between wyes 2
In Unbalance current for ungrounded wye-wye banks. [The current is calculated assuming the
neutral-to-ground (zero sequence) voltage is applied at the neutral of the unaffected wye, which
is half the of the bank.]

Difference Id = Vln ( 1 – Cp )
current,
equal wyes For grounded wye-wye banks where the difference in the neutral current between the two equal
Id wyes is used as a basis for protection (see Figure 27). Values are per unit of total phase current.

52 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

A
B
C

Affected
Unit(s)

VT
Figure 27—Capacitor bank arranged to measure the difference current
between two equal legs in each phase

8.4.5 Unbalance calculations—H-bridge

An H-bridge may be used for unbalance protection in a variety of capacitor bank connections: grounded
wye, ungrounded wye, delta, and single-phase (series capacitors). The H-bridge is based on a current mea-
surement in a leg connecting two strings of capacitors together near the midpoints of the strings. The current
transformer appears to be on the crossbar of the capital letter H (see Figure 28), thus the designation H-
bridge. Any change in the capacitance of any capacitor in the bridge will cause a change in the current in
the H.

Calculations (see Figure 29) are based on internal fuse operations in one group of elements in one capacitor
unit. The ambiguity resulting from the operation of fuses in another part of the bank that may cancel the
unbalance signal needs to be addressed (see 8.2.1).

For an unsymmetrical arrangement such as shown in Figure 28, the effects of blowing fuses in units in other
parts of the bank on the overvoltages and H current, etc., may easily be investigated by appropriately chang-
ing the values of St, Pa, and P so that the affected unit appears to be in the lower left quadrant of Figure 28.
All of these calculations assume that all blown fuses are in one group of the affected unit only.

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 53

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Line End
Line End

Affected Unit(s)

Neutral or Reference End

Neutral or Reference End
S = 7 series groups—total,
St = 3 series groups, H leg to neutral,
Pt = 9 parallel units per phase,
Pa = 5 parallel units on left side of H,
P = 2 parallel units in affected string,
G = ? (0 = grounded or delta; 1 = ungrounded wye).
Figure 28—Illustration of one leg of an H-bridge capacitor bank

54 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Figure 29—Spreadsheet illustrating unbalance calculations for the configuration

of Figure 28, with individual capacitors having 16 parallel elements (N)
in each of 3 series groups (SU)

Table 8—Details for Figure 29

Column title Formula and comment

Blown fuses The number of fuses that have blown in one parallel group of elements inside one capacitor unit.
f f = 0 is the system normal condition. f = SE is the condition with a shorted element (SE) before
the operation of the element fuse.

Affected N–f
Cu = Su × ------------------------------------------------
capacitor per- ( N – f ) ( Su – 1 ) + N
unit capacitance The per-unit capacitance of the affected capacitor unit, based on the number of blown fuses.
Cu

Capacitance ( Cu + P – 1 )P Pt – P
Chn = ----------------------------------------------------------- + --------------
H-bridge to ( Cu + P – 1 ) ( St – 1 ) + P St
neutral The capacitance from the H leg to the neutral or reference end on the phase, assuming the capac-
Chn itance of one healthy capacitor unit is 1 per unit.

Affected phase Chn × Pt

Cp = -----------------------------------------
capacitance Chn ( S – St ) + Pt
Cp The capacitance of the phase from end to end, assuming the capacitance of one healthy capacitor
unit is 1 per unit.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Table 8—Details for Figure 29 (continued)

Column title Formula and comment

Affected phase 3
Vln = 1 + G  ----------------------------------- – 1
voltage  2 + Cp ⁄ Cp ( 0 ) 
Vln The voltage across the affected phase, that is, 1 for grounded wye or delta, where G = 0. For
ungrounded wye, this voltage is the per-unit voltage across the affected phase including the effect
of the neutral shift from capacitance unbalance.

H leg voltage, Cp
Vh = ----------
per unit of Vln Chn
Vh The voltage of the H leg, per unit of the actual voltage on the affected phase.

H current, per St 1 1 S ( Pt – Pa )
Ih = – Vln  ----- – Vh  -------------- + -----  -------------------------
unit of total S   S – St St  Pt 
phase current The current in the H leg, per unit of the normal total phase current for a wye-connected or single-
Ih phase bank or per unit of total leg current for a delta bank.

Voltage on Vln × Vh × P × S
Vcu = -----------------------------------------------------------
affected P + ( St – 1 ) ( Cu + P – 1 )
capacitor unit The voltage across the affected capacitor unit, per unit of the value with no fuses blown.
Vcu

Voltage on Vcu × Su × N
Ve = ---------------------------------
affected elements Su ( N – f ) + f
Ve The voltage across the remaining elements in the affected element group (also the voltage across
the blown fuses in that group), per unit of the value with no fuses blown.

Current through Iu = Vcu × Cu

affected
capacitor unit The current through the affected capacitor unit, per unit of the value with no fuses blown. The
Iu value for SE indicates the power frequency current available to blow the fuse on a faulted ele-
ment. This value may be used to estimate the maximum clearing time of the fuse (assuming no
discharge from parallel elements into the faulted one).

8.4.6 Unbalance calculations—(midpoint) tap

A variety of protection schemes, primarily for grounded wye banks, are based on the measurement of a volt-
age across some number of series groups of the bank. Two common schemes are to

— Measure a voltage near the middle of a phase (midpoint tap).

— Measure the voltage across the bottom series group(s).

In either case, the measured voltage may be compared with the phase voltages (differential protection) or
combined with each other to determine unbalance.

Regardless of the relay type used, the schemes are based on the change in tap voltage as a result of a change
in the capacitance of an affected capacitor unit. This change may depend on whether the affected capacitor
unit is located outside or inside the tap portion of the bank. Figure 30 illustrates a midpoint-tapped capacitor
bank. Figure 31 and Table 9 give the unbalance calculations for grounded wye, delta, or single-phase banks.

56 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

A
B
C

Affected Unit -
outside tap portion

VT VT VT

Affected Unit - inside tap portion

CT

S = 9 series groups—total,
St = 4 series groups within tap portion,
Pt = 3 parallel units per phase.
Figure 30—Illustration of a “midpoint”-tapped internally fused capacitor bank

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Figure 31—Spreadsheet illustrating unbalance calculations for tap voltage protection

schemes (Figure 30), with individual capacitor units having 16 parallel
elements (N) in each of three series groups (Su)

Table 9—Details for Figure 31

Column title Formula and comment

Affected N–f
Cu = Su × ------------------------------------------------
capacitor per- ( N – f ) ( Su – 1 ) + N
unit capacitance The per-unit capacitance of the affected capacitor unit, based on the number of blown fuses in
Cu one group (in the affected capacitor).

Affected phase Pt ( Pt – 1 + Cu )
Cp = -------------------------------------------------------------
capacitance Pt + ( Pt – 1 + Cu ) ( S – 1 )
Cp The capacitance of the phase from end to end, assuming the capacitance of one healthy capacitor
unit is 1 per unit.

Voltage on Cp × S
Vcu = ---------------------------
affected Pt – 1 + Cu
capacitor group The voltage across the group of capacitors that includes the affected capacitor unit, per unit of the
Vcu normal voltage across that group.

Voltage on Vcu × Su × N
Ve = ---------------------------------
affected element Su ( N – f ) + f
group The voltage across the remaining elements in the affected element group (also the voltage across
Ve the blown fuses in that group), per unit of the value with no fuses blown.

58 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Table 9—Details for Figure 31 (continued)

Column title Formula and comment

Current through Iu = Vcu × Cu

affected
capacitor The current through the affected capacitor unit, per unit of the value with no fuses blown. The
Iu value for SE indicates the power frequency current available to blow the fuse on a faulted ele-
ment. This value may be used to estimate the maximum clearing time of the fuse (assuming no
discharge from parallel elements into the faulted one).

For affected unit outside tap portion

Capacitance Pt
Ch n = -----
tap to neutral St
Chn The capacitance of the tap portion of the phase, assuming the capacitance of one healthy capaci-
tor unit is 1 per unit.

Tap voltage, Cp
Vtg = ----------
per unit of Vlg Chn
Vtg The voltage across the tap, assuming 1 per-unit voltage is the actual voltage on the phase.

Tap voltage Vtg ( f = 0 ) – Vtg

dVtg = -----------------------------------------
change, per unit Vtg ( f = 0 )
of normal The per-unit change in the tap voltage, assuming 1 per unit is the normal tap voltage.
dVtg

For affected unit inside tap portion

Capacitance Pt ( Pt – 1 + Cu )
Chn = --------------------------------------------------------------
tap to neutral Pt + ( Pt – 1 + Cu ) ( St – 1 )
Chn The capacitance of the tap portion of the phase, assuming the capacitance of one healthy capaci-
tor unit is 1 per unit.

Tap voltage Cp
Vtg = ----------
per unit of Vlg Chn
Vtg The voltage across the tap, assuming 1 per-unit voltage is the actual voltage on the phase.

8.5 Fuseless capacitor banks

8.5.1 General considerations

The internal construction of the capacitor units used in fuseless capacitor banks is similar to that used for
externally fused banks. The parallel connected capacitor unit of Figure 32 (a) illustrates a unit with 10 series
groups of three elements each. In this construction, if one element fails, it short-circuits itself and the two
elements in parallel with it.

In the capacitor bank, individual capacitor units are connected in series with each other from the phase con-
nection to the neutral connection. Each such series connection is a “string.” Within the string, all of the ele-
ments (groups) are in series with each other. For instance, if the string consists of six capacitor units, each
having eight series (groups of) elements, the string would have 6 × 8 = 48 elements in series (see Figure 33).
If one of the elements fails, the applied voltage is then divided among the remaining (groups of) healthy ele-
ments in series with the faulted element. The voltage across the remaining elements will thus be 48/47 of
what it had been before the failure.

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 59

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

(a) (b)
(a) Parallel-connected capacitor unit
(b) Series-connected capacitor unit
Figure 32—Unfused capacitor units

The calculation of unbalance performance of fuseless capacitor banks is based on the number of failed ele-
ments (element groups) and the total number of (groups of) elements in series.

On occasion, series connected capacitor units [see Figure 32(b)] have been offered for fuseless capacitor
banks. Series connected capacitor units have the individual elements connected in series strings between the
terminals, with a number of such series strings in each unit. Banks built with series connected capacitor units
require much more sensitive unbalance protection and are not covered in this guide.

As indicated, the number of elements in series in a string is the number of capacitor units in series times the
number of elements in series in each capacitor unit. Sometimes the manufacturer has or will provide the
number of elements in series. See the capacitor unit nameplate or data sheet. If the number of series elements
per capacitor unit is not available from the manufacturer, the number may be estimated. Each element usu-
ally has a nominal voltage rating of 1800–2400 V. Dividing the capacitor unit voltage by 2400 and rounding
up to the next integer will usually give a useable estimate for the unbalance calculations and settings. For
instance, a 7960 V capacitor unit will probably have about 7960 ÷ 2400 = 3.3, which rounds up to four
series elements. (It may have five series elements per capacitor unit, which will make a small difference in
the overvoltages and unbalance signals. However, the settings based on four series elements will still provide
adequate protection for the five series element design.)

In a fuseless capacitor bank, the unbalance detection gives an indication of the total number of failed
elements within a string of capacitor units. The location of these failures is determined by capacitance
measurements on the strings indicated by the unbalance protection.

