PACKED FULL OF FASCINATING FACTS, IMAGES & ILLUSTRATIONSNANA NS db be LAAAAAA Ad AAAsaAaad AAAAAAAd (44444444 AAAAssAdsd AAssAadaad (AAAAssdd AAAAsaaada AAAALAAS AAsssasa A4444444 AAAAAAAA SS a a a es a | es es es eeWelcome to Wane BOOK OF THE HUMAN BODY ‘Thehuman body strulyan amazing thing Capable awe-inspiring feats of speed andagility, while being mind-blowing in complexity, our bodiesare ‘unmatched by any other species on Earth Inthis new edition ofthe Book ‘ofthe Human Body we exploreouramazing anatomy infinedeailbelore delvinginto the intricacies ofthecomplex processes, functonsand systems thatkeep us going For instance, didyou know you really havex6senses? ‘Wealso explain the weirdestand most wonderfl bodily phenomena, from ‘blushing te hiceuping, crampsto jaundice, Wewilltourthehumanbody trom ‘skullto metatarsal usinganatomical illustrations, amazing photography snd authoritative explanations toteach you more. This book will help you understand the wonder tatisthehumman body andinnotie you wil begin toseeyourselfina whole new light4 L FUTURE 4 iTHE HUMAN BODYZ of CAR an bot 064 How the pancreas works 008 A-Zof the human body 066 Theurinarysystem 008-068 “Inside thehuman stomach Braincells 70 Thehumanhand / 072 Howyourfeet work VW; . 074 Hacking the human body Human anatomy 018 50amazing body facts 026 Human cells 028 Inside a nucleus 029 What are stem cells? 030 The human brain 034 The science of vision 036 Howearswork 038 Anatomy of the neck 040 The human skeleton 042 The skull 043 Vocal cords 044 The human spine 046 How the body moves 048 How muscles work 050 Skinsenses 051 Skincolour/ Skin grafts 052 The human heartbeat 054 Anatomy of facial expressions 055 Thespleen 056 Human kidneys 058 How the liver works 060 The small intestine 062 The human ribcage fees 082 Thescience of sleep 090 Human digestion explained 092 Human respiration 094 Dehydration / Sweating 095 How wounds heal 096 The immune system 100 How oldis your body? x02 Pregnancy 104 Hyperthermia vs Hypothermia 106 Bacteria vs virus 107 What is saliva? 208 Neurotransmitters and your feelings 109 Brain cells 210 White blood cells uz Thescience of genetics 217 Whatis anxiety?8 320 124 335 126 128 Left or right brained? 092 Brain freeze Human respiration Runny nose /Coma Sore throat / Ears pop / Freckles pop amen Tne Blushing / Nerves / Fainting oe eer ere le Keratin / Lightening hair EY wnat powersyourcle? 4 How anaesthesia works: ee ———— Grumbling stomachs ras aceon ee a Same ereeea Migraines / Eye drops ee ee, ea 034 ‘The inner workings oftheeye Circulatory system How your blood works Blood vessels / Hyperventilation Sensitive teeth / Jaundice Hormones ‘The sensory systemA-Z OF THE HUMAN BODY \ % Take a tour of your anatomy with our head-to-toe guide ‘ ‘ORL amen Dairy including 28 in the skull, 32 in each arm, and 319 Asanadult,yourlungs Alveoli ‘metres. Thatsarounda quarter of thesizeofa tennis ourt Packing allofthatintoyourchestis no ‘mean feat, and the body doesit usingstructures called alveoli, They looka little bit like bunches cof grapes, packed tightlyinside the Understanding alveol Jungs in order to maximise the use ‘oftheavailablevolume inthe ‘chest. When you breathe in, they expan ilingwith air. The surfaces of the alvealtarejust one ‘ellthickand surrounded by tiny blood vessels called capillaries, allowinggaseste difuse easly in ‘andoutofthebloodwith each breath you take, How does your body pack such a huge surface area inside your chest? The brainisnot just the most complex structureinthe human body, butitisalsothe ‘most complex objectinthe known universe tt containsan estimated 86 billionnerve cells, each of ‘hich makes hundreds, or even thousands of connections tathe others around. Branching Thelungs are branched many aeotas possible : Gas exchange aoa son, Red blood cells Bieod cas move fie xing up oxaen dloddewr ey Surfactant Capitry ‘Rida to wei Soeeto the Ti whch coats te ros he sea Sting together. Pneumocytes Eee Of . fhe distance that gases Alveolus ach nda ar eae Live coating that erent ereenreent clear butis actually een of cells. Light bend: slightly asit passes through oe Rene eer ier Peart erred ceseS eres retary etn Peet irre cer ntic) ee eee ee ce These recipes are Pee eee Seat Seo ees Roe QP ecrrsetieni burnscoesteeepyou war, vile whteitreseneryand produces enone Cdenaverere Drown at han ada andinalaly found te mecand oes rtd 10 A-Z OF THE HUMAN BODY jab istospeed up chemical reactions. Youarefull of dissolved chemicals with the potential to come together or breakapartto form the biological building blocks that youneed to stay live, but the reactions happen toostowly ontheirown, Enzymesare molecules with aetve ites" that loek on toother molecules bringing them close together so that they can react, or bending Substrate tpecte mote tat ——T w Nw Complex theirstructuresso that they cancombine or break apart more easily. The enzymes themselves do notactually ‘get involved inthe reactions: they Justhelp them to happen faster Some ofthe most wel known enzymes are the ones inyour digestive system ‘Theseare important for breaking down the molecules Inyourfood. However, these aren‘tthe only enzymesin your body. Thereare others responsible for building molecules, sniping Digestive enzymes ‘These microscopic molecules break your ea ‘down into absorbable chunks / / ~ > > Stress Theerayne pute stose Sota together molecules, tidying up when molecules reno longer needed, and even destroying Invading pathogens, me =e a3 & ae i « = Se Products ‘Mis steescauces the ™ w Amylase Sucrase-Isomaltase Maltase Carbohydrates Proteins Fats OIL Lactase Carbohydrases ——! aroohtats aco Pepsin Trypsin Peptidase Prone — - 000 aa > » Lipases ana tears ? yeDID YOU KNOW? The smallest bone in your body is the stapes, which is found in the ear and helps ta transmit sound Glands Intestines ‘ ‘Afterexiting your stomach, food enters ‘Thesestructuresare @ ee your intestinesand beginsa 75-metre Qin a f journey out of your body. The small cone eeesing fuse Intestine comesst, and sled with digestive eietaea ene absorbing the molecules from your meal. After Commas ‘his, the large intestine absorbsas much water Exocrineglandsproduce substances ike sweat, ‘a possible before the wasteis passed out ae you warm, trapping dirt and debris, and even gy st ere Uber sd eteorstnnn peer] pee eer ee eer Perera) 0 ee a aed SE papereure) nalltherightplaces they are linked Enea Peter eer one Pivot Sera semen on es i birt Sr Soe eRe