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The l1istory of the Eartl1 8 Ice ages 104

Places 1 Tl1e Eartl1: a simplified l1istory 9 Places 14 Antarctica and Greenland: previous climatic change 104
Earthquakes 9 Glaciers and ice masses 106
Places 2 South-west China: an earthquake 11 Transportation by ice 109
Plate tectonics 12 Glacial erosion 109
Places 3 Iceland: a constructive plate margin 76 Framework 5 Mean, median and mode 112
Places 4 Indian Ocean: tl1e 2004 tsunami 18 Places 15 Snowdonia: glacial landforms 115
Places 5 The Hin·1alayas: a collision plate ,nargin 20 Glacial deposition 116
Places 6 The San Andreas Fault: a conservative plate margin 21 Glacif1uvial landforms 119
Framework 7 Usi11g the Internet for studying geography 22 Places 7 6 Arron: glacial landforms 120
Volcanology 24 Other effects of glaciation 122
Places 7 Solfatara, Italy: a11 area of declining volcanic activity 26 Places 17 The Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire: a glacial lake 123
Framework 2 Natural l1azards 31 Case Study 4 Avalanches and the effects of melting ice 124
Case Study 7 Volcanic eruptions - Mount Pinatubo 33 ·
. .. ' ... . . ,. -- . -
5 Periglaciation . 130
2 Weathering and slopes. . . . -
40
Periglacial processes and landforms 132
Weathering 40 Places 18 Alaska: periglacial river regimes 136
Framework 3 A �ystems approach 45 Case Study 5 The melting permafrost 137
Mass movement and resultant landforms 46
Places 8 Sout/1-east Brazil: landslides 49 6 Coasts · . 140
50.
'

Development of slopes
'

Waves 140
Case Study 2 Slope failure and mass movement 52 Beaches 143
Tides -·. 146
Places 7 9 The North Sea and the Bay of Bengal: storm surges . l48
-,
Places 9 River Don, Yorks/1ire and River Torridge, Devon: Processes of coastal erosion 149
.river discharge 64 Places 20 Holderness: coastal processes 150
65
•
Morphometry of drainage basins Erosion landforms 151
Framework 4 Quantitative techniques and statistical Transportation of beach material 153
methods of data interpretation 67 Coastal deposition 154
. River form and velo�ity ' .
68 Places 21 Eastern and southern USA: barrier islands 156
Transp·ortation 71 Framework 6 Sampling 159
Erosion 72 Changes in sea-level 162
Deposition 73 Places 22 Devon and Norway: a ria and a fiord 164 •

Places 7 O Afon Glaslyn, North Wales: river processes 73 Places 23 Arran: raised beaches 166
Fluvial landforms 75 Rock structure 167
Places 1 7 lgua�u Falls, Brazil: a waterfall 76 Framework 7 Classification 167
Places 12 Boscastle, Cornwall: a flash flood . 80 Future sea-level rise and its effects 168
Bas.e level and the graded river 81 Case Study 6 Coastal management in the UK
. . 170
Places 7 3 River Greta, Yorkshire Dales National Park:
a rejuvenated river 82
Drainage patterns 84
What is a desert? 178
Case Study 3 The need for river management 87 Location and causes of deserts 179
Focusing on maps for Geography 98 Places 24 The Atacama Desert: climate 180
• • •• • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •••••• • • • • • • • ••• • • •• •••• ••••••••• •••• •• •• • • • • ••••• • • • • • • • • •• • • • ••• • • • • ••••• • • • •• • • • • • • •• • ••• •• •••• • • •••••• ••• ••• •• • • ••• ••• • • • • • ••• •••••••••• . . . . .• . . ' ..
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Desert landscapes: what does a desert look like? 180 Processes of soil formation 271
Arid processes and landforms 181 Zonal, azonal and intrazonal soils 273
Places 25 Wadis: flash floods 188 Places 34 Arran: a soil catena 276
Climatic change 190 Framework 9 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 277
,

Case Study 7 Desertification: fact or fiction? 191 Case Study 7 0 Soil erosion and soil management 279

Lithology and geomorphology 194 Seres and climax vegetation 286

Limestone 196 Places 35 Krakatoa: a lithosere 289
Places 26 Li Valley, south China: karst scenery 198 Places 36 Arran: secondary plant succession 293
Chalk 199 Ecology and ecosystems 295
Sandstone 201 The ecosystem 295
Granite 201 Framework 7 O Scientific enquiry: hypothesis 299
Basalt 203 Places 37 Haller Park, Mombasa, Kenya: creating
Case Study 8 Quarrying in northern India 203 an ecosystem 302
Biomes 304
Case Study 11 The forests of south-west Australia 307
206 Issues Analysis Management of the Serengeti 311
Structure and composition of the atmosphere
Energy in the atmosphere 207
•
Places 27 The atmosphere: ozone 209
Global factors affecting insolation 210 Classification of climates 314
Atmospheric moisture 213 1 Tropical rainforests 316
Places 28 An alpine valley: aspect 213 2 Tropical grasslands 319
Air stability and instability 216 3 Hot deserts 321
Precipitation 219 4 Mediterranean {warm temperate, western margins) 323
Atmospheric motion 224 5 Temperate grasslands 325
Planetary scale: atmospheric circulation 226 6 Temperate deciduous forests 328
Macro:.scale: synoptis: sy�tems 229 7 Coniferous forests 330
Places 29 Storms in so'uthern England 232 8 The tundra 332
Places 30 Hong Kong: typhoon warning, 1 May 1999 237 Case Study 12 The management of grasslands 335
Places 31 The West Indies and Myanmar: tropical storms 238 ·
13 Population · .
Places 32 Delhi: the monsoon climate 240 . .
. .. 140
Mesa-scale: local winds 240
Distribution and density 344
Microclimates 242
Framework 11 Scale and generalisation 347
Weather maps and forecasting in Britain 244
Places 38 Brazil: population densities at the national level 34.7
Framework 8 Measures of dispersion 246
Population changes in time 349
Climatic change •
248
Population structure 352
Case Study 9 Short-term and long-term climatic changes 250 Framework 12 Models • 352
Trends in population growth 355
Places 39 Singapore: family planning 358
Soil formation 260 Places 40 Japan: an ageing population 360
The soil profile 262 Migration: change in space and time 361
The·
•
soil system 263 Places 41 China: rural-urban migration 363
Soil properties 263 Places 42 Tunisia: migration patterns 366
Places 33 The soil pit: soil study in the field 270 Places 43 The world: refugees 368
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
"'

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•

Places 44 UK: Polish migrant workers 369 16 Farming and food supply
Places 45 South Africa: a multicultural society 372 462
Environmental factors affecting farming
Places 46 Tl1e USA and.Brazil: multicultural societies 374 465
Places 61 Northern Kenya: precipitation and water supply
Places 47 Singapore: racial and religious harmony 375
Places 62 The former Soviet Union: physical controls
Optimum, over- and underpopulation 376
on farming 466
Places 48 BangJades/1 and Canada: overpopulation and
Cultural (human) factors affecting farming 466
underpopulation 377
Places 63 China: land tenure 468
Theories relating to world population and food supply 378
Economic factors affecting farming 469
Links between population growth, use of resources and
Places 64 China: farming 470
economic development. . 379 •

Von Thunen's model of rural land use 471

Case Study 13 Population in China. 380 The farming system 476
Issues Analysis Population policies - the pros and cons of World distribution of farming types 478
. trying to limit population growth 386 479
.' Places 65 Northern Kenya: nomadic herders
�
Places 66 Amazon Basin: shifting cultivation 480
�
Places 67 The Ganges valley: intensive subsistence
Origins of settlement 388 agriculture 481
Functions of settlements ' 392 Places 68 Malaysia: tropical commercial (plantation)
Differences between urban and rural settlement 393 · agriculture · 483
Rural settlement 394 Places 69 The Pampas, South America: exten_sive
Places 49 Carlisle: site, morphology and functions 396 commercial pastoralism 484
Places 50 Bickinton, Devon: a village 399 Places 70 The Canadian Prairies: extensive commercial
Places 51 Britain: evolution of settlement 400 arable farming 486
Measuring settlement patterns 402 Places 71 The western Netherlands: intensive commercial . •

Case Study 14 Settlement change 412 · farming 487

Places 72 The Peloponnese, Greece: Mediterranean farming 489
•
Places 73 The Nile valley: irrigation 490
Farming types and economic development 492
Urban growth - trends and distribution 418 •. Farming and the environment 494
Models of urban structure 420
Framework 16 Sustainable development ·· 499
Places 52 Chicago: a concentric urban structure 421
•
Food supplies 500
Places 53 Tokyo: a multiple-nuclei urban structure 424
Places 74 Niger: famine
•

\ Functional zones within a city 426 502

Places 75 Sub-Saharan Africa: food shortages 503
f;amework 13 Stereotypes 427
Places 54 The CBD 430 Case Study 16 Farming 506
• •

433
•
Places 55 Gateshead: the MetroCentre
Framework 14 Values and attitudes 437 17 Rurallanduse 516
Places 56 London: regeneration and the 2012 Olympics 440 The urban-rural continuum 516
Cities in developing countries 442 Forestry 518
Places 57 Kolkata and Rio de Janeiro: shanty settlements 443 Places 76 Ethiopia, Amazonia and Malaysia: forestry in
Places 58 Nairobi, Kenya: functional zones 444 developing countries 520
Places 59 Cairo, Egypt: problems resulting from rapid Places 77 South-east Asia: forest fires 521
urban growth 447 Mining and quarrying 522
Framework 15 How reliable are statistics? 448 Places 78 North Wales: slate quarrying 523
Places 60 Singapore: a housing success story 450 · Places 79 Malaysia: tin mining 523
Case Study 15 Living in developed cities 452 Framework 17 Standard error calculations 524
Issues Analysis The Westfield Centre, Shepherd's Bush 458 The need for rural management 525

. . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .

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Places 80. Mafia Jslar1d, Tanzania: rural rnanagement

'
526 Tourism and the environment 591
Case Study 7 7 Rural conflicts in south-western USA 527 Places 92 T/1e Peak District: a National Park 592
The tourist resort/area life-cycle model- , 594
Places 93 The Spanish 'costas': the life-cycle of a tourist area 594
Places 94 The Cairngorms: a mountainous area under threat · 595
What are resources? 532 ··
Other types of tourism 596 ·
World energy producers and consumers 533
Places 95 Xcaret, Mexico: ecotourism 598
Recent global trends 535
Framework 7 8 Personal investigative study 599
Sources of energy 536-
Places 81 California and the UK: wind farms 540 Case Study 20 Tourism in Goa, India 600
• •

Energy conservation through greater efficiency 544

Places 82 China: changes in energy production and consumption· 544
Development and energy consumption 546 The concept of economic development 604
Case Study 18 Appropriate technology: micro-hydro in Nepal 547 Criteria for measuring the 'development gap'
•
606
Places 96 Kenya: women and development 608
19 Manufacturing industries 552 . Living in extreme poverty 609
Places 97 Malawi and Ethiopia: WaterAid 611
Traditional locations of industry 553
Framework 7 9 Correlation and development: scattergraphs,
Changing approaches to industrial geography 557
Spearman's rank correlation, and chi-squared 612
Theories of industrial location 557
Stages in economic growth 615
Production process technologies 561
Places 98 China: core-periphery ' 618
Industrial location: changing patterns .562
Health and development 619
Places 83 Sweden: wood pulp and paper 562 •
Places 99 Hong Kong: the epidemiological transition 621
Places 84 UK: iron and steel 563 ,.
Places 100 Sub-Saharan Africa: HIV/AIDS 623
Places 85 Japan: car assembly 565
International trade 624
Places 86 The M4 and M.11 corridors: hig/1-tech industries
. 566
Places
. 101 South Kqrea: Samsu
. . ng_- a.TNC 630
Places 87 South Wales: industrial growth, decline and
Places 7 02 Ghana: Fairtrade 631
regeneration 570 •

Overseas aid and development 632

Industry in economically less developed countries 573
Places 7 03 Sri Lanka: aid after the 2004 tsunami 633_
Places 88 Pune, India: a hub for transnationals 574
World transport 643
Places 89 Nairobi, Kenya: jua kali workshops 575
Places 104 Singapore: an ocean port 636
Places 90 Kenya: Practical Action projects 577
Places 7 05 London Heathrow and Dubai: '/1ub' international
Newly industrialised countries (NICs) S.78
airports. 637
Places 91 Malaysia: a newly industrialised country 578
Places 7 06 Hong Kong: an integrated traffic system 640
•
Case Study 19 Special Economic Zones and open coastal Information and communications technology (ICT) 642
cities in China 580 The global value chain 643
•

Places
.
107 India: call centres 643
20 Tourism 586 .
Case Study 21 China and India: globalisation in the textile
Leisure, recreation and tourism 586 and fashion Industry 644
The growth in tourism 587
Global tourism 588 ..

UK tourism
•
589
Index 650
•

•
•

•
• • • • • • • • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • f • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • !l . . . .
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..

f
Geography: An Integrated Approach (afectionat ely referred to as has a list of alternativ es (one of which is subsequently retaine d
GA/A) has been written as much for those students who have an for consist ency), and is defin ed. Alternative terms and sp ecific
interest in Geography, an enquiring mind and a concern for the examples often app ear in brac ke ts in orde r to save space . Th e
futur e of the planet upon which they live, as for thos e sp ecialising detail ed index, to allow you to c ross-refe re nce, has the key pag e
in tl, e subj ect. The text has been written as concis ely as seemed refer ence for each entry in bold type .
practical in order to minimise the time needed for reading and note­ The book sets out to provide an easily accessible store of
taking, and to maximise the time available for discussion, individual information which will help you understand basic process es
enquiry and wider reading. Photographs, sketches and maps are and concepts, to enter discussions and to develop your own
used throughout to illustrate the wide range of natural and human­ informed, rather than subjective, values and attitudes. Theory is,
created environments. Annotated diagrams are included to show whenever possible, supported by sp ecific examples, which have
interrelationships and to help explain the more diffi cult concepts. been highlighted in the text as Places. Although there are over
and theories. A wide range of graphical skills has been used to one hundred Places, limited space means these may be shorter
handle geographical data -data that are as up to dat e as possible at than is ideal. N evertheless they should enable you either to build
the time of writing and which you can continue to update for your- upon your earlier knowledg e or to stimulate you into reading more
self by referring to releva·nt websites and other sources. widely. At the end of each chapter is a more detailed Case Study.
It is because Geography is soncerned with interrelationships These include natural hazards, problems created by population
that this book has included, and aims to integrate, several fi elds of growth, and by the misuse of the natural environment, and the
study. These involve physical environments (atmosphere, lithos­ attempts- or lack of- to manage the environm ent and the Earth's
phere and hydrosphere) and the living world (biosphere); economic resources. Further r�ferences
.
giv en at the conclusion of each
development (or lack of it); the frequent misuse of the environment,
' .
chapter are those to which th e author has himself referr ed, but they
the long-overdue concern ov er the resultant consequences, and are not intended to be a comprehensive bibliographical list. In this
the need for careful manag ement and sustainable development; edition, they include suggested reliable and us eful websites.
tog ether with the application, where appropriate, of a modern scien­ As the reader, it is ess ential you appreciat e that G eography
tific approach using statistical methods in investigations. is a dynamic subject with data, views, policies and terms which
It is inte nded that this single book will: chang e constantly. Consequently, your own research must not be
• satisfy the requir
.
e ments �f th e latest Advanced Subsidiary (AS),
.
limited to textbooks, which in any case are out of date e ve n before
A2, Advanced GCE, IB and other main Geography sp ecifications th eir publication, but should be widened to include the use of
• alloyv you to read more wid ely in Ge ography than just to be the Internet, CD-ROMs, newspapers, journals, television, radio and
limited to the core and option modules in your e xamination many 'non-academic' media.
sp ecifications. GA/A also includes 19 Frameworks whose function is to
What it is.not intended to do is to match the spe �ifications, stimulat e discussion on methodological and the oretical issues.
or methods of assessment, of individual syllabus es, as thes e are They illustrat e some of th e skills re quired, and the problems
subject to char1ge over periods of time. Rather the book aims to involv ed, in geographical enquiry, e .g. th e us es, limitations and
show the scope, width and eve ryday relevance of Ge ography in reliability of models; quantitative techniques; the collection of
an e ver-changing world. °
data, including using the Interne t; Ge ographical Information
By coincidence, the initial letters of the title ·of this book form Systems (GIS); maps; making classifications; and the dangers of
the word GA/A. In Ancie nt Greece, Gaia was the goddess of the stereotyping and of making broad generalisations. Geography
Earth. Today th e term has been reintroduced to mean 'a new is also concerned with the dev elopment of graphical skills. The
look at life on Earth', an approach that looks at the Earth in its media show an incre asing amount of data in a graphical form,
entirety as a living organism. It is hop ed that this book refl ects and this is likely to grow as G eographical Information Systems
aspects of this approach. d evelop. It is assumed that the reader already understands those
There is no rigid or prescribed ·sequence in the order either skills covered by current GCSE and Standard Grade examination
of the chapters themselves or in their structure. Each is open to specifications and therefore only new skills are explained in this
sev.eral routes of enquiry. Terminology can be a major problem, book. Quantitative and statistical techniques are incorporated at
as geographers may use several terms, some borrowed from appropriate points, although each may be relevant elsewhere in •

other disciplines, to describe the same phenomenon. When a many of the physical and human/economic chapters. Following
term is introduced for the first time it is shown in bold type, an -explanation of each technique, there ·is a worked example.
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · • • ! • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ,, ! • • • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 11 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
6
 I

The questions at the end of eacl1 chapter have been revised India, this edition also introduces new terms (such as globalisation,
for this new edition. They are not written to be 'in the style of any ecological footprint, carbon credit and value-added chain), and
one specification or awarding body; ratl1er they aim to provide all updates information (often using 2007 or 2008 data), definitions
students, irrespective of the exam that they will be sitting, with and Places and Case Studies (climate change, coastal management,
graded practice, working towards the general style of questions types of energy, famine, transnational corporations and HIV/AIDS).
that they might expect to face in their AS, A2, A Level, Baccalaureate
Best wishes with your studies
or other exam being sat at the end of their course. The questions
are arranged into four sections, which are graded in difficulty
as students move towards structuring and planning their own
answers. These sections are:
• Activities - highly structured sets of questions, designed
mainly to test comprehension of key ideas and to be answered
mainly by extracting relevant material from the text. David Waugh
• Exam practice: basic structured questions - contain fewer
sub-sections than the previous Activities, and are designed to Author's acknow!edgemernts
be similar to the type of structured questions to be found on
To help with the writing of this Fourth edition of Geography: An
some AS papers.
Integrated Approach, several leading geographers were asked
• Exam practice: structured questions - contain fewer sub­ to comment on the current accuracy and relevance of the Third
sections than the basic structured questions and generally edition, and to advise on recent changes in terminology, concepts
move on to test more complex and sophisticated knowledge and approach. I am, therefore, most grateful to the following for
and understanding. their advice on the content of specific chapters in this book:
• Exam practice: essays - designed to provide the 'stretch Dr David Chester (University of Liverpool). and Professor Angus
Duncan (University of Bedfordshire) for 'Plate tectonics, earth­
and challenge' that is such an important feature of the latest quakes and volcanoes'; Professor Andrew Goudie (University
revised A Level specifications, following the agenda set by of Oxford) for 'Weathering and slopes', 'Periglaciation', 'Deserts'
QCA. A minimum of structure is provided here, as A2 candi­ and 'Rock types and landforms'; Dr Mike Bentley (University
dates are expected to plan extended essays on their own and of Durham) for 'Glaciation'; Mr Nick Gee (UEA) for 'Coasts',
'Farming and food supplies' and 'Rural land use'; Dr Antoinette
show their ability to bring together knowledge and under­
Mannion (University of Reading) for 'Drainage basins and rivers',
standing from different areas of their study qf Geography. It is 'Biogeography' and 'Population'; Dr Grant Bigg (University of
hoped that these essay questions will provide opportunities Sheffield) for 'Weather and climate'; Dr Steven Trudgill (University
for students of average ability to show evidence that they have of Cambridge) for 'Soils'; Bob Digby for 'Urbanisation'; Dr Nick
learned good geographical skills. However, the essays are also Middleton (University of Oxford) for 'Energy resources'; Dr Louise
Crewe (University of Nottingham) for 'Manufacturing industries';
intended to allow higher-ability students to demonstrate what Dr Jane Dove (St Paul's Girls' School) for 'Tourism'; Dr Alisdair
they know and understand from their studies of Geography, Rogers (University of Oxford) and Dr Richard Knowles (University
and tl1ese students are expected. to respond to the stretch and of Salford) for 'Development and globalisation'.
challenge provided by producing excellent answers. My thanks also to the following contributors: Pete Murray
This, the Fourth edition of GA/A, was written when advances •
for questions in Chapters 1-12, written originally for the Third
in space-shrinking technologies and the speed of globalisation edition, some of which have been re-used in this new edition;
John Smith for the revision, updating and restructuring of the
processes mean that events taking place in one part qf the world
questions throughout the book, and for the Issues Analysis on the
can either be seen by people across the planet almost as they Serengeti in Chapter 11 (pages 311-312); Mike Brown for local
occur (the earthquake in south-east China or sporting events such knowledge, information and photographs for the Goa tourism
as the Olympic Games) or have an immediate impact on every Case Study (pages 600-601) and Places 88 on Pune (page 574);
country (changing oil prices, climate change or the collapse of world Bob Digby for the Issues Analysis on the Westfield Centre (pages
458-459); Roger Jeans (Education, OS) for advice and assistance
banking). During the writing of the previous (Third) edition of this
on the updating and revision of Framework 9 on GIS (pages 277-
book in 1998-99, the most up-to-date data I could find was often 278); Alison Rae for the Issues Analysis on population policies in
for two or three years earlier and was, at best, updated annually. At India and China (pages 386-387); Simon Ross for Framework 1
that time, only 13 per cent of the world's population had access to (pages 22-23) on the use of the internet in study and research,
landline telephones and 1.4 per cent to the Internet, while 2.5 per and for the new feature on mapping (pages 98-99); John Rutter
for updating Framework 9 on GIS (pages 277-278).
cent had a mobile phone. In 2009, data is now readily available not
only for the current year but is often updated monthly or even more My special thanks go to the following who have helped with
the production of this new edition: Barry Page, who has no equal
frequently. Over 50 per cent of people now have access to landlines as a project manager; Katherine James, who must have corrected
and the Internet is now available to nearly 60 per cent in developed thousands of my mistakes over almost 20 years of editing my
and over 10 per cent in developing countries. Over 90 per cent books; Sue Sharp, for finding so many stunning photos; Lynne
of the population in developed and 30 per cent in developing Adams, for her hours researching both new and updated mate­
countries have a mobile phone (or something·far more advanced!). rial; Melanie Grey, for her help with the proofreading of such a
long book; my very good friend John Smith, for again writing and
Apart from adding new, more relevant and appropriate Places, revising the many questions; my Wife Judith, who had to put up
Case Studies and topics (Goa and Dubai; Fairtrade and WaterAid) with my absence at the computer. Without them, a book as big
and giving more depth to the emerging coun�ries of China and and detailed as GA/A could never have been produced.
. . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
 on1cs, ear ,,
', al
.
. .
,·I