8.5.2 Using the calculated values

The trip level should be set so that the voltage on the remaining elements in the affected string does not
exceed the maximum recommended by industry standards or the manufacturer.

The number of shorted elements for trip and alarm can be determined by knowing the voltage on the affected
elements (for instance, the right column of Figure 34 or the second column from left in Figure 35) and the

60 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

capability of the elements (either 110% of rating based on industry standards or the information provided by
the capacitor manufacturer). Based on the example calculated in Figure 34 and Figure 35, for standard
capacitor units applied at rated voltage and element capability of 110%, tripping should occur following the
shorting of the fifth element. At this point, the voltage on the remaining elements is 110.2%.

Calculations may also be made without knowing the number of series elements by using the total string
capacitance and tripping on the capacitance change that will result in a 110% voltage on the remaining
capacitors in the string. Also to avoid case rupture in the event of a terminal-to-case fault, the bank should
trip on the loss of elements equivalent to the shorting of one capacitor unit. For capacitor banks with more
than 10 capacitor units per string, the tripping for the loss of one capacitor unit will be lower than 110% volt-
age on the remaining units.

In order to ensure that elements are not subjected to voltages in excess of their intended application, the trip
would normally be set halfway between the signal associated with four shorted elements and the signal asso-
ciated with five shorted elements. Alternatively, the trip relay may be set at an unbalance that would result in
110% voltage on the remaining elements.

In managing the protection of a fuseless capacitor bank, the unbalance protection should not be reset or
“rebalanced” without first ensuring that all capacitor units with failed elements have been removed from the
bank and replaced with healthy capacitor units. If the installation is to be rebalanced with units having one
(or two) shorted elements remaining in service, the trip level should be adjusted downward so that the ele-
ments in these units do not exceed their capability before operation of the trip relay.

The time delay for tripping should be minimized in order to minimize the probability of major damage in the
event of a major problem in the bank. Practical limitations on the minimum time include the following:

a) Preventing a bank that is operating in the alarm state from tripping on a system transient
overvoltage.
b) Accounting for the settling time of the protection system on initial energization and for the transient
response of certain capacitor voltage transformers, etc., that may be a part of the unbalance protec-
tion system.
c) Preventing smaller banks that do not incorporate system unbalance compensation in the protection
scheme from tripping during a system fault.

Normally a time delay of 0.01–0.05 s is adequate for this coordination. With this intentional time delay in
the trip relay, the additional time required for the lockout relay and breaker operation may result in total
clearing times of the order of 0.1 s. A time of 0.1 s is reasonably achievable to clear a capacitor bank with a
problem, but still may result in substantial damage. Once parts of a capacitor bank start to become damaged,
further damage will escalate rapidly. Such escalation will increase the risk of other damage in the substation.
Keeping the clearing time short is important to minimizing damage in the event of a fault within a bank.

Longer time delays are sometimes used for uncompensated protection (to avoid tripping during a system
fault that may persist for a longer period of time), and the risk of major damage in the bank is accepted.
Other users may allow the bank to trip for these conditions in order to minimize the possibility of bank
damage.

The alarm would be set above natural errors so that it would operate reliably on the shorting of the first or
second element. This alarm set point would typically be halfway between the signal associated with the
selected number of shorted elements and the signal associated with one fewer shorted elements.

Generally the most appropriate alarm level is the lowest level that can be set without resulting in false alarms
from thermal variations in capacitance within the bank, practical initial bank balance, etc. (The earliest reli-
able alarm gives maximum opportunity to repair the capacitor bank during a scheduled outage.) Responding

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

reasonably to early alarms and maintaining the bank in the best possible condition tend to minimize the
probability of further element failures and forced or unscheduled outages and maximize the availability of
the bank. False or unreliable alarms can be costly, and they reduce the credibility of the capacitor protection.

In unbalance protection schemes with ambiguous indication, it is desirable to use an alarm setting sensitive
to the loss of the first element to avoid any ambiguity. This alarm should seal in so that it shall be manually
reset following the removal of the failed capacitor unit(s) from the bank. It would be undesirable to have the
alarm go away following the shorting of a subsequent element that cancels the unbalance signal.

The timing of the alarm should be long enough to avoid operation during system faults or temporary
overvoltages, but short enough in the case of ambiguous schemes to minimize the probability of two com-
pensating fuse operations before the initiation of the alarm. Usually about a 10 s delay is appropriate for the
alarm.

8.5.3 Introduction to capacitor bank unbalance calculations

The sample calculations in 8.5.4 provide the information required for setting the unbalance protection based
on the following:

a) Neutral-to-ground voltage for ungrounded wye banks.

b) Neutral current for ungrounded wye-wye banks.
c) Neutral voltage difference for ungrounded wye-wye banks.
d) Neutral-to-ground current for grounded wye banks.
e) Voltage across low-voltage capacitors at the neutral end of each phase or in the neutral-to-ground
connection of grounded wye banks.
f) Difference in neutral-to-ground currents for grounded wye-wye banks.
g) Delta and single-phase bank protection based on schemes similar to a) through f).

The system of units used for most of these calculations assumes every normal non-zero voltage, capacitance,
and current is 1 per unit under normal conditions, with no shorted elements.

In addition to providing the necessary information for protective relay settings, this type of tabulation gives a
good feel for the performance of the bank with varying numbers of shorted elements. Some manufacturers of
fuseless capacitor banks will provide this type of tabulation for the banks they propose or supply.

It is, of course, possible to combine the calculations of the various columns and calculate only the voltage on
the affected elements, the voltage on the affected unit (which is also the voltage on the parallel units), and
the unbalance signal for the type of protection to be utilized. Because of the complexity of the configuration
(for example, parallel elements and series groups in a capacitor unit, parallel capacitor units in a group,
series groups in a string, and parallel strings in a phase), the resulting equations become complex.

8.5.4 Unbalance calculations

Figure 33 illustrates a generalized wye-connected fuseless capacitor bank. The figure shows two strings in
the left wye, one string in the right wye. In the calculations of Figure 34 and Figure 35, the total number of
strings (St) and the number of strings in the left wye (Sl) can be specified. For a single wye bank, Sl = St. For
the calculations, all failures are assumed to be in the leftmost string. This string is defined as one string. If
other strings have more or less capacitance than the leftmost string, they may be specified as fractional
strings. For instance, if the leftmost string is made up of 400 kvar units and one of the other strings is made
up of the same number and voltage rating of 600 kvar units, the string with the 600 kvar units would be
considered as 1.5 strings for calculation purposes. For the example of Figure 34 and Figure 35, the bank is
considered to have two strings in each phase of the left wye (Sl) and three strings in each phase of the bank

62 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

(St). With such an unbalanced arrangement, the calculations would normally be done both with Sl = 2 and
Sl = 1 in order to investigate the effects of failures in both wyes.

A
B
C

T1 T1 T1 T1 T1 T1
T2
Affected
unit

T3

NOTE—T1, T2, and T3 are the appropriate low-voltage capacitors, current transformers, voltage transformers, etc., for
the protection being used.
Figure 33—Unsymmetrical fuseless double wye-connected capacitor bank

The principal equation for each column of Figure 34 and Figure 35 is given in Table 10 and Table 11. These
tabulations illustrate the unbalance that occurs in the affected phase of the bank as a result of the shorting of
elements in one string.

The actual unbalance signal will depend upon the protection scheme employed for the bank. A wide variety
of protection schemes are in use on fuseless shunt capacitor banks. The unbalance signals for usual connec-
tions are given in Figure 34 and Figure 35.

The column headings in the tabulations are based on wye-connected three-phase capacitor banks. For delta-
connected banks, the same formulae and tabulation(s) can be used by treating a leg of the delta as one phase
of a grounded wye bank; all of the formulae are identical. For a delta bank, the currents shown as per-unit-
of-phase current become per-unit-of-leg current (phase current divided by 3 ). The difference current
(equal wyes) becomes the difference in current between two equal delta-connected legs.

In addition to providing the necessary information for protective relay settings, this type of tabulation gives a
good feel for the performance of the bank with varying numbers of shorted elements. Some manufacturers of
fuseless capacitor banks may provide this type of tabulation for the banks they propose or supply.

It is, of course, possible to combine the calculations of the various columns and calculate only the voltage on
the affected elements and the unbalance signal for the specific type of protection to be utilized. Figure 34
and Figure 35 have been generalized to cover most of the fuseless bank configurations protection schemes
used.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Figure 34—Unbalance calculations for a wye-connected

fuseless capacitor bank (Figure 33)

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Figure 35—Unbalance summary, wye-connected fuseless capacitor bank

Table 10—Details for Figure 34

Column title Formula and comment

Shorted capacitor The number of elements that have shorted in one string of elements between phase and neutral.
elements
e

String per-unit E
Cst = ------------
capacitance E–e
Cst The capacitance of the affected string of capacitor units.

Affected wye Sl – 1 + Cst

Cy = ----------------------------
capacitance Sl
Cy The capacitance of all strings of capacitors in phase of the wye that includes the affected string.
For all of the strings in that wye except the affected string, the per-unit capacitance is Sl − 1. For
the affected string, the per-unit capacitance is Cst.

Affected phase ( Cy × Sl ) + Sp – Sl
Cp = ----------------------------------------------
capacitance Sp
Cp The per-unit capacitance of the phase (all parallel strings) that includes the affected string. For
this calculation the capacitance of the affected wye is Cy. The capacitance of the other wye is
1 per unit.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Table 10—Details for Figure 34 (continued)

Column title Formula and comment

Neutral-to- 3
Vng = G  1 – ----------------
ground voltage  2 + Cp
(per unit of Vlg) For grounded banks (G = 0), this voltage is always 0. For ungrounded wye banks, the calculation
Vng assumes the affected phase has a capacitance Cp and the other two phases each have a per-unit
capacitance of 1.

(It is convenient to develop this equation based on an instant in time when the affected phase has
1 per-unit voltage and the other two phases have −0.5 per-unit voltage. For this condition the two
unaffected phases can be paralleled and the voltage divider between −0.5 per unit and +1 per unit
can be calculated for the midpoint voltage, which is recorded as Vng.)

Voltage on Vln = 1 – Vng

affected phase
Vln The voltage line to neutral across the phase that includes the affected string. With fuseless capac-
itor banks, the shorting of elements increases the capacitance of that phase and decreases the
voltage across the affected phase; therefore, the voltage is always less than 1 per unit with shorted
elements, except with grounded wye banks.

Voltage on E
Ve = Vln × ------------
affected elements E–e
Ve The per-unit voltage on the remaining elements in the affected string, based on the actual voltage
on the affected string.

The first three columns of Figure 35 are copied from Figure 34 to make those numbers easily available when
considering the unbalance signals. Table 11 discusses the remaining columns in Figure 35.

Table 11—Details for Figure 35

Column title Formula and comment

Current in Iy = Cy × Vln
affected wye
Iy The per-unit current in the affected phase of the affected wye. This equation may be useful for
estimating the increase in voltage across a low-voltage capacitor at the neutral end of the affected
phase of the affected wye.

Current in Iph = Cp × Vln

affected phase
Iph The current in the affected phase. This equation may be useful for setting protection based on
phase current or the voltage across a low capacitor at the neutral end of the affected phase.

Ground current Ig = ( 1 – G ) ( 1 – Iph )

Ig
For use with protective relay schemes utilizing neutral-to-ground current, or the voltage across a
low-voltage capacitor in the neutral-to-ground connection.