er eee eens Became forwards, backwards, side-to-sideand po ie Provera ce SE Lnaeee ere ee ca Pvranmmneere mente | eee Pesta eee Sree nent ey Perret eet : es Risers Serer f core Crete nthe man bay Seen eS Dee yey remeron contained within a fluid-filled capsule, which eons eee ey smoothly. These are called synovial joints. ee See eee ed “There are more of Ss ii ple/g 18/0) 0) 019-9 tect Peoserieratstr Ever oRincety aoe poeA-Z OF THE HUMAN BO! 1 it ‘Adrenal gland Kidneys Thekidneys news ae These simple ooking organs hormones, euting adenine Yourlidneys keep your blood lean and your body properlyhydrated.8lood ——-—Renal medulla Renal cortex passes nthrough knots of blood The me art of he Sei cn vesselsthatarewideron the wayin ey srespansie ‘eka. that forces water and waste out ‘towards the bind pases huh . ‘bendy tubes (knownas convoluted ce levels stable Renal pyramid Renal vein ‘Thee tretres “Your KidNeYS — Stsratoctcane nchney keep your blood =" cleanand your — ureter = body hydrated" sarees tem Everyone knows about the MWY 2 c that turn these The mphatic systom is studded wit fmph nodes, sed as urpostsby he imane system | RBDID YOU KNOW? If you could spread your brain out flat, it would be the size of a pillowcase Nervous system ey pee eran Soa Dee Sree tenia ere ene mre! Cece one Ta spinal eord can take eareof some things on ene eet eesti tes eee The nervous system sends electrical baad yy Sear eee! ae ecard reaction. They bypass the brain, which ST eee The peripheral nervous system isthe See ee eee ered body, and itcan be further divided into two ee eS ee eens eee! ere ee nny pain ifyoustep ona nail. Theautonomic erent resent ie tee tra the background, like keeping yourheart Pees Your nerve network Co Spinal cord the body. feedna Dard Cea Oesophagus tube i toyour stomach. When your mouth youswallaw, circular ss push food into your i: \\\ digestive tract, starting Pancreas downin waves, This leat-shaped organ plays two vital rlesin digestion. tproduces enzymes that breakdown food in the smallintestine,anditmakes the hormones insulin and glucagon, whi regulate the levels of sugar inthe blood. ‘Therearen't many body parts that begin with theletterQ, but his bundle offourmusclesin the upper legisan Important one. The quadriceps femoris connect § the pelvisand thigh tothe kneeand shin and are used to straighten the legbesa L748 als an ON =18 8a Ribcage Thisinternal armour protects your heartand lungs, and performsa vital rolein keeping your body supplied withoxygen.tntotal, | = am the ribcage ismadefrom agcarved bones, which Connecting T thoracievertebrae ofthe spine atthe back. Seven ofthese pairs aecalledtruerbs,and arelinkedatthe rontto awide, fat bone called the sternum (or breastbone) The newtecpar conan, Sa re comet Vorsnisthlares tbe Teepe thes Crees tenants incase YP mmageupaftvee whkhproducetnecaor thera cayenne fg] since epcermisen jgmtens andare known as semetimes the eating beneath, ndthehypadermis _follcies, glands, nervesand floating ribs. ieee rightat the bottom. ‘blood vessels. Itnourishes the Theepidermisiswaterproof, top layerof skin, and produces ‘andismadeupofoverlapping _sweatandsebum. Under tisis layersofflatened cells. hese a layer of supportingtissue areconstantlybeingreplaced called the hypodermis, which byalayerofstemcelisthatsit _containestoragespace for fat [= Umbilical cord on ‘This spongy structure is packed with blood vessels, oo Seo ee eee even keepingyourmouth clean, butits tastebudseach, Andat the tip are the . Pcie e eet C i ‘The umbilical cord is we allatepapillae each containing papillae and do not haveany taste a eet Sete eee ee eer eT Separating the baby 4ORC LN ease Ng Se PS eee ea ea faa Vocal rege} oO: mire folds of membrane en a Pee oa cca pers! peer tit eerie ar anes) eee tee Your immune army ‘Meat some of the calls that fight to keep you free from infection Monocytes turminiomacrophogos ora eters Ceanngupsesdeas Lymphocytes —l__ seety ack +4 White blood cel Eosinophils sraules halo Infections by swallowingand digesting bacteria, as wellas llingcells that have been infected with viruses. Ifthe innate immunesystem can'tkeep the infectionat bay, then they callin the second layer of defence -the adaptive immune system, These cells mountastrangerand more specificattack, and can even remember ‘which pathogens they've fought before. Basophils Neutrophils Tso dence agaist stack They ae present in Thisisthe technical term used for the litle lamp that canbe foundat the bottom of your sternum, or breastbone. Medical professionalsuse the xiphold processasa landmarkinorderto find theright pace for chest compressions during CPR, Dla eee Penge Penner Seen Beeirenis Zygomaticus major =, Oo." respnste rout ‘ile jonngthe foo oficennt tothe chetbone, a pulingyour lipeupand ou Deendingon your anatomy, itisalso & @ theme resonable for cheep }system go.amazing body facts rom head to toe Human cells Howare they structured? Inside anuclens Dissecting a cell's control centre What are stem cells? Bullding block bring new life ‘The human brain About our most complex organ ‘The science of vision Inside the eye How ears work Soundand balance explained Anatomy of the neck Impressive anatomical design ‘The human skeleton Abounty ot boney facts ‘The skull Supporting our rain Vocal cords See how they help us talk ‘The human spine s3vertebrae explained How the body moves ‘The types of joints explained How muscles work Muscle power revealed Skin senses Bickngup signals Skin colour / Skin grafts Skin facts explained: ‘The human heartbeat ‘What keeps us going strong? Anatomy of facial expressions Whydowesmile? Thespleen Keepingus healthy Human Kida How do your kidneys function? How the liver works ‘The ultimate multitasker ‘The small intestine How does this organ work? The human ribeage ‘The function of the ibs How the pancreas works The body digestive workhorse ‘The urinary system How'we process waste Inside the human stomach How does this organ digest food? ‘The human hand Our most versatile body part How your feet work Feet facts and stats Hacking thehuman How'will technology cure us? 028, Insidea nucleus| a TAN ale ha Vv about t sya) ay SUC MC ey aelselely questions everybody wants iO Steet ance iaesy(o FiclauaCchoerTeacmea tree Bete Ca eer cad ees eT Poorest) Pan Mules Prceany ere rar reenter! Peo retreat eee een ore cee nee es ey Scere paar tenants Comes Perey ey Perron Reena Pacer Coes) Cerny Crono) prea arg cereHow do we think? \Whatarethoaghts?Tisqueston wil