'

..

vo can
• • e e •

The history of the Earth

1
l101v does a sripe,·co11ti11e11t begi11 to ,·ifL- atzd how do
• • •

the pieces 1no11e apa,·t? Wl1at effects (-lo s11ch r11ove111ents It is esti1nated th.at the Earth was formed about
71-ave on t·/1e shaJJing· of tl1e contine11tal landscapes, 011 l1ot 4 600 000 000 years ago. Eve11 if this figure is
cli111ates a11d ice ages, 0,-1 t/1e evol1,1.tio11 of life in ge11e,·az sin1plified to 4600 millio11 years, it still presents
1
a11d on hz11na,,zit)1 s ,·e/ationship wit/1 t/1.e i1pJJe1· cr11st of tl1e a timescale far beyond our L111derstandi11g. Nigel
1 Calcler, in his book Tf1e Restless Ea1·t/1., 1nade
Ea,·t/1 in _pa,�ticula1·?
a n1ore co111prehensible analogy by redL1cing
R. Redfern, The Making of a Continent, 1983 tl1e timespan to 46 years. I-le ignored the eight
Figure 1.1
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. 11ougl1ts and co1npared tl1e 46 years witl1 a
The geological timescale hLtman lifetime (Places I).
millions of years before the present present day
4600 3800 3300 600 0

(enlar:ged below)

origin of oldest approximate fossils

the Earth known· origin of life
rocks

Geological Millions of years

Era period Epoch before present Conditions and rocks in Britain Major world events
Cenozoic Quaternary Holocene 0.01 Post ice age. Alluvium deposited, peat formed Early civilisations
Pleistocene 1.8 Ice age, with warm periods Emergence of the human
•

Tertiary Pliocene 5 Warm climate: Crag rocks in East Anglia

Miocene 24 No deposits in Britain Formation of the Alps
Oligocene 33 Warm shallow seas in south of England Rockies and Himalayas begin to form
Eocene 54 Nearly tropical: London clay Volcanic activity in Scotland
Mesozoic Cretaceous 136 Chalk deposited: Atlantic ridge opens End of the dinosaurs/Age of the dinosaurs
Jurassic 195 Oxford clays and limestones: warm Pangaea breaks up
..
Triassic 225 Desert: sandstones First mammals
'

Palaeozoic Permian 280 Desert: New Red Sandstones, limestones ·Formation of .Pangaea
.. -·
Carboniferous 345 Tropical coast with swamps: coal First amphibians and insects
Devonian 395 Warm desert coastline: sandstones First land animals

Silurian 440 Warm seas with coral: limestones First land plants

Ordovician 500 Warm seas:· volcanoes (Snowdonia) sandstones, shales First vertebrates
-
-
Cambrian 570 Cold at times: sea conditions Abundant fossils begin

Pre-Cambrian Igneous and sedimentary rocks

.....................................'.............................................................................'.................................... ................. .
8 Pl�te tectonics, earthquakes and vo.lcanoes
 �---- -- •

the Earth: a simplifi.ed hi·sto,rr�

•

.
'... Or we can depict Mother Earth as a lady of 46, The dinosaurs passed away eight months ago and
if her"years" are megacenturies. The first seven of the upstart mammals replaced them. In the middle
those years are wholly lost to the biographer, but of last week, in Africa, some man-like apes turned
the deeds of her later childhood are to be seen in into ape-like men and, at the weekend, Mother
old rocks in Greenland and South Africa. Like the Earth began shivering with the latest series of ice
human memory, the surface of our planet distorts ages.Just over four hours have elapsed since a
the record, emphasising more recent events and new species calling itself Homo sapiens started
letting the rest pass into vagueness - or at least into chasing the other animals and in the last hour it has
unimpressive joints in worn down mountain chains. invented agriculture and settled down. A quarter of
an hour ago, Moses led his people to safety across
Most of what we recognise on Earth, including all
a crack in the Earth's shell, and about five minutes
substantial animal life, is the product of the past six
later Jesus was preaching on a hill farther along the
years of the lady's life. She flowered, literally, in her
fault line. Just one minute has passed, out of Mother
middle age. Her continents were quite bare of life
Earth's 46 "years': since man began his industrial
until she was getting on for 42 and flowering plants
revolution, three human lifeti.mes ago. During
did not appear until she was 45 - just one year
that time he has multiplied his numbers and skills
ago. At that time, the great reptiles, including the
prodigiously and ransacked the planet for metal
dinosaurs, were her pets and the break-up of the
and fuel:
last supercontinent was in progress.
N. Calder, The Restless Earth, 1972

· Geologists have been able to study rocks a11d It was by studying earthquakes that geologists
fossils formed during the last 600 million years, were first able to determine the structure of the
equivalent to tl1e la.st 'six years of the lady's life', Earth (Figure 1.2). At the Mohorovicic or 'Moho'
and have produced a ti1ne cl1art, or geological discontinuity, it was found that shock waves
timescale. Not only l1ave they been able to add begin to travel faster, indicating a change of struc­
dates with increasing confidence, but they have ture-in this case, the junction of the Earth's crust
111ade progress i11 describing a11d accounting for and mantle (Figt1re 1.2). The 'Moho' discontinuity
tl1e major cl1anges i11 the Earth's surface, e.g. is the junction between the Earth.'s crust and the
sea-level fluctuatio11s and landform develop- mantle where seismic waves are modified. The
1nent, and in its cli1nate. The timescale, sl1own in Moho is at about 35-40 km beneath continents
Figure 1.1, should be a t1seful refere'nce for later (reaching 70 km under mountain chains) and at
parts of tl1is book. 6-10 km below the oceans.
Earthquakes result from a slow build-up of
Earthquakes pr�ssure within crt1stal rocks. If this pressure is
suddenly released then parts of the surface may-
Even the earliest civilisations were aware that the experience a jerking movement. Within the crust,
crust of tl1e Earth is not rigid and immobile. The the point at which the release in pressure occurs
first major Europea11 civilisation, the Minoan,· is know11 as the focus. Above this, on the surface
based. in Crete, constructed buildings such as and usually receiving tl1e worst of the shock or
the Royal Palace at Knossos whicl1 withstood a seismic waves, is the epicentre. Unfortunately;
succession of earthquakes. However, this civilisa­ it is not only th.e immediate or prill).ary· effects
tion may l1ave been destroyed by the effects of a of the earthquake that may· cause loss of life and
huge volcanic eruption on the nearby island of property; often the secondary or after-effects are '

Thera (Santorini). Later, inhabitants of places as even more serious (Places 2). These may include
far apart as Lisbon (1755), San Francis·co (1906), fires from broken gas pipes, disruption. of trans­
Tokyo (1923), Mexico City (1985), Los Angeles port and other services, exposure caused by a
(1994-Case Study 15A), Kobe (1995), Sri Lanka lack of shelter, a shortage of food, clean water
and Sumatra (2004-Places 4) and China (2008 and medical equipment, and disease caused by
- Places 2) were to suff�r from the effects of major polluted water supplies. These problems may be
earth movements . •
exacerb�ted by after-shocks which often follow
the main earthquake.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • j • • • • • • • • • • • } • • • •
•
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••••••••••••••••••

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 9

'
 1 Crust Relatively speaking, this is as thin as
the skin of an apple is to its flesh.
(a) Oceanic crust (sima) is a layer consisting
. mainly of basalt, averaging 6-10 km in
,'
thickness. At its deepest it has a
' I
'•
' '
\I
I
temperature of 1200° (.
• '
��
'• �
' . \. .
I (b) Continental crust (sial) can be up to
' '\ '
''
,, 70 km thick. The crust is separated from
'·
2b I

'
•
•
the mantle by the Moho discontinuity.
• "• The crust and the rigid top layer of the
•
'
mantle are collectively known as the
'
. "' ' ). _ lithosphere (Figure 1 .6).
3a'
.-
.-· . ..
-· .. 2 Mantle This is composed m_ainly of silicate
"'
• rocks, rich in Iron and magnesium. Apart
from the rigid top layer (2a), the rocks in the
remainder of the mantle, the asthenosphere,
are kept in a semi-molten state (2b). The
mantle extends to a depth of 2900 km where
temperatures may reach 5000° (. These high
temperatures generate convection currents.

3 Core This consists of iron and nickel, and

is the size of Mars.The outer core (3a) is kept
in a semi-molten state, but the inner core
(3b) is solid. The temperature at the centre
of the Earth (6371 km below the surface) is
about 6200° ( (hotter than
. the surface of
the sun).

Figure 1.2 1"he strength of an. earthquake is 111eas11red 1755 Lisbon eartl1qt1ake was 10 times stro11ger
........' . ..,. .. . . . ..... .. .. . ..........
,

The internal structure on the Ricl1ter scale (Figure 1.3). To cover the •
and released 30 times more energy tl1an the 1985
of the Earth huge range of earthquakes, the magnitude of Mexico City eartl1qt1ake, and was nearly 100
· the scale is logarithmic, each t1nit representing
•
times stro11ger and released almost 900 ti111es
a ·te11fold i11crease in strengtl1 and aroL1nd
.
a more energy tha11 tl1e 1989 San Fra11cisco earth­
30-fold increase in energy. This 111eans tl1at the qt1ake (Figt1re 1.3).

·--
Figure 1.3 '
................................. >.
The Richter scale .0 -0
-0 Cl)
>.
Cl)
+-'
u rn
....
0
+-' �
, Cl)
·-
c Cl) II\ ro
+-'
II\ rn -0
Cl) .c
Cl)
-0 :::, ro VI Q.

->. ro
u Cl) ro
E II\
rn 0 :::,
c c
c
c c
·-
• II\
.... rn
o -0
O ro - -0
-
Q)
Cl) Q.
•
>. Cl) E E ro
.... ·- Cl)
O
possible· =ro :::, VI
E ro
<lJ :::, .0 -0 VI
'
:::, �-0 ti
c�
effects E .... c �
:::,
....
Cl)
rn :::, :::,
.... +-'
O II\ .... O
--
·- +-' VI
' c
c ·- ro .'t: +-'
ro ._ VI
II\
rn l..j::
,
earthquake size O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(magnitude - log scale)
o_ 5.7 6.4 6.9 7.2 7.8 8.2
°'
0 ....
ro " °'
°' °' co °'°' \0
..... -
'
-- - -
('(')

°'
I.I)

°'
I.I)
:::, >. CO
+-' Cl)
O
0 Cl).... ..... °' °' °' c
.0 0
ro o. >. ro
·- c ­
u c >. 0 .0
·-
- -0 .� u VI
Cl)
rn�
II\
- -c VI ro u -�u _J

-
ro ro u ro
·- Q.
·- c -i O c
·xu u.�
�
'- :::, 0
<lJ er ·-
VI
0
� .c
VI u.
�
Q) N
c .D
VI Q)
c t � c
•
o ro
- Cl)
<(
V'l
O
ro � ro
V'I
....ro
�

E
•

::,
V'I

..... . ........ . . ....................................................................................................................................................................... .

1o Plate tectonics, earthquakes �nd volc_anoes
 �--�--·��-�-�-- d-W_>_O___W�··
_ --�--,� ,--..--, •

South-west China: an ear:thq·uake

_, ��-,-- �----· ���-�---------,----��·c------�------J

12May2008 were lost and people were left without power, fresh
Just before 1430 hours local time, an earthquake water and sl1elter. Two large dams developed wide
measuring 7.9 on the Ricl1ter scale hit Sicl1uan cracks and tl1e seemingly endless heavy rain following
province in soutl1-west China. It was the worst to tl1e quake caused further landslides that killed several
affect the country since tl1e city of Tangshan was relief workers and created over 40 new lakes.
levelled with the loss of over 220 000 lives in 1976.
The epicentre was at Wenchuan, 80 km north of 26May2008
Chengdu. SichL1an, known as the 'rice-bowl of
Whereas after most earthquakes the aftershocks
China: is one of the most densely populated and
decrease in magnitude and frequency fairly rapidly,
poorest of the country's provinces. The earthquake,
in Sichuan they continued. Two weeks after the
whicl1 lasted 20 seconds, occurred in a region where
main event, during which there had been several
the fertile plains of Sichuan give way to high cliffs,
hundred shockwaves, a tremor of 5.9 magnitude
steep gorges and forests of pine and bamboo - the
killed six people, injured over a thousand more, and
last being the sole remaining natural habitat for the
demolished many of the already severely damaged
giant panda - near to the Tibetan Plateau.
buildings. By this time the official death toll had been
Apart from the collapse of thousands of buildings, put at 67 000 people with another 20 000 still missing.
giant landslides of mud and rubble blocked roads Some 5 million people - equivalent to the combined
and rivers. A huge emergency plan was immediately populations of Manchester and Birmingham -were
put into effect, including the marching of parts of the reported to be homeless. The newly created 'quake' or
·army for 30 hours over the mountains to try to help 'barrier' lakes, together with up to 400 purpose-built
survivors. At least six schools were destroyed, their reservoirs, became a major concern as they continued
teachers and students .buried under the rubble - to fill following the heavy rains. The talk was of
indeed it was in schools where poor-quality cement completely abandoning towns such as Wenchuan
had been used that a high proportion of deaths and Beichuan, where virtually all of the buildings had
occurred. Telephone links, including those for mobiles, been destroyed, and creating new settlements .
•

Earthquakes, volcanoes 1946 West Indies, Japan 1999

•
Turkey, Taiwan
, ..
and young fold 1949 Alaska • 2001 · 1ndia, El Salvador I

mountains 1950 Japan, Assam •

2002 Alaska, Mexico
1953 Turkey, Japan 2003 Japan, Iran
These do not occur at ra11dom 1956 California 2004 Morocco, Sumatra
.. 2005
over the Earth's surface but have 1957 Mexico Pakistan
1958 Alaska 2006 Java
a clearly identifiable pattern. 1960 Chile, Morocco 2007 Peru
This can be seen by working 1962 Iran 2008 China
tl1rot1gl1 'the following activities. 1963 Yugoslavia .
1964 Alaska, Turkey, Mexico, 2 On a tracing overlay, mark and
Japan, Taiwan name the following volcanoes:
1 On an outline map of the world, 1965 El Salvador, Greece Aconca·gua, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi,
mark by a dot (there is no need to 1966 Chile, Peru, Turkey Nevado del Ruiz, Paricutin,
name the places) the location of 1967 Colombia, Yugoslavia, Java, Popocatepetl, Mount St Heleos, •

the following earthquakes: Japan. Fuji, Mount Pinatubo, Mayon,

1968 Iran Krakatoa, Merapi, Ruapehu, Erebus,
1924 Philippines 1970 Peru Helgafell, Surtsey, Azores archipel­
1925 California 1971 New Guinea, California ago, Ascension, St Helena, Tristan
1926 Rhodes • 1972 Nicaragua da Cunha, Vesuvius, Etna, Pelee,
19.27 Japan 1976 Guatemala, Italy, China, Montserrat, Mauna Loa, Kilauea.
1928 Ehile Philippines, Turkey
1929 Aleutians, Japan 1978 Japan 3 On a second overlay, mark and ,
·
1931 N�w.Zealand, 1980 Italy name the following fold
1932 Mexico 1985 Mexico, Colombia mountains:
I:
19.33 California 1'988 Armenia Andes, Rockies, Atlas, Pyrenees,
1, 1935 su·matr·a 1989 sa·n Francisco, Iran Alps, Caucasus, Hindu Kush,
1938 Java 1993 Java, Japan, India, Egypt ·Hrmalayas, Southern Alps.
1939 Chile, 1urkey 1994 Los Angeles
1940 Burma,. Peru �995 Japan, Greece 4 Use the Internet (see Framework
II 1941 Ecuador, Guatemala l996 China, ln.donesia 1, page 22) to find the names of
1943 Philippines, Java 1997 Afghanistan, Italy, Iran more earthquakes and volcanic
1944 Japan 1998 Iraq, Afghanistan eruptions, after 2008.
- - - , - -
. .. .. . ..... . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . � ......... '...... ... '....... .. ...... ...... .............. .. .... . ..... ... ............. ...... .. ... . .. ......... .. ..... .. .. .. . ... . .. ... ... .... .
Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoe·s 11
 .
--------·�--·--�-----� ... -

Plate tectonics MoL1ntains of the ea.stern USA correspo11d

geologically witl1 mountains i11 north-west
As early as 1620, Francis Bacon noted the jigsaw- Europe.
. like fit between the ea.st coast of Soutl1 A1nerica • Climatology Coal, formed under warm, wet
a11d the west coast of Africa. Others were later conditio11s, is fou11d beneath the Antarctic
to poi11t out si111ilarities betwee11 the sl1apes of ice-cap, a11d evide11ce of glaciation had been
coastlines of several adjacent continents. noted in tropical Brazil and ce11tral India.
!111912, a Gerrnan 1neteorologist, Alfred Coal, sandstone and li1nestone could not have
Wegener, publisl1ed his theory that all the con­ formed in Britain with its present climate.
tinents were once joined togetl1er i11 011e large Wegener's t11eory of co11tinental drift co1nbined
st1percontine11t whicl1 he 11amed Pa11gaea. Later, information from several subject areas, bu.t his
this la11d1nass so1nehow split up and the various ideas were rejected by specialists in those
conti11ents, as we know· tl1em, drifted apart. disciplines, partly because he was 11ot regarded
Wegener collated evidence fro111 several sciences: as an expert hi1nself but perl1aps mai11ly because
• Biology Mesosaurus was a small reptile he co111d not explain how solid continents
livi11g in Permian times (Figure 1.1); its l1ad changed their positions. He was unable to
re111ains have been fou11d 011ly i11 Soutl1 suggest a mecl1anism for drift.
Africa a11d Brazil. A plant wl1icl1 existed wl1en Figure l.4a sl1ows Wegener's Pangaea
coal was being for111ed has only been located and how it began to divide 11p i11to two large
in India a11d Antarctica. continents, whicl1 he named Laurasia and
• Geology Rocks of si1nilar type, age, for1na­ Go11dwanala11d; it also suggests how tl1e world
tio11 and structure occur in south-east Brazil 111ay look in tl1e future if tl1e contine11ts continue
Figure 1.4
• j, • �• • • •••••••• • • • • • • •• • • •••••• and Soutl1 Africa, and the Appalachian to drift.
The wandering
continents

a Pangaea: The supercontinent of 200 million yeai's ago

b Sub-oceanic forces send the landmasses wandering l'

'
J

L a u a s

c Tomorrow's worlcl - SO million years hence

urop

direction of plate
movement I
. -

... . .. .... ... .......... ...... ..... ...... ..... .. .. ............ ... ....... ........ .... ...... .. .... .... ... .... ...... ... .... ... .. ..... ... . ..... ...... ..... .. .. .. ... . .. ... .. ... �

12 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

 Since Wegener first put forward tl1is theory, three is clai1ned tl1. at tl1ere l1ave been 171 rever sals
groups of n ew evid e11c e l1 ave b ecome a vailable to o ver 76 millio11 years. If formed wl1en the
support l1is id eas . magnetic pole was in the nortl1, new basalt
1 Tl1e discovery a11d sh1dy of tl1e Mid­ would be aligned to the 11orth. After a reversal
Atlantic Ridge Wl1il e investigati11g islands ·in the magnetic poles, newer lava would be
in tl1e Atlantic i11 1948, Mauric e Ewi11g 11oted oriented to the soutl1. After a further .reversal,
tl1e presence of a contint1ous mot1ntain range the align1nent would again be to the north.
exte11di11g th e whol e le11gth of th e ocean Subseqt1 ent investigations have shown that
b ed. Thi s 1nou11tain range, n am ed the Mid­ these alternations i11 alignrri ent are al1nost
Atlantic Ridge, is about 1000 km wid e and sym1netr ic al i11 rock s on eitl1 er sid e of the Mid­
rises to 2500 m in heigl1t. Ewing also noted Atlantic Ridg e (Figt1re 1.5).
that tl1e rocks of thi s r a11ge were volcanic a11d 3 Sea floor spreading In 1962, Harry H ess
re cent in origin - not anci ent as previously studied the age of rocks from tl1 e middle of
assumed wa s the case in 1nid-oceans. Later th e Atlantic outward s to the coast of Nortl1
investigations show similar ranges on other America . H e confirmed tl1at the newest rocks
ocea11 floors, th e 011e in tl1e east er11 P acific were in tl1e centre of the ocean, and were still
extending for 11early 5000 km (Figur e 1.8). being formed in Iceland, and that tl1e oldest
2 Studies of JJalaeomagnetism in tl1e rocks were those nearest to tl1 e USA a11d th e
1950s During u11d erwater volcanic eruptions, Caribb ean. He also suggested that tl1 e Atl antic
b asaltic mag111a is intruded into the crust and could be wid ening by up to 5 cm a year.
cools (Figure 1.31). Dt1ril1g the cooling process, One ma jor difficulty resulting from this concept
individual 1niner als, especially iron oxides, of sea floor spreadi11g was th e i1nplication that
alig11 tl1emsel ves along the Eartl1's magnetic the Eartl1 must b e incr easing in siz e. Since this is
field, i.e . i11 the direction of tl1e magnetic not so, evidence was needed to show that else­
pole . Recent refinements in dating tecl111iques where parts of the cn1st were be ing d estroyed.
en able the time at which rocks were formed Such areas were found to corr espond to the
to be accu1·at ely calculated. It was kt1own fringes of th e Pacific Ocean - the region wl1er e
b efore the 1950s that the Earth's 1nagnetic you plotted some ma jor earthquakes and vol­
pole varied a little fro1n year to year, but only canic eruptions (pa ge 11). These discoveries led to
then was it discovered that the magnetic field the development of the th eory of plate tectonics
reverses p eriodically, i.e. the magnetic pole is which is now virtu ally universally accept ed, but
in th e south for a period of ti1ne and then in whicl1 may still be 111odified following further
tl1e north for a further period, and so on. It inv estigation and study.