The per-unit change in current to ground is the per-unit change in voltage across a low-voltage
capacitor in the affected phase. It is also the per-unit change in voltage across a low-voltage
capacitor in the neutral-to-ground connection because the other two phase currents do not change
in a grounded bank.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Table 11—Details for Figure 35 (continued)

Column title Formula and comment

Neutral current 3 × Vng × G × ( Sp – Sl )

In = ----------------------------------------------------------
between wyes Sp
In The unbalance current for ungrounded wye-wye banks.

[The current is calculated assuming the neutral-to-ground (zero sequence) voltage is applied at
the neutral of the unaffected wye.]

Difference Id = Vln ( 1 – Cp )
current
Id For grounded wye-wye banks where the difference in the neutral current between the two equal
wyes is used as a basis for protection (see Figure 27). Values are per unit of total phase current.

8.6 Unfused capacitor banks

8.6.1 General considerations

This clause covers the formulae for unbalance calculations for unfused capacitor banks built in the same way
as conventional externally or internally fused banks (groups of capacitor units in parallel with each other and
the groups connected in series from phase to neutral or ground) but with no fuses either internally or exter-
nally. These banks are normally of modest size; therefore, fuses or subdivision of the bank into multiple
strings is not required to limit the energy into a fault within the bank.

Capacitor units in unfused capacitor banks are subject to overvoltage across elements within a unit as ele-
ments become shorted within the unit. The overvoltage on these remaining elements shall be considered in
the protection of unfused capacitor banks. Excessive voltage on remaining elements may lead to cascading
violent failure during system transient overvoltages. This consideration of excessive voltage on remaining
elements is in addition to the usual considerations of protection for external arcing within the bank and
avoiding exposure of healthy capacitor units to voltages in excess of 110% of their rated voltage.

In an unfused capacitor bank, the unbalance detection gives an indication of the number of failed element
groups within one capacitor unit. In practice, the actual number of failed elements throughout the bank can
only be determined by a measurement of all series groups in a bank. This measurement may be recom-
mended only when an alarm or relay trip has occurred and may or may not be a part of the regular
maintenance schedule.

In order to calculate the overvoltage on the remaining element groups in a capacitor unit, the number of ele-
ment groups in each capacitor unit shall be specified. Sometimes the manufacturer will provide the number
of elements in series. See the capacitor unit nameplate or data sheet. If the number of series elements per
capacitor unit is not available from the manufacturer, the number may be estimated. Each element usually
has a nominal voltage capability of between 1800 V to 2400 V. Dividing the capacitor unit voltage by 2400
and rounding up to the next integer will usually give a useable estimate for the unbalance calculations and
settings. For instance, a 7960 V capacitor unit will probably have about 7960 ÷ 2400 = 3.31, which rounds
up to four series elements. (It may have five series elements per capacitor unit, which will make a small dif-
ference in the overvoltage and unbalance signals. However, the setting based on four series elements will
still provide adequate protection for a five series element design.)

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

8.6.2 Using the calculated values

The trip level should be set so that

— The voltage on the remaining elements in the affected capacitor unit does not exceed the maximum
recommended by the manufacturer.
— The voltage on the healthy capacitors does not exceed the contingency overvoltage capability of the
capacitor units (usually 110% of rated voltage).

For simplicity, the protection may be set to trip on the shorting of the first element group.

The number of shorted element groups for trip and alarm can be determined by knowing the voltage on the
remaining elements in the capacitor unit with the shorted element group(s) (for instance, the second column
from right in Figure 37 or the second column from left in Figure 38) and the capability of the capacitor units
based on the information provided by the manufacturer. Based on the example calculated in Figure 37 and
Figure 38, for capacitor units with element capability of 125%, tripping should occur following the shorting
of the third element group. At this point, the voltage on the remaining elements is 139%.

In order to ensure reliable operation following the shorting of the third element, the trip level would be nor-
mally set midway between the unbalance signal associated with two operated elements and the unbalance
signal with three shorted elements. Alternatively, the trip relay could be set at an unbalance that would result
in 125% voltage on the remaining elements.

If the capacitor unit capability is not available from the manufacturer, usually a value of about 125% on the
stressed elements is reasonable if a restrike free switch or circuit breaker is being used or the installation is
being protected with surge arresters at or below 2 per unit. For an energizing transient voltage of 2 per unit,
the remaining element groups would be subjected to a stress of (2 × 1.25 =) 2.5 per unit, which should be
within the capability of standard capacitor units.

The alarm would be set above natural errors so that it would operate reliably on the shorting of the first ele-
ment. This alarm set point would typically be 50–75% of the signal associated with one shorted element. For
unbalance protection schemes with ambiguous indication, this alarm should seal in so that it shall be manu-
ally reset following the removal of the failed capacitor units from the bank. It would be undesirable to have
the alarm turn off following the shorting of a subsequent element that cancels the unbalance signal.

The actual unbalance signal will depend upon the protection scheme employed for the bank. A wide variety
of protection schemes are available for use on unfused shunt capacitor banks. The unbalance signals for the
some of the more common connections are given in Figure 37 and Figure 38.

The time delay for tripping should be minimized in order to decrease the probability of case rupture or
excessive damage in the event of an internal capacitor unit fault to the case or an arcing fault in the capacitor
bank. Practical limitations on the minimum time include

a) To avoid tripping during a nearby system fault (for protection systems sensitive to unbalanced
system voltages).
b) To avoid a bank that is operating in the alarm state from tripping on a system temporary overvoltage.
c) To account for the settling time of the protection system on initial energization and for the transient
response of certain capacitor voltage transformers, etc., that may be a part of the unbalance
protection system.

Normally a time delay of 0.01–0.05 s is adequate for this coordination. With this intentional time delay in
the trip relay, the additional time required for the lockout relay and breaker operation may result in total
clearing times of the order of 0.1 s for a capacitor unit with an internal fault or a capacitor bank with an

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

arcing fault. A time of 0.1 s is reasonably achievable to clear a capacitor bank with a problem, but still may
result in substantial damage. Once parts of a capacitor bank start to become damaged, further damage will
escalate rapidly. Such escalation will increase the risk of major damage and fire and may result in increased
damage to the capacitor bank. Keeping the clearing time short is important in order to minimize damage
when a fault occurs within a bank.

The timing of the alarm should be long enough to avoid operation during system faults or temporary
overvoltages, but short enough in the case of ambiguous schemes to minimize the probability of two
compensating fuse operations before the initiation of the alarm. Usually about a 10 s delay is appropriate for
the alarm.

In managing the protection of an unfused capacitor bank, the unbalance protection should not be reset or
“rebalanced” without first assuring that all capacitor units with failed elements have been removed from the
bank and replaced with healthy capacitor units.

8.6.3 Introduction to capacitor bank unbalance calculations

The sample calculations in 8.6.4 provide the information required for setting the unbalance protection based
on

a) Neutral-to-ground voltage for ungrounded wye banks.

b) Neutral current for ungrounded wye-wye banks.
c) Neutral voltage difference for ungrounded wye-wye banks.
d) Neutral-to-ground current for grounded wye banks.
e) Voltage across low-voltage capacitors at the neutral end of each phase or in the neutral-to-ground
connection of grounded wye banks.
f) Difference in neutral-to-ground currents for grounded wye-wye banks.
g) Delta and single-phase bank protection based on schemes similar to a) through f).

The system of units used for most of these calculations assumes every normal non-zero voltage, capacitance,
and current is 1 per unit under normal conditions, with no shorted elements.

In addition to providing the necessary information for protective relay settings, this type of tabulation gives a
good feel for the performance of the bank with varying numbers of shorted elements. Some manufacturers of
unfused capacitor banks will provide this type of tabulation for the banks they propose or supply.

It is, of course, possible to combine the calculations of the various columns and calculate only the voltage on
the affected elements, the voltage on the affected unit (which is also the voltage on the parallel units), and
the unbalance signal for the type of protection to be utilized. Because of the complexity of the configuration
(for example, parallel elements and series groups in a capacitor unit, parallel capacitor units in a group,
series groups in a string, and parallel capacitor units in a phase), the resulting equations become complex.

8.6.4 Unbalance calculations

Figure 37 and Figure 38 illustrate unbalance calculations for unfused capacitor banks when elements
(element groups) are shorted in one capacitor unit. Figure 33(a) illustrates a capacitor unit with two out of
eight elements (element groups) shorted. The principal equation for each column of Figure 37 and Figure 38
is given in Table 12 and Table 13.

The column headings in the tabulations are based on wye-connected three-phase capacitor banks. For delta-
connected banks, the same formulae and tabulation(s) can be used by treating a leg of the delta as one phase
of a grounded wye bank; all of the formulae are identical. For a delta bank, the currents shown as per-unit-

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 69

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

of-phase current become per-unit-of-leg current (phase current divided by 3 ). The difference current
(equal wyes) becomes the difference in current between two equal delta-connected legs.

A
B
C

T1 T1 T1 T1 T1 T1
T2
Affected capacitor unit

T3

“S = 1 series groups,”
Pt = 6 parallel units per phase,
Pa = 3 parallel units per phase in left wye.
NOTE—T1, T2, and T3 are the appropriate low-voltage capacitors, current transformers, voltage transformers, etc., for
the protection being used.
Figure 36—Unfused wye-wye capacitor bank

Figure 37—Spreadsheet/tabulation illustrating unbalance calculations

for an unfused capacitor bank (Figure 36)

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Figure 38—Continuation of the spreadsheet/tabulation of Figure 37,

giving information for setting unbalance protection

Table 12—Details for Figure 37

Column title Formula and comment

Shorted element The number of elements (element groups) that have shorted inside one capacitor unit.
groups
e

Capacitor unit Su
Cu = ---------------
per-unit Su – e
capacitance The capacitance of the affected capacitor unit based on number of shorted elements.
Cu

Parallel group Pa – 1 + Cu
Cg = ----------------------------
per-unit Pa
capacitance The capacitance of the group of capacitors that includes the affected unit. For all of the units in
Cg that group except the affected unit, the per-unit capacitance is 1. For the affected unit, the per-unit
capacitance is Cu.

Affected wye S × Cg
Cs = ----------------------------------
capacitance Cg ( S – 1 ) + 1
Cs The per-unit capacitance of the (phase of) the wye that includes the affected capacitor unit. For
the series group including the affected unit, the per-unit capacitance is Cg. For all other series
groups, the per-unit capacitance is 1.

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Table 12—Details for Figure 37 (continued)

Column title Formula and comment

Affected phase ( Cs × Pa ) + Pt – Pa
CP = ----------------------------------------------
capacitance Pt
Cp The per-unit capacitance of the phase (both wyes) that includes the affected unit. For this calcula-
tion, the capacitance of the affected wye is Cs. The capacitance of the other wye is 1 per unit.

Neutral-to- 3
Vng = G  ---------------- – 1
ground voltage  2 + Cp 
(per unit of Vlg) For grounded banks (G = 0), this voltage is always 0. For ungrounded wye banks, the calculation
Vng assumes the affected phase has a capacitance Cp and the other two phases each have a per-unit
capacitance of 1.

(It is convenient to develop this equation based on an instant in time when the affected phase has
1 per-unit voltage and the other two phases have −0.5 per-unit voltage. For this condition the two
unaffected phases can be paralleled, and the voltage divider between −0.5 per unit and +1 per unit
can be calculated for the midpoint voltage, which is recorded as Vng.)