Keepecentosdocorsand Dhilcopersbusy fr dcadesto Come al depends howyouwantt> define the ter thought Sent maytalkaboutsynpse formation, fattrnrocotton serra Sctvaioninresponsetoa tials (emg snap ne gsi Frioaopher and alaorany Seti wilargetbata network eros cannot possi exlsn the tmanythounnsolteughsand Cmotone tha wemust deli Sports doctor mghtstatethat when falters thst ed fTomyourbaintoyour scenes thanpustaseon Theeeresomeepecticwedo now hough coochaswhichareasof Sourbrainarereponsiblefor varius ‘Ypesofthoughtsend deciions S © In the mornings, do we wake up or open our eyes first? Slep isa gift romnature, whichis ‘more omplexthanyouthink There arefivestagesfsleep which represent theincreasing depthsfsleep when you'resuddenly wideawakeandyour ‘yesspringopen,i'softenanatural wakeningandyoure comingoutol rapid eye movement REM)slep: you ‘may wellremomber your dreams. If you'ecomingautofa diferent phase, ‘gwhenyouralarm clock goes oft willtake longer and you mightnot wanttoopenyoureyesstaightawayt Pre-motor cortex Frontal lobe Teper cree Primary motor cortox. thant aerator xm cron ‘eoewesomeryimenstorsenaten Ser yarperer ms = x Parietal lobe - Tepid reer - yur comple sensory yee, / Broca's Bro Primary auditory Brocals rea of complex separ enya Temporal lobe Occipital lobe ‘eres Why can some people roll their tongues but —» others can’t? Hy SS Although wee oftentaughtinschoo! that vd tongue rolling isdue to genes, the truth is Ey 2 SDoeyeballs —iummrsnnt'naei an grow like the | scrubs EAM ea rest of the body? oe ee tatanete ci transmission Qnlyasmallamount- i st oe, lywhy thatnatfeastsome peoples eA babiesappear to beso misonnentaljenieanedixhaviouy beautiful astheireyes thanaretnben are out of proportion and so appear bigger. Eear eit The carotid artery enter tey ns rece Dae ce eae nratt ally faint, Seat Retest eileen eka acy SR Busia nena Beyer gars or eT cores 1920 field Se oeercontes bt soda mabye « 3D field ree HI of tonsils? Thetonsilsae collections oflymphatie tissues which arethoughttohelp fight of pathogens rom the upper respiratory tract. However, thetonsisthemselvescan sometimes even become ected leading to tonsils. The onesyou canseeatthebackolyour threatarejustpartofthe ringoftonsls Youwon't sms them they retaken tutforrecurrent infections astherestofyourimmune ' system will compensate Why does it feel so weird when ‘you hit your funny bone? You'reactally iting the ulnarnerveas it wrapsaround the ‘bony prominence ofthe ‘numerus’ bone leadingtoa funny sensation. hough notsofunnyas the brain interprets this sudden traumas paintoyourforearm and finger Sa ——$ rr ‘What’s my field of vision in degrees? ‘Theuman ed fvson just about io degrees The central port ofthis (soproximtey 50 dese binocular or Strescopi-fboth ees contrite, allowing depth prcepon so that wecan SeeinyD The peripheral edpesare tmonociay meaning tha thereisn0 vero tomte otereje so we see n2D How fast does blood travel round the human body? ithinthishas to go from your heart, down the motorwaylkearteres, through the bckeroad capillary system, and then beck through the rush-hourvelns to get back toyoureart. The process ‘ypically takes aboutaminute Whenyoureina rush and your heartrte shoots up, the time reducesasthe blood diverts from the fess Amportantstructures|eg, large bowel othe more essential eg muscles, 1. The most innportant organ seca cod soo 2. Under pressure Srorgainscren ee er 4, The inferior Ehtieeortnee 5.The vopearreseon- furthest point extend fon 3. The kidneys 7 ‘powcr se retooled ‘erp we burp? Aburpis the bodies way of releasing gas naturally from your stomach. This gas has either been swallowed oris the result of something that you have ingested - such asa spariding drink. Thesoundis vibrations which are taking place in the oesophageal sphincter, the narrowest part of the gastrointestinal tract. 7 How many inches of hair does the average person row from their id each year? les ditferentforeverybody your ‘ge nutrition, health stats, genes and genderaliplayaroe.Interms oflength, anywhere between ‘5aineh .2-25emjamonth mighttendstobe considered average but don'tbe surprised it you'reoutsidethisrangeWhy are everyone’s erprints different? Your fingerprintsarefineridgesof skinin hetipsofyourfingersand toes, They are useful or mproving ‘thedetection ofsmall vibrations and toad friction forbetter rip. Notwo fingerprints are the same 6 either on yourhands or between ‘Why do we all ‘wopeople-andthat'sdoven your unique set of genes Why do we only a remember have different coloured hair? Mostofitis down tothe genes that result from when your parents come together to ‘makeyou.Somebaircolourswin out (typically the dark ones whereas some (eg, blonde}arelessstranginthe geneicrace some dreams? Is it possible to stress anxiety and desires, but theyremembervery few of them ‘your eyes will pp outityou m _keepthemopenisuniikely (jai ‘Thereisresearchtoprovethatif —_tohappen -but keeping youswalefrom therapideye ‘hem shutwill provide ‘= ‘movement{REM)partolyoursleep some protection against cycle youre likely to remember your dreams more leary Dreamshave fascinated humans keep your eyes for thousands of years. Some open when you sneeze? Deoplethinktheyarebarmiess _Youreyesremainshutasa thileothersthinktheyarevitlto defence mechanism to prevent | ouremetionalwelleing Mist thesprayandnasalbaceria Dpeoplehavefourtoeght dreams eneringand infecting your Dernightwhichareinfuencedby jes Theurban myththat # Why, as we ee get older, i ; y does hair growth become so erratic? alr folices in diferent partsofyour odyareactually programmed byyour ll ~ genes todo diferent things, e the folietesonyourarm produce hairmuch slower than those on your head. Men ‘an gobaldduetoacombination of fenesand ormanal changes, Which b fymthapyennaerarn esl Mnkealeatireesbo Ae nasty bugsand viruses, What gives me my personality? Researchers have spent their wholelivestryingto answer this ne. Your personality formsin thefront Iobesofyour brain, and there are clear personality types. Mostofitisyourenvironment-thatis, your upbringing education surroundings. However some ofits genetic although irsuncear how much. The strongestresearch inthis comes from studying twins ‘what influences one set oftwinsto grow up anc be best fiends, yen another palr,one might ecomea professorand the thera murderer eho PN ast Simonet eer eee eee Pape ned Belo comer Peseta) terfromalinginto Sey ae Peer e renee Peni ated ey Renee eccrine Sere reer eras Pea ites ae