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

North
South South
----------·---
N S N ' N S N

./ I
upper mantle lithosphere

lower mantle asthenosphere

Figure 1.5 •
··· ········· ····························· ·····-················ ·······
The repeated reversal of the Earth's
•
magnetic field - the timings are '

irregular but show a mirror image

•
•

• •

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .
Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 13
 ------- ----- --- ---

•
'

Differences in Differences in
• composition physical state
.,

Cl oceanic
Two oceanic plates moving crust lithosphere
EJ continental
-- - --
apart (constructive) {behaves in

- ....
a rigid fasl1ion)
upper mantle
....
......
'' - remainder asthenospl1ere
' of mantle (which is ductile)
'
''
)(
sea
'
convection cell
�

- - � plate movement
hot
spot
'

hot
spot
core hot
spot
v
Figure 1.6 ·
.........................................
How plates n1ove Thickness 35-40 km on average, reaching 60-70 km under mountain chains 6-10 km on average
. -
Age of rocks very old, mainly over 1500 million years very young, mainly under 200 million years
.. •

Figure 1.7
. ..... ............. ..... ,, ......... '.
' ' ' '
Weight
•
of rocks lighter, with an average density of 2.6 heavier, with an average density of 3.0
Differences between
�

Nature of rocks light in colour; many contain silica and aluminium; numerous types, dark in colour; many contain silica and magnesium;
continental and granite is the most common few types, mainly basalt
oceanic crust
•

I I
The theory of plate tectonics n1ove towards, away from or sideways along
The lithosphere (the Ea.rth's crust and tl1e rigid adjacent plates. It is at plate boundaries that
Lipper part (?f the mantle) is divided i11to seven 111ost of the world's 1najor landforms occur, a11d
large and several s111aller plates. Tl1e plates, where earthquake, volca11ic and 1nountain­
wl1ich ar� rigid. , float like rafts on the t1nderlying building zones are located (Figure 1.8). I--Iowever
se1ni-111olten mantle (the asthenospl1e1·e) a11d before tryi11g to account for the formation of
are moved by curre11ts which for1n convection tl1ese landforms, several .Points should be noted.
cells (Figtire 1.6). Plate tectonics is the stt1dy of 1 Dt1e to its relatively low density, conti11e11tal
tl1e movement of these IJlates and their resultant crust does not sink and so is perma11ent; bei11g
landforms. denser, oceanic cn1st ca11 si11k. Oceanic crust is
There are two types of plate material: being formed and destroyed continuously.
•
continental a11d oceanic. Conti11ental crust is 2 Continental plates, such as tl1e Et1rasian
composed of older, ligl1ter rock of granitic type." Plate, may con . sist of both continental and
Ocea11ic crust consists of mt1ch younger, denser ocea11ic crust.
rock of basaltic composition. However, as most 3 Continental crust 1nay extend far beyond the
plates co11sist of areas of both continental and margins of the landmass.
oceanic crust, it is important to realise tl1at the 4. Pl�tes cannot overlap. Tl1is means that eitl1er
two ter1ns do not refer to·our na1ned continents they must be pt1shed t1pwards on impact to
form mountains (AB on Figure 1.6) or o11e
and oceans. The 1najor differences betwee11 tl1e
two types of crt1st are su1n1narised in Figure plate must be forced downwards into the
: 1. 7. mantle and destroyed (C 011 Figure 1.6) .
.
Plate mo·vement 5 · No 'gaps' 111ay occur 011 the Earth's surface so
if two plates are 111oving apart, 11ew oceanic '
As a result of the convectio11 cells generated by crust originating from tl1e ma.ntle must be
heat from the centre of tl1e Earth, plates may being formed.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ........................................ · .. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
1.4 Pla.te tectonics, earthquakes and volcano.es
•
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:·:· earthquake foci fV\ constructive margins - spreading (I) rate of mo'(ement
'
(cm per year) Plates
ridge offset by transform faults A Adriatic
/' collisio11 zones � destructive margins - __) uncertain plate boundary B Aegean
"< subduction zone C Turkish
D Juan de Fuca
--tllll� movement of plates � conservative margins E Cocos
'

Figure 1.8 6 Tl1e Eartl1 is neitl1er expanding nor shrinking 8 Most significant landforms (fold mountai11s,
. . . .. . . . . . . . . ....... , ................ , .. .
Plate boundaries and in size. Tl1us when new ocea11ic crust is being volcanoes, island arcs, deep-sea trenches,
active zones of the for111ed i11 one place, older oceanic crust 1nus. t and batholitl1 intrusions) are found at plate
Earth's crust be bei11g destroyed in anotl1er. boundaries. Very little change occurs in plate·
7 Plate movement is slow (though not in geolog- centres (shield lands). Figure 1.9 su1nmarises
ical ter1ns) and is t1sually continuous. St1dden the major landforms resulting from different
movem.ents are detected as e�rthquakes. types of plate moveme11t.

Figure 1.9
.... ..................... ............. .
, ,

The major landforms

A Constructive margins two plates move away from each other; new Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Americas moving away from
resulting from plate
(spreading or divergent oceanic crust appears forming mid-ocean Eurasian and African Plates)
movements
plates) ridges with volcanoes •
East Pacific Rise (Nazca and Pacific Plates moving apart)
•
B Destructive margins oceanic crust moves towards continental Nazca sinks under South American Plate (Andes)
(subduction zones) crust but, being heavier, sinks and is destroyed Juan de Fuca sinks under North American Plate (Rockies)
forming deep-sea trenches and island arcs with Island arcs of the West Indies and Aleutians
volcanoes
=·,
Collision zones two continental crusts collide and, as neither Indian Plate collided with Eurasian P.late, forming Himalayas
can sink, are forced up into fold mountains African Plate cQllided with Eurasia� Plate, forming Alps
C Conservative or two plates move sideways past each other San Andreas Fault in California
• •
passive margins - land.is neith·er formed nor destroyed
'
(transform faults) • •
)'.

.Note: centres.of plates are rigid plate centres form •

rigid... a shields lands (cratons) of ancient worn­ Canadian (Laurentian) Shield, Brazilian Sbield
down rocks
b depressions on edges of the shield whicn Mississippi-Missouri,
•
Amazon
develop into large river basins
•

...with one main exception Africa dividing to form a rift valley an· d African Rift Valley and the Red Sea
possibly a new sea

. .. . . . . •. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. • •
. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • � • • • • • • • • , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• • • • . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. • • • � • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Plate tectonics, .earthquakes and volcanoes 15

 i
.I

Landforms at constructive plate in time grow above sea-level, e.g. Surtsey, soutl1 of
margins Iceland 011 the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Places 3) and
.Easter Island on tl1e East Pacific Rise. The Atlantic
Constructive plate margi11s occur where two plates
Ocean did 11ot exist sorne 150 111illion years ago
diverge, or move away, fro111 eacl1 otl1er and new
(Figure 1.4) and is still wideni11g by some 2-5 cm
crust is created at tl1e bou11dary. Tl1is process,
annt1ally. Where there is lateral move1nent along
k_now11 as sea-f1001· spreading, occL1.rs in tl1e mid­
the mid-ocean ridges, large cracks called trans­
Atlantic wl1ere the North and Soutl.1 Am.erica11
for1n fattlts are prodt1ced at right-angles to the
I Plates are being pulled a.part fro1n the Eurasian a11d
I plate boundary (Figure 1.8).
African Plates by convectio11 cells. As the plates
Ii diverge, molten rock 'or 1nagi11a rises from the
The largest visible product of constructive
divergent plates is Iceland where one-third of the
111antle to fill a11y possible gaps betwee11 them and,
lava emitted onto the Earth's surface in the last
in doing so, creates new oceanic crust. Tl1e mag1na
500 years can be found (Figures l. lOb and 1.26) .
initially forms sub111aril1e volcanoes which may
.,------------· �..··-,·-··--· -·-..----�=�-----��---··-----...-,-----�· -------,
Iceland: a constructive plate margin
-�-

On 14 November 1963, the crew of an Icelandic activity ceased six months later, many homes nearby
' fishing boat reported an explosion under the had been burned; others farther afield had been
• sea south-west of the Westman Islands. This was buried under 5 m of ash; and the entrance to the
I

followed by smoke, steam and emissions of pumice harbour had been all but blocked.
stone. Having built up an ash cone of
A large volcanic eruption in a fissure under the
130 m from the seabed, the island of Surtsey
Vatnajokull icecap melted 3000 m 3 of the glacier
emerged above the waves. On 4 April 1964, a
above it in October 1996. The resultant meltwater
lava flow covered the unconsolidated ash and
collected under the ice in the Grimsvotn volcanic
guaranteed the island's survival.
crater (caldera) until, in November, an eruption
Just before 0200 hours on 23 January 1973, an spewed a 4270 m high column of ash into the air
earth tremor stopped the clock in the main street of and released the trapped water. The subsequent

l Heimaey, Iceland's main fishing port. Once again the torrent, which contained house-sized blocks of ice

I North American and Eurasian Plates were moving

apart (Figure 1.1Ob). Fishermen at sea witnessed the
and black sulphurous water, demolished three of
Iceland's largest bridges and several kilometres of
the south coast ring road (Figure 1.25). A further

I
crust of the Earth break open and lava and ash pour
out of a fissure 2 km in length (page 25). Eventually event in December 1998 resulted in five craters
the activity became concentrated on the volcanic within the caldera becoming active along a 1300 m
Figure 1.10 cone of Helgafell and the inl1abitants of Heimaey long fissure and the creation of an eruption plume
•····•··•····•·········· ····•·•··•·······
were evacuated to safety. By the time volcanic 1 O km in height.
A constructive plate
margin: Iceland

Mid-Atlantic b Cross-section of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Ridge volcanic islands,
'
e.g. Iceland
North American Plate
4Eilrasian Plate
(continental tinental crust)

Reykjavj -

Heimaey 1973� Eurasian Plate -

•surtsey 1963-67 upP.er mantle

volcanic eruption "'-branch of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ---

volcanic zo.ne 0 100 km

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
'

16 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

Figure 1.11
��
Tl1e A.tlantic Ocean was formed as the con­
....... '.. . . . ... . .. .. . . . . . .... . . . . . .. .. . ..
The African Rift Valley
l'---......_ <::7,
Dead Sea
tinent of LaL1rasia split i11to t,vo, a process that
�(' ........,,,....__,
r
t' (-396 m, may be repeating itself today in East Africa. Here
& �.l__(' the brittle crt1.st has fractured and, as sections
a Location
Red Sea moved apart, tl1e central portion dropped to form
Africa Arabia
,... the Great African Rift Valley (Figure 1.11) with
its associated volcanic activity. In Africa the rift
valley exte11ds for 4000 k111 from Mozambique

J L. Victorfa } r-i' 5 ,g9 m

Qj)JJ..
JJJ,.\6) A mountain
to the Red Sea. In places its sides are over 600 m

\
i11 height while its width varies between 10 and
. ��, 1 5895 m CD Kilimanjaro 50 km. Wl1ere the land has been pulled apart and
L. Tanganyikaii�
�-
1 <�� J
p L. :a1aw,.
Cl) Kenya
plate movement
dropped sttfficiently, it l1as been invaded by the
sea. It has been suggested that the Red Sea is a
.p )\
__.
1
newly for1ning ocean. Looking 50 1nilllo11 years
'·,�1 Rift Valley �nto the future (Figttre 1.4c), it is possible that
O 1000 km Africa will l1ave 1noved further away from Arabia.
Indian Ocean
Landforms at destructive plate margins
b Idealised cross-section
Destructive 1nargins occur where continental
central plateau a11d oceanic plates converge. The Pacific Ocea11,
Western Rift subsided to
Valley with large form Lake whicl1 extends over five oceanic plates, is st1r­
volcanoes, e.g. lakes, e.g. Victoria rot1nded by continental plates (Figure 1.8). The
Ruwenzori Tanganyika
J ..
Pacific Plate, tl1e largest of tl1e oceanic plates,
eartl1 \t and tl1e Pl1ilippines Plate move north-west to
movement collide with eastern Asia. In co11trast, tl1e smaller
Nazca, Cocos and Juan de Fuca Plates travel east­
wards towards South America, Central A1nerica
and North America respectively. Figure 1.12
shows how the Nazca Plate, 1nade of oceanic
crust which cannot override contine11tal crust,
is forced to dip downwards at a11. angle to form
•
a subduction zone witl1 its associated deep-sea
trench. As oceanic lithosphere descends, the
increase in pressure can trigger major earth­
Figure 1.12 saline lakes (e.g. Titicaca), remnants of quakes, while dehydratio� of the subducted
.............................. ..................
, '
disappearing former oceans oceanic crust, cat1sed by tl1e increase in pressure,
A destructive plate margin young fold mountains of the
- the Nazca and South
rest11ts in the release of water into the overlying
Western Andes, separated by the
American Plate boundary Cordillera Eastern Cordillera Altiplano (High Plateau) mantle wl1ich promotes partial melting and the
generation of magma. Being less dense than the
(ii) some lava reaches surface to
form volcanoes 6000 m high, e.g.
11).antle, the newly formed magma will try to rise
Chimborazo and Cotopaxi Amazon and Parana . 'to th·e Earth's surface. Where it does reach the
lowlands (sedimentary s11rface, volcanoes will occu1:. These volcanoes
rocks) Atlantic
are likely to form either a long chain of fold
mountains (e.g. the Andes) or, if the eruptions
take place offsl1ore, an island arc (e.g. Ja.pan,
Caribbean). Estimates claim that 80 per cent of
the world's prese11t active volcanoes are located
sea level
above subduction zones. As the rising rnagma
at destructive margins is m.ore acidic than the
lava of constructive margi'ns (page 24), it is more
(oceanic viscous and flows less easily. It may solidify
crust) within the mountai11 mass to form large
friction from the subduction zone intrusive features called batholiths (Figure 1.31).
gives extra heat producing e1ther
(j) or (Ii) above
subduction
plate breaks
earthquake fo '

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 17
 Figurel.13
. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . .................. . .
t-
.
-----.
.'
The 2004 tsunan1i
.. ., ...
, ,. -
..lliL.: .,)
....
L , "!I,,{
'II;. �

as it hit the coast of

Thailand

.
Tsunamis
.
are giant wa.v es, ofte11 gen.erated a.t canic er11ptio11 (I<rakatoa 1883 - Places 35, page
.
destrt1ctive plate margins, that can cross oceans 289) or a shallow sub1narine eartl1quake (India11
- indeecl tl1e four tsunamis that followed tl1e erup­ Ocean 2004 - Places 4).
tion of Krakatoa in 1883 travelled th1·ee times Tsunamis have exceptionally lo11g wave-lengths
arou11d the world. Tst111a1nis are rare events, but of up to 100 km, unlil<e wi11d-driven waves where
• •
they can cause e11ormous damage and consider­ tl1e dista11ce between consecutive wave crests is
able loss of life. Tl1ey occt1r when a st1dclen, large­ only a few 1netres (page 141). Tsunamis can cross
scale ch.a11ge in tl1e area of an ocean bed leads to ocea11s at speecls of up to 700 km/hr yet tl1eiI· small
tl1e displaceme11t of a. large volu1.11e of water and height, perl1aps only half a metre, m.akes tl1em
• '. t11e subseqt1ent formation of one or more huge almost imperceptible. On approaching a coastline,
•
waves. Althot1gl1 tsu11a1nis ca11 result from a 111ajor tl1eir speed may rapidly decrease to only 30 km/hr
coastal.la11dslide (e.g. Alaska 1958), tl1eir origin is (still faster than people can 1un) while tl1eir l1eight
in.ore likely to be seismic - either following a vol- can increase to 20 m or more .

Indian Ocean: the 2004 tsunami

� Andaman � ......
. .
Island 7 hour s::. tsunami waves
'
� 7 f·IJours travelling outwards
'
I
and time taken

! '
In aia n 0, c e a n

2fho11rs
Gall� t
2 hours
-
'S���m\
� 1
\

Indian Plate

>
[. �

(mainly oceanic crust) seabed forced to rise, pushing

( water upwards and outwards
forming a giant wave
tsunamis
/ '\

seawater seawater
displaced displaced

Figure1.14
······•···············•·······•······· •

seabed distorted Track of the Indian

earthquake focus-. Ocean tsunami

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ." . . . . . .
18 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

•
 -· � .- -- - - -
- - - -
- -
- - .

The Indian Ocean tsu11ami of 26 December 2004 that had not been destroyed a few minutes earlier
was caused by a l1orizontal movement of some 15 m by tl,e earthquake, and, later, several coastal resorts
along a 1200 km section of fault line where tl1e mainly in Thailand (Figure 1.13). The remainder of the wave
'
oceanic crust of the north-eastwards moving Indian travelled westwards across the Indian Ocean where
Plate is subducted under the mainly continental it affected, without warning, the Andaman Islands,
crust of the Eurasia,, Plate. The magnitude of the Sri Lanl<a and southern India (Figure 1.14). In all those
earthquake tl1at triggered this movement was places the 15 m wave, preceded by a retreat of the sea,
measured as 9.0 on the Richter scale and had its raced inland carrying people and property with it and
epicentre just off the west coast of Sumatra in then rusl1ing back to the ocean
-
dragging bodies and .
Indonesia. As part of tl,e seabed directly above the debris. In all 300 000 people died, including 200 000 in
epicentre was forced to rise locally, water above it was Indonesia and 30 000 in Sri Lanka, and nearly 2 million
pushed upwards and outwards forming the tsunami. were left l1omeless. Hundreds of kilometres of roads
were destroyed, as were many schools and hospitals,
Part of the resultant wave travelled eastwards to
fishing boats and coastal crops (Places 103, page 633).
devastate, first, those parts of Banda Aceh in Sumatra

Landforms at collision
a oceanic crust undergoes (±) = earthquake foci plate margins
island dehydration, releasing
water into the overlying The for1nation of fold mountains
sedirnents from land arc
mantle, which melts is often·extre111ely complex. As
has already been explained in the
context of tl1e Pacific, fold moun­
tains ofte11 occL1r where oceanic
crt1st is subdL1cted by continental
crust (Figure 1.15). A seco11d,
thot1gh less frequent, occurre11ce
is when two plates composed of
b (±) = earthquake foci continental crust move together.
In Places 5 the Indian subconti-
ne11t, forming part of the Indo- f),

At1stralian Plate, is shown to have

moved north-eastwa.rds and to
have collided wit_h the Eurasia11
ocean1C'crust
www,:;;:;; a"' ,, ...........
IV,> • -,_

l)late. Because contine11tal crust

ca11not sink, the subsequent
collision cat1sed the intervening
sediments, v\1hich con.tained sea­
shells, to be pt1s.hed upwards to
c young fold form the Himalayas - an uplift
mountains
tl1at is still continuing. It is where
tl1ese continental collisions occt1r
that fold 1nountai11s form and
the Earth's crust is at its thickest
oceanic crust (Figures 1.6 and 1.7).

Figure 1.15
· · · · · ·•·· • · ··• · ·· ··· · · · · · ····• · ·········· ··· · · · ·•······ · · ·· · ···· · · · · ········
A collision plate margin - the formation
of fold mountains (orogenesis)

.
•

. .

. . . . . . . ... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
P.late tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 19
 t:
• .

c·< . -p:.,1.ac . -.i'.,

. -. es/ 5 margin
., •• >- • , ..,, .-�

The Himalayas: a colli-sion plate-- �--:.:__-------- �----�------�---'

•

' . .. . :- . . . . ' .