Voltage on Vln = 1 – Vng

affected phase
Vln The voltage line to neutral across the phase that includes the affected unit. With unfused banks,
the shorting of the elements increases the capacitance of that phase and decreases the voltage
across the affected phase; therefore, the numbers are always less than 1.

Voltage on Vln × Cs
Vcu = ---------------------
affected unit Cg
Vcu The actual per-unit voltage on the affected capacitor unit, based on the capacitance division of the
actual voltage on the affected phase (Vln).

Voltage on Ve = Vcu × Vg
affected elements
Ve The actual per-unit voltage on the remaining elements in the affected capacitor unit, based on the
actual voltage on the affected capacitor unit.

Highest voltage The highest voltage on capacitor units in the bank. For multiple series groups, the capacitors are
on other units in the same phase and the per-unit voltage is
Vh S – Vcu
Vh = -------------------
S–1
For single series group banks, the overvoltage of interest is in the other two phases:
2 2
Vh = 0.5 + ( 3 ÷ 2 + Vng )

The first four columns of Figure 38 are copied from Figure 37 to make those numbers easily available when
considering the unbalance signals. Table 13 briefly discusses the remaining columns in Figure 38.

Table 13—Details for Figure 38

Column title Formula and comment

Affected wye Iy = Cs × Vln

current
Iy The per-unit current in the affected phase of the affected wye.

Affected phase Ip = Cp × Vln

current
Ip The per-unit current in the affected phase of the bank.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Table 13—Details for Figure 38 (continued)

Column title Formula and comment

Neutral-to- Ig = ( 1 – G ) ( 1 – Ip )
ground current
Ig The neutral-to-ground current, which is used with protective relay schemes utilizing neutral-to-
ground current, or the voltage across a low-voltage capacitor in the neutral or in each phase.

The per-unit change in current to ground is the per-unit change in voltage across a low-voltage
capacitor in the affected phase. It is also the per-unit change in voltage across a low-voltage
capacitor in the neutral-to-ground connection because the other two phase currents do not change
in a grounded bank.

Neutral current 3 × Vng × G

In = ------------------------------
between wyes 2
In The unbalance current for ungrounded wye-wye banks.

[The current is calculated assuming the neutral-to-ground (zero sequence) voltage is applied at
the neutral of the unaffected wye, which is half the of the bank.]

Difference Id = Vln ( Cp – 1 )
current, equal
wyes For grounded wye-wye banks where the difference in the neutral current between the two equal
Id wyes is used as a basis for protection (see Figure 27.) Values are per unit of normal (total) phase
current.

9. Protection of capacitor filter banks

9.1 Filter bank protection

Capacitor units in filter banks may require additional duties due to harmonic contents. In these applications,
higher voltage capacitor ratings and fuse current ratings may be required. Generally, the additional overload-
ing requirements on component parameters should compensate for higher peak voltages and the increased
losses imposed on the reactors and resistor assemblies.

Figure 39 illustrates one possible primary protection scheme for a filter bank. A redundant protection
scheme (not illustrated in the figure) may also be provided. The reactor and C2 are tuned to the fundamental
frequency to minimize the losses in R at the fundamental frequency in this example.

9.1.1 Overcurrent and overload protection

The overcurrent and overload relay in each phase of the filter bank serves two desired protective functions.
Fast tripping is initiated for high-level short-circuits near the circuit breaker terminal. In case of low-
magnitude overcurrents, properly coordinated, time-delayed alarm and tripping signals are initiated due to
the abnormal condition on the filter bank. Special emphasis is given to the response of the overcurrent
protection (50/51 relay) to harmonic current distortion for some types of solid state electronic relays based
on peak current measurements. In effect, undesired filter bank tripping may occur from these relays as the
electronic level detection is influenced by the harmonic phase angle relationships for low-order frequencies
(second to fifth) along with the maximum current level detection of the relay.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

50/51

52

59

C1

60/61
C1 87

C2
R
60/61
C2

51R

NeutralUnbalance
Neutral unbalance
Relay
relay

Figure 39—Sample protection scheme for a filter bank

74 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Digital relays may be influenced by harmonic distortions if the predominant orders of harmonic oscillations
are not predicted. The digital band-pass filter response provided in the relay may have a low attenuation fac-
tor at a given harmonic frequency and cause undesired tripping of the filter banks.

The expected reliability of the relay protection depends on the protection technology used, the design and
manufacturing approaches, and the environment in which the relays are applied. To improve the availability
of filter banks, appropriate data and experience related to harmonic distortion shall be considered in the
selection of the protection scheme.

9.1.2 Ground overcurrent protection

The ground overcurrent relay is time-delayed and coordinated with other protections on the system to avoid
undesired tripping for system earth faults and transient conditions. Both phase and ground overcurrent relays
provide backup functions for a differential protection.

9.1.3 Resistor overload protection

The damping resistor in each phase of the filter bank is also protected against fundamental and harmonic
overloads. This relay should respond to the true rms current flowing through the resistor. The setting should
match the overload capability of the resistor.

9.1.4 Overvoltage protection

Each filter is protected by an overvoltage relay that serves to provide one of the following protection
functions:

— Protect the filter bank against continuous system power frequency overvoltages. The protection is
time-delayed and properly coordinated with the automatic overvoltage control provided for the
power system.
— Protect the filter capacitors against severe overvoltages, which cause excessive stress on the units.
Peak measurement relays are recommended and set according to the withstand capability of the
capacitors as specified by the manufacturers. Overvoltage and overload protection can be provided
from current integration methods to derive the true overvoltages imposed on the capacitor units.

9.1.5 Capacitor unbalance protection

Capacitor unbalance protection is covered in detail in Clause 8. The high-voltage C1 and low-voltage C2
capacitor banks of a typical filter are illustrated in Figure 40 and Figure 41 and are protected by separate
unbalance protection schemes. However, many other unbalance protection schemes can be provided for filter
banks depending on the arrangement of the capacitors and whether the system and bank unbalance compen-
sation features are needed. For example, the capacitor unbalance scheme illustrated in Figure 40 is provided
with an overall unbalance function based on the detection of the neutral voltage shift as a result of capacitor
failures in the high- or low-voltage side of the filter bank. This scheme is also provided with an optional sys-
tem voltage unbalance compensation feature to the relaying input. The protection relay should be set to
detect C1 or C2 failures and trip the bank for the failed units in either capacitor bank.

Another unbalance protection scheme is illustrated in Figure 41. In this example, an unconventional capaci-
tor unbalance scheme is provided by means of current measurements in the resistor branch as a result of
capacitor failures. This unbalance protection scheme shall carefully evaluate the effect of system 60 Hz
frequency deviation and capacitor deviation as a function of temperature (∆C/∆T). In this regard, the avail-
ability of the filter bank is considerably improved if compensation means are provided. If the protection is of
the digital type, the response time of the numerical filter and the attenuation factor shall be known for proper
coordination with the time delay setting imposed on the unbalance protection.

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 75

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

52

C1

3
C2
R
L

Unbalance
1
Protection
Relay

Figure 40—Neutral voltage unbalance scheme with compensation

C1

C2
R

51R

60/61

Figure 41—Filter bank capacitor unbalance provided in the resistor branch

9.2 Multifrequency harmonic filter protection considerations

Multifrequency filters are normally applied in applications like high-voltage dc converter station sites where
two or more harmonics shall be shunted off the system. The high-voltage capacitor can be used for both fre-
quencies. The low-voltage section is tuned so that more than one frequency can be shunted off the system.
Standard protection may be applied to the high-voltage and low-voltage sections. Figure 42 illustrates a
multifrequency filter circuit. Relay methods of protection are in the notes that follow.

76 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

NOTES:
1—Neutral unbalance protection may be used, but it is important to ensure that the relay has a narrow 60 Hz band-pass
filter. There may be a high level of harmonics, which could cause false alarms and trips if the relay operates on anything
other than the 60 Hz signal. The filter bank would be large and, therefore, should have a compensation circuit to handle
system unbalance and the inherent unbalance of the bank. The protection will detect a shorted turn in the reactors as well
as failed capacitor units.

2—The high-voltage capacitor bank can be protected using an H connection with a current transformer to measure the
unbalance between the two legs. This protection is effective for the capacitor because it can be used for alarm and trip-
ping and it also identifies the phase in trouble. The disadvantage is that it is only sensitive to problems in the capacitor
bank. It will not react to a reactor fault or a fault in the low-voltage section. This protection may require that dual bushing
capacitor units be provided so that the current through the two legs can be measured separately.

3—The low-voltage capacitor bank can also be protected using the H connection, and again two bushing capacitor units
may be required. This protection will not detect a reactor shorted turn.

4—A voltage differential protection relay is not recommended for a multifrequency filter because the voltage is normally
connected from the bus to neutral (ground). The low-voltage section makes it difficult to balance the two voltage sources
because the voltage change will be different if a high-voltage capacitor unit fails as compared to a low-voltage capacitor
unit. The voltage across a section of the high-voltage bank may be compared to the bus voltage, but a special voltage
transformer would be required to handle the basic impulse level (BIL).

5—The low-voltage section may be protected by connecting voltage transformers across the low-voltage capacitor, sum-
ming the three voltages, and measuring only the 60 Hz. The relay can be balanced or nulled when the bank is energized.
This protection is sensitive and can easily detect a low-voltage capacitor unit failure as well as a shorted turn in the low-
voltage reactor. It can also detect a major impedance change in the high-voltage section. One advantage of this scheme is
that only single-bushing capacitor units are required.

C1

4
2

C2

5
3

1
Neutral Low Voltage
Capacitor Unit (400 V)

The Numerals in the Circle

NOTE:
NOTE: Refer to Notes in the Text

Figure 42—Multifrequency filter protection schemes

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

9.3 Static var compensator (SVC) capacitor protection

SVCs are used in strategic installations to rapidly compensate reactive power for maintaining an acceptable
system voltage profile and for improving the overall stability of the power system. Voltage flickers are also
reduced in industrial applications when SVCs and harmonic filters are provided. An example of an SVC
installation is illustrated in Figure 43.

PTs Main Breaker

CTs
Capacitor Breaker

CTs Filter
Reactors
Electronic Capacitor
Controller Banks
3rd 5th 7th
Harmonic
Main Thyristor Filters
Reactor Switch

Figure 43—Typical SVC

Protection of SVCs is provided by a combination of conventional protective relays and protective functions
contained in the SVC control system (IEEE Power System Relay Committee [B7]). These functions are
made up of a number of zones to include the SVC step-down transformer, low-voltage buses, reactor
branches, capacitor branches, filters, and thyristors.

This guide applies equally to the protection of the fixed or thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) banks
provided as an integral part of an SVC installation. In this regard, Clause 7 and Clause 8 describe various
protection methods that can be applied by conventional relays to shunt capacitor banks along with additional
methods illustrated in Figure 44 and Table 14.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

46

60-1

60-2

60-3

Figure 44—Capacitor unbalance protection in the TSC mode

Table 14—Suggested SVC protection methods

Protection Protection
Protection function Notes
zone device

TSC 60 C Unbalance H-bridge unbalance measurement

TSC/TCR 50/51 Overcurrent Branch faults of limiting reactor overloads

TCR 46 Negative phase sequence Unbalance

TSC/TCR 60 Zero sequence phase unbalance Unbalance in lieu of 46

TSC 59 Overload Capacitor overvoltage using current

measurement

TSC/TCR 50 N Ground overcurrent Branch faults

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

SVC capacitor banks in the TSC mode are provided with air-core reactors connected in series to limit the
inrush generated from thyristor switching. The selection and setting of the overcurrent protection should
consider a misfire in the TSC valve (accounting for the magnitude and time duration of inrush and outrush
currents) and should coordinate with other protective functions provided in the controls.