ane bor pros ty er Sear ere aremany otherinfuen eee een ceo mabe tad ECan ‘AND FEEL HEAVY IF | GATeNST 2 td peers Pere Ss erent Sete peter eT cere eee Seer cents aHUMAN ANATOMY What makes some blood groups incompatible while others are universal? ‘Yourbloodtypets determined by protein markers known asantigens on the surface ofyour ted blod cells Youcan have Aantigens, Bantgens, or ane -Inwhich ase yee blood ype (However ifyoudon'thave the antigen, your antibodies wil attack forelgn blood. Ifyou're ‘ype Aandyoure given B, yourantibodiesattack the Bantigens However ifyou're blood type [AB youcan safely reelveany typ. Those who are blood group Ohavenno antigens socan give ‘blood toanyone, but they have antibodies to and Bsocan only receive Oback! ‘eu Aantgensandd Sracansonatetonendah G2 EE Yuna Bantigeneanda c ea : 5 What is 2S repens ve but can kill you... ‘Theappendixis useful in cowsfor ‘gesting grass and koala bearsfor “koalas can have however, theappendixhasno useful function andisactuallyaremnant of ‘our development. typically measures $ocm (19-39), bt fitgets Blocked it ‘angetinflamed. itis quickty removed, theappendixcan burstand lead to widespread infection whichcan D7 Which sins organ uses up the What most oxygen? is the The hearts the most — diicent-tetacts| Sag reflex? = 80 per cent of the oxygen from blood, en amtewet | Butthelivergetsthe Paiwiscpinscensnaseccna mostblood oper, _mwasterate trian cent of the cardiac output compared to 2.Soft palate the kidneys, which ane ae pet ‘25 percent, and an Sees jeart, which only receives 5 per cent. 2 2 What is a pulled muscle? The hamstrings. Trtaesones Anata, “icra fh ) cowsecres” Why does Prey lad ea er es iver disease? oe perreeeeent oe 3. Vagus nerve ‘engl tng rare, 4.The gag dst apn chLight touches, by feathers, spider, ncoetsor other humans canstimulaefinenerve-endingsintheskin ‘hich end impulsestothe somatosensory cortexin thebrain,Certainareasare more ticklish suchas the feet-which may indicate thatitisadefence ‘mechanism against unexpected predators.tisthe ‘unexpected nature ofthis stimuli that meansyoucan beticked Although youcan giveyourself goosebumps ‘through igtticklingyoucan'tmakeyoursellaugh. Why don’t eyelashes keep growing? Your eyelashes are formed from hai flies, jst ike those on your head, arms and body, Each folie is genetically programmed to funeton differently. Your eyelashes are programmed to grow toa (even regrow If they fall out, but they wont grow certain iengt beyonda cert = Za What Could ‘we makes us left-handed? Yitanuns ominewavertheohersnce LONE? tachtemispheeatthebrain No, your body needs yortaysenngteet _&.iet balanced with controlstherightsideofyour Vitamins, protein, body Thisiswhyrighehanded minerals peopishavestongerieftvain carbohydrates, and Spcereees ‘ttosurvive. You wherehemispheresare —-can’tcutone of these Codominantendthesepegple and expect your areequallycapeblewinbots body to stay healthy, Aghtandlthandst tis the proportions ofthese which keep r us healthy and fit. You can get these from the five major ‘ food groups. Food charts can help with this balancing act. Why do we get a high temperature when we're The immune response leds to inflammation and the release of infammatoryfacersinfoyoublootream These lea oannresed heart ratean bod ow, whihtncreasesyour coe body temperature ~as if your body is doing exercise. This can lead to Increased heat production and thus dehydration; fr this reason, is important to ArinkplentyofclearMuldswhen youre feling unsel let Baraat Pag etd ponent perenne andshouldersandaremere ete meena ete Peter es ere ee on en or aearemrteny Pe een ecient Peon era Perera al Aut Dasa win themes ete coer ecrees eg os proces fithappensto erect 2B1L Atrial systole Testa 2. Ventricular systole errors anda ethoyseeataepesare Uti tevertee soe boty Why do bruises go purple or yellow’ AAbrutseformswhen capilares undertheskin eakandllow ‘blood to setlen the surrounding issues. The haemoglobin in rea blood ellsis broken down and these by-products gve a arkyelow, brown orpurple discolouration depending onthe ‘volume of bloadand colourofthe overyingskin. Despite iferent peoples popular belie youcannotagea brulse bruises change colour iferent rates. 2.Blood leaks into the skin What is t the little triangle shape on the side of the ear? ‘Thisisthetragus. tserves nomajorfunctionthatwe know of buttmay help to reflectsoundsinto th te ‘oimprovehearing. 24 ‘Onions make your eyeswaterdueto thet expulsion of anirrtantgasonce ut. Thisoceursaswhenan onion ‘scutwitha knife, many ofits interalcellsare broken own allowing enzymesto breakdown aminoacid ‘sulphoxidesand generate supenicacis, These sulphenieacldsare then rearranged by another fenzymeand, asa direct consequence, 0 propanethialS-oxide gas s produced, which isvoltl ‘Thisvolatilegas then dfusesin the arsurrounding theonion, eventuallyreachingtheeyes ofthe cutter, ‘whereitproceedsto activate sensory neuronsand create stinging sensation. Assuch, theeyes then follow protocol and generate tears from theirtear ‘lands in orderto dilute and remove thelrritant. Interestingly, the volatile gas generated by cating ‘onions can belargely mitigated by submerging the ‘onion instater prior to ormidway through cutting, with heliqud absorbing much ofthe eritant ficiently whenyoure asleep excesevatercan What triggers the heart and keeps it beating? ‘Theheart keepsitselfbeating, The sinoatalnode SAnisinthewallothe rightatrumofthe eat ands where the heartbeatstats. These beats occ dieto changesinelectrical currentsascalium, ‘sodiumand potassium moveacross membranes Theheartcan beat atarateat obeatsperminsteconstantyifietalone. However-e often needitogo faster The sympathetienerwoussystem sends apd Sienasfrom the brain to stimulate the heart beat fester when we needtt0-in fight or ight scenarios the SAN ala pacemaker cansend artificial electrical Signals to keep theheart going Definitions more men go bald than women? ‘imple’ malepattern baldness is due toacombinaton of genetic factors andhormones. The most implicated hormoneisteststerane which men havehighlevelsof utwomenhave lowlevelsofsothey win erlose7 in thisparticularhormonecontest! When we're tired, why do & we get bags under our eyes? poolunderthe eyes, makingthem pty. Fatigue, ‘utrtlon, ageand genesalso cause bags. be a |Blinking helps keep your eyes clean and moist Blinking spreadssecretions from the tear glands (lacrimal fluids) over thesurface ofthe eyeball, keeping tmoistand also sweepingaway small particlessuchas dust How come most people have one foot larger than the other? Most people's feet are ferent sizes Infact the wo halves ofmost people'sbodiesarecifeent! Weall start ‘rom one cel butasthe cells multiply, genes give them varyingcharacteriste, Why do some hereditary conditions skip a ehingis caused bythe transmiterclledhistamin fom n? ‘astcells whieh eeelatnyout body Ei Tresecallsareotenreessetin Genres workin pairs. Some genes are Singoranallercreacion Theyleaa _‘Tecessive’ and if paired with a toinflammation and swelling and ‘dominant’ half, they won'tshine Sendimpulzestoshebranvianerves through. However, if two recessive whicheausesthe deste tote, genes combine (one from your mother and one from your father), the recessive trait will show through. 