Measurements of current convergence rates suggest • northern Pakistan in 2005 when more than
that the Inda-Australian Plate is moving towards the 78 00 0 di ed in a qu ak e th at m ea su re d 7.8 an d
Eurasian Plate at a rate of 5.8 cm/year. Although tl1e lasted 32 seconds
convergence of two plates of continental crust has • Sichuan in south-west China in 2008 when the
pushed up the Himalayas and caused the formation of death toll in an earthquake of 7.9 was in excess
the Tibetan Plateau, in parts the Indian Plate is being of 80 000 (Places 2).
pushed. under Tibet to form the mountain roots up to Recent measurements have led scientists to
70 km deep shown on Figure 1.16.
believe that this plate movement is causing Mount
'
This movement causes great stresses which are Everest to rise by up to 3 cm a year (Figure 1.17).
released by periodic, often extremely violent and The Himalayas are not only the world's highest
destructive, earthquakes. Earthquakes tl1is century mountain range, they are also one of the youngest.
have included:
• Gujarat in northern India in 2001 when over ,
· · In the 1950s, the height of /
30 000 people were killed in an earthquake ' Mount Everest was given as /
lasting 45 seconds ;' 29 002 feet (8840 1n) but this was ·:
� revised later i.J.1 the century to )

: 29 029 feet (8848 m). Was this

4

•,
.
former sediments of the Tethys Sea (Figure 1.4a) : difference in height due to the i
',
folded upwards to form the Himalayas ; t1ncertainty of the rock su1runit I

: winch was covered in ice and

\ snow to a then esti1nated depth of
: 20 feet (6m); to plate movement J
Indian Plate (ancient 1. having caused the 1nountain to be ;
shield) moving � pushed up higher during th.at
•••
nortl1 and east f ti1ne; or to tl1e fact that earlier )
�
I

./ meast1rements were inaccurate? I

t In 1999 a team of researchers, ':
�. on reaclting tl1e st1mmit, used an 1
,
•
· ice-co1ing drill to reach down to
: solid rock, and the global :: .
., ;. positioning system (GPS) to help :
�- fix t11e height, which was given as
. '

(
; 29 035 feet (8850 m). Apart from
suggesting that Everest is 1ising
I
I by up to 1.2 i11ches (3 cm) a year,
-·
/ tl1e team hoped that, by ..
.s monitoring the position of the ,
'
: st1mmit, they might be able to
}
predict wl1en fi1ture earthquakes ?
(
, in the region might occur. ;

,J
• upper . ..
'
mantle t Figure 1.17
......... .....•......•..•. ••.......
Figure 1.16
.......................................... ' ..
Is Mount Everest
Mountain building still rising?
- the Himalayas

Landforms at conservative plate margins said to be conservative because crustal rocks are
Conservative margins occt1r where two plates being neither created nor destroyed here. The
move parallel or nearly parallel to each other. bou11dary between the two plates is characterised
Although frequent small ea.rth tremors and by pronounced transform faults (Figure 1.18a).
occasional severe eartl1quakes may occt1r as a The San Andreas Fault is the most 11otorious
consequence of the plates trying to slide past of several hundred known transform faults in
each other, the margin between the plates is California (Places 6 and Case Study lSA).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....................... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·. · ...............
20 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes
 -------- -- - -- -
-- - - -
- -
- - -- -
- - -

-•�I D .......- Ri.-i-·-----------·------�----"i

• Ii IFC"a•- I =+*

·------ ....._,...._________
iFhe San Andreas m;:ault: a eonser¥ative plate margin
.. __, � _____
The San Andreas Fault forms a junction between without oil) until pressure builds up enabling it to
the North American and Pacific Plates. Altl1ougl1 jerk forwards as it did in San Francisco in 1906 and
both plates are moving north-west, the Pacific Plate 1989 and is predicted to do again before 2032.
moves faster giving the illusion that they are moving Should these plates continue to slide past each other,
in opposite directions. The Pacific Plate moves about it is likely that Los Angeles will eventually be on an
6 cm a year, but sometimes it sticks (like a machine island off the Canadian coast.

''
- 4 '"l"ti WO ...

a A transform fault b The San Andreas Fault I

0 lOOkm

transform fault, where plates

slide past each other ... N,orth American Plate moves
·
... , .. north-westwards by 1 cm a year·
continental crust
Plate A Pacific Plate
..
... ... .. �
........�-1:
but �ppears to be moving
south-eastwa·rds in r:elation to 1
moving north­ ' .. , .."�·� the faster-moving Pacific Plate
Plate 8 .. -�"'
westwards by ... .. ., ...<'!
6cm a year "" ... ..�(.;,�-,. U . S -I':'\
-A',
...
...
.. ..
..... N
• ... ..
lithosphere ... ..
...
\ ...
. l.....
OS . .. ... ... ...
l Angeles ..... ,
asthenosphere .. ..
The Pacific Plate has moved .. ...
about 560 km relative to �1 San '... ..
Figure 1.18 �"Diego j
......................................... the North American Plate in I 7

A conservative plate 20 million years . Mexico

margin - California

San Francisco: earthquakes in 500 blocks had been destroyed, and an area six
times greater than that destroyed by the Great Fire of
1906
London had been ravaged.
At 0512 hours on the morning of 18 April, the
ground began to shake. There were three tremors, 1989
each one increasingly more severe. The ground During the early evening rush-hour on 17 October
moved by over 6 m in an earthquake which 1989, an earthquake measuring 6.9 on the Richter
measured 8.2 on the Richter scale. Many apartment scale shook the city for 15 seconds. The early­
buildings collapsed, bridges were destroyed - the warning system had given no clues. Skyscrapers
Golden Gate had not then been built - and water swayed 3 m, fractured gas pipes caused fires in one
pipes fractured. The worst damage was 'downtown' residential area, and parts of a downtown shopping
I
where the housing density was greatest. Although centre collapsed. The greatest loss of life occurred
many people were trapped within collapsed when 1.5 km of the upper section of the two-tier
buildings there were relatively few deaths. Interstate Highway 880 collapsed onto the lower
Then came the fire! It started in numerous places portion, killing people in their vehicles.
resulting from overturned stoves or sparked by The final casualty figures of 67 dead and 2000
electricity or the ignition of gas escaping from the homeless were, however, low compared with an
broken mains. As the water pipes had been fractured, earthquake of similar magnitude in Armenia, a less
it hardly mattered that there were only 38 horse­ developed country, which had killed 55 000 people
drawn fire engines to cope with 52 fires. As the fire 11 months earlier. San Francisco has the money
spread, houses were blown up with dynamite to try to and technology to enable it to take precautions to
create gaps to thwart the flames, but the explosions reduce the effects of an earthquake and to train
only caused further fires. It took over three days to put and fully equip emergency services. Armenia lacks
out the fires, by which time over 450 people (mainly these resources, which is why the death toll and the
those P.reviously trapped) had died, 28 000 buildings damage incurred there were so much greater.
•

··························· • •••••••••• • • • • •• ••• ••• •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • •••• • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • !

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 21

 Plate tectonics and the British Isles sl1allow sea, and tl1en coal 1neast1res were laid clown
u.nder the hot, wet, swampy conditions us�ally
During the Cambria11 period (Figure 1.1), associated witJ1 equato1ia1 areas. It wa.s clur111g the
·nortl1ern Scotla11d lay on tl1e A1nerica11 Plate Pe11nian and 'Triassic periods that th.e continents
wl1ile tl1e rest of Britain was 011 tl1e Eurasia11 Plate, collided to fo1111 Pa11gaea (FiguJe l.4a). Africa movecl
as it is today. Botl1 plates are tl1ot1gl1t tl1e11 to have towards Etu:ope, and Britain's New Red Sandstones
been in the latitLtde of prese11t-day SoL1th Africa. (page 201) \t\'ere laid down 1111der d1·y, hot dese11
In the Ordovicia11 a11d Silt1rian periods, tl1e two
conditions (in the position of tl1e present-�ay
plates began to converge causing volcanic activity Sahara Dese1-t). A furt11er submergence dur111g
and tl1e forrnation of 111ou11tai11s i11 Snowdonia
Jurassic/Cretaceous times ena. bled the Cotswold
and the Lake District (a collision zone). Being co11-
limestones and then the chalk of the Downs to fo11n
tinental crust, sedime11t between the plates was
- again in war1n, clear seas (page 196).
pusl1ed up to for111 the Caledo11ian Mot1ntains
Duri11g the Tertiary era, the Noi1h American
wl1ich li11ked Scotland to tl1e rest of Britain.
ancl Eurasian Plates split apart fo1-111ing a construc­
Duri11g tl1e Devonian period, the locked plates
tive boundary a11d the volcanoes of no1th-western
drifted northwards throt1gh a desert environ1nent
Scotland (page 29). At the same time, the African
(th.e JJrese11t Kalal1ari Desert) when. the Old Red
Plate moved furtli.er north pt1shing tip the Alps
Sa11dstones were deposited (page 201). Tl1is north-
and the hills of south.ern E11gland. Subsequently,
ward 111ovement continued i11 Carbon.iferot1s
althot1gh Britain l1as been located away from
times, accompanied lJy a sinking of the la11d
t11e volcan
. oes and severe earthqt1akes associated
whicl1 allowed tl1e li1nestones of that period to
with vario11s plate 1nargins, its landscape has been
form in war111� clear seas (page 196).
modified both during and since the ice ages. These,
As the land began to e1nerge fron1 these seas,
however, 11ave bee11 due to climatic cha11ge rather
millstone grit was for1ned f1·om sediments in a
than plate 1. novement.

Framework 1 Using the Internet for studying geog·raphy

,

The l�ternet is a rich global resource base. For information online than as hard copy. Through such
geographers it offers enormous potential but it sites, ge9graphy students have easy and immediate
does need to be treated with caution. access to huge quantities of information.

A source of facts and figures Providing up-to-date case studies

Geography is full of facts and figures and the Geographers are interested in studying places,
Internet is a good resource for such information. which is why you are asked to support your work
Several encyclopaedias, such as Wikipedia (www. with case studies. Here the Internet offers many
wikipedia.org), offer information on a range of opportunities. Global media organisations such
topics and issues. Government agencies, such as the as the BBC (www.bbc.co.uk) use the immediacy of
Environment Agency (www.environment-agency. their websites to post up-to-date information on
gov.uk) and the Office for National Statistics (www. events such as earthquakes, pollution incidents and
statistics.gov.uk), are now more likely to provide extreme weather events .

Photo library
J ,.f;Y,·• , \•� .._�,.°"'"1v¢"f' ;,· • .:.,r,...,.�· • � �··"' -,.\(,•, ·, � · (',.. -4 • C.st�W... "AH!-:

l.cNft.._.. "1R1 V0Dno. lilont1er...-11

The Internet enables you to bring your studies
·-�o.,
... ,;1...........
�ca-.:,NIW
to life by including photographs. Most photo­
·�
,...
• a...• ..._
• '-tiFtcvt
• cutIf If' &.1111\
journalists and agencies make their material
• tWiclltjGR,.,
available online and a carefully directed search (be
-
.... '
• Voka""'°'"
"'EM.as•....._•
.. EM14aaJ f!ft'I W
• ,_ '!I< 9GS 9't!M<
specific and include'+ photo' in your search) will
reveal a wide range of possible illustrations.
I t\,;irr9 • U.......,.� i 1\"''X!£'Lr;. �,: I Lf\.k,c,c.,tJ t M1,--, lli9J I �"lV"tlC �� I
r...�-.;p.....,..
GIS
•V ll fl').Y'l!il=t"") I tn'#':''"'':rt.] If-"",.-�.;J �·n-og I H-Ji-"C� I

------�-·---------------·-
----- --
-..-: .-,� t.J°'" IJ'"'"� """"" -i
4> : u·� --·-
....... IC;u...
�-.ff\

, .. , .....f,._1111..,1
11

Geographic Information Sys.terns (GIS) is a

Figure 1.19 relatively recent innovation but you are expected
To�-;�b�ii�-t�;th�·srtt�h G;�i�9i�is���Y
................... .......................................
t
'
�

.has usetui:worldwide information to understand what it is and how it can be used in

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••••••••• •• • • • • •••••• •••••••••• ••••• • ••••••• • • •••••• ••••••••• . . • ...................................... ' ... .. . .. . ...... . . . ... . . • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
.

22 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

 geograpl1y (Framework 9, page 277). Put simply, Figure 1.20
.... . .. .. ..... .... ... .. . . . .. .. ...... ..................... . . ............ ... . ...... .. . .......... ········ ;,

GIS is the integrated use of. digital information The Met Office: a valuable source of climatic information
in the form of statistical data, maps and photos.
Digital technology enables data to be presented
spatially using a series of'layers: The operator lc-..ce

(user) has considerable control over the use a'nd World weather
------
OA,6;:f t:h,s to � �J"b
f > ·- . _.. _. -

interpretation of this information. Some useful � � .;;�.-..;;••,.; . -1)�

sites provide a portal on GIS information and

applications, such as the Royal Geographical
Society (www.gis.rgs.org) and the Staffordshire
Learning Net (www.sln.org.uk/geography/gis.htm).

Internet issues
Authenticity Ac ,��ti·Mv • c:Ol'\l#J< I .n • f ,.-t.ri,n of li,h'""'"'f1411 • l""',1.tl nettu,,..
, • Mt�-, • , AO • • � ,opyrwqh\ •
_...-4'\d&JJ.. r.q,u-..1,I,

Geography books (such as this one!) take very Streamline your search as much as possible and
many months to write. Experienced geographers skip sites to look at recognised URLs (see above).
write them and they undergo all sorts of editorial
checks before being published. For the most part Using the Internet
you can be assured of their accuracy. This assurance Having found some potentially useful information, you
does not necessarily apply to the Internet and you need to decide how to use. it. All too often students
.
need to exercise care when using sites. You should rely on'copy, paste: This is inappropriate and to be
always refer to the source of information (give its discouraged unless you wish to'capture information to
web address) and be aware of possible bias. Follow work on at a later stage. The'copy, paste'function will
recommendations from your teacher or from other not help you to learn material and may well result in
trustworthy sources such as the Geography Review. inappropriate information being retained.
As a general rule, government sites (which have'gov' Use the Internet as a source of information rather
.
in the URL) and universities (with'ac'in the URL) are than as the end product qf your research:
likely to provide authentic information. The same
is true of major media websites such as the BBC • Select only that which is of direct relevance to
and newspapers such as The Independent (www. your research. Selectivity is a key geographical
independent.co.uk), Guardian (www.guardian.co.uk) skill at AS/ A level.
and The Times (www.timesonline.co.uk). Including • Only include detail you can understand. Academic
reference to a known authentic site in a search (e.g. sites and even Wikipedia often contain information
. • •

'global warming+ bbc' ) can streamline a search and that is of a much higher level than AS/ A level. There
ensure quality of informatio�. is no benefit to you in including terminology or
concepts that you do not understand.
Time consuming • Re-write text in your own words.
Searching the Internet can be rewarding but takes · • Add labels or annotations to diagrams and
up time, too. The key is to make specific-searches, photos. By doing this you are showing initiative,
narrowing down your field .by using, for example, which will be rewarded.•
'and' or'+'and adding specific aspects such as Do use the Internet to support your studies - but do
dates, locations or websites. So, for example, when not rely on it.
looking for information ·abo�t the 2008 Chinese
earthquake, a search on 'ear,thquakes'will be much Social networking sites
less productive than 'chinese earthquake 2008 +
You might expect social networking sites to be
bbc: which will take you straight to a special report
frowned upon. Far from it - they have much to
published by.a recognised authentic source.
offer in geographical research. The opinions of
individuals are increasingly important in academic
Information overlo_ad geography. Hearing first hand from people affected
Even a fairly $pecific search such as 'chinese by an-earthquake or a hurricane is valuable. Videos
earthquake 2008 + bbc' reveals nearly 1 million on YouTube can capture events and provide
sites. How often do you look at more than the interesting portrayals of people's
'
sense of place.
first two or three sites let alone the second page? Just bear in mind the issue of authenticity.

. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • t • • • • • •

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 23

•
 • Lava th at re st 1lt s fr om th e
. pr oc es s of su bd uc ­
Volcanology •

(a ft er th e A n de s)
tior ; is de sc ri be d as an d es it ic
Tl1e ter111 volca11ology inclucles all the processes ancl occurs as island arcs or at destructive
by which solid, liquid or gaseous materials are plate boundaries where oceanic crust is being
forced i11to tl1e Eartl1's crust or are ejected. onto destroyed. ·
. ,
tl1e surface. Altl1ougl1 material in tl1e ma11tle • Pyroclastic material (meaning 'fire broken )
has a l1igl1 te111perature, it is kept in a. semi-solid is 1naterial ejected by volcanoes in a frag­
state because of the great presst1re exerted t1po11 mented form. Tephra, fragme11ts of different
it. However, if this presstire is released locally by sizes, i11clt1de ash, lapilli (s1nall stones) an d
foldi11g, fat1lting or other movements at plate bombs (larger material) whicl1 ar e t11row11
bot111daries, some of tl1e semi-solid material into the air before falli.ng back to earth.
becomes molten and rises, forci11g its way into Pyroclastic flows move down the side of a
weak11esses in the crt1st, or on. to tl1e surface, volcano as a fast-moving cloud (Figure 1.46).
wl1ere it cools, crystallises and solidifies. Subseqt1ent heavy rai11fall, e.g. Mount
'I'he 1nolte11 rock is called 1nagma wl1e11 it is Pinatubo (Case Stt1dy 1) or the 1nelting of
below tl1e surface and lava when 011. the surface. ice a11d snow, e.g. Nevado del Rt1iz (Case
When lava and other 111aterials reach tl1e st1rface Study 2A) ca11 rework the fragmented pyro­
they are called extrusive. The resulting landforms clastic 111aterial to forrn mudflows (or lahars).
vary i11 size fro1n tiny cones to wides1Jread lava
flows. Materials injected into the crt1.st are referred How can volcanoes be classified?
to as. intrusive. These may later be exposed at the
Becat1se of tl1e large 11u1nber of volcanoes and
st1rface by erosion of·the·overlyi11g rocks. Both
wide variety of erttptions, it is convenient to
extrusive and. intrusive· materials cooled from
group togetl1er those with similar cl1aracteristics
magma are known as igneot1s rocks.
(Frame,,vork 7, page 167). Unfortt1n.ately, there
•
. '
.
is no t111iversally accepted ·method of classifica­
Extrusive landforms tio11. One of the two most quoted groupings '
There are several types of extrusive la11dform is according to the shape of the volcano and
whose nah1re depe11ds 011 how gaseous and/or its vent wl1ich, because it describes landfo1·ms,
viscot1s tl1e lava is whe11 it reaches the Eartl1's is arguably of more value to the geographer
surface (Ftgure 1.21). . : (page 25). Tl1e other is tl1e nature of tl1e
'
• Lava .produced by the upward 111ovement eruption, wl1ich has traditio11ally been the
·of 111aterial from. the· 1nantle is basaltic and
•
method used by volca11ologists (page 28) .
te. nds to be locate.ct ·along 1nid-ocean ridges,
�pyer hot spots and al_ongside rift valleys.
' . - . . ..
Figure 1.21 ..
. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . ...................
' ..

Basic and acid lava

Basaltic (fluid} Andesitic Rhyolitic (viscous)

Silica
content 45% 520/o 66% 75 °/o
'
- .. -
;-,;i,.T;l �l'jl•r:l1r.l l!,1T1 �- r•1l,r;1 I , l'f:I
•,'
.
Has low viscosity, is hot (1200 () and runny,
°
Viscous, less hot (800 (), flows more slowly and
°

like warm treacle for sho[ter distan�es

I Has·a lower silica content
'

Has a higher silica content

L.,. -. '

f Takes a longer time to cool and solidify,soflows Soon cools and solidifies, flowing very short
-ble distances as-rivers of molten
I considera -
rock distances
Produces extenstve b_ut gently sloping landforms . Produces steep-sided, mo.re localised features
- -
Eruptions are frequent but relatively gentle ' Eruptions are less frequent but violent due to
the build-uo ofaases
f Lava an� steam eje�ed· Ash, rocks, gases, steam and Java ejected
-
Found at constructive plate margins where Found at destructive margins where oceanic crust
magma rises from the mantle, Is destroyed (subducted), melts and rises,
e.g. fissures along the Mid-Atlantic e.g. subduction zQnes (Mount St Helens);
Ridge (Helmaey); over hot spots (Mauna Loa, as island arcs (Mt Pelee, Martinique)
' LHawaii)_ "
I

...... ....... . .... .. ... ..... . ..... ... .......... .. ..... ... . ... . ... .... .. .. .... . ... .'• ••• ••••••••••• •••• • •••••••• • •••••• •• •••••• • •••••• •• •••••••••••••• ••• •• •••• •••••• ••••• •
24· Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes
 The shape of the volcano and its vent apart, can be seen in Nortl1er11 Ireland, north­
1 Fissure e1·uptions Wl1en two plates move west Scotla11cl, Icela11d and Greenland. The
apart, lava may be ejected throt1gl1 fissures columnar jointing prodt1ced by the slow
rather tl1a11 via a ce11tral vent (Figure l.22a). cooling of tl1e lava provides tourist attractions
Tl1e I-Iei1naey ert1ption of 1973 (Places 3, at tl1e Gia11t's Cat1seway in Northern Ireland
page 16) bega11. witl1 a fissure 2 km in lengtl1. (Figure 1.27) a11d Fingal's Cave on tl1e Isle of
Tl1is was s111all i11 comparison witl1 tl1at a.t Staffa.
Laki, also in Icela11d, wl1ere in 1783 a fissure 2 Basic or shield volcanoes In volcanoes
exceeding 30 l<m open.ed up. Tl1e basalt 111ay sucl1 as Mauna Loa on 1--:Iawaii, lava flows
for1n large plateaus, filling in hollows rather out of a ce11tral ve.11.t and can spread over
than buildi11g up into the 1nore typical cone­ wide areas before solidifying. Tl1e rest1lt is
sl1aped volcanic peal<. Tl1e remains of one a 'co11e' with long, ge11tle sides 111ade ttp
such lava flow, formecl when tl1e Eurasian of 111any layers of lava fro111 repeated flows
and North A111erican Plates began to 111ove (Figure l.22b).

a Fissure basaltic lava flows a b Basic or shield c Acid or dome

considerable distance gently sloping sides built up by spine forms if lava solidifies in
over gentle slopes numerous basaltic lava flows vent and is pushed upwards
open steep, convex sides
fissure due to viscous lava
soon cooling

'

d Ash and cinders e Composite f Caldera

alternate layers of acidic sides subside due to more recent mainly acidic lavas
slightly layers of fine ash lava (gentle eruptions) and earth movements possibly some ash
concave sides and larger cinders crater �sh (violent explosions)

parasitic crater fills with

tone :::.____
water to form a
lake or, if below
sea-level, a lagoon

Figure 1.22
. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Classification of 3 Acid 01· dome volcanoes Acid lava qt1ickly 6 Calderas When the build-up of gases
volcanoes based on solidifies on exposure to the air. This pro­ beco1nes extreme, ht1ge ex·plosions may clear
their shape (not to duces a steep-sided, convex co11.e as in most the magma cha1nber beneath the volcano
scale) cases the lava solidifies near to the crater a11d. remove the summit of the cone. This
(Figure l .22c). In· one ex.treme instance, that cat1ses the sides of tl1e crater to subside, thus
of Mt Pelee, the lava actually solidified as it wide11ing the opening to several 'kilo-
ca1rie up the vent and produced a spine rather .1netres in diameter. In tl1e cases of both Thera
than flowing down .tl1e . sides. (Santo�ini) and Krakatoa, the enlarged craters
4 Ash a11d ci11de1� cones · (l�igure 1.22d) or calderas l1ave been flooded by the sea and
Paricutin, for example, was for1ned in the· later eruptions have formed smaller cones
1940s by asl1 a11d cinders building up into within the rest1ltant lagoons (Figures l .22f
a sy1111netrical cone. and 1.29).
5 Composite cones Ma11y of tl1e larger,
classically shaped volcanoes result from alter-
11ating types of eruption in whicl1 first ash
• and t�e11 lava (t1sua1ly acidic) are ejected, e.g . '­
'
Mt Etna and Fujiyama (Figure 1.22e). '

'

. .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 25
 - r ·-

Figure 1.25 •
.... .. . . .. .. .. .. . ... .... . .... . .. ' ................. . , ...
Figure 1.26
Results of the 1996 Grimsvotn
I,
. .. . .... .. . . .. .. . ....... " .. . . . . ... .. . . ....
•
eruption, Iceland The boundary between
•
,J�:;· �/.