Harmonics are an important factor to consider in the protection of capacitors in the TSC mode. Adequate
overcurrent and overvoltage protection types and settings shall be provided to counter the effect of harmon-
ics generated by the thyristor-controlled reactors (TCRs) and by other unusual harmonic distortion such as
those resulting from geomagnetic disturbances (Benmouyal et al. [B3]). In this regard, true rms-based
overcurrent relays are required to adequately protect the series limiting reactors against overloads while
peak-measuring voltage relays should be provided for the protection of capacitors against overvoltages (see
Table 1).

9.4 SVC filter protection

Harmonics are produced by the switching elements of SVCs, which may require harmonic filtering.

For instance, a six-pulse phase-controlled reactor unit employs three TCRs connected in delta. Odd harmon-
ics (for example, fifth, seventh, eleventh, and thirteenth) will be injected into the power system during
balanced steady-state conditions.

If filters are required, the effectiveness of such filtering depends mainly on the system impedance normally
referred to by a R-X locus, which may determine the need for additional single- or double-tuned shunt fil-
ters. These filters will operate as an equivalent shunt capacitor bank generating reactive power at system
frequency.

Filter banks include a number of protective zones covered by different relay types and protection schemes. A
representative list of one filter bank protective functions includes

— Differential protection
— Phase and ground overcurrent protection
— Overvoltage protection
— Capacitor unbalance protection
— Overload protection

Some of the protection methods discussed in Clause 7 and Clause 8 are applicable to SVC filter bank protec-
tion. However, as noted in 9.1 and 9.2, the unbalance protection can be more demanding, depending on the
filter configuration (single-frequency tuned or multifrequency tuned) and the system voltage to which the
harmonic filters are connected. See 9.1 and 9.2 for more detailed discussion of filter bank protection.

10. Capacitor bank equipment considerations

10.1 Capacitor bank switching devices

Capacitor switching devices require special attention because more severe switching duties exist for the
interruption of shunt capacitor banks than for other forms of switching. The various devices that may be
used for capacitor switching include the following:

Reference should be made to IEEE Std C37.04-1979, ANSI C37.06-1997, IEEE Std C37.012-1979, and
ANSI C37.66-1969 for rating and application information.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Circuit breakers Circuit switcher Interrupter switches

SF6 SF6 Oil

Vacuum SF6
Oil Vacuum
Air-magnetic Thyristor
Air

All capacitor switching devices should be applied within their maximum voltage, frequency, and current rat-
ings, including transient inrush current and frequency.

The current rating of the switching device should include the effects of system overvoltage (<110%), capac-
itor-unit capacitance tolerance (<115%), and system harmonics (<110%) to provide adequate margins for
most capacitor switching duties.

Capacitor switch opening Capacitor restrike

2 3

2
System
1
Voltage, Current (per unit)

voltage
Voltage (per unit)

Capacitor 1
Current System
0 voltage

Voltage between 0 Voltage

switch contacts between
switch
-1 contacts
-1

Capacitor
Capacitor
voltage
voltage
-2 -2
-180 -90 0 90 180 -180 -90 0 90 180

Voltage angle (degrees) Voltage angle (degrees)

(a) No restrike (b) One restrike

Figure 45—Opening the circuit to a single-phase capacitor in one step

An important consideration involving application of circuit breakers or circuit switchers for capacitor
switching is the transient overvoltage that may be generated by restrikes during the opening operation. At
current zero, the capacitor is left charged to nearly full-peak line voltage. Little recovery voltage appears
across the switching device contacts at this instant, and the capacitance-current arc is usually interrupted at
the first current zero after the switching device contacts open. After interruption, the normal frequency alter-
nation of the voltage on the source side of the switching device results in a recovery voltage across the open
contacts, 0.5 cycle later, approaching twice the peak line voltage [see Figure 45(a)]. If a breakdown were to
occur at 90° in Figure 45(b), the capacitor voltage immediately attempts to equalize with the system voltage.
The circuit is oscillatory. At the first peak of the transient, the capacitor voltage will, depending on damping,
overshoot by an amount approaching the difference between the two voltages immediately prior to the
restrike. This high transient overvoltage may damage equipment. If the current is interrupted at the first high-
frequency current zero, the transient voltage peak is trapped on the capacitor bank. The recovery voltage
reaches a value greater than that following the first interruption. However, the contacts have moved farther
apart, and the buildup of dielectric strength may prevent additional restrikes.

If the gap between the open contacts breaks down less than 0.25 cycle after a current zero, the amplitude of
the voltage oscillation will not exceed the normal transient voltage that occurs when the bank is first ener-
gized. This breakdown is defined as a reignition rather than a restrike.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

In Figure 45 (b), the restrike is shown to occur a full 0.5 cycle after current interruption. This condition is the
worst possibility for the first restrike because the recovery voltage has reached its maximum and the result-
ant surge voltage can, theoretically, reach three times normal line-to-ground crest voltage. In actual practice,
it seldom exceeds 2.5 times normal. Additional restrikes can produce higher crest voltages, and the sudden
voltage changes and high-frequency oscillations may produce other relatively higher voltages elsewhere on
the system. Therefore, in order to protect the entire system, it is desirable to limit restrikes and the voltage
phenomena resulting from them.

Under special circuit arrangements, it may be possible for some switching devices to interrupt the transient
current caused by a prestrike when energizing a capacitor bank. Overvoltages may result when the contacts
close following an interruption of the transient current, the resulting transient can produce overvoltages.

In a station where large capacitor banks are connected to a common bus, it may be prudent to verify that the
transient capacitor discharge current into a nearby fault does not exceed the capability of any circuit breakers
or circuit switchers connected to the bus.

The peak discharge current of an individual capacitor bank is

2 3 C 1000 kvar ( 3φ )
I pk = ------- × 10 × kV LL ------B- = -------------------- × ----------------------
3 Ls 3×π×f Ls

where

Ipk is peak discharge current (A),

CB is capacitance (F),
LS is total inductance, capacitor bank to fault, (H),
kVLL is line-to-line voltage (kV),
f is power frequency (Hz).

For a 60 Hz system, the peak discharge current is

kvar ( 3φ )
I pk ≈ 1.33 ----------------------
Ls

In addition to involving the contact capability, the transient inrush current through a switching device may
also cause secondary flashover of bushing current transformers (BCTs). The voltage developed in the sec-
ondary circuit is proportional to the frequency and magnitude of the transient inrush current:

transient current (crest)

BCT secondary voltage (crest) = -------------------------------------------------------- ×
BCT ratio
transient frequency
current transformer burden reactance (at system frequency) × ----------------------------------------------
system frequency

NOTE—The current transformer burden reactance is the sum of the reactances of the current transformer, the leads, and
the relay.

The switching equipment manufacturer should be consulted if the dI/dt or crest values of the inrush current
exceed the limits specified in Table 1A through Table 3A of ANSI C37.06-1997.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

10.2 Inrush control devices

Energizing a capacitor bank will result in a transient inrush current. The magnitude and frequency of this
inrush current are a function of the applied voltage (point on the voltage wave at closing), the capacitance of
the circuit, the inductance of the circuit, the initial charge of the capacitor bank at the instant of closing, and
the damping of the circuit due to closing resistors or other resistance in the circuit. See Annex D for inrush
current calculations.

The transient inrush current to a single isolated bank is less than the available short-circuit current at the
capacitor location. Because a switching device should meet the momentary current requirement of the sys-
tem, transient inrush current is not a limiting factor in applying switching devices on isolated capacitor
banks. However, it is important to check the momentary rating of other switching devices not intended for
fault current interruption.

When capacitor banks are switched back to back (that is, one or more energized when another is connected
to the same bus), transient currents of high magnitude and high-frequency may flow between the banks on
closing of the switching device or in the event of a restrike on opening. The oscillatory current is limited
only by the impedance of the capacitor banks and the circuit between them. The transient current usually
decays to zero in a fraction of a cycle of the power frequency. The component supplied by the power source
is usually so small it may be neglected.

The magnitude of inrush current and its subsequent effects to a switched capacitor bank may be greatly
reduced by use of inrush-current-limiting reactors. A capacitor switching device furnished with preinsertion
resistors or inductors or a switch that uses zero-crossing controls minimizes the switching inrush transient,
but does not help the outrush transient for close in faults. When used for daily switching of back-to-back
capacitor banks, the life of the switching device contacts can be extended by increasing the inductance
between banks by adding in current-limiting reactors. The reactors will also reduce the outrush currents (see
IEEE Std C57.16-1996).

The phenomenon of inrush to a single switched shunt capacitor bank and to a bank switched back to back
with a parallel energized bank or banks is discussed in 6.1. In a given application, the currents and voltages
associated with inrush to a capacitor bank may precipitate undesirable resonant effects with other parts of
the system, induce hazardous surges in station control cable, and interfere with communication facilities in
the area.

Closing resistors or inductors on the bank switching device, or current-limiting reactors installed in series
with a switched capacitor bank, will serve to alter the frequency of the inrush transients and reduce the mag-
nitude of the transients. The reactors applied should have a sufficiently high BIL rating so that gaps or surge
arresters required for reactor protection will not short out the reactors during energization of the capacitor
bank. Synchronous or zero voltage closing of the switched bank can also reduce the severity of the switching
transients (see 6.1).

In back-to-back switching applications, the addition of even a minimal amount of inductance between banks
will significantly reduce the magnitude of inrush currents flowing from the energized bank(s) to the bank
being energized.

Grounded wye shunt capacitor banks (as well as other substation equipment capable of generating or trans-
mitting high-frequency transients to the ground mat) should be installed as far away as practical from the
control building and cable trenches.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

10.3 Surge arresters

Lightning surges and the switching of capacitors can result in significant system overvoltages. In regions
where the lightning activity is high or in applications where the capacitor bank is switched many times daily,
surge arresters may be applied at the capacitor bank to limit these transient overvoltages. The ability of the
surge arrester to dissipate energy that results during capacitor switching operations is of particular impor-
tance to assure proper surge arrester selection. Restrikes of the capacitor bank switching device generally
cause the highest transient overvoltages, particularly for isolated banks. Significant transient overvoltages
can also occur at the capacitor bank due to surge magnification of resonant circuits on the power system
associated with switching of a remote capacitor bank, cable, or transmission line. Metal-oxide surge arrest-
ers are generally better than silicon-carbide surge arresters because they usually have a higher energy duty
for the same arrester rating and typically absorb less energy per transient event.

Refer to the surge arrester application guides IEEE Std C62.2-1987 (for gap silicon carbide surge arresters)
and IEEE Std C62.22-1997 (for metal oxide surge arresters) for further information on surge arrester
application.

10.4 Voltage-sensing devices

If a voltage transformer, capacitor-coupled voltage transformer, or potential device connected from the bank
neutral to ground is used for unbalance detection, it should be capable of withstanding switching surge volt-
ages of 0.5–2.5 times system phase-to-neutral voltage without malfunction (Harner and Owen [B6]). At
higher system voltages, higher ratio voltage transformers are required. The use of these higher ratio voltage
transformers can make the neutral voltage unbalance detection methods become insensitive. Special relaying
techniques may be required (see Clause 8).