49 CR Tic eee Ait F-) it Fe a re See er crore on es eer aspain. Thereisn ao eeeneay Which muscle produces the 7 most rful contraction relative to its size? ‘The guteusaximusisthe largest sled ferns thebulkfyourbutock Thee die ts thc hardes-wesingtasle sities entender ten ek However the strongest muscle based anweightisthe masseter. Thisis the muscle that lenches the Jaw shut-putafinger over the lowest outer part of your Jawan clench your teeth and youl felt 1 Taking the first step 2. Preparation Musiectaclonsuswtthaninpusereceved tothe ‘Thcacam ingsotopninichisarecptren hervesppvingthemscie-anactonpeeatal This theacingetinThsbdingcanestheshapeat ‘SSionpatntsleauesckiuminstolbedavesthe _ toponainenate psn whichis tact Protcnmusc tives Themusdeivearetormedientwo‘Thaediapechangeeatotheopenngalassal Feypotinectinandanyosn ‘hangs onthe arin pte ossbidne * S$ Eraciadncen 3.Binding 4. Unbinding Nowtheindngstesareteeonacin thomyestnbeads _ Whentheener rns ct the protease tht Fegesvongbondsin tbsp Tiskeadstothe ‘ton bndsandcsegage and ton ere tey “onmmctmottienesiyfrposincamleesshenall_etrntthtronaleingtat Tish sttheprotenscoeat emt bulkcontac ‘bindings 25qa % HUMAN ANA Cell structure explained The human body has over 75 Nucleus trillion cells, but what are they Ceonaleme athe and how do they work? cllsarefeand cllsare alive ‘ouare bere because every ell insideyourbody has aspeciic function and avery specialised jo to do, Thereare many diferent ypesot These Sree nap cel each ane workingto keep the tniefandaiter taint bodys varioussystems operating. A tener ced stot singlecellsthesmallestunitaiving Sagem wensacowy ‘material inthe body capabiectlie. Sombcet ‘When geouped together inlayers or luster, however celle with similar Jobstodotormeiseue suchas skinor ‘muscle. To keep these cells working, thereare thousand of chemical reactions going onallthe time Allanimalcelisontaina nies, which acs lite aconteol hu telintbe Cellwhattedoandcontanstbecells teneticinformation ONA Mostothe Tateralwithinacelisawatery, jelllitesubstancecalledeytopiasm (oytomeans cel whieh circulates Sroundehecellandisbeldinbyathin eternal membrane which consists of twolayers Withintbe cytoplasm isa variety ofstructutes calle organelles ‘wichallhavediferentasks, suchas ‘manufocturingproteins~thecells key Chemicals. Onevitalexampleofan organelle bosom these numerous Skrturescan be ound etter ating aroundinthecytoplasmorattached to Internal membranes. Ribosomes are crucial inthe roductonfproteins fromamino see ‘ntu proeinsareessntalto buldingyourelisand carryingoatthe biochem eactionsthe body needs in order‘ rowranddevlopandalsato ‘epairtelfandhea. Mitochondria Theseus app clavate ora Inrdeteso asemsne phasote TP. ictanass th produ fc 26Cell anatomy Cytoplasm sacs =m Types of human cell So far around 200 different varieties of cell have been identified, and they all havea very specific function to perform. Discover the main typesand what they do... NERVE CELLS ‘Tec thtinkeupthe eros ‘ysomandthebrinarenerccls Dassbeteennereclsaong Tong fiamenscaed xo To ia os ‘Seats scarp athe ‘eoensbleustomoe BONE CELLS ‘Thecalsthatmakeup bonehead ‘Hrctrethatnalesboesrong-consatothes funtype ourbenemasiscanandy hanging dindeerningand earth tee boneeli ay Isp ita ih Saat oe Fc aN naiaremn BE cspaecttsolvingtoneand SP ctangngtsmase PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS Theconssandradsontheretinaatt ako pthelaallmabeup \ inesandprezetsyour guns andconstie theprinarymateral sxyourian These esr erie ‘between thepecus omansandumanee Buthogensoother is As . ‘elias eoverngyoural, youll « [ndephtlelsisieyournos, around yeurlungsanéinyourmouth RED BLOOD CELLS Uathealte eterno, Jourredioodcettassidon Baymont {iitonecbocdece- Toed inte "oe nar Me ‘haere al he dierent tise inour bod. Omgenscaried aioe lg a6 Inside a nucleus Dissecting the control centre ofa cell urrounded by cytoplasm, the nucleus containsa cell's DNAand controlsall ofitsfunctionsand processessuch as ‘movement and reproduction. Thereare two main typesof cel: eukaryoticand prokaryotic. Eukaryoticcells containa nucleus while prokaryoticdo not. Some eukaryoticcells have more than one nucleus called multinucleatecells~ occurring when fusion or division creates two ormorenuclel, Atthe heart ofa nucleus you'll find the nucleolus; this particular area is essential in the formation of ribosomes. Ribosomes are Nucleus in context Explore the larger body that a nucleus rules over and meet Its ‘cellmates’ Ribosomes, Nadeup of two separate protans tobe used bth Iris nd outside the Golgi apparatus Slog Carlo Gol theyereate sosomes ad also organise the responsible for making proteins out of amino acids which take care of growth and repair. ‘Thenucleus the most protected part of the cell. Inanimal celsitislocated near its centreand away from the membrane for ‘maximum cushioning. Aswellasthe Jelly-like cytoplasm around t, the nucleus is filled with nucleoplasm,a viscous liquid which maintainsits structural integrity. Conversely, in plant ces, the nucleusis ‘more sporadically placed. This is due to the fact thata plant cell hasa larger vacuoleand thereisadded protection which sgranted by cell wal Mitochondrion Doublemembraned thes produces eet or the aby breaking lysosome this organelle contains ‘igeste enzymes tat attack vain bactera Central command ‘Take apeckatwhat'shappeninginside the’brain ofaeukeryotccell @ Nuclear pore Siveorte mia and eyeaaon ‘@ Nuclear envelope ‘© Nucleolus @Nucleopiasm @ chromatin CondensngDNAmmaeces How do cells survive without a nucleus? Prokaryotccellsareactually much morebasie {han theireakaryoti counterparts Notony Aarethey uptox00timessmaller but theyalso aremainlya