�-��L·�,!!:;l.:i:,;,;::....!:;.a:.._._.-. � ;;;.!6ol• """ t - • .• the North American and

Eurasian Plates in Iceland,
showing the split and
. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . t
=igure 1.27
a volcano along the
·1ie Giant's Causeway, boundary margin
�orthern Ireland I

•
•

Figure 1.28
. ... . ..... .. ... ..... .. .. . ..... ..............
. "

Vesuvius: notice the new

cone within the old crater
of Monte Somma

-·

Figure 1.29
......... ' .. .. ... .. .. . . . ... . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ... .. .. . ........ .
Anak Krakatoa (meaning 'child of
Krakatoa') is now a small island
volcano that has risen from the
centre of the original, much larger
volcano which erupted in 1883

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • •
P.late tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 27
•
 ------

Nature of the
explosion 1 Icelandic 2 Hawaiian 3 Strombolian

Type of lava · --------': / andesitic lava

(Figure 1.21) basaltic lava .,.,,

. .
•

I
'

•
lava •

pyroclastic
fragments
... - __
.....,
4 Vulcanian 5 Krakatoan 6 Pelean 7 Plinian
or Vesuvian
a ndesitic lava c.-=:-:-..---....-,-,..��---�----...,..,..._.,....___ _��-__...;-,--.......,-�.......IJ rhyolitic lava
•

Figure 1.30 · The nature of the eruption I-Iyclro111ag1natic refers to any erL1ptive
process i11 which magn1a and lava interact with
.............. � ...................... ' ..
.,
Classification of ·1 his classification of volca11oes is based on. tl1e
volcanoes according degree of violence of the explosi611 wl1icl1 is a external water. According to Parfitt a11d Wilson
to the nature of the con�eque11ce of tl1e pressure a11d a1n_oL1nt of gas (2008), st1cl1 interactions can take place in a wide
explosion
· in the 1nagma (Figure 1.30). Its categories 111ay be range of e11vironments, including:
'
su1111narised as follows: • dee1J mar_ine locations where volcanoes grow
1 Icelanclic, where lava flows gently fron1 on the ocean floor, 1nainly at mid-ocea11
a fissure ridges where tl1e pressure of the overlying
2 Hawaiia11, where lava is e1nitted gently but wa.ter helps to suppress tl1e explosivity of '

fro1n a vent the en1ptio11 a11d the lava u11dergoes rapid

3 �tro111bolian, where s111all but very frequent
a
cooling to form pillow lavas
eruptio11s occur • w11ere lava flows into the sea eitl1er with or
' 4 Vl�lcania11, or Vest1vian, whicl1 is more withot1t an explosion, e.g. I<ilauea i11 Hawaii
• shallow marine locations (e.g. Surtsey- Places 3)
•

violent and less frequent (Figt1re 1.28)

5 l(rakatoan, which l1as an excepti�nally or a cra.ter lake (e.g. Taal in the Philippines)
•
violent explosio11 tl1at may re1nove mucl1 wl1ere tl1e eruptio11s 1nay be highly dramatic
' · of tl1e origi11al cone (Fig11re 1.29) • subglacial locations where an eruption occurs
6 Pelean, whei:e a violent eruption is accom1?a­ Ltnder a11 ice cap or a glacier, e.g. Vatnajokull
nied by pyroclastic flows that may in Icela11d
• include a
nuee ardente (' glowi11g cloud') • where 111agn1a co111es into co.ntact with grot1nd-
7 Plinian, where large a1nounts of lava and water before enrpting, e.g. Ukinrek, Alasl<a.
"'
pyroclastic 1naterial are ejected. 'l he most explosive interactio11s occur when
water makes t1p about 25-30 per cent of the
Figure 1.31
.................................. .
.. ..
. .
volume of the exploding mixtt1re.
Diagrammatic model
showing intrusive
SURFACE
landforms: batholith, - . .- - -� . -- • - a-
dyke and sills Bedding-planes·iR '

sedimentary rocks ____.;;::,...,.______�--·-

•
, .,
...._
.DY'l<E:.A:'
. vertica
. I-
sheet E:J metamorphic
rock
'
.=:?< -- 1ntr�stoA. w1thJlorizonta l.-�,
r--wliicnform�the�crust. ������z:::o;;����
l �((lt 1
cooling cracks. Cools
-rapid·1y�on-conta-crWitl'i
·
D igne ous
intrusion
----------��+- d s�:rounding colder roGk. �
(ontratts· arrd trat:ks:·eut·.--. �
across .bedding planes. cooling cracks

SILL: A horizontal sheet intrusion ---�

-------- a_lpog b_e,P_QjQg Qlanes wWJ -- - --­ ----_ ,_ BATHOllTH: Being deep-seated
vertical cooling cracks. Cools and-surr:oundea'byto
r t'rotk the'·--­
...--r:a�idly.:.oo. outside,oc�con.tac1______ ..,._�� - ,-_--;..;..
m:.::. a gma cools sl0� so that;
i�i:�� .,

-=-
with surrounding
)
rqcks. a large crysta ls form�-...;;.;�--..---
_.......... _Contr.a�ts_a J.Q..cracks ....... _____....., .b the�is a la rg�rp-�tamornhic
contact zone.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
-- ---·,·-,·--- --· _____ ",, .:...r:...-····'---
· __J
�-·:......
... 4
·:·:]
• • ••

28 o·=----
· ·
�-�-=-�-�:.............
·. :J
f
w

�:
 Intrusive-landforms fi11e ctystals), co11.tracted and cracked rest1lti11g i11 a
Ust1ally, only a relatively s111all a1not1nt of series of joints. Tl1e 1nag111a also produced a large,
n1ag1na actt1ally reacl1es tl1e st1rface as most is deep-seatecl, dome-shaped batl1olith as it solidified..
i11trt1ded i11to tl1e crt1st, wl1ere it solidifies. Stich Surrounding tl1e batholith is a meta1norphic
intrt1sio11s 111ay initially l1ave little i1npact t1po11 aureole where tl1e original sedime11tary rocks
tl1e st1rface geo11101·phology, but if tl1e O\'erlyi11g l1ave been cha11ged (n1etamorphosed) by the
rocl,s are later "''Orn away, disti11ctive Ja11dfor111s l1eat and :pressure of the in.trusion fro1n sand­
111.ay the11 develo1J (Figt1re 1.32). stones i11to schists. Since the11, the overlyi11g
Dt1ri11g tl1e Tertiary era, a11 t1ptl1rust of rocl<s l1ave been. rem.oved by water, ice and even
111ag1na was i11truded i11to tl1e sedimentary rocl,s the sea to leave tl1e granite batholith witl1 its
of Arran to for111 tl1e Norther11 Granite. As tl1e jointi11g exposed (Figure 1.32). These joi11ts
magma slowly cooled, it. formed large crystals have bee11 wide11ed by cl1e111ical weathering
(unlil<e 011 the st1rface wl1ere ra1Jid cooli11g forms (pages 42-44) to form t.l1e large granite slabs and
tors surrounding Goatfell (compare Figure 8.14).
Figure 1.32
.. ..................................
Idealised transect original ,,. ..... - -------- .... original covering of
do.me ' ------- - ................ ...... rocks removed
through northern .,,,. .,,..... -
Arran
""> ....
.,,,. ---- --
......
' ','
......
north-west ,,, "' , .... Goatfell -...... ...... / ',
/
,,,"'
..... -
Brodick
/ /

coast .,,,. ' ' ' ' ''

'' '' ' '
/ / /
/ / /

'' ' '

/ / /
/
/· /
.
'
/ / �

/ /
'
exposed granite batholith.(when first ',
/ /

; // intruded it f�rmed a dome) '

sea-level
sedimentary/ � sedimentary
. ,.

Figure 1.33
....................................... . , sandstones/ schists forming a schists rocks with
Fieldsketch of a dyke metamorphic aureole • dykes and sills
at Kildonan, Arran L--�--------------·- ---··=---· ------ ··--..-..------"-'='-·----.,....--
... ...,. --�------- ..__

Pladda: a sill planed by the sea·

•

. .- .
-

:'
""-
. �-./

sea
__ -� ---- --- .
•
·. .
-· ....• ' .,
• ........,_ • ' ,
. -. .
•
. ,•

J joints {shrinkage cracks)

•
'
•
. • .....
• . .... • •
.•• ' '
. .
•
'
A dyke {includes B and C)
•
•
'" _...... �--·:-..;;.�
---�����...._--..--...-.......... · -�·-�---�·�- ---· -___::::.·.� -1
'
� -

B large crystals where dyke cooled slowly f

c chilled margin with smaller crystals
shrinkage cracks across
where dyke cooled more rapidly
'

shortest distance {horizontal)

A
--,
r-----A...
D metamorphic contact zone
,. E sandy beach on country rocks
•

-----·-- -- -· ... -·-----' '

E
• •

country r k
•
oc
•
Figure 1.34
... ... . . . . ...... . . .............................. .....
' '

Diagrammatic cross-section c
of a dyke, Arran
2 9
•
.. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

· � · � � k·��· � � d· .
. ....
.
� � · ; � h � � · � � � · .. .. ..
"
· · � � j�
• • • • • • • • I
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • t • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • 9 • • " • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .- • • • • • • • •

. Plat e te c to n ic � ,·
 - ------�----- ___
..,. ......,; "1cll t>>d&•t--:I'. •• -··-:hei ....,,,cJ,:&rr»�--;7 ...... ,-
c,e•--- - --
- ��;_

altl1ougl1 tl1ose parts that co1ne i11to contact

l
Figure 1.35
.. .................. ·············-···· ....... .
, with tl1e surrou11ding rocl< will cool more rap idly
Dyke� Kildonan, Arran to prodt1ce a chilled rnargin (F igure 1.34). Most

��""i5 ��
... -��-
._ � ;,. ,........ � -·
' - . .,.r _., ..-� -...- .;.:::"" ,. ...
dykes on Arran we re forrned after, and radiate
from, tl 1e batholitl1 intrusio11; tl1ey are so
•.
- -
�-- - •
.11u.merot1s that they have bee11 ter111ed a ' dy ke
-- -- -
•
-- swarm'. Most of the dy kes are more r esistant to
erosion tl1a11 the surrot1nding sa11 dstones a11d so
where they cross the island's beacl1es the y stand
up like groynes (F igt1re 1.35). Alth.ough averagin g
3 m, these dykes vary from 1 to 15 111 in w i dth.
A sill is formed whe n th e igneous roc k is
i11tr11ded alo11g the bedding pla11e s be tween th e
ex isti.ng sedime ntary roc k s (Figt1re 1.31). Tl1e
magma cools and contracts but tl1is time th e
re sultant jo ints will be ver tical and tl1eir l1 ex­
agonal shapes ca11 be seen wh en the landform
is later expose d as on h eadlands such as that at
If, in trying to rise to tl1e st1rface , magma cuts Dru1nadoo11 011 the w est coast of Arran (Figur e s
Figure 1.36
.. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. ........ . across the bedding planes of the sedimentary 1.36 a11 d 1.37) a11d the Giant's Cause way in
Fieldsketch of a rock, it is called a dyke (Figt1res 1.31 and 1.33). Nortl1e rn Ireland (Figur e 1.27). The sill at
sill exposed at Drumadoon is 50 m tl1 i c k .
The rn.aterial whicl1 forms the dy ke cools slowly
Drumadoon, Arran
' - --.. - .. -· . -- . ,. .- -- .. - --�-
' . --
- original covering of sandstone removed
' - .

SOm

30m

sea
I >

, Ash weathers into a fertile soil ideal for farming. Basic lava may also Earthquakes destroy buildings and result in loss of life.
produce fertile soils (the region surrounding Mount Etna) but needs
very careful management. The fertility of acid lava is low.
Igneous rock contains minerals such as gold, copper, lead and silver. Violent eruptions with blast waves and gas may destroy life and
property (Mt Pelee, Mount St Helens}.
Extinct volcanoes may provide defensive settlement sites Mudflows/lahars may be caused by heavy rain and melting snow
(Edinburgh). (Armero in Colombia and Pinatubo in the Philippines).
Igneous rock is used for building purposes (Naples, Aberdeen). Tidal waves/tsunamis (Indian Ocean tsunami an d following the eru
ption of
Krakatoa}.
Geothermal power is being developed (Iceland, New Zealand). Ejection of ash and lava ruins crops and kills animals.

Figure 1.38 Geysers and volcanoes are tourist attractions (Yellowstone Interrupts communications.
. .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . ............
National Park), generating revenue for local communities.
Benefits and hazards -
resulting frqm Volcanic eruptions may produce spectacular sunsets (Krakatoa). Short-term climatic changes occur as volcanic dust absorbs solar
tectonic processes energy, lowering temperatures and increasing rainfall.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • ····················
30 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and·volcanoes
 ·--··--··
Natural hazaricls '

What are natural hazards? people and the environment; it is the hazard event
that causes the damage. An event only becomes a
Natural hazards, which include earthquakes, volcanic
hazard if it affects, or threatens, people and property.
eruptions, floods, drought and storms, result
For example, the submarine volcanic eruption
from natural processes within the environment
which created tl1e new island of Surtsey (Places 3,
(Figure 1.39). They are, therefore, different from
page 16) was l1ardly a hazard event, whereas the
environmental disasters, such as desertification,
China earthquake of 2008 killed over 80 000 people,
ozone depletio11 and acid rain, which are caused
destroyed towns and for a time ended normal
by �1uman activity and the mismanagement of the
human activities. The impact of a hazard event may
environment. It is important, however, to stress the
be felt over a wide area; the effects may be long-term
difference between a natural hazard and a hazard
as well as immediate; and the event can be costly to
event. Natural hazards have the potential to affect
property and dangerous to people.
l
Figure 1.39 -. •t
......................... ,.. t
NATURAL HAZARDS
Types of I •. ..;.,;:.__:;:;:;.;:,.___._
·-
- -
.
..Ii
- ,
-
CI

natural hazard
(after Burton �- ----,����- ,----, - .

e.g. blizzards, drought, ice, lightning,· I GEOMORPHIC and GEOLOGICAL Floral diseases, e.g. fungal (Dutch
and Kates) CLIMATIC BIOLOGICAL

storms (hurricanes, typhoons and e.g. earthquakes, volcanic elm) and infestations (water
tornadoes), floods (coastal and river), eruptions, tsunamis, landslides hyacinth)
fire, heat waves, cold spells and avalanches Faunal diseases (e.g. malaria)
' and infestations (e.g. lo :�sts� �
_ - _
•

..
.......Jo ...

-- ' , - ( . , -- - r ..,... --
The International Strategy for
( � .

1 Many natural disasters rest1lt fi·om a combi11ation I

Disaster Reduction (ISDR) �

. of events, n1ean:ing that it becomes in1possible to
•

attribt1te the losses to a single cause. For example,

The United Nations, through the ISDR, tries to
i11 Sumatra following the Indian Ocean tsunami of ;
•
reduce loss of life, property damage and social 2004 (Places 4), l1ow many deaths were du.e to tl1e •
and economic destruction caused by natural •••
>·• initial earthquake a11d how n1any to drowning
\
disasters, especially those occurring in less well-off .. cat1sed by the subseqt1e11t flooding? Again, how
developing countries. There is, however, a problem •'
1nany deaths in New Orleans in 2005 were the
in classifying the type of hazard and in quantifying '
•
result of tropical sto1111 Katrina or the flooding
,
data after the event (Figure 1.40). that follo\ved.? ClassifyiI1g eve11ts tinder specific
(

\ headiI1gs can lead to double cot1nting after

Data provided by the ISDR suggests that about 60 ·.: extreme events. ,·
per cent of natural disasters and over 80 per cent of � 2 Even direct deaths and dan1age n1ay be difficult to
deaths occur in developing countries, especially thos¢ f' qt1antify accurately in some developing countries
in the South-east Asia/Pacific Rim region. Devel�ping· � due to a lack of reliable census data or populatio11
,..
countries are less likely to have the equipment needed •'
·: registers. Hence initial repo1ts of 'hu11dreds killed'
to predict the occurrence of a hazard and less money or 'damage estimated. in millions of dollars' 1nay
either for planni_ng how to reduce its impact or for be grossly exaggerated, while those recorded as •

organising a rapid and effective response after it. 'missing' o.r ,vho die later from disease or '
:
Figures· 1.41 and 1.42 show that despite the incidence 111alnutrition catised by the disaster may be
:··� under-estimated.
Adapted from an article by Keith Smith in Teaching
of occasional severe earthquakes/tsunamis, and l_,
_;
even with the introd·uction of early storm- and flood- i
'
warning systems in places like Bangladesh and the I�
Geography,Sept1996
-·-- - .� - . ./ -
-... ,. - ---- '

Caribbean, globally over 80 per cent of deaths are still Figure 1.40
t••···········································································
caused by tropical storms and flooding. The problems of defining natural disasters
•
1 What are people's perception of the natural hazard?
li1ow m.aJ people react to natural Perception is how individuals or groups of people
h.azards? view the hazard risk. This often depends on their.
Geographers need to ask the following questions knowledg , e and experience of the potential event.
when .studying either the risk of a potential natural The inhabitants of f?ompeii, prior to the eruption
hazard or a sp·ecific hazard event. of Vesuvius in AD 79, had not realised that the

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
Plate tectonics, earthquakes a.nd volcanoes 31
 ' -
- - -- ----------------�- .
.�...
..
-- .

Figure 1.41
.....................................
Number of natural
floods
disasters by type,
1970-2005
tropical storms

clrought
L-----�.-f- earthquakes/tsunamis
--� ,L------=---�

·····Figure .1.42 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
. ..... . . .... . ... . . . . . .........................
. year
Na Natural disasters
Na ••
Per year
1967-71 2004 2005
Per year 2004 2005 Per year 2004 2005
1967-91 1967-91
' I - ' •
l
..
[Earthqua�e�
t•• •1

32 29 21 27'000' 882 76 241

E
Ol 32 39
� . -��
•
l1J

I'
53
j yolcanic eruptions.
l1J
4 5 7 117 2 3
. �- �-- ....-, ..
CJ �
sun���: ·
·=
II

. . -· ,. •
1
.. �,=. -·
2
,,,.,.
0 267 226,435 0
I
- ]
• < == �
. 2
., -< ;;a .--- m, ••, 1-
»
c TirOP.ical storms (hurricanes/typhoons) 37 81 69 37400 6513 �67! ./R'i3'
8
"O
32
Floods (rivers/coasts)
(1)
57 107 168 12 750 6957 6 135
- (1)
0. .....
47
O u
(1) �
Storms (depressions/tornadoes/ 34 27 17 2 300 827 269 o... ro 7.8
[ lightning)
C! Cold wave (blizzards/heatwaves) 5 7 15 204 239 923
·- -
Drought 18 15 ... 22 55 570 149 11 100 26

l Avalanches = -
-
1
-
1
�

54
--
.- '".:
•Ii-

42
·=
�·
12
.
-
.I
l1J

-I
�� t

12 l 750 357 649

30 8
15 '"

10
.,...i,...• 1 YI-••
420 14
" Pi,> =r

47
,- - . -- -·- ...
.

percentage figures
�

[__] floods
tropical storms
�,-· -] drought

c:Jisaster
ev:ent •
improvement
l earthquakes/tsunamis
Biii landslides

t'. l
t:
famine
I other
norma'lity
I
�

9::
�

deterioration
• have the capital and technology to cope with
?:-
' ·- �· the hazard event.
�

·- 9>
u
tO �

·-u 2 What are the immediate and l ong-term effects of the

a ·-
0
If ·-
�
·-
�
+-' temporary ·germanent event?
u .c ho.using, etc. b!Jilding, etc.
,
'+-- tO
0 Cl)

- 3 Howdo peoplerespondtotheevent(Figure 7.43)?

-·- -
'+- VI •
0
tO Cl) ·- �
r pre- relief rehabifitation reconstruction
-5i disaster 4 Howmight peopleadjust toand plan fora future event?
:::,
Cj
0
VI L -···· --
time � It has been suggested that people have six options.
They may try to: prevent the event; modify the
mountain was in reality a volcano. Since then it has hazard; lessen the possible amount of damage;
... Figure 1.43
......... , . '.. ..............................
erupted on numerous occasions. The question is, spread the losses caused by the event; claim for
'herhe responses to a losses; or do nothing but pray that the event will not
azc1azard event (after Why do people continue to live in this and other
1ri·:hris Park) hazardous areas?.lt may be because they: occur again (at least not in their own lifetime).