10.5 Current-sensing devices

A reasonably conservative voltage rating for the neutral current transformer to withstand the surge voltages
appearing at the bank neutral is 0.2 times the system line-to-ground voltage (Harder [B5]). However, current
transformers rated 0.1 of system voltage have been applied without trouble. On small banks, these current
transformers are often wound primary types with low ratios. During switching, the bank neutral transient
voltage rise can stress the insulation across the current transformers wound primary. It can also stress the
insulation between the case (which is usually grounded to a local support structure) and the secondary
winding due to the fact that the secondary neutral is usually grounded at the remote end (that is, at the relay
location) for safety reasons. Although the voltage stress between the grounded case and the secondary
winding could be eliminated by grounding the secondary circuit at the current transformer location, this
alternative is not recommended. To do so would impress the bank transient potential rise on the secondary
cable and present hazardous voltages at the relay location. Generally, the secondary winding can withstand
these short duration transients without difficulty. Also, coupling of this transient voltage to the secondary
cable can be greatly reduced by routing the cable closely parallel to the primary ground conductor down to
the ground mat and then closely paralleling the ground mat conductors en route to the relay location. In spe-
cial instances where excessive neutral transient voltages are encountered, it may be necessary to insulate the
transformer case from the local ground to allow connection of one side of the secondary winding to the
transformer case. This approach will eliminate the stress between the secondary winding and the core and
will increase the stress between the primary winding and the core. However, the primary insulation can gen-
erally be expected to be more robust than the secondary insulation.

To protect the primary winding insulation of a wound primary current transformer, it is common practice to
install a rod gap of 1.2–1.6 mm connected directly across the primary terminals (Harder [B5]). This arrange-
ment will limit the voltage impressed across the winding and prevent primary turn-to-turn breakdown. A
high-energy gas-filled protector tube or low-voltage surge arrester (varistor) should be connected across the

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

secondary terminals to protect the secondary winding from turn-to-turn breakdown. (Failure of an inade-
quately rated varistor is likely to short-circuit the current transformer and cause the unbalance protection to
be inoperative.) This device should be insulated from local ground, again to avoid impressing the bank tran-
sient potential on the secondary circuit. The surge arrester should be chosen to limit the current transformer
secondary voltage to coordinate with the secondary circuit insulation voltage rating.

Nonsimultaneous making and breaking times of the three poles of the capacitor bank switching device may
allow full phase current to flow in the neutral current transformer and relay during the switching time. This
current can flow for an indefinitely long period of time if one or two poles of the bank switching device fail
to operate. For this reason, it may be desirable to select a neutral current transformer that can accommodate
this current without damage or malfunction. For more information on surge protection of current transform-
ers, see 10.6.1.

10.6 Transient currents

It is well documented that the switching of capacitive currents produces transients that are markedly differ-
ent from those produced by other power system switching operations (Greenwood [B4]). For capacitor bank
switching, the differences are as follows:

a) Highly damped, nonoscillatory, transient-current pulses may be produced when preinsertion resis-
tors are employed in the bank switching device. Peak currents range from 1000–3000 A. The rise
time is about 1 µs, and the fall time is about 600 µs. Initial dI/dt is about 3000 A/µs.
b) When the main contacts of the capacitor bank switching device close, shorting the preinsertion resis-
tor, oscillatory transient currents may be produced that have a frequency of 1000–20 000 Hz, peak
current of 1000–2500 A, and a subsequent dI/dt of about 100 A/µs.
c) If resistor preinsertion is not employed, the transient may be oscillatory at frequencies in the range
of 1000 Hz to 20 000 Hz and the initial dI/dt will be about the same as with resistor preinsertion:
1000 A/µs. However, the peak current will be much greater. A typical value is 25 000 A crest. Simi-
lar transient current components can be superimposed on 60 Hz fault current waveforms for faults in
the bank, for bus faults in the station, and for close-in line faults.
d) If preinsertion inductors are utilized, peak transient currents are generally less than 3000 A. The
oscillatory frequency is on the order of several hundred hertz. The maximum dI/dt is, therefore, less
than 10 A/µs.
One source (Abdulrahim et al. [B1]) has pointed out that additional very high-frequency switching
transients of several megahertz (due to traveling waves on the capacitor bank bus) will also be
produced and superimposed on the transients already described. This transient is similar, if not iden-
tical, to the transients generated by switching a length of high-voltage bus with a disconnect switch.

The rate of change of the current (dI/dt) is a useful indicator of the potential for inducing interference in
nearby control circuits. Although switching with preinsertion resistors reduces the peak current and elimi-
nates the oscillation, it does not reduce the initial dI/dt. This rate of change is determined only by the voltage
across the switch before closing and the circuit-loop inductance:

dI/dt = V/L

Surge protection techniques for capacitor bank applications should take into consideration the different char-
acter of the transient currents produced during bank switching (higher peak currents and lower oscillation
frequencies) than are experienced with other power system switching operations.

The circulating paths of the transient currents are also important. These currents flow in the capacitor bank
buses, bank ground connections, and capacitor bank ground grid. For some conditions, the currents also flow
in the bus interconnections between the main switching station and the capacitor bank, as well as in the main

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

station buses and ground grid. Due to the combination of high current and high-frequency, significant
transient potential differences can appear across portions of the ground grid due to the grid inductance. The
currents are also accompanied by strong high-frequency magnetic fields. Therefore, control cables in these
areas are prone to inductive interference and require careful attention to routing, shielding, and grounding.

10.6.1 Surge protection for current transformers

When the transient currents produced during capacitor bank switching pass through the primary of the cur-
rent transformer, its secondary circuit can experience a large transverse-mode interference voltage. It is not
induced through stray coupling, but rather by the normal transformer action of the current transformer. This
can present a serious problem for both the current transformer and the equipment and instruments that make
up its secondary burden, such as protective relays and data transducers. The reactance of the burden compo-
nents at these frequencies can be over 100 times their 60 Hz values. As a consequence, high-frequency
transient currents, which can be a few hundred amperes, can produce extremely high voltages across
inductive burdens.

The suggestion is sometimes made that current transformer saturation will prevent the production of such
high secondary voltages. This suggestion is not true for this situation, however. The secondary volt-second
product for each half cycle of the high-frequency oscillation is small compared to that required to produce
current transformer core saturation at 60 Hz. Therefore, voltage limiting by current transformer saturation is
not likely to occur.

Overvoltage protection of the current transformer secondary circuit is thus required to prevent damage to the
current transformer winding and the connected burdens. This protection usually takes the form of high-cur-
rent-rated varistors or spark gaps connected directly across the current transformer secondary terminals. If
the current transformer has a wound primary, a gap or a surge arrester may also be needed across the primary
(Harder [B5]). Varistors applied to the secondary should be selected with a sufficient energy-absorbing rat-
ing to withstand the secondary current oscillations (see 10.5). Also, to maintain voltage-limiting action, the
varistor size should be selected so that the peak current does not drive it deep into the voltage turn-up region
on the varistor’s V/I curve. Figure 46 illustrates this point. Manufacturers of varistors can supply V/I charac-
teristic curves suitable for checking this condition.

1000

700
Varistor Range
Voltage
Volts Turn-up
400

100
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Amperes

Figure 46—Varistor V/I curve showing voltage turn-up

To a degree, the secondary high-voltage problem can be minimized by selecting the current transformer ratio
and burden to reduce the level of the secondary current. Also, eliminating inductive components in the sec-
ondary burden will reduce the secondary voltage. Solid state relays are particularly beneficial in this respect
because their current burdens are low and essentially resistive.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

The foregoing discussion is best illustrated by a numerical example. Figure 47 shows a one-line diagram for
a 230 kV station with a shunt capacitor bank. The bank is rated 40 000 kvar and is wye-connected with a
grounded neutral. In the figure, the line circuit breakers have 1200/5 ratio current transformers, and the
capacitor bank is in service when a phase to ground fault occurs on line 3 just outside the station. The dis-
tance along the 230 kV circuit from the capacitor bank to the fault is about 150 m.

Line #1 Line #2 Line #3

Fault

Capacitor Bank
40 MVA, 230 kV
Grounded Wye
230 kV Bus

500 ft

Figure 47—One-line diagram of 230 kV station with a shunt capacitor bank

Upon occurrence of the fault, the capacitor bank discharges through the bus-ground loop inductance, which
is about 350 µH. Because there is little resistance in the loop, the current is oscillatory. The frequency of the
oscillation depends on the loop inductance and the bank capacitance. The capacitance of the bank can be
found from its voltage rating and its power frequency kilovar rating. For this 60 Hz example, the bank capac-
itance (CB) is

2
 3  6
CB = 2.65 × kvar ×  --------------------3- × 10
 kV LL 10 

40 000 2 3 2 6
C B = 2.65 ×  ---------------- ×  ------------------3 × 10
 3   230 10 

C B = 2.0 µ F

The frequency of oscillation (f) is

6
10
f = ------------------------------
2π L s × C B

6
10
f = ----------------------------------
2π 350 × 2.0

f = 6105 Hz

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

The peak current is

2 3 C
i max = ------- × 10 × kV LL ------B-
3 Ls

2 3 2.0
i max = ------- × 10 × 230 ---------
3 350

The peak secondary current is

i max = (secondary) = 14 196 ⁄ ( 1200:5 )

= 59.1 A @ 6015 Hz

The current transformer secondary burden impedance, at 60 Hz, is 1 + j1 Ω . At 6015 Hz, the burden imped-
ance is about 1 + j100 Ω . The peak magnitude of the oscillatory voltage transient across the secondary of the
current transformer is then

2 2
V max = [ 59.1 ( 1 ) ] + [ 59.1 ( 100 ) ]

= 5910 V @ 6015 Hz

This voltage is too much to allow across the relay and instrument burdens or the current transformer second-
ary winding insulation. Some means to clamp or limit the voltage to a lower amount is required, such as a
spark gap or high-current varistor. Protective relays operating from these current transformers or from the
bank-tie current transformers should also have a filter to exclude the 6 kHz discharge current calculated pre-
viously or be designed to ignore its presence.

The peak voltage, peak current and frequency produced in a given installation will vary somewhat from this
example depending on the bank capacitance, current transformer ratios, system voltage, and burden
impedance.

10.6.2 Surge protection of voltage transformers, capacitor-coupled voltage transformers,

and resistance potential devices

Voltage signal sources of various types are used in capacitor bank protection schemes to detect abnormal
conditions in the bank. Because they are located close to the capacitor bank, these devices can be directly
exposed to the transients or surges produced during capacitor bank switching. Surge protection of these
devices is mainly to prevent overstress in the primary-to-secondary insulation and the secondary-to-ground
(case) insulation by the transient ground potential differences produced in the bank area during switching.

A peninsula grounding arrangement for the capacitor bank (along with proper control cable shielding,
grounding, and routing) provides better surge protection for ac voltage signal sources than the single-point
grounding scheme. The higher cost of peninsular grounding may be justified for large EHV capacitor bank
installations.

With the single-point grounding arrangement, the bank neutral transient potential will be about 0.25 that on
the capacitor bank bus (20 kV to 60 kV or higher). In this case, a voltage transformer connected to measure
the capacitor bank voltage, bus to neutral, would need to be a two-bushing design so the case could be safely
grounded to the station ground grid (refer to 6.2).

88 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Use of a single-bushing transformer, with the case (primary ground) connected to the bank neutral, would
impress the neutral transient voltage between the case and the secondary winding, which is grounded
through the control cable at the relay location. Failure of the secondary winding insulation would be a strong
possibility. Figure 48 and Figure 49 illustrate the situation.