comprisingspeciesofbacteri, prokaryottcells have fewer functionsthan other els sothey donotrequlreanucleusto factas the contal centre forthe organism Instead these cellshavetheir DNA moving around the ellather than being housed ina ‘nucleus. Theyhaveno chloroplasts, no ‘membrane-bound organellesand they dont undertake cel dvisionin the formotmitosisor ‘meiosis ke eukaryoticells do Prokaryoticellsdivide asexually with DNA molecules replicatingthemselvesina process thats knownas inary isin,Understand how these building blocks bring new life temeallsareincredbly _prolferation-whileotherssuch special becausetheyhave asnervecellsdontavideatal ce tec thepotentaltobecome Theearetwo stem celltypes, anykindofcellinthe body, from as Professor Paul Fairchild, redblood ellstobraincells.They co-director ofthe Oxford Stem Cell areessentialtolifeandgrowth,as Institutet Oxford Martin School theyrepairtissuesandreplace _explains:‘Adultstem cellsare dead cells. Skin, forexample, is multipotent, which means they constantly replenished byskin _areable to produce numerous stem cells cells thatare loosely related, such Stem cells begin thelrlifecycle _asstemcells inthe bone marrow asgeneric,featurelesscellsthat can generate ells that make up don'tcontain tissue-specific theblood,"hesays. In contrast, structures suchasthe abilityto pluripotent stem cells, found carry oxygen. Stem cells become within developing embryos, are specialised throughaprocess_abletomakeanyoneofthe called differentiation. Thisis __estimated 10 celltypesthat make triggered bysignalsinsideand _upthe human body" outside the cell.Internalsignals This fascinating ability to comefromstrandsofDNAthat _transformand divide has made carryinformation forall cellular stem cellsarich source for structures, while externalsignals medical research. Once thetr true Include chemicalsfromnearby _potentialhas been harnessed, cells.Stemcellscan replicate _they could be used to treat a huge ‘many times-known as range ofdiseasesand disabilities.4 HUMAN ANATOMY Cee copes paarperarerseraly peer at porretetretaeny cers er Sea Cee _ poateererenney pete fae. pale a ee Ee |) ee hea eee Described as the most complex thing in the universe, our brains are truly astonishing he brain makes upjusttwo percentofour Come ein! Sean ee eae cence testa ena a Petersen ents ‘The cellsin the rain communicate using Pere ees eee allowingpositvely charged ionsto loodacross the membrane. Afterwards, morethan million ‘miniature pumpsin each cell move the ions Dee ae ene 30 De een eee eee ts Se ey Seen ae peers cere) So eer cry Parents ere ee ne Ocatee Ce eee ny Ce ee ete) Pome eee ee receive thousands of inputs, coordinating them eee nen decide what todo next eee] Cee Sa ese ere nena Cee et ene ree Reet ic! eet ete te anette nts ee eget eee ee a Pe ce ery Se ee es Se eyOR LN ae ae ee eee ee eel Brain development Froma single cell to an incredibly intricate network injust nine months . Cee ee Peco Ta) Poser ere ret eee teats em. They organise into aneuraltube when Cen et oe ec ett eet See eee) Cn eee ney the mea baby is born, the processstillisnt et em Pere ntas icone ER Cra) Seu ee aa CEN ort nd watts Seed ee Midbrain G weeks pier avialih yd eipiecneiopaieeesanees ~~ Midbrain rer AT) brain can Pessoa arene clei te elton Ee pesca Se Tr) a Dee ee Dene tg ee ee eee) Nicer ener entities pon rary beteeewer erie a SE eeteeeet he cum eee eee eee ee eens Preece etn rea eae ee See eet Pe ete ey pee ee pares eae eee rete ety Peon ee ey eet Pearce ae Ler eee) ele de rel a contain 86 billion , neurons and 180,000 lela ata} fo) im aMaking memories The brain can Store around 1 millon gigabytes of data eee corer aot ener: cleaning Ky 2p) \ The cleaning process rains J cst rege aay ine io zi the day as we sleep, We havea built-in system . - to clear toxicwaste from een ow between our brain cells Thebrainisbahedin ‘round he loos Sleepisone ofthe brain’sgreat prodcts ut trou the ban reveatetanitgungnighttime Shelby beri madeand walntainedby celal mrpandtbespeceisupwite End foot fluid (CSF), It’s pushed along by the eae, ‘movement ofthe blood vessels eral underneath, swishingupthrough _—thebsadvers theastrocytesandout into the - spaces between brain cells. Asit passes, picks up waste and debris, carrying the particlesback towards the bloodstream so that they can be removed fromthe brain. Waste thatea case damage Waste removalORCL ae Howdo 2:22. SE mot outhesorten uch nerves Sao work? es Nerves carry signals throughout the body-a Teoma chemical superhighway aca a Nervesrethetansmisson abies thatcary rainwavesin tetas hte Ahehumanbody.syssolDiamend,anassitantproesorat Sasso the ThayerScholofbngincerngatDarmeuth According SEMectenoe a Diamond nervescomminicatethesesgnalstromonepaint armen es, toanother whether framyourteenaluptoyourbrainorrom inated Tes nce theside olyourhead. eee What does the Spinal cord do? scouts “iter The spinal cord actually ee ohne ispart ofthe brain and plays a major role Sclentistshave known for the pasto0years oro thatthe spinal cord is om actually partofthebrain. Accordingto Melillo, Wwhilethe brain hasgrey ‘matteronthe outside (protected by thesicull) and protected white matter onthe inside, the spinal cord isthe reverse: the grey matterisinside thespinal cordandthe white matteris outside. Nerve root Grey matter cells Aco ly Groat een alc spartans pepcwahseatasoelcrd by ater rcovten es ‘ert ecover on apeodte White matter calls: Whe mere nw spt Canter tema pulsars to {ebranforearo whenyouare 33Inside the human eye Uncovering one of the most complex constructs in the natural world he structure ofthe human eyeis so Incredibly complex that i’ actually hard to believethati’s not the product, of intelligent design. But by lookingatand studying the eyes of various otheranimals, scientists have been able to show that eyes have evolved very gradually from justasimple light-darksensor over the course ofaround 109 million years. The eye functionsin avery Fovea ‘Tis pitt te contre ofthe kof the eye rch in ih receptors and rcponable for sharp central vison. Optic nerve tf ve that ont hough the ces pi similar way toa camera, withan opening through which the light enters, lens for focusing and light-sensitive membrane. Theamountof light that enters the eye is controlled by the circular and radial muscles Inthe is, which contractane relaxtoalterthe size ol the pupil. Thelight first passes through a tough protective sheet called the cornea, and then moves into the lens. This Retina