• perceive the a-rea as providing the best of S Can a future event be predicted?
opportunities to earn a living This involves predicting where the next event will
take place, when it is likely to occur and how big it is
• are too concerned with day-to-day problems to
likely to be.
consider the hazard risk

•• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• • • •• • • • • • • • • • •••• • • • •• • • • • • • ••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • . - ............. - .... - ............... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

• ••

32 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

 a 0 2000 km b \� . 0 200km
China
{

.·) ,,
I
Sout/1 •
Japan China N
N Sea Luzon
·,
•
(main island) ..
Eurasian Plate (I (,
J

(continental crust) I
'
/

,.) '
'... /' ,·
I '
Pacific
Philippines Plate ; ,: ';
Pacific Plate ( I ''
�
Ocean
(oceanic crust)
(oceanic crust)
see
Mt Pinatubo� enlargement
P.hilippines
,.

.._...__ Indonesia
--.��J
, Figure 1.44
! .... . .. . . ...................., ...................... .
lndo-Australian Plate 1
Location of Mount Pinatubo · · ·
(continental crust) Australia
•
' ..._....._.
,__ - .
___ Figure 1.45
. , '..................................... ..
Eyewitness account of
Why is Mount Pinatubo in the islands, practised subsistence farmir1g the eruption
· o oa s , ash
a hazard risk area? (slash and burn agriculture, Places 66, page
Seismologists
. sa1 . d a n uxt ure
. ly rac ed down the . .
o f sean n o o

480). Near the foothills was the rapidly en ro ck q u1c k i11t o tl1e
Mount Pinatubo is located in the Philippines a11d n10\t no rthe rn · fla . nks ar1d
growing city of Angeles, together with nta ·in • s w est and e rs n :rl gure
m ou d O 'D o nne \ nv 1l
(Figure 1.44). The Pl,ilippines lie on a destruc­ a Ma rau 11ot an to wn s i11 tl1e
an American air base and a naval station ·M arell . ed do\.VO o11 seve n
tive plate margin where the Philippines Plate, 6 1. As ' h als o rai n ne ar th e
(Figure 1.44b). 1· .4 . asl1 w ere de tect ed
an d u·a ces o f . Gn1 to the
composed of oceanic crust, moves towards r eoi on so ro ·1
1 es rgQ
l \
o .
ay na\' ,a\ b ase , . g tip to
St1bic B . frarrn1ents 1neast1nn
and is subducted by the Eurasian Plate, which wes t. P u ffil ce ot1t h-w est.
consists of continental crust. As tl,e oceanic What-were the nature, sotith-
l ·-? i11ches (3 cm 1 lon g
...
o
fell
. on
ce
v illa
ntt e
ges
i11
s
Olo nga po,
r efu oe e
plate is subducted, it is converted ir,to magma effects and consequences Of Ul.l..e vol
-
can .
o. A
l
t a
·56 k.m1 SOUtl1-W est ..
o of the v olc ano ,
'about 3:, nu\es dar k and
which rises to the surface and forms volca­ of the eruption? .s u rvi v ors sa1 . d th e y sa w
us
th e sk o
exp
y
los
!IT
ion
O\V
fol , lo w ed by a
noes. The Philippines owe their existence to ar d tr.= - m. end o a d.
t\1e n \1e a .e
bioo as a he
as
s
the frequent ejection of lava over a period of 1 Immediate effects ash an d sto 11e s m an
\Jle fled
f="'n of
d esc
.
nb e d .
par .
uc as peO
several million years. Even before Pinatubo Other. reporte� d '
. estock over roads
The volcano began to show sigr,s of erupting e l on o1no s ilV
o . o . . . u1 . .c;h. R fugees wor e .
with their b
an
erupted in 1991, tl,ere were over 30 active f a e
,
in early June 1991. Fortunately, there were e slip p e ry by t\ � ! to rot ct
in ad �1 a�d p eep hol es � �
volcanoes in the Philippines. ·dbo ard bo xes w1 so fu1 k in
several advance-warning signs which cai Tl1
· e asl1 was �
ve s f r om the as
. .h · w1 th
allowed time for the evacuation of thousands th em se \ ts wer e driv in g
oon n1ot o � . s
the air t\1at at n per atin g to cle ar
Why did people live in of people from Angeles and the 15 000 . e 11·1 o'hts on and \Vtpers o
thelf h ac o
this hazard risk area? personnel from the American air base. The t\1 e debris.
number and size of eruptions increased after
Adapted from The Independent,
As Mount Pinatubo had not erupted since 9 June. On 12 June, an explosion sent a cloud 13June1991
1380, people living in the area no longer of steam and ash 30 km into the atmosphere mud.The ash destroyed all crops on adjacent
consid ered it to be a hazard. During that -the third-largest eruption experienced farmland and its weight caused buildings to
time, ash and lava from earlier eruptions anywhere in the world this century (Figure collapse, including 200 000 homes, a local hos­
had weath ered into a fertile soil, ideal for 1.45). Up to 50 cm of ash fell nearby, and over pital and many factories. Power supplies were
rice growi ng. By 1991, peopl e no longer 10 cm within a 600 km radius.The eruptions cut off for tl,ree weeks and water supplies
perce ived Pinatu bo to be a dange r. On the were, characteristically, accompanied by became contaminated. Relief operations were
lower slope s of the mountain, the Aeta, earthquakes and torrential rain - except that hindered as many roads became impassable
recognised as the aboriginal inhabitants of the rain, combining with the ash, fell a·s thick and bridges were destroyed.
• •••••••• •••••••• • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � · · · · · · · · · · ·� · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volca.noes 33
•
 ...

Mou nt P in atubo
nic eru pti on s -
Volca
. .

2 Longer-ter m effects
o ly ruin d he �-
-·­..
The thick fall of ash no
e
t n \ ,_
..............
.
m ad pl n i g im pos- .. ,, .,..
� __;..

h a rvest of 1991 , but e a t n

o1, mi\\io n f ar
sible for 1992. Over e �
. \s d1. ed , man y through starvation
a r,1ma
Sev r l tho us a 1,d
o he \ ck of gr ass. e a
du e t t a
mili es h d to take
f armers and their f a a
n, ·
Jor1 · ty w ere
refuge in large cities. The a

sh lt r i s anty­
forced to seek food and �
e e n

Dis s , sp ec1 al\y

type refugee camps . ea e e
rr o , sp read
. c\,ic ke pox an d di a h ea
.. ...-
maI aria , n
· · ··· . . ...
••

nd doc ors \, ad to tr ea t h un dr eds

�!.9.�.r�_.'. .:� � . . .. .. . ......... .....
r apidly a t
c\ ' uced �=.-
tory d s torn a . clastic clou d prod ., ;
of pe opl e for re spir a an A pyro
1991
e v t, d again by the eruptio n, June
. rders Soon after the e n a n
d,so · vy r ain fall
' t ypl, oo s bro u gl,t h ea
.111 1993 n
· and lahars (mud-
wl,i ch c a us e d f\oo d1ng
m w n surf a ce w ater figure 1.47 . ·· · · ··· ·· ···.............
flow s ) . L a ha rs for he
· sh .1n •· ···•··· ·•··•····•· .

oun ts of volc n1 a laha r at Angeles, near

picks up \arge am � �
it s mu d
A
us r s n d d epo s its a Mount Pinatubo
mountaino a ea a
(Fig ur 1. 47 ). The
r lo w r-ly i n g area s e
ov e e
t mos here
s j cte d i n to t he a �
as, \ th t w a e e
n the
a
d c g s 1
·s believed to have cause .
h an e
. of
udi g h lo w e ring
'Eart 's c\im a t e , incl n t e
.
etion
h
es and ozo n e d e pl
world te m per a tur
(Figure 1.48).. ff cts w ere
tio n n d its a ft e r- e e
Tl,e e rup a
e,
d ath s. O f the s
bla m d for a b ou t 700 e . t
a d1re
e
to v b n
elieved
e ee
only six w e r e b ha �
O v r 600 p eop e
t eru ptio n itse lf. e
result of he
fur th er 70
di fro m dise a se a nd a
were to e
oc tion by l ahars.
from suff a

IT HAS been described as tl1e world's greatest climatic ex1Jerime11t, man-1nade e111issior1s of carbon dioxide. They co11cluded that
bi.1t unlike most scier1tific endeavours it was u11planned. When the Pinatubo would in effect delay global warming by several years.
tropical tranqt1illity of tl1e Pl1ilippiaes was shattered last Jt1ne by a While global \Vanning experts argue about the effect of Pinatubo's
volca11ic explosion, Mount Pi11atubo was a relatively obscure erL1ptio11 on average te111peratt1res, ozone specialists are interested i.n
volcano, know11 i11 tl1e scientific comn1u11ity 011Iy to a l1a11dfu] of the effect the volcano l1as had and \.Viii ha\1e on the ozone layer. The'
geologists. Havi11g sent n1ore than 20 1nillion to11nes of dust and asl1 volcano has spe\ved out huge quantities of sulphate aerosols,
into tl1e atmosphere, altering its heat balance and acceleratir1g ozone particles containing st11phur th;;1t ren1ain suspended in the atmo­
depletion over a large part of tl1e globe, Pinatt1bo 11as beco111e tl1e spl1ere for several years. These st1lphate particles are in1portant in
focus of several far-reacl1ing studies. tl1e che,nistry of ozone destructio11 for two reaso11s: first, they act as
Climatologists now_ use the term 'Pinatubo effect' to describe sites where ozone-destroying reactions take place; and secondly,
ho\v volcanic asl1 and debris, if sent l1igl1 enough into tl1e tl1ey 111op up nitrogen-containing co111pot1nds that help to prevent
atmosphere, can influence te1nperature and weather for several years ozone destructio11. This winter American arid European scientists
after\vards. Tbe dust from Pinatubo was ejected as !ugh as 20 miles undertook the most intensive investigation of ozone depletion over
[32 kin] above the Etlrth. From the haven of Eartl1 orbit, satellites the nortl1ern hemisphere, inclL1ding Europe and North America.
observed tl1e plume of volcanic ash as it gird.led tl1e globe at speeds More than 300 scientists fron1 17 countries were involved and tl1eir
approaching 75 miles [120 km] per hour. A 1nontl1 after the eruptior1 work l1as shown that ozone levels fell by 10 to 20 per cent more
whjch killed 350 people, a 3000 1nile [4800 kn1] cloud of ash and tl1an expected. 'The eruption of Mount Pinatubo has increased the
sulpl1t1r compounds circled. the Earth. abt1ndance of natural sulphate 1)a11icles, potentially enl1ancing ozone
Satellite temperature measure1nents confirmed that the dust had losses due to cl1e1nical reactions tl1at occt1r on particle sutfaces,' the
effectively shaded the surface of the Earth fro111 the sun's rays, NASA ozone monitoring team said earlier this mo11th.
resulting in a lowering ot· the average global ten1perature. A NASA
tean1 at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York, led by
James Ha11sen, tried to assess wl1at effect the coolj11g caused by tl1e
dust of Mount Pinatubo \Vould l1ave on global war1ning caused by figure 1.48
... . . . . . .... . ············ . . ...
·····

on Sund ay, 1 O May 1992 The climatic effects

d f ro m The /ndepende11t of the eruption • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ......... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Adapte • •••
•• • • • • •••• • • • • • •

. •••••
•
. .
• ••
. . .. ... . . . •••••••• • •

•••••••••••• ••••
. .
. .. . � • • • •
•
... ... . .. . .. . . .. . .. .. . . ·.· ... • • • • • • •
·��r hquakes and volcanoes
. ... . t
P l ate t ect o ni cs,
34
 --- ------------ · ............ ......,.
----,�· ��-..,_ --·,,..�-- �-..-----;--- �1- �·....::..·........;...·
•• - ----------------------���-=:-;--i
Figure 1.49 HAZARD
-- - .- --- --
Types of response
(adapted from Chris
Park, 1991) BIOMEDICAL PSYCHO-SOCIAL
--- ___,__ .----··-
... . .-. ...
J

Long-term impacts Behaviour patterns Perceptions

r _,.., •• _,...
__ -- __
____..,
,..... -'

I I Basic I
II •• Attitude of I
Direct '
Indirect • Medical Anxiety Loss of During )
After
Death l I
Shelter i• Food I' hygiene I
blaming
'

j
• • I

l
inJury
• •
1nJury I

• ! amenities
'
care (worry) community others event event '
'

-- ·--------.- __1 ---- . -- - - •i

!
.....-- _J ---· - ., ---- . - - - • -- . ·-·
I
--- - -- . .,. .
<

---- .. - .•. . .. ..' - --

;

TEMPORAL SHORT TERM LONGTERM

SCALE (Concentrated effects; localised in area and time) (Affects more people; over a wider area; for a longer time)

How did people respond options and their next move. Their range of 2 In contrast, the majority of the Aeta
responses included the following: tribe decided to return. To them, the
to the hazard event? 1 Some members of the Aeta tribe mountain slopes, although vastly
Cl,ris Park l1as divided human respo,,ses (Figure 1.50) decided not to retur11 to changed, were still tl1eir home and the
during and after any l1azard event into two their former homes. As a spokesperson hard way of life in the hills was prefer­
categories (Figure 1.49). explained: 'Everything we have planted able to the foreign habits of the low­
Withi11 a few weeks of the major Pinatubo l1as been destroyed. There is no point in landers and to living in urban areas.
eruption, groups of evacuees from tl1e going back. The government will have 3 Most of tl,e people who fled from the
affected area began to consider their future to put us somewl,ere else: city of Angeles have, so far, opted
against returning home. To them, life
•
Figure 1.50 in the shanty refugee camps is safer
............................... ,., ...................... than returning to an area v,;here
eruptions and earthquakes are still
occurring and where the heavy rain is
likely to cause lahars for several years
until the regrowth of vegetation stabi­
lises the slopes.

Can future eruptions be

predicted?
At present, although it may be possible
to predict fairly accurately where volcanic
eruptions are likely to occur (i.e. at con­
structive and destrL1ctive plate margins,
Figure 1.8), there is less prospect of sci­
entists being able to predict accurately
either the precise time or the scale of a
specific event. Prediction is easier in places
where volcanoes erupt regularly, as they
will be better monitored (Figure 1.51),
than in places where eruptions have not
occurred for several centuries (Mount St
Helens and Mount Pinatubo) and where
people's perception of the hazard risk is
less. Monitoring potential eruptions is
also more likely in an economically more
developed country with its greater wealth
and technology, or in places where a high
population density is a risk.

••••••• •••••••••••• • , , • 0 • • • • • • • I • • • I I I • • f • I I • I • I I I I I t t • • • t • t • I I I I I I I I • • • t t I • t I • t I I • I • I I I I I I I I • I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I t I I I I t t I t t t I t • I I I t I I I • I I t I I I I f I I I I I I f I I I I I I

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 35

 •
.
, �a�,--st�4y_ Volcanic eruptions - Mount Pinatubo
J
.
.

..
•
a Colour-coded alert levels b Numerical alert levels
. .. . .
.. .. ..,.. :. . .;· �..
..
Colour Implication . .,: ·,""".
.. . .
'. \' .

·_ . , •.
--· · .· ,· ,.,,
'_<l'\.:"1
....
-w
t· -),.-.1' :..,_......

Green No eruption. Volcano is quiet/dormant. 0 Typical background surface activity; low levels of seismic Dormant or quiescent
deformation and heat nows
Yellow Eruption possible in next few weeks (with little or no
Apparent seismic, geodic, thermal and other unrest indicators No eruption threat
additional warning). Local earth tremors and/or increased 1
levels of volcanic gas emissions. Eruption threat
2 Increase in number/intensity of unrest indicators including
Orange Explosive eruption possible within a few days (with little heat flows, seismicity and deformation
or no additional warning). Increased number/strength
3 Minor steam eruptions; high/increasing trends in indicators of Minor eruption started; real
of local earth tremors/quakes. Non-explosive extrusion threat of a major event
unrest; significant effects on volcano and possibly beyond
of a lava dome and/or lava nows. Any ash plume will be
under 9 kn,. 4 Eruption of new magma; sustained high levels of unrest indi­ Hazardous local eruption;
cators on both the volcano and beyond threat of a serious event
Red Major explosive eruption expected within a day. Strong
earthquake activity detected even at a distance. Ash 5 Destruction/major damage beyond the volcano; significant Large hazardous eruption
plume exceeds 9 km. hazard risk over a wide area in progress

Figure 1.51
. . . . .. . . .. ... . .. . . . . ............... ".............................
Two volcano alert systems Predicting and planning (though not before the 2008 event), e.g. mice
have Aed houses, dogs have howled, fish have
•
(abridged fro1n Parfitt and Wilson) for earthquakes jumped out of water and the giant panda has
Tl1ese procedures are easier to adopt in Scientists can use ser1sitive instruments to rT1oaned.
volcanoes that erupt frequently as they measure increases in earth movements and In earthquake-prone areas, especially
are monitored partly to learn more about a build-up of pressure. They can also map tl1e in more wealthy countries, buildings can
I their ir1ternal structure and partly for signs epicentres and frequency of previous earth­ be constructed to withstand earthquakes.
of activity. Continuous monitoring instru­ quakes to see if there is either a repeat location They are built witl1 steel (whicl1 can sway
ments are both expensive and vulnerable. or a time-interval pattern. In Kanto, tl1e region during earth movement) and fire-resistant
Data can be collected: surrounding Tokyo, there has been a severe materials - never with bricks or reinforced
• on the volcano using seismometers earthquake, on average, every 70-80 years concrete blocks. Foundations are sunk deep
to record minor seismic tremors, any for the last five centuries. As the last event into bedrock and are separated from tl1e
inflation or tilt, an increase in pressure was in 1923, witl1 an estimated 14 000 deaths, superstructure by shock-absorbers. Open
or the release of volcanic gases then an equally severe earthquake might be spaces should be provided for people to
I • using satellites t�at can detect changes
in temperature, vegetation (caused
expected to occur early in the 21st century.
Even so, sucl1 methods can predict neither the
assemble, and roads made sufficiently wide
to allow rapid access by emergency serv­
by tl1e release of gases) and tl1e local precise timing nor tl1e exact location of the ices. The emergency services themselves
magnetic field eartl,quake. A less scientific method, but need to be trair1ed and well-equipped,
• by studying previous timescales of cycles successfully used in China, has been the while local residents need to be made
of eruptions and maps showing paths observation of unusual animal behaviour aware as to how they should respond both
taken by earlier lava or pyroclastic flows. shortly before a major earth movement during and after the event.

Alexander, D. (2001) Confror1ti11g Marti, J. a.nd Ernst, G. G.J. (2008) Volcanoes Plate tectonics:
Catastrophe, Terra P11blishing. and the Enviro111ne11t, Cambridge -· l1ttp://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Glossary/
B11ranakul, S. (2005) 'Asian Tsu.mani: the University Press. PlateTectonics/framework.html
Aftermat]1' in Geography Review Vol 19 Parfitt, L. and Wilson, .L. (2008) http:/eos.higp.hawaii.edt1/volcanolis.
No 1 (September). Fu11damentals of Physical Volcanology, html
Calcler, N. (1973) Tfze Restless Eartl1, BBC Blackwell. http://pubs.usgs .gov/gip/dy11amic/
Publications. Park, C.C. (1991) Environ1nental Hazarcls, understanding.html
Cl1ester, D. (1993) Volcanoes and Society, · Nelson Thornes. http://eos.l1igp.hawaii.edu/volcanolist.
Hod.der Arnold. Petley, .D. (2005) 'Tsunami' in Geography html
Francis, P. and Oppen.heimer, C. (2003) ReviewVoI 18 No 5 (May). Further links:
Volcanoes, Oxford University Press. Earthquake information: www.physicaJgeograph· y.net/
�
Goudie, A.S. (2001) The Nature ofthe l1ttp://qt1ake.wr.usgs.go·v/ fundamentals/1Oi.html
Enviro11ment, WileyBlackwell. www:rcep.dpri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/-sato/ http://vt1lcan.wr.usgs.gov/Servers/
Keller, E.A. and Pinter, N. (1995) Active tottori/index.html eartl1_servers.html
Tectonics: Earthquakes, 1,plift arid
landscape, Prentice Hall•

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . ..
36 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes
 Activities
• • • • e • • • e • • • e • e • e • • e • e • • e • • e • e e • • e • • • e e e • e • 0 • • e e e • e e e e e O e e • G e e O e O e e • e O 8 e e e O • e e O O O O e e e

1 Study Figure 1.3 (page 1 O). 3 For either a volcanic eruption or an earthquake you have
a What is an eartl1quake? (3 marks) studied:
b Why is an earthquake that measures 7.0 on the Richter scale a Draw a sketch map to show tl1e location of the area
100 times more severe than one that measures 5.0? (3 marks) where it occurred. (3 marks)
c How severe was the earthquake in San Francisco b Describe the hazard event. (3 marks)
in 1989? (7 mark) c Explain, witl1 the aid of a diagram, the causes of the
d How much bigger was the earthquake in San Francisco event. (4 marks)
in 1906 than the one in Kobe in 1972? (3 marks) d How big was the event? (2 marks)
e Describe one way in which buildings may be made e How frequently do sucl1 events occur in this area?
'earthquake proof: (4 marks) (2 marks)
f List two rules tl1at you would need to follow if your f How large an area was affected by the event? (3 marks)
home was in an earthquake area. Explain why they g Describe the effects of the event on the area. (4 marks)
would be important. (4 marks)
h What lessons for the future were learned from
g How do local and national authorities try to prepare for this event? (4 marks)
earthquakes in areas where they may occur? (7 marks)

2 Create a table using the headings in the left column of

the table below. Use it to provide details of a volcanic or
earthquake event you have studied. (marks as shown)

Location Identify where the disaster occurred (2marks)

Pre-disaster Description of geology of the area to identify the (3marks)
potential reason for an event to occur
Disaster event Timing, size and nature of the disaster (3marks)
Disruption Details of immediate damage (3marks)
Relief Types of immediate relief needed (3marks)
Recovery Nature of the required [ecovery programme (4marks)
Time T imescale of the continuing impact of the event (3 marks) Figure 1.52
··· ······················· ....... .
Reconstruction Type and amount of long-term aid required (4mark5) A section through
the Earth
.
Exam practice: basic structured
•
questions
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