Capacitor Bank

Is

Secondary
Ground
Bank Neutral Transient Voltage Stresses Secondary
to case Insulation of VT
Is

Bank Ground Connecction

In a Single Bushing VT
Is the Case is Connected to
Single Point Vs Bank Neutral
Ground

Station Ground

Figure 48—Single-point grounded bank with single-bushing voltage transformer

Capacitor Bank

Is

Two Bushing VT

Secondary Ground

Bank Neutral
VT Case Connected
to Station Ground
Is

Bank Ground Connection

Is
Single Point
Ground

Station Ground

Figure 49—Single-point grounded bank with two-bushing voltage transformer

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Conventional high-voltage and EHV magnetic voltage transformers often have primary winding self-
resonant frequencies in the range of 500 Hz to 2000 Hz. If the bank switching frequency coincides with this
self resonance, the capacitor bank transient may be strongly amplified in the voltage transformer output
voltage. There is probably little risk of damage to the voltage transformer, but the operation of relays and
controls connected to the voltage transformer may be adversely affected. A resistor in series or parallel with
the secondary of the transformer can be used to dampen the oscillation. The resistor value should be such
that it does not influence the signal level to the relay.

Finally, all types of voltage transducers, voltage transformers, capacitor-coupled voltage transformers, and
resistance potential devices can, with some loss in fidelity, reproduce the capacitor bank switching transient
voltage. It will appear in the transverse mode at the output terminals of the device. This voltage, too, may
affect the operation of relay systems.

10.6.3 Surge protection of relay systems associated with capacitor banks

It has already been mentioned that capacitor bank switching produces the same megahertz transients that
occur in other high-voltage switching operations, as well as its characteristic high-energy kilohertz tran-
sients. Protective relay systems for capacitor bank applications should have incorporated in their design
surge protection that is effective for both types of interference.

Experience has shown that interference in control circuits caused by high-voltage switching operations is
always stronger in the common mode than in the transverse mode. Surge protection techniques have been
directed mostly toward reducing the common mode. Some of these techniques (such as control cable rout-
ing, cable shielding and grounding, and isolation), which are highly effective at megahertz frequencies, are
also effective against the kilohertz common mode interference due to capacitor bank switching and are,
therefore, recommended for such installations.

On the other hand, the surge filters [for example, passive electromagnetic interference (EMI) filters] used in
the inputs to relay systems, although highly effective at megahertz frequencies, are ineffective against capac-
itor bank switching transients in the kilohertz frequency range. Passive kilohertz surge filters for relay input
circuits would require much larger inductors and capacitors, which could present severe loading problems
for current transformers and voltage transformers. Such filters are often not practical.

In capacitor bank switching, the kilohertz interference in the secondary circuits is strongest in the transverse
mode because, as already described, it is coupled to the secondary circuits of current transformers and volt-
age transformers by the normal transformer action of these devices. Because it is not practical to use passive
kilohertz filters in the current transformer and voltage transformer secondary ac relay input circuits, the
required filtering action should be achieved by other means. One approach is to design active filters as an
integral part of the relay analog signal processing circuits.

Finally, all ac input connections to the relay system should be protected against overvoltages by using varis-
tors or spark gaps.

10.7 Control cables

All control cable duct runs, cable trenches, or direct buried control cables not specifically associated with
capacitor controls or protection should be removed from the immediate area around the capacitor bank. This
step is to avoid induction of surges into relaying systems or possible control cable failure during capacitor
bank switching.

The routing of control cables from neutral current transformers or voltage transformers should be kept at
right angles with respect to the common neutral for single-point grounding and in parallel with the tie to the
substation ground for peninsular grounding to minimize induction. These induced voltages can also be

90 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

minimized by shielding the cables and using a radial configuration for circuits (circuits completely contained
within one cable so that inductive loops are not formed).

Control cables entering the capacitor bank area should be kept as close as possible to the ground grid con-
ductors (that is, 4/0 copper minimum) in the cable trench, or on top of the duct run, or in contact with the
ground grid conductor if direct buried. This grounding arrangement is mandatory if a peninsula ground is
used. Multiple control cable shield grounds are recommended: one at the cable termination in the capacitor
area, another where the cable enters the main cable trench or duct run, and another where the cable enters the
control house, or at the final termination on the relay panel. All spare or unused conductors of control cables
should be grounded at least at one end.

The induced voltages [common mode (between a signal pair and ground) and transverse mode (between the
signal wires)] will be affected by the cable construction (for example, shielded twisted pairs or random lay
without shielding) and by whether the shields and unused conductors are grounded. The outer shield should
normally be grounded at both ends to reduce the common and transverse induced voltage.

If the spare conductors and internal shields are grounded at both ends, the induced common mode voltage
will be reduced; but the induced transverse mode voltage can be increased due to the current flow through
the spare conductors coupling to the other cable conductors.

11. System considerations

11.1 Resonance

A shunt capacitor bank forms a resonant circuit with system inductive elements. The resonant frequency
may be generated while switching a remote capacitor bank and give rise to excessive voltages and currents
and the possible failure of equipment such as other capacitors, surge arresters, instrument transformers, and
fuses. These undesirable resonant effects are more likely to occur if the capacitor bank switching device has
long arcing time and multiple restrike characteristics.

11.2 Harmonics

The capacitor bank may also resonate with harmonic currents produced elsewhere, such as remote loads.
The use of thyristors in industry to derive variable potential dc from an ac source is extensive and growing.
Such phase-controlled thyristors generate harmonics, particularly third, fifth, seventh, and eleventh. More
instances of parallel resonance are occurring due to this cause. Some examples of harmonic series resonance
with utilities, due to adjacent utility loads, have been noted. These resonant circuits also include utility
distribution circuits with capacitors that supply medium-voltage industrial and commercial loads. In most
instances, some form of harmonic voltage and high-harmonic capacitor currents are involved. Capacitors
rated for higher voltage may be used (Steepes and Stratford [B14]; Miller [B10]; McCauley et al. [B8]).

Arc furnaces, in the melt part of their cycle, produce a similar array of troublesome harmonics, including
even-ordered harmonics. While the large furnaces are connected to stiff high-voltage sources, small installa-
tions on distribution circuits nevertheless produce the same effect.

11.3 Telephone interference

Another objection to harmonics in the power system is the noise interference produced in communications
circuits. Voice frequency noise interference comes primarily from the residual or zero sequence currents that
are odd multiples of the third (the ninth and fifteenth harmonic of the fundamental frequency). Grounded
capacitor banks provide a low impedance path for these currents to flow.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

The measure of the capability of a power circuit to act as a noise source is the telephone influence factor
(TIF) (see IEEE Std 469-1988). Before attempting to apply corrective measures to a capacitor bank that is
suspected of causing interference, it would be well to locate the source of the noise. The best corrective mea-
sures are usually applied at the source. If corrections should be made at the capacitor bank, modifications to
change the resonant frequency can be made.

12. Commissioning, operation, and maintenance

12.1 Preparation for initial energizing

Before energizing power equipment, there are the usual precommissioning checks for instrument trans-
former ratio, polarity, and excitation; circuit dielectric withstand; proper operation of protective devices; and
visual verification of proper connections and clearances, clean insulators, etc. The nameplate information
and wiring should be checked to verify that the construction is correct and agrees with the construction
drawings. Test trip and verify the logic of the schemes. In addition, some recommended checks specific to
capacitors are addressed in 12.1.1 through 12.1.6.

12.1.1 Visual and switching device inspection

Inspect all fuses for proper connections and clearance. The bank switching device and ground switch (if
used) should be checked for proper operation. Capacitor unit nameplates should be checked for the correct
voltage for the desired number of units in series (fuseless design) or units in series groups with parallel
capacitor units per series group. Secondary circuits should be checked for proper grounding of cable shields
and spare control wires (see 10.7). Spare control wires should be grounded as necessary.

12.1.2 Capacitance testing

In fused and unfused designs, the capacitance of each capacitor unit may be checked to verify that it is
within specified tolerance. Usually, the capacitor manufacturer will maintain capacitor tolerances to within
±2% of each other within a given bank. For fuseless designs, measuring and comparing the capacitance of
each series string of units is adequate.

12.1.3 Relay protection testing

All relaying associated with the capacitor installation should be checked for proper operation. Where
possible this step should be done by putting the appropriate signal on the sensing device and checking for
appropriate operation of the relays, circuit breakers, etc.

The unbalance relay installation that detects the change in capacitance should be calibrated to verify both
proper pickup current and proper time delay. (Excessive time delay in the trip operation can result in severe
damage to the capacitor bank and associated equipment.) The lockout and trip operation should also be
checked.

Backup or redundant overcurrent relays should be tested to verify proper pickup current and time delay. The
settings used should be compared with the desired values that have been calculated.

92 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

12.1.4 Special recording

An oscillograph or portable recorder can assist in diagnosing problems associated with initial energization of
a large capacitor bank. The following parameters should be recorded:

— All three phase currents.

— All three phase voltages (if voltages are available).
— Capacitor bank neutral current (or voltage).
— The outputs of the capacitor bank sensing devices.

A calibration trace should be run on each channel used.

12.1.5 Initial energization

Verify that all relaying systems are operational prior to energizing the capacitor bank. The oscillographic
equipment should be started immediately before the circuit breaker, circuit switcher, or equivalent switching
device is closed. If the relay protection operates to trip immediately after initial closing, the following proce-
dure should be initiated:

a) Perform the procedures of 12.2.1 through 12.2.4.

b) If no problem is found with the capacitor bank or relay installation, review the setting of the relay
that tripped with the oscillographic data and revise the setting, if appropriate.
c) If the sensitive unbalance relay is operating on the inherent unbalance of the capacitor bank, it may
be necessary to raise its setting until the capacitor bank remains energized to properly adjust the
relay.

With the bank energized, it may be necessary to calibrate the protection equipment with actual system volt-
ages and currents applied, especially if compensation for inherent unbalance is involved. Secondary currents
from the current transformers should be recorded along with phase angles to verify that the installation is
correct and to provide for future reference.

12.1.6 Additional tests (optional)

After the capacitor bank has been energized and all protection has been properly adjusted, the alarm level (if
used) and the lockout operation may be checked. Depending upon the bank construction, it may be possible
to check for proper trip and alarm performance in operation by removing or adding appropriate capacitors in
the bank. Modify the bank to create an alarm situation. Measure the unbalance and verify that the level mea-
sured is close to the expected value. The alarm should pick up. Verify operation of any remote displays, if
used.

Modify the bank to create a trip situation. Energize the bank. Modifying units from different groups or series
strings instead of all from one group or string tests the unbalance protection and produces less stress on the
remaining units. Verify proper relay targets and remote displays, if used.

12.2 Response to alarm or lockout (trip)

12.2.1 Oscillographic records

If available, review oscillographic records to determine the magnitude of the unbalance current or voltage
and on the phase.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

12.2.2 Inspection (after de-energization)

Immediately inspect the bank for blown fuses (if applicable), possible flashover damage, and obvious capac-
itor unit failures.

12.2.3 Testing

In externally fused banks, test capacitors that are not obviously defective, but have blown fuses. In cases
where a large number of the capacitor units in the bank have blown fuses (for example, 25% or more), it is
advisable to test all capacitor units and verify fuse ratings. Measure the capacitance in other types of banks.
Measure the series strings in the fuseless design and the individual capacitor units in the internally and
unfused designs.