Theratnaecovredinrecptrs that etc igh is highy pigmented, reverting the ight rom scattering ris wu lore down nr ht or structure bends the light, focusingitdowntoa point on the retina, at the back of the eye. ‘Theretinais covered in millions oflight- sensitive receptors known as rods and cones. Each receptor contains pigment molecules, which changeshape when they are it by light, which triggersan electrical message that then travels to the brain via the opticnerve, Ciliary body contains the moses esponetie Sclera ‘tough we membrane tomanainthe eye's ‘here hape. Cornea Thepupland is sre ovens touny ‘od contributes to Pupil sows ight to reachOR TN ee te ae eee et ee ea ard How the eye focuses The tiny rings of muscle that make your vision sharp amerasandhoman eyesboth ous iht C steiner sens Accommodation explained Incomingwavelengihssothatthey it eres How the lens changes Its shape to focus on thevightspaconaphetgraphiplate oronthe pee or Sear ana eat obese backetheeye Acamerslensismadefrmeaid fcmrgts fla andioeuseronnearanddatantcbjectaby Wien eta pally moving closeorfurtheraway.8 Diol nsisactaly squishy anditocses by physically chaningshoe Inthe eye thisprocessisknownas ‘scommodatonanéisantroledbyaringot smooth muscle theciry muscle This atochedtthelensbyfreskooenas Suspensory igen When he muses reared theligament putt stretching the lensurditistintndhin.Thistperector lokingatebjects inthe dtc. ‘When the cliarymiscleconvact he igamentsoosen along thelensto Become androun Tisisbeterarbokingatobjes that arenearby Thecoloured partoftheeye(called Relaxed. theiris) controls thesize ofthe pupiland ensures =e Dull ian cet trl Suspensor iigament. comcte tothe ens pane renters therghanmantaightgtsthoughtelns nme nr aw, ff ¥ cont “9 eyes ¥ Beneath the iri, Far Near mice Ata firsts Arcitnsi ong ae o Sitios srt rm. aa asta ne umece' "maya Seeing in three dimensions Individualimage, See eee ae eases area acai Combined image Theincoming sana rom bh js are cmpareain tha bran, ae thecal atferences reused to Each eye seesa slightly different image, allowing the brain to perceive depth ur eyesare only able to produce two- dimensional images, but with some clever Internal processing, the brains ableto build these flat picturesintoa three mensional view. Our eyesarepositioned about ve centimetres two inches} apart, so each sees the world froma slightly iffeentangle. The brain then compares ‘Try it for yourself By Reding your Rann tort of the two pictures, using the differences to eee ame create the illusion ofdepth. 2Dviewspecenedby cache. 35Ow ears work The human ear performsa range of functions, but how do they work? hething toremember when learning aboutthe human ear is that sounds all bout movement. When someone speaks ormakesany kind of movement, the airaround them isdisturbed,creatingasound wave of alternating high and low frequency. These waves are detected by the ear and interpreted by the brainas words, tunes or sounds, Consisting ofairfilled cavities, labyrinthine ‘uié-flledchannelsand highly sensitivecells, the earhasexternal, middleand internal parts. ‘Theouter ear consists ofa skin-covered flexible cartilage fap called the’auricle,or‘pinna’. This feature sshaped to gather sound waves and amplify tem before they enter the eat or processingand transmission tothe brain. The firstthinga soundwave enteringthe ear encounters isthe het of tightly pulled tissue Separating the outer and middle ea. This tissue Istheeardrum, ortympaniemembrane,andit vibrates as sound waves hit ‘Beyond the eardrum, in thealr-lled cavity of the middle ear, are three tiny bones calied the ‘ossicles. These are the smallest onesin the human body. Sound vibrations biting the eardrum pass to the hrstossicl, the malleus (hammer, Next the waves proceed along the incus(anvil) and then on tothe tapes) sirup hestrrup presses againsta thin ayeroftissue called the ‘oval window, and this membrane fenablessound wavesto enter the uld-flled ‘Theinner ear ishome tothe cochlea, which consists of watery duets that channel the vibrations. as ripples, along the cochlea's spiralling tubes. Running through the middle of the cochlea isthe organ of Corti, which lined ‘with minute sensory hale cellsthat pick up on the vibrations and generate nerve impulses that aresentto the brainas electrical signals. The braincaninterpretthesesignalsas sounds, 36 eens es Sea tein) Seala vestibull estibular canal)ON eae ea ae {ragen atom in order for us ta perc Peace oper) The vestibular system Inside the inner eararethevestbule and semieieulareanals, which featuresensory cells From the semicreularcanalsand ‘maculae, information about hich waythehead is ‘mowing passed to receptors whichsend clectricalsignals tothebrainas nerveimpulses. w= Semicircular canal ‘These ops pstoned raftandestoech ater Vestibular nerve Vestibule Asense of balance ‘Thevestbularsystem functions togive youasenseofwhichway yourheadis pointingin relation togravity tenables ‘yout discern whether your heads ‘prightornet as wellashepinayouto maintain eyecontactwithstationary ‘bjects whileyourheadisturning ‘Als locatedwithintheinnerear, but Jess to dowlthsound and more concerned ‘withthemovernentafyourhead arethe semiircularcanals.gainfiled wth fuld these loping ductsactlikenternal ‘accelerometers thatcanactually detect. acceleration le movement ofyourhead) inthre diferent direcionsduetothe Positioningoftheloopsalong diferent planes. Like theorganofCort the Semicircularcanalserploytinyhair cells tosense movement Thecanalsare ‘connected totheaudtorynerveatthe bckotthe rain, ‘oursense of balanceisso complex thatthe areaofyourbrainthat'spurely edicatedtothisoneroleinvolvesthe same numberofcellsasthe esol your brain celisputtogether a7Anatomy of the neck Explore one of the most complex and functional areas of the human body hhehuman neck isaperfect blend of form and function. Ithasseveralspecifictasks (egmaking tpossibietoturn ourheads to ‘00 while servingas a conduitforothervital activities eg connecting the mouth othe lung. ‘Theanatomical design oftheneckwould Impress modern engineers. The fexibilty ofthe cervical spine allows your head to rotate, flexand tultmany thousands oftimes a day. ‘The musclesand bones provide the strength andilexibilty required, however thereally Impressive design comes withthe trachea, ‘esophagus, spinel cord, myriad nervesand the vita blood vessels These structures musta nd spaceand function perfectly atthesame ime, ‘They mustalso beabletomaintaintheirshape