4 a Study Figure 1.52 and identify the internal structure 5 a i What is lava? (2 marks)
of the Earth by naming A, B, C and D. (4 mqrks) ii What happens to lava when it is exposed on the
b Identify the two types of crust of the Earth and ground surface? (1 mark)
describe the differences between them. (4 marks) iii Why does some lava flow quickly and some flow
c Explain why crustal plates move. (5 marks) more slowly? (4 marks)
d Choose one of the following types of plate margin: b Making use of annotated diagrams, describe two
• constructive (spreading) margin different kinds of volcano. Name an example of each
of your kinds of volcano. (8 marks)
• destructive (subduction) margin
c With reference to one or more areas that you have
• conservative (slip) margin.
studied, explain why people continue to live close to
Describe the distinctive landforms that develop there, active volcanoes. (1 O marks)
and explain their development. (12 marks)

•••• •••• • • • • ••• •• ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • i • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • � • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• Plate te0tonics, ea'rthquak

· es and volcanoes 37
 shield lands (cratons)

-r �/
,A
"'-,.
fold mountains

0
. �94m
( A.,.4 A .
� Canadian
,dShield
0Iceland '"::; , ,, deep-sea trenc hes
Aleutian Islands 0
0 - I
<>
�- transform faults

volcanoes

Sierra 1 Mt McKinley
· Ma�u:---.. Milwaukee 2 Mt St Helens
}
o eep 9200 m · Atlantic Ocean Paricutfn
Trop Icofcancer
r- � _ 3
�
1--������������-:::t
•14 4 Popocatepetl
5 Mt Pelee
Pacific Ocean Mid-Atlantic Ridge 6 Cotopaxi
��
7 Chimborazo
8 El Misti
l II
II

: 11
Brazilian _>LO 9 Aconcagua
Shield · _d::- Ascension 1O Ascension Island
East Pacific Rise __,._ )-- Island
":lit. Andes 11 Tristan da Cunha
Tropicof Capricorn
- -- /'.
....
12
13
Galapagos Islands
Easter Island
Figure 1.53 c
�som
.............................................. ' ......... .. 14 Hawaiian Islands
I
Q)

- ,A,g
'

Landforms and major relief

1-lJ
::,

- \ -
features resulting from plate \!' ,...,.-
-·-
<1)
0..
tectonics in the Americas <1)

6 oo
�

I 6 Study Figure 1.53 and answer the following questions. 7 a Draw a labelled diagram to show the features of a
, a i Name an example of each of the following from the composite volcano. (4 marks)
map: shield lands (cratons); fold mountains; deep-sea b Name one intrusive landform and explain how it was
trenches. (3 marks) formed. (5 marks)
ii Explain the meaning of each of these terms: shield c With reference to the photographs on page 34 (Figures
lands (cratons); fold mountains; deep-sea trenches. 1.46 and 1.47):
(6marks) i describe a pyroclastic cloud and explain why it is a
· b i Identify the compass direction for the movement of threat to people living nearby (8 marks)
the Earth's crust at each of Ascension Island (number ii describe a lahar and explain why it is a threat to
1 O) and Easter Island (number 13). people living nearby. (8 marks)
(73 marks)
ii
For each of these places, explain why you think the
crust moves in that direction. (4 marks)
c Choose one volcano marked on the map and, referring to
plate movements, explain why it occurs there. (7 0 marks)

Exam practice: structured questions

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
8 a In areas where there are volcanic eruptions, earthquakes
I 9 a i Draw an annotated diagram and describe the features
also occur. Suggest how volcanoes and earthquakes are which may be found associated with a constructive
linked to each other. (5 marks) plate margin. (8 marks)
b Earthquakes occ. ur in areas where there is no eviden ii For one of these features, explain the processes that
ce of volcanic eruption. For one area where there are ha�e led to its formation. (8 marks)
earthquakes but no volcanoes, explain the causes of
b i Explain one way in which areas close to a constructive
earthquake activity. (1 Omarks) plate margin may be of economic value.
c Name an area where earthquakes have occurred. ii Suggest how people can exploit the economic
. .
Describe one landscape feature found in that area that resource you have identified. (9 marks)
was formed by earthquake. activity.
. c With reference to one or more areas that you have
Explain how it was forn:,ed. (�Omarks) studied, explain how people can exploit the economic
resources that can be found at constructive plate
margins. (9 marks)

38 Plate tectonics, earthquakes ahd volcanoes

10 a i Draw an annotated diagram and describe the 13 Study Figure 1.54.
features associated with a destructive plate margin.
a Choose one geological factor from the table. Explain how
(8 marks) that geological factor influences the assessment of the
ii For one of these features, explain the processes danger from a volcanic hazard in an area. (7marks)
tl1at have led to its formation. (8 marks) b Explain two ways in which a volcanic eruption could
b i Explain one way in which an area close to a affect an urban area outside the zone of direct lava and
destructive plate margin may be of economic value. pyroclastic outfall. (6 marks)
ii Suggest how people can exploit the economic c With reference to examples that you have studied,
resource you have identified. (9 marks) explain how people in areas at different stages
c With reference to one or more areas that you have development can prepare for the hazards of volcanic
studied, explain how people can exploit tl1e economic eruptions. (12 marks)
resources that can be found at destructive plate margins.
(9 marks) fig;ore 154
,.... .-.. -· ........ ·-· . -... .,..,..,,,... .. - · ..-- ... ... .
•' ··· � , ..,, ,. ,._

Range of factors affecting

11 Look at Figure 1.53 and make use of Figure 1.8 (page 15). • Dangerfactor Ass.essm:en.tofdanger
volcanic hazards
a Describe tl1e distribution of cratons (shield areas) and of Geological factors
young fold mountain ranges in the Americas. (8 marks) Plate margin type There will be more explosive activity on a destructive margin than
b Explain, with the use of diagrams, the origins of: on a
i Ascension Island (number 1 O on Figure 1.53) (7 marks) constructive margin.
ii the Chile-Peru trench and the volcanic mountains Volcano type A shield volcano will be less explosive than a stratovolcano.
(numbered 7, 8 and 9 on Figure 1.53). (10marks) Extruded material A lava eruption is less dangerous than a pyroclastic eruption.
12 a Identify two different ways in which volcanoes may be Silica content Silica-rich magmas produce more explosive eruptions than silica­
classified. For one of the ways you have identified, explain poor magmas.
how one type of volcano fits into the classification. Dormancy period Volcanoes with longer periods of dormancytend to be more explo­
(8 marks)
sive than those with shorter dormancy periods.
b Why do people continue to live close to active volcanoes?
(7marks) Environmental and topographical factors
c Using an example of a real upland area, explain what Wind direction Pyroclastic flows are thicker downwind from an active vent
happens to a volcanic area once volcanic activity ceases. Topography Valleys funnel pyroclastic and other flows. Ridges across the route of
(10marks) flows can shelter areas within a blast zone.
Social and economic factors
•

Settlement density More densely settled areas will be at greater risk of immediate
damage.
Economic status Total cost will be greater in more economically developed areas but
response will be faster and more effective. Loss of life will be lower.
In less developed areas, loss of life will be greater and economic
damage will be greater in proportion to the total.
•
'
14 a i What is a natural hazard? (2 marks)
ii Under what circumstances can a volcanic eruption
be described as a hazard event? (4 marks)
b For any volcanic event that you have studied:
i identify the causes of the volcanic event (7 marks)
ii evaluate the severity of the effects of the event on
the surrounding area and its inhabitants. (12 marks)

•
Exam practice: essays
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
15 Describe the theory of plate tectonics and explain three 17 'The extent to which earthquakes rep.resent hazards
pieces of evidence which provide support for the theory. depends on where they occur: Discuss this statement.
(25marks) (25marks)

16 For any one area that experiences volcanic and/or 18 'In the last 30 years or so natural hazards caused by tectonic
earthquake hazards that you have studied, e�plain how pressures have led to an increase.d death rate around the
people perceive and manage the hazard. (25marks) world. This increase is due more to an increase in world
population than to an increased.frequency of tectonic
events: Discuss this statement. (25marks)

Plate tee::tonics, e9rthquakes and volca, no_es 39

 er1n
•
I

••••••••• • o e o e • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

' .

'�ver·y valley sJ1all be exalted, and every 1noi1ntai1. and hill 1 is more likely to take place i11 warmer, m or e
shall be made low: and the crooked shall be made st1 aigl1t,
A 111oist climates where there is an associated
vegetation cover.
and t/.e rough places JJlain.'
1
It sJ1ould be appreciated that alt.hough in any
The Bible, Isaiah 40:4 given area either mechanical or che1nical weath­
ering 111ay be locally dominant, both processes
Weathering usually operate togetl1er rathe1· than in isolation.

Tl1e 1najority of rocks have been formed at high Mechanical weathering

I te1npe�att1res (igneous and 1nany metamorphic
Frost shattering
rocl<s) a·nd/or under great pressL1re (igneous,

I·
Th.is is tl1e most widespread form of mechanical
• meta111orpl1ic and sedi111entary rocl<s), but i11 tl1e
absence of oxygen and water. If, later, tl1ese rocks weathering. It occurs i11 rocks that contain crev­
I •
ices and joints (e.g. joints formed in granite as
become exposed 011 the Earth's surface, they will
it cooled, bedding planes fo11nd in sedimentary
experience a release of pressure, be subjected
rocl<s, and pore spaces in porous rocks), wl1ere
to fluctuating temperatL1res, a11d be exposed to
oxygen i11 tl1e air and to water. They are therefore there is limited vegetation cover and where
I
vulnerable to weathering, which is the disinte­ temperatL1res fluch1ate around 0°C (page 134).
gration and deco1nposition of rock in situ - i.e. . In the daytime, wl1en it is warmer, water enters
in its original position. Weatl1ering is, there- tl1e joints, but during cold nights it freezes. Frost
fore, the natural breal<down of rock and can be leads to mechanical breakdown in two wa.ys:
distinguished from erosion. because it need not 1 As ice occ11pies 9 per cent more volu1ne than
involve any movement of material. Weatheri11g water, it exerts pressure witl1i11 the joints.
'
.. is the first stage in the denudation or wearing 2 When water freezes within tl1e rock it attracts
dow11 of the landscape; it loosens material which s111all particles of water, creating increasi11gly
can subsequently be transported by such agents large ice crystals.
of erosion as ru11ni11g wa.ter (Cl1apter 3), ice In each case the alternating freeze-thaw
(Cl1apter 4), the sea (Chapter 6) and the wind process, or frost shattering, slowly widens
• (Chapter 7). The·degree of weathering depends the joints and, in time, causes pieces of rock
upon the. structure and mineral composition to sl1atter from the main body. W here this
of the rocks, local climate and vegetation, and block disintegration occurs on steep slopes,
the length of time during which the weathering large angµlar rocks collect at tl1e foot of the
processes ope. rate. slope as scree or talus (Figure 2.1); if tl1e slopes
are gentle, however, large blockfields (felsen-
l There are two main types of weathering:
1 Mechanical (or physical) weathering is tl1e 1neer) tend to develop. Frost shattering is more
�isin,tegration of rock i11to smaller particles common in upland regions of Britain where
·by mechanical processes but without any temperatures fluctuate around freezing point
change in the chemical composition of that for several months in winter, th . an in polar areas
rock. It is more lil<ely to occur i11 areas .devoid ·where te1nperatures rarely rise above 0°c.
of vegetation, such as deserts, .high moun� Salt crystallisation
tain� and arctic regions. Physical wea.thering If water entering the pore spaces in rocks-is slight!y
.
usually ·produces sands. sa1·1ne t h· en, as it evaporates, salt crystals are likely
2 Chemical weathering is the decompositio11 to· form. .t).s the crystals become larger, they exert
of rock resulting fro1n a chemical change. It str �sses upo n the rock, causing it to disintegrate.
r. .
prod·uces changed substances and solubles, Th�s process o_cc�rs in l1ot deserts where capillary
and usually forms clays. Chemical weat.hering . ac�on dra�s water to the �urface and where the
. (
' . •

• • • • • • • • • • • • !' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • � . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . • • ••• •• •• • •• ••• •• ••••• •••• • • • •• • •• ••• •••• ••• •• •••• •••••• ••••••• • ••••• • • • • • • ·········································
40 Weathering and slopes
 •..... I .. ....
...
Iii._, ,l ,:5 dJai;t,.!,'( t •{ :'.'e '" •
""'
.,,... ..l.? �:-:L±::.L�-'-'..:.• �- �-.....;·�,.....
,...._..--:............ -------------------=·

Figure 2.1
.. ........ . . . .. ....... ...... .... .... .
' ' rock is sa11dstone (page 182). lndividt1al grains of 7.6) and, in part, for the gra11ite tors of Dart111oor
The formation of sa11d are brol<e11 off lJy granula1· disi11tegratio11. a11d tl1e Isle of Arra11 (Figt1res 8.14 and 8.15).
screes resulting from
Salt crystallisation also occurs on coa.sts where tl1e Joi11ting, cat1sed lJy presst1re release, l1as also
frost shattering:
Moraine Lake, Banff con. stant supply of salt can leacl to tl1e develop- acce11tuated tl1e characteristic sl1apes of glacial
National Park, Canada 1ne11t of weatl1ering IJits (Figt1re 2.2). cirques and trougl1s (Figt1res 2.4, 4.14 a11cl 4.15).
Pressure release Thermal expansion or insolation
As stated earlier, ma11y rocks, especially i11trusive weathering
joi11ted granites, l1ave developed L1nder consider­ Lil<e all solids, rocks expa.nd wl1e11 heated a11cl
able pressure. Tl1e confin.ing pressure i11creases the contra.ct wl1en cooled. In deserts, where cloud and
strength of tl1e rocks. If tl1ese rocks, at a later date, vegetation cover are 1nini1nal, the diurnal range of
°
are exposed to the atmosphere, the11 there will be temperatt1re can exceed S0 C. It was believed tl1at,
a s11bstantial release of presst1re. (If yot1 had 10 1n. because tl1e ot1ter layers of rock warm tip faster
of bedrock sitti11g on top of yot1, yot1 would be and cool 1nore rapidly than the inner 011es, stresses
•
considerably relieved were it to be re1noved!) The were set tip tl1at wo11ld cat1se the outer thick11ess
release of presst1re weakens tl1e rocl< allowing other to peel off like the layers of an 011ion - the process
agents to e11ter it and other processes to develop. of exfoliation (page 181). Initially, it was tl1ought
Where cracks develop parallel to the surface, a tl1at it was this expansion-contraction process
process called sl1eeting causes the ot1.ter layers of which produced exfoliation do111es. Cl1anges i11
Figure 2.3 rock to JJeel away. This process is now believed to temperature will also caL1se different 1ninerals
·········· ... , ........... .............. .
An exfoliation dome: be respo11sible for tl1e formatio11 of large, rounded within a rock to expand and co11tract at differe11t
Sugar Loaf Mountain rocks called exfoliatio11 clo111es (Figures 2.3 and rates. It has been suggested that tl1is ca11ses gra11-
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil t1la1· disi11tegrat.ion in rocks con1posed of several
111'i nerals (e.g. granite which, consists of qL1artz, feld.­
spar and 111ica), wl1erea.s i11 l101nogeneo11s rocks it is
111. ore likely to cat1se block disintegration.
Laboratory experiments (e.g. by Griggs in
1936 ancl Goudie in 197 4) have, l1owever, cast
doubt on the effective11ess of insolation weatl1-
ering (page 181).
Biological weathering
Tree roots may grow along bedding pla11es or
extend i11to joints, wide11ing them u11til blocks
of rock become detached (Figt1re 2.5). It is also
claimed that bt1rrowing creatures, such as worms
and rabbits, may play a rninor role in tl1e excava­
tion of partially weathered rocks.

••••••••• • •••• ••••••••••• •• ••• •• • ••• • ••• ••••• • • • • •••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • ••• • • • • • •••••••• •
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Weathering and slopes 41

 a Ancient b New
Figure 2.4
· ······ ·· ···· ················· ··· ·········· ···· · e.g. Cairngorms (Scotland)
The process of pressure .
release tends to perpet­ jointing pre-glacial (Tertiary) surfaces glacial cirque
pressure
uate landforms: as new exposed by erosion (compare
release
surfaces are exposed, Figure 4. 14)
the reduction in pressure glacial
cirque
causes further jointing
parallel to the surface

jointing .
/' glacial
'l glacial trough parallel to the
surface trough·/fjord
'

Chemical weathering • occur r11ostly at the base of slopes where it is

likely to be wetter and warmer.
CJ1emical weatJ1eri11g tends to:
Tl1is type of weath.ering involves a nL1��er of
• attacJ< certai11 minerals selectively
specific processes w11ich may operate in 1so!a­
• occur i11 zones of alter11ate wetti11g and
tion bL1t whicl1 are 1nore likely to be found in
drying, e.g. '"'here tl1e level of the wa.ter
conjunction with one another. Formulae for tl1e
table flt1ctuates
vario11s c11emical reactions are listecl at the e11d
of tl1e cJ1apter, page 5 7.
Oxidation
This occurs when rocks are exposed to oxygen
• l
I
in tl1e ai.r or water. Tl1e sim.plest and most easily
recog11ised example is whe·n iron in a ferrous
state is cl1anged by tl1e additi.on of oxyge11 into
a ferric state. The rock or soil, which may l1ave
been blue or grey in colour (cl1aracteristic of a lack
•
of oxygen), is discolot1red into a reddisl1-brown
- a process better kI1own as rus ting (Figt1re 2.6).
Oxidation cat1ses rocks to crt1mble more easily.
111 waterlogged areas, oxidation may operate
in reverse and is known as re duction. I-Iere, the
a1nount of oxygen is reduced a11d tl1e soils take on
a blue/green/grey tinge (see gleying, page 272).
Hydration
Certain rocks, especially those containing salt
minerals, are capable of absorbing water into their
structure, causi11g the1n to swell and to become
vulnerable to ft1ture breakdown. For exa1nple,
gypsum is the result of water having bee11 added
to anhydrite (CaS0 4 ). This process appears to be
1nost active' followi11g successive periods of wet
and dry weatl1er and is important in forming clay
particles. Hydration is in fact a physio-chemical
process as the rocks may swell and exert pressure
as well as changing th eir chemical structure.

Hydrolysis.
This is possibly the 1nost signific ant che1nical
process in the decomposition of rocks and fo1·ma­
tion of clays. Hydrog en in water reacts with min­
. erals in the rock or, more specifically, there is a
Figure 2.6 combination of the H+ and OH- ions in the wate1·
.........,, ......................... , .......,
Oxidation in Geltsdale, and the ions of the mi11eral (i.e. tl1e water com­
Cumbria bines with the 1nineral rath er than d.issolving it).

. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . f • • • • .... . . .. . . . . . . ... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ..... . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .......................................................................................

�

42 Weathering and slopes

 The rate of 'hydrolysis depen.ds on tl1e Carbonation
a1nou11t of H+ ions, whicl1 i11 turn cte1Je11ds Rainwater contains carbo11 dioxide in solution
on the co1111Josi.tion of air and water in tl1e whicl1 prodt1ces carbonic acid (H 2 C0 3 ). This
:
soil (Figure 10.4), the activity of organisms weak acid reacts with rocks that are composed
(page 268), tl1e presence of orga11ic acids of calcittm carbonate, such as limestone. The
(1Jage 271) a11d tl1e catio11 excha11ge (page 269). limesto11e dissolves and is re1noved in solu­
A11 exa111ple of l1ydrolysis is the breakdown, of tio11 (calcit1m bicarbonate) by running water.
feldspar (Figt1re 2. 7), a 111i11eral found i11 ig11eous Carboniferot1s limesto11e is well-jointed a11d,
rocks such as granite, into a residual clay deposit bedded (Cl1apter 8), which results in tl1e devel­
know11 as kaolinite (chi11a clay). Granite consists opment of a distinctive group of landforms
of three minerals - quartz, 1nica and feldspar (Figure 2.8).
(Figure 8.2c) - a11d, as tl1e table below shows,
eacl1 reacts at a differe11t rate witl1 water. Solution
Some 1ni11erals, e.g. rock salt, are solttble in ,water
and simply dissolve in siti,1. The rate of solt1tion
can be affected by acidity since many minerals
Not affected by water, May be affected by water under Readily attracts water beco111e more soluble as tl1e pH of the solvent
remains unchanged as more acid conditions releasing producing a chemical
sand (Figure 2.7)
increases (page 269).
aluminium and iron change which turns the feldspar
into clay (kaolin or china clay) Organic weathering
Humjc acid, derived from the decomposition of
vegetation (humus), contains important elements
such as calcium, magi1esium and iron. 1�hese
ar. e released by a process known as chelatio11
(page 271). The action of bacteria and the respira­
tion of plant roots tends to increase carbo.n dioxide
levels which l1elps accelerate solt1tion processes,
especially carbonation. Liche11 can also extract iron
from certain rocks through the process of redt1c­
tion. Recent research suggests that lichen and blue­
green algae, which form the pioneer community
iI1 tl1e development of a lithosere (page 288), play
a far greater weathering role th_an was previously
thought. However, it should be remembered that
the presence of a vegetation cover dra1natically
reduces tl1e extent of n1echanical weathering.
Acid rain
Human economic activities (such as power gen­
' eration and transport) release increasingly more
•
carbon qioxide, st1lpl1ur dioxide and nitrogen
oxide into the at1nosph_ere. These gases then form
acids in solution in rainwater (page 222). Acid
rain readily attacks limestones and, to a lesser
extent, sandstones, as sl1own by crumbling build­
ings and statt1es (Figure 2.9). Tl1e i11creased level
of acidity in water passing through the soil tends
to release more hydrogen and so speeds up the
process of hydrolysis. An indirect consequence of
acid Iain is the release from certain rocks of toxic
metals, such as aluminium, cadmiun1, copper
and zinc, which can be l1armful to pl_ants and soil
biota (page 268).