12.2.4 Capacitor unit removal and replacement

Replace the defective capacitor units and/or fuses. When capacitors are arranged in parallel, units can be
removed or relocated from other phases in order to rebalance the series-parallel groups for capacitance and
voltage. Relocation of capacitor units and changes to the bank configuration may require a change in the
unbalance relay settings.

12.2.5 Returning bank to service after lockout

If only a few capacitor units have been replaced, the bank can be returned to service with a minimum of
readjustment of the unbalance relay. These adjustments can be performed after the bank is energized.

If a large number of the capacitor units have been replaced, attention may have to be given to recalibration of
the sensitive protection after the bank is re-energized. Refer to 12.1.5.

Additional tests, as noted in 12.1.6, may be performed in order to verify the protection scheme.

12.2.6 Servicing bank following alarm condition

When system conditions permit, the bank should be taken out of service to replace defective capacitor units
and/or capacitor fuses. If replacement capacitor units are not available, for some bank designs, it may be
possible to rebalance the bank by disabling corresponding units from all phases. Such rebalancing, or other
changes to the bank configuration, may require a change in unbalance relay settings.

94 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Annex A
(informative)

Symbol definitions
Cg is per-unit capacitance of the affected parallel group of capacitor units.
Chn is capacitance from H leg or tap point to neutral or reference end of a capacitor bank.
Ci is per-unit capacitance of the affected group in an internally fused capacitor unit.
Cp is per-unit capacitance of the phase (leg if the bank is delta-connected) with the affected
capacitor unit(s).
Cs is per-unit capacitance of a string (or leg) of capacitor units with affected capacitor unit(s).
Cst is capacitance of a string of capacitor units with shorted elements.
Ctn is capacitance from tap to neutral or reference end for a tapped capacitor bank.
Cy is per-unit capacitance of the parallel strings in the phase of the wye with affected elements.
Cu is per-unit capacitance of a capacitor unit.
∆C is per-unit variation of capacitance between phases.
dVtg is change in tap voltage, per unit of normal tap voltage.
∆VLG is variation of VLG between phases, per unit.
e is number of shorted elements in a string of capacitor elements.
E is total number of series elements in a string of capacitor elements.
f is number of blown fuses (eliminated elements) in one group of an internally fused capaci-
tor unit.
f is variance of phase angle between two phases from 120°.
G is grounding of bank: 0 = grounded, 1 = ungrounded.
Id is difference in neutral-to-ground current between two equal grounded wye banks.
Ig is neutral-to-ground current for a grounded wye bank.
Ih is current through the H leg (current transformer) of an H-bridge.
In is neutral current between wyes for wye-wye banks, per unit of normal total phase current.
Iph is current in affected phase, per unit of normal phase current.
Ist is current in affected string, per unit of normal string current.
Iu is current in the affected capacitor unit.
Iy is current in affected phase of the affected wye.
N is number of parallel elements in one group of an internally fused capacitor unit.
n is number of external fuses blown in one series group.
P is number of parallel capacitors per series group (in the affected group of units).
Pa is parallel units on the left (affected) wye or side of H.
Pb is parallel units on the right (unaffected) wye or side of H.
Pt is total parallel units in a bank (Pt = Pa + Pb).
S is number of series groups in a bank (phase-to-neutral for wye-connected banks and phase-
to-phase for delta-connected banks).
Sl is parallel strings in the left wye.
Sp is the total number of parallel strings of units in one phase (leg) of a fuseless capacitor bank.
St is number of series groups, sensing tap to ground or reference end for tapped banks and
sensing H leg to ground or reference end for H-bridge banks.
Su is number of series groups of capacitor elements in a capacitor unit.
Vcu is voltage across capacitor units in affected series group (per unit of normal voltage).
Ve is voltage across affected elements in an internally fused capacitor unit (per unit of normal
voltage).
Vg is voltage across affected elements in an internally fused capacitor unit due to unbalance
within the unit (per unit of actual unit operating voltage).

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Vh is highest voltage on other units in the bank when this is higher than the voltage on the par-
allel units Vcu or in the same string Ve.
Vhn is voltage of H leg of H-bridge.
VLG or Vlg is line-to-ground voltage (use maximum value where appropriate).
Vln is line-to-neutral voltage of affected phase, per unit of normal line to neutral voltage.
VNG or Vng is neutral-to-ground voltage or per unit of normal line to ground voltage.
VNN or Vnn is voltage between neutrals.
VTG or Vtg is voltage between intermediate tap point and ground.

96 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

 IEEE
PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Annex B
(informative)

Bibliography
[B1] Abdulrahim, M. J., Anderson, P. M., and Fouad, A. A., “Inrush Currents in a Switched Parallel-
Capacitor Bank,” IEEE Conference Paper CP 66-101.

[B2] Alexander, R. W., “Synchronous Closing Control for Shunt Capacitors,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-104, no. 9, pp. 2619–2626, Sept. 1985.

[B3] Benmouyal, G., Bilodeau, H., Chano, S. R., and Sybille, G., “New Algorithm for Protection of Capaci-
tor Banks Exposed to Harmonic Overvoltages,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 8, no. 3,
pp. 898–904, July 1993.

[B4] Greenwood, A. N., Kurtz, D. R., and Sofianek, J. C., “A Guide to the Application of Vacuum Circuit
Breakers,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS 90, pp. 1589–1597, July/Aug.
1971.

[B5] Harder, J. E., “Selection and Protection of Current Transformers for Use in Shunt Capacitor Banks,”
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-95, abstract A 76 335-0, pp. 1760 (1A10),
Nov./Dec. 1976.

[B6] Harner, R. H., and Owen, R. E., “Neutral Displacement of Ungrounded Capacitor Banks During
Switching,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-90, pp. 1631–1638, July/Aug.
1971.

[B7] IEEE Power System Relaying Committee, “Static VAR Compensator Protection,” IEEE Transactions
on Power Delivery, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 1224–1233, July 1995.

[B8] McCauley, T. M., Pelfrey, D. L., Roettger, W. C., and Wood, C. E., “The Impact of Shunt Capacitor
Installations on Power Circuit Breaker Application,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
vol. PAS-99, no. 6, pp. 2210–2222, Nov./Dec. 1980.

[B9] Mendis, S. R., Bishop, M. T., McCall, J. C., and Hurst, W. M., “Overcurrent Protection of Capacitors
Applied on Industrial Distribution Systems,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 29, no. 3,
May/June 1993.

[B10] Miller, D. F., “Application Guide for Shunt Capacitors on Industrial Distribution Systems at Medium
Voltage Levels,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. IA-12, no. 5, pp. 444–459, Sept./Oct.
1976.

[B11] NEMA CP1-1988, Shunt Capacitors.

[B12] Rogers, E. J., and Gillies, D. A., “Shunt Capacitor Switching EMI Voltages, Their Reduction in
Bonneville Power Administration Substations,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
vol. PAS-93, pp. 1849–1860, Nov./Dec. 1974.

[B13] Sheppard, N. R., and Schultz, N. R., “Some Considerations in the Protection of High-Voltage Capaci-
tor Banks,” AIEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. 75, part III, pp. 686–694, Aug. 1956.

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved. 97

IEEE
Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

[B14] Steepes, D. E., and Stratford, R. P., “Reactive Compensation and Harmonic Suppression for Industrial
Power Systems Using Thyristor Converters,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. IA-12, no. 3,
pp. 232–254, May/June 1976.

[B15] Tom, M. O., “A Static Voltage Differential Relay for Protection of Shunt Capacitors,” AIEE Transac-
tions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. 80, part III, pp. 1086–1088, Feb. 1961.

98 Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.

 IEEE
PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

Annex C
(informative)

Equations for effect of inherent unbalances

Table C.1 is intended as a rule of thumb for determining the effect of inherent unbalances on the
displacement of various bank protection schemes.

Table C.1—Effect of inherent unbalance on displacement signal

Shunt capacitor bank Effect of capacitor Effect of system voltage Effect of system voltage
configuration manufacturing tolerance magnitude changes phase angle change
Φ
Grounded wye with ∆C × var B ( ∆V LG )P × var U 2P × V LG  sin ---- var U
I N = ------------------------ I N = ---------------------------------------
-  2
neutral current sensing 3V LG S ( VC )
2
IN = ------------------------------------------------------
S × VC

Ungrounded wye with ∆C × V LG ∆V LG 2 Φ

V NG = -----------------------
- V NG = -------------
- V NG = ---  sin ---- V LG
neutral potential sensing 3 3 3 2

Ungrounded double ∆C × var B IN = 0 IN = 0

I N = ------------------------
wye with neutral differ- 6V LG
ential current sensing

Ungrounded double ∆C × V LG ∆V NN = 0 ∆V NN = 0
∆V NN = -----------------------
-
wye with neutral differ- 3
ential potential sensing

Grounded wye with ST ∆V TG = 0 ∆V TG = 0

∆V TG = ∆C ( V LG ) -----2- ( S – S T )
differential potential S
sensing

IN is neutral current,
∆C is per-unit variation of capacitance between phases,
varB is capacitor bank reactive power rating,
varU is individual capacitor-unit reactive power rating,
VC is rated capacitor voltage,
Φ is variance of phase angle between two phases from 120°,
∆VTG is per-unit variation of the voltage between the intermediate tap point and ground.

NOTE—See Annex A for other symbols.

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Std C37.99-2000 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE

Annex D
(informative)

Inrush current and frequency for switching capacitor banks

D.1 Energizing an isolated bank with no previous charge

i max ( A ) = 2 × I sc × I 1 or

2 3 C
i max ( A ) = ------- × kV LL × 10 ------B- or
3 Ls

3 1000 kvar
i max ( A ) = 10 × ---------------------- × ----------
3 × π × fs Ls

6
I 10
f ( Hz ) = f s ----sc- = ------------------------------
I 1 2π L × C
s B

D.2 Energizing a bank with another on the same bus with no charge on the
bank being switched

3
10 kvar 1 × kvar 2
i max ( kA ) = ---------------------- × -------------------------------
-
3 × π × fs L eq × kvar T

f s × kV LL ( I 1 + I 2 )
f(kHz) = 9.5 × ------------------------------------------
-
L eq × ( I 1 × I 2 )

where

CB is bank capacitance (µF),

LS is system inductance (µH),
fS is system frequency (Hz),
Leq is total equivalent inductance per phase between capacitor banks (µH),
I1 is load current of capacitor bank being switched (A),
kVLL is line-to-line voltage (kV),
kvar1 is 3 φ kVA of capacitor bank being switched,
I2 is load current of capacitor bank already energized (A),
kvar2 is 3 φ kVA of capacitor bank already energized,
imax is peak current without damping (actual value about 90%),
k varT is kvar1 + kvar2 ,
ISC is symmetrical rms short-circuit current (A).

NOTE—Above expressions for inrush current apply only for energizing uncharged capacitors. If capacitors are charged,
as during a restrike across an interrupting switch, the inrush current may be twice these values.

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PROTECTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Std C37.99-2000

D.3 Typical values of inductance between capacitor banks

See IEEE Std C37.012-1979.

Inductance Typical capacitor bank

Rated maximum voltage
per phase of bus inductance
(kV)
(µH/ft) (µH)

15.5 and below 0.214 5

38.0 0.238 5

48.3 0.256 10

72.5 0.256 10

121.0 0.261 10

145.0 0.261 10

169.0 0.268 10

242.0 0.268 10

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