while the neck moves. ‘These structuresareall highlyadaptedto achieve heiraims, The trachea is protected by a ring of strongeartlageso t doesn't collapse, hile allowing enough flexibility to move when stretched, Above this, thelarynxletsairmove ‘over the vocal cords sowe can speak, Farther back, the oesophagusisa muscular tube which food and rink passthrough enroutetothe stomach. Within the supporting bones ofthe neck sitsthe spinal cord, which transmitsthe vital nerves allowing ustomoveand fel. The carotid arteries and jugularveins, meanwhile constantly carry blood to and from thebrain. How does the head connect to the neck? Thay are connected atthe bottom ofthe sh and atthe top of the spinal corm. The Fst ‘vertebral called the atl and the second is Called the aus. Together these forma special Pivot lt that grants far more mavernen han ter vertebra. The axe contain a bony projection upwards upon which the atlas rotates allowing te eed to tr. The skull sts entopaf sight Natened areas ofthe atlas, providing a Ste platform frit to stabilise on, nd lowing for nodding mations. These bony anneetions are reorced with stg muses, Selling farther stay. Do forget that hs Smazinganatomieal design stil allows te vl pal cord to pass out ofthe brain. The cord sits inthe mil ofthe bony vertebrae, where its protected rom bumps and knocks sends out eres every lve starting right fom the ton) hich actually control over most of the bod 38 Get it in the neck ‘We show the majo features that are packed into this)unetion Between the head and torso Larynx Sympathetic rank Cartage esophagus heim vemete Snowcveowlcntant aca mtoeeamen Camunarwan Stivecngsmogore wed tein fsa ‘tance, Seema ents Carotid artery mana ae Vertebra neon Phrenie nerve | pertosunaherest cee | ceemnatonsymecae ctor, | sfc sa imenyubera Geta ahaa Srna Spinal cord Seb be eee, nowreot owners sou,ro (CULV AN PaUN U8 Ua How the human skeleton ~ works Without a skeleton, we would not be able to live. It is what gives us our shape and structure and its presence allows us to operate ona daily basis. It also isa fascinating evolutionary link to all living and extinct vertebrates Te 4, Radius/Uina tolive theepsourshapeand Teresa ae eto ‘uscleatached totheskeleton ‘Siento hey allows usthe ability to move around, come eto eon ‘while also protecting crucial organs that tweneed survive, Bonesalso produce ‘blood cells within bone marrowand 5.Rib cage store mineralsweneedreleasedon a Tisstucre nay ser dally bass bones crates pte ‘Asanadultyou will have around 206 over browne stata ne bones, butyouare born with over270, hess Te tobe ‘whieh continue to grom, strengthen and fuseafterbirthuntil around in females Ando in males Skeletons actually do vary between sexes nstructurealso, One ofthemostobviousareasisthepelvisas actually mneralised calcium phosphate, afemalemustbeabletogivebirth,and but otherformsoftssue suchas marrow, therefore hips are comparatively cartllageand bloodvesselsarealso shallowerandwider.Thecranismalso _containedin the overall structure. Many becomesmorerobustinmalesdueto __individualsthink hat bonesaresolid, heavy muscleattachmentandamale's _ butactually nner bone isporousand full chinisoften more prominent-Female _oflitlehole. skeletonsare generally moredelicate Even though cellsare constantly being ‘verall,Howeveralthoughthereare replaced, and thereforena cllinour severalmethods,sexingcan bedificult body is morethan ao yearsold, they are ‘because ofthelevel ofvariation wesee _notreplaced with perfect, brand new within the species, cells. Thecells contain erorsintheir DNA Bonesaremadeup ofvarious diferent andultimately our bones therefore lements Inutero,theskeletontakes_weakenas we age.Canditionssuchas shapeascartilage,whichthenstartsto__arthritisand osteoporass can often be ‘alelfyand develop during gestationand caused by ageingand cause lesues with followingbirth. Theprimaryelement _weakeningoftonesand reduced thatmakesup bone osseous tissue, is movement abit 40ORCL Benes Inside our skeleton Howthe human skeleton worksand ‘keeps us upright —— teranium tesua sence etn setomapety ote 2..Metacarpats etc dae ‘oe Pons etc ate 3.Vertebrae erate acing he sem at coy) env here a lumbar Tes verynsbeath ant Teese cay aot tres ne se 6. Pelvis eewnkerDebodyenteleas Tonect kay rosin hwo 7.Femur ‘sith gest ns sre one ty Rens tothe ethan essa oe 8. Fbula/Tibia keboneantconsctiometooe 9. Metatarsals These aethehelongbonsh| rnoveran Paap tes Whether it’s a complete break orjusta fracture, both can take time to heal properly ltyousmplyracturethebone,youayjustneedtokeep it sttaightand keep pressure off untlitheals However, I ‘you breakitinte mate than one pee, youmay need metal pinsinsertedintotheboneto realign or patestocover the ‘break inorder forittohea propel. Thebone heals by producing new cellsand tinyblood vessels wherethe fractureor break has occurredane these then join Up. Foe most breaks or fractures, acastexternaltothe body willbe putonaround theboneto take pressureoffthe bone to ‘ensure that no more damageis doneand the break can heal “The skull is eset seven separate plates when we are born, which fuse together” Skull development When we are born, many of our bonesare still somewhatsoft and are notyet fused - this process occurs [ater during our childhood ‘Theprimary reasons forthe cranium inparticular notte befullyfusedat births toallow theskulltoflexasthe ‘baby isbornandalso tallow the extremerateo growth ‘thatoccusin the irs few yearsof childhood folowing birth, The skulls actually in seven separate plates when \wearebornand over the first two yearsthese pieces fuse {together slowly and ossiy. The platessart suturing together earyon, buttheanterorfntanel~ commonly knownasthesofispot-willtake around monthsto fullyheal Some other bones, such asthe fvebones located the sacrum, dont fully fuse untillate teens or carly twenties, butthe cranium becomesfullfused by aroundagetwn. How our joints work The types of joints in our body explained 1 Ball and socket joints 3. Skull sutures ‘ca hepa shasta re veugot oust batansacetts Terr toihtcas tale himeushoetltapedendege cn canes res or 2.Vertebrae ‘ens eet Serpette yan tow ‘anagmonent. Troyer caroape ance 4,Hinged joints 5.Glidingjoints 6. Saddle joints Bnabonesdinee —Saemonmartcan Theory ice see Sebrowite tice teatouduent heptane Fontsony sw ited teneshé ass theta Marr Sesion eburest — Sone-necapae~ ——hathebunean {opttorandaremored "toute tists movek foward yma none larert aot sae a