' •

Figure2.8
······ ·····························-······ ········ · ··�····

Carbonation of limestone near

............... . ............................. ....... .................................. ...
·•
Ingleton, North Yorkshire
Weathering and slopes 43
 - ----·--·---------���--=
- ----�=--..,._,-..��--· �-. -

So1ne aL1tl1orities, i11clL1di11g A11d.rew Goudie, tl1e cli111ate is too cold (per111a11ently frozen),
p1·efer to di\1 ide '1veatl1eri11g in.to tl1ree categories too war.in (no freezing), too dry (no moisture
ratl1er tl1an tl1e two described 11.ere. rfl1eir alter11a­ to freeze), or too wet (covered by ,,egetati.011).
tive classification inclu.des, as a third category, Mec.ha11ical weatl1ering will not tal<e place a.t X
biological weatl1e1·i11g. I11stead of i11cludi11g on I:;igure 2. lOa where it is too warm and there
'biological' .Linder 111echa11ical weatheri11g a11d is insufficie11t moisture, \,vl1ile at Y, the higl1
'organic' u11der cl1e111ical weatheri11g, tl1ey temperature ancl heavy rainfall will give a thick
would group these t\i\10 types togetl1er under tl1e protective vegetation cover against insolatio11.
l1eading 'biological weatl1eri11g'.
Chemical weathering
Tl1is increases as temperatures and rainfall totals
Climatic controls on weathering increase. It l1as been claimed that tl1e rate of
Mechanical weathering cl1e111ical weathering doubles wit]1 every 10 ° C
Frost shatteri11g is important if te111perat11res te1nperatL1re i11crease. Rece11t tl1eories suggest
°
fluctL1ate around 0 C, but will 11ot operate if tl1at, in humid tropical areas, direct removal by
Figure2.9 solutio11 rnay be the major factor in tl1e lowering
..... ..... .............................
, ,
of tl1e la11dscape, due to th.e co11tinuot1s flow of
Acid rain damage to
stone statues, Exeter wa.ter tl1roL1gl1 the soil. Cl1emical weathering
Cathedral will be ra1Jid at S (Figure 2. lOb) due to hun1ic
acid from the vegetation. It will be limited at P,
because tempe.ratL1res are low, and at R, where
tl1ere is insufficie11t moistL1re for the c.hemical
decomposition of rocks. Carbon dioxide is an
exce1Jtio11 i11 that, being 1nore soluble at lower
as opposed to higher temperatures, it can accel­
erate rates of solution in cold cli111ates.

Weathering regions
Peltier, an America11 physicist and climatolo-
gist, atte111pted to predict tl1e type a11d rate of
weathering at any given place in tl1e world from
its 1nean annual te1nperatL1re and mean annual
rainfall (Figure 2. lOc). It should be realised that
Figure2.10 mecl1anical and che111jcal weatl1ering usually
....... ............................
'
operate together at the same time and at tl1e same
Climatic controls
on weathering place, but it .is likely tl1at i11 eacl1 sitt1ation one
(after Peltier) type or tl1e other will be tl1.e 1nore significant.

a Mechanical weathering b Chemical weathering c Peltier's weathering regions

mean annual rainfall (mm) mean annual rainfall (mm) mean annual rainfall (mm)
2000 1500 1000 500 0 2000 1500 1000 500 0 2000 1500 1 000 500 O

- -15 - -15 ep --15

u
moderate __ -.:.:u
u u mechanical
t-. -10 t-. -10 -weak t-. -10 weathering
Q.) Q.)

3 -5
�

:, -5.
..... :, - -5
......
ro ro

Q) 0 O 0
I-
cij Q.)
0. 0.
E 5 •
weak E 5 EQ.) 5
......
-
Q.)
.....
-
Q.) moderate
10 10 ro 10
:,
,a ro
:,
c
:,
c 15 c 15
c 15 •
c c
ro moderate
,a absent or insignificant • ro
c 20 c 20 strong c 20 strong chemical
ro ro weathering
,a
25 y x 25 E 2s
chemical very slight
E • E •s weathering weathering
30'---'--��LL-��.JC-��.J...---·�� - 30 ....__....___LL.....::._____ic:__...,L_____J

....................................................... • ••• • • • • • • • • • •• • ••• • •• • •• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • •• • •• • • • •• • • • • • • • • •• • • • ••• • • • •••••••••••••••••

•
44 Weathering and slopes
 -- . ----�-�----,_...,__---�------.....,-c-#_i:::,-,i....,M__, ,,,.=---�·-�,- ---�-

.-----������·---�------?�----��--��----��l
#. systems approac::.fl
�--�---�--------'-�---------�,_,_...,.___,_�--�------�----����---.....J
One type of model �Framework 12, page 352) • Isolated: there is no input or output of energy
widely adopted by geograpl1ers to help explain or matter. Some suggest
. .
the universe is the sole
phenomena is the system. The system is a method example of this type; others claim the idea is not
of analysing r�lationships within a unit and consists applicable in geography.
of a number of compone11ts between which • Closed: there is input, transfer and output of
tl1ere are linkages. The model is usually illustrated energy but not of matter (or mass).
schematically as a flow diagram. • Open: most environmental systems are open
Systems may be described in three ways: and there are inputs and outputs of both energy
and matter.

__.>
a closed: domestic central b open: domestic water supply
heating system water stored
,_, _
in tank
hot water circulates
. .
aroL1nd house - ,_

.
water

t i.
. . transferred
bathroom by pipe
water slowly .
cools . .
boiler
heats
water

t
input of clean

i. i
water by pipe output of
kitchen water
water returns from mains
supply through
to be reheated
(reservoir) drains
• r - '

Figure 2.11 Examples of the systems approach used and referred

.... .. .. .... . . ...... . ... . . . . . . ....... ..
'

Closed and open to in this book (chapter number is given in brackets):

systems in the house •

Geomorphological Climate, soils and vegetation Human and economic

Slopes (2) Atmosphere energy budget (9) Population change (13) •
Drainage basins (3) Hydrological cycle (9) Farming (16) •

Glaciers{4) Soils{lO) Industry (19)

Ecosystems (11)
Nutrient cycle (12)

When opposing forces, or inputs and outputs,

• an increase in carbon dioxide into the
•

are b_alanced, the sy.stem is said to be in a state atmosphere causes global temperatures to rise
of dynamic equilibrium. If one element in (global warming, Case Study 9)
the system changes because of some outside • drought affects the carrying capacity of animals
influence, then it upsets this equilibrium and . (or people) grazing (livingr in an area as the
•
affects the other components. For-example, · water shortage reduces the availability of grass
equilibrium is upset when: (food· supplies) (page 378)

• • an increase in the number of-tourists to places

prolonged heavy rainfall causes an increase
in the discharge·and velocity of a river or a of scenic attraction harms the environment
lowering of base level (page 81 ), both of wt"!ich (especially where it is fragile) that was the
lead to an increase in the rate of erosion original source of the-attraction (page 591 ) .

.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •
• • • • • e • • e e • e • • • • e e e e I I e I I e I I .
I e I I • • I I I I I 1 1 I I I I e I I I I I I I I I I I I • I I I • I I I I I I I I I I I • I I I I I I I I I • I I • I 1 1 I 1 1 I I I I I I I I I I f I I I I I I I � • I � I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Weathering and slopes 45

 . .

gravity expansion
type of surface
and vegetation precipitation
raindrop
___...__,
rainsplash
6I on fl.at land, soil
particles are
equally dis�ributed · heave
.,I� due to frost
I I
interception I in all directions; . Ie,
part1c
I I
evapotranspiration I on slopes, particles 1
I I
I on downhill side I I
I of splash are '-.... * contraction
radiation ,>.'"' yl carried further
P1 "'-.' after thaw
r---.'\ ,,..-�
soil depth I I . P2
and type I
I
I
I angle of sf ope
I ', frost
I .------�--, '
surface runoff '�
•

infiltration
of water human influence: e.g. buildings,
geology road, quarries, waste tips
(I) .rock type (porous, impermeable)
(H) rock struc·tur� Uointing)
river removes material
inputs --Jlt• frost .,,.._ at foot of slope

processes )It [ interception I vegetation: type

outputs J1t radiation and amount of cover
j channel flow J '
·-��---- -�----- ···- ---�·-··---��----�----·�-------···-�-"'--�-
figure2.12
................-. - . �-·-···�·· ......_., . ----
The slope as a
-.- __
Mass movement and resultant basis for distil1guishing betwee11 tl1e various types
(Figt1re 2.13). "fhe following classificatio11 is based
dynamic open system landforms on speed of flow related to moisture content and
The term mass 1noveme11t describes all downhill angle of slope (Framework 7, page 167).
1nove1nents of weathered material (1·egolitl1),
includ.ing soil, loose stones and rocks, in response Slow movements
to gravity. I-Iowever, it excludes movements wl1ere Soi/creep
the material is carried b'y ice, water or wind. When This is the slowest of downhill move1nents and
· gravitational forces exceed forces of resistance, · is difficult to measure as it takes place at a rate
slope failure occurs and material sta.rts to move of less tl1an 1 cm a year. However, unlike faster
downwards. A slope is a dynamic open systen1 movements, it is an. almost continuous process.
(Framework 3) affected by biotic, clima.tic, gravi­ Soil creep occurs mainly i11 hu1nid climates
tational, groundwater and tectonic inputs which where there is a vegetation cover. There are
vary in scale and time. Tl1e amount, ra.te and type two major cat1ses of creep, both resulting from
of movement depend upon the degree of slope repeated expansion and contraction.
failure (Figure 2.12). 1 Wet-dry periods ,During ti111es of heavy
Although by definition mass movement rainfall, moisture increases the volume and
refers only to the movement downl1.ill of mate­ weigl1t of the soil, causing expansion and
Figure2.13 rial under the force of gravity, in reality water
-. .... _ .............................. ···-···· ........... .
_,,
allowi11g the regolith to move downhill
A classification of is t1st1ally present and assists the process. Whe11 tinder gravity. In a subsequent dry period, the
mass movement Carson and l(irkby (1972) attempted to group
processes (after
soil will dry out and then contract, especially
Carson and Kirkby,
. mass movements, they used the speed of move-
• if it is clay. An extreme case of contraction in
1972) ment and the amount of 1noistt1re present as a clays occurred in south-east England during
the 1976 drought when buildings sited on
almost imperceptible slopes suffered rnajor
j flow j • structural damage.
2 Freeze-thaw When the regolith freezes, the
presence of ice crystals increases the volum.e
' of the soil by 9 per cent. As the soil expands,
mudflow particles are lifted at right-angles to the slope
in a process called heave (Figure 2.12 and
earthflow page 132). When the ground later thaws and
(debris flow)
the regolith contracts, these particles fall back
rotational vertically under the influence of gravity and
.slumping
so move downslope.
solifluction
landslide

scr�e (ta'lus) rockslide

soil · creep (avalanche)
SLOW ,. DRY

J
0.2 cm/year 1.Sm/day ••••••••••••• •• • ••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••
•
• ••••••••••••••••••••• ••
f heave j SLOW. • ��___;�a
- •_.· FAST j slide
(slow movements) (fast movements)
 ·periglacial co11ditions (Chapter 5) wl1ere vegeta­
tion cover is limited. During the winter season,
botl1 tl1e bedrock and regolitl1. are frozen. In
Slimmer, the surface layer tl1aws but the t1nder­
lying layer remains frozen and acts like imper­
meable rock. Because surface 1.11eltwater ca.n.not
i11filtrate downwards and te111peratures are too
low for mt1c.h effectjve evaporation , a11y topsoil
will soo11 become saturated ancl will flow as an
Figure2.14 active layer over the froze11 subsoil a11d rock
(page 131). This process prodt1ces solifluction
····· ·················· ··· ········ ········· ······
Terracettes in WharfedaleI .·
Yorkshire Dales sheet or lobes (Figure 5.12), rounded, tongL1e-like
features reaching up to 50 1n in widtl1, and head,
a mixture of sand and clay formed in valleys and
telegraph fences at the foot of sea cliffs (Figure 5.13). Solifluction
pole tilted broken
was ·wiclespread in soL1thern Britain du.ring the
base of tree l)leistocene ice age; covered most of Britain fol­
tension gashes turned downslope lowing tl1e Pleistocene; and conti11ues to take
in road place in tl1e Scottisl1 Highlands today.
terracettes

soil piled up behind wall Flow movements

forcing it to bulge and break Earthflows
°
When the regolith on slopes of 5-15 becomes
saturated with water, it begins to flow dow11h. ill at
a rate varying between 1 and 15 kt11 per year. The
1novement of material may prodt1ce short flow
tracks and s111all bulging lobes or tongues, yet
may not be fast enough to break the vegetation .

Figure2.15 Soil creep usually occurs on slopes of about 5 ° Mudf/ows

................,, ....................... . These are more rapid moveme11ts, occt1rring on
The effects of soil and prodL1ces ter1·acettes (Figure 2.14). These
steeper slopes, a11d exceedi11g 1 km/hr. When
creep a1·e step-like features, often 20-50 cm in height,
Nevado del Ruiz erupted in Colombia in 1985,
whicl1 develop as the vegetation is stretched and
the rest1ltant mudflow reached the town of
torn.: they are often used a11d accentuated by
Armero at an estimated speed of over 40 kin/
grazi11g animals, especially sheep ....fhe effects of
l1r (Case StL1dy 2A). Mudflows are 1nost likely
soil creep are shown in Figure 2.15.
to occur following periods of intensive rainfall,
Solifluction
'

when both volL1me and weight are added to the

This process, meaning 'soil flow', is a sligl1tly soil giving it a higl1er water co.ntent than an
faster movement usually averaging between earthflow. Mudflows n1ay result from a co.mbina­
5 cm and 1 m a year. It often takes place under tion of several factors (Figure 2.16).

fi, gure 2.16

······ ····-·······-·········-··· ... granite slabs (impermeable): bare rock results in rapid runoff
Fieldsketch (influence of geology and vegetation)
showing the causes
of a mudflow, Glen unusually heavy rainfall for 48 hours: extra moisture caused
' , -,
- .BEINN A CHLIABHAIN
.....
•
Rosa, Arran hillside to swell, and added extra weight (influence of climate)

- ··--

scar of an earlier
mudflow

r_, .. • •

lobe or debris fan: soil, loose rock, large boulders 47

deposited when mud lost its momentum
•

Figure 2.1. 7. . ..... . . .. . . .............

. . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..
Landslides and rockfalls
a Planar landslide b Rotational landslide c Rockfall
sandstone °

sl1ale bare rock, over 40

(in this case, it is vertical)
glid e plane

flat rupture surface scree or talus slope:

reverse slopes unstable and unvegetated if
; stable and vegetated
'
0
landslide '' ove r 33
°
if under 35

later
/
1-----,:'/ �slump
curved
/
rupture --'\
surface
talu�6ujfds up
• edt.tcl'ng size of
fre?'iace (largest
boulders at foot
of slope)
rocks from earlier slides

Rapid movements
Slides
Tl1e ft1ndamental difference betwee11 slides and
tlows is th.at flows suffer i11ter11aJ derangen1ent
·- wl1ilst, i11 contrast, slides 111ove 'en masse' and
- are 11ot affected by internal derange111ent. Rocl,s
that are jointed or l1ave bedding pla11es rot1gl1ly
parallel to the angle of slope are tJarticularly sus­
, ceptible to la11dslides. Slides 111ay be planar or rota­
II tional (Figt1re 2.17a a11d b).111 a planar slide, tl1e
weathered rock n1oves dow·nhill leaving bel1i11d it
•r a flat n1pture st1rface (Figt1re 2. l 7a). Where rota­
!
tional move111ent occurs, a process son1etimes
refe1Ted to as slttmping, a curved ruptt1re st1rface
is IJroduced (Figure 2.17b). Rotational move1nent
can oca1r in areas of l101nogeneous rock, bt1t is
rnore likely w11ere softer materials (clay or sands)
overlie more resista11t or iJ11permeable rock (li1ne­
Figure 2.18
....... · · · · · · · · · ·······•· ··· ··•··•· stone or granite). Slides are comn1on i11 m.a11.y
Landslides on the coastal areas of sot1tl1ern and eastern Engla11d. In
Norfolk coast
Figure 2.18, the cliffs, co111posed of glacial deposits,
•
are retreati11g rapiclly dt1e to freque11t slides. Tl1e
slt11nped material can be see11 at the foot of the cliff.

Very rapid movements

Rockfalls
These are spontaneous, though ·relatively rare,
°
debris movements on slopes that exceed 40 . Tl1ey
x�.
,

may result from extreme physical or cl1emical

. '
...,.1
..
'
.,
.•
.,,,.

•
',:

••
I
weathering i11 mountains, pressure release, storm­
• ,
wave action on sea cliffs, or eartl1qt1akes. Material,
once broken.fro111 the surface, will eithe1: '.bot111ce
Figure 2.19
............................ ' ............ or fall vertically to form scree, or talt1s, at the foot
Rockfalls in the crater of a slope (Figures 2.17 c and 2.19).
of Vesuvius, Italy ·,
)

..........................................................................................
1
48 "
'

,,.
..
.. -::...-.tr... �-
'

..,,
•'
'
,.
.
:\,,,� .... ..
-J,.. ...: • ., ..._ ......,. ·-: '_j'
'
•
.
 --�--- . -
. -". •• �"--y�"-- --'--=---'-'----------------- - -------------�------- �

__ , •

Places 8 South-east Brazil: landslides

'

Petropolis Rio de Janeiro

• The town of Petropolis, named after a for111er king of Rio de Janeiro experiences the same problems of
Brazil, lies in the Serro do Mar Mountains some 60 km mass movement, but on an even larger scale, as
north of Rio de Janeiro (Figure 2.21 ). Today, with a Petropolis. Figure 15.34 shows one of Rio's many
population of 300 000, it is one of Rio's two main favelas (shanty settlements) that have been built
mountain resorts to wl1icl1 people escape in summer on the steep hillsides. One flash flood in 1988 led to
to avoid the heat and humidity of the coast. But the mudslides which carried away many of the flimsy
steep-sided mountains can also prove to be a hazard, l1ouses that had probably been built from waste
as in 2001 wl1en 50 people were killed in a series of materials such as wood, corrugated iron and broken
landslides (Figure 2.20). bricks. The mudslides were responsible for the
As shown below, December of that year was an deaths of more than 200 people.
exceptionally wet month for Petropolis. The result
was a series of more than 20 significant landsides, 14
of which were between them responsible for the 50
fata I ities.

Period Rainfall
1 to 16 December upto250 mm

17to23 December upto 125 mm

24 December (in 12 hours) upto200 mm

The area, with its steep hillsides and heavy

seasonal rainfall, is prone to natural landslides
but investigations following this event suggested
• )
that the two main causes, on this occasion at least,
• •
_., ... <41 .. •

• f '

resulted from human activity:

•
r •
t \. \

.. � .
1 The construction of poor-quality, unauthorised
building: many of the shanty settlements had
been built on steep hillsides, often where the
° °
slope was over 45 and in places even up to 80 .
2 The failure to provide rainwater drainage
channels: such drains could have taken away
Figure 2.21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . .. ... . . ..... .... .
' some of the excess surface water and so
The town of reduced the hazard risk.
Petropolis has
spread up steep hill­ Of the SO deaths, 24 were attributed to unauthorised
sides from the valley settlements and 22 to the lack of drainage channels.
bottom

Figure 2.20
. . . . . . .... ..................... ..... .
A landslide in
Petropolis, 2001

•••• ••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••• •••••••••

Weathering and slopes 49

 r ly in g r o c k w il l � a u s e t h e
• A11 impervious unde
Development of slopes topsoil to become satL1ra te d n 1o re q u ic k ly , e .g .
d e p o si ts o v e rl y i1 1g g ra n it e .
Slope clevelop111e11t is the result of the interactio11 glacial
r li k e ly to s t1 ff e r s lo p e
of several factors. Rock structt1re and litl1ology, • Steep gradients are n1o e
n e s. In B ri ta i1 1, e s1Je ­
soil, cli111ate, vegetatio11 a11d ht1man activity are failL1re tha11 ge ntler o
o st sl o p e s a re u n d er
probably tl1e 111ost significant. All are i11flue11ced cially in lowland areas, m
°
by t11e ti1ne over wl1icl1 tl1e processes operate. 5 and few are ove r 40 .
°

o n sl o p e s w 11 e re tl 1e e q u i­
Slo1Jes are an integral part of tl1e drai11age basin ·• Failure is also likely
) o f th e sy st em (F ra m e w o rk
syste111 (Cl1apter 3) as tl1ey provide water and li.briu111 (balance
h as b e n d is tu rb d , e. g. a gl ac i-
sedime11t for tl1e river charu1el . 3, page 45), e e
.
ated valley.
The effects of rock structure and lithology
• The prese11ce of joints, cracks and bedding
• Areas of bare rock are vuln e rable to mecl1an­ w at er co n te n t an d
s
pla11e ca 11 al lo w in cr ea s e d
ical weathering (e.g. frost shatteri11g) a11d
so lead to sliding (Vaiont Dam, Case Study 2B).
some c11e111ical weatl1eri11g processes.
• Earthquakes (Mount Huascaran in Peru)
• Areas of alter11ating l1arder/more resista11t
and volcanic eruptions (Nevada del Ruiz i.11
rocks and softer/less resista11t rocl<s are 111ore
Colo1nbia) can cause extre1ne slope move­
likely to experience n1ove111e11t, e.g. clays 011
ment. s (Case Study 2A).
li111esto11es (Vaio11t Dam, Case Study 2B).
Figure 2.22
··· •··•············•····••·•······ · · · · ··········· ········ · · · · · · · a Non-saturated soil b Saturated soil
The effect of pore-water pressure
and capillary action on soil
movement
'.--.. water held by
capillary tension
0
�Q-·
0 ; ' )
• water-filled pore
spaces: 0
friction is reduced
air in pore spaces

Soil • Heavy snowfall adds weight and is thus con­

• Thi11 soils tend to be more u11stable. As tl1ey can dt1cive to rapid movements, e.g. avalan.ches,
· support only limited vegetation, tl1ere are fewer Case StL1dy 4a.
roots to bi11d the soil together.
• Unconsolidated sands have lower internal Vegetation
col1esion than clays. • A lack of vegetation means that there are
• A porous soil, e.g. sa11d, is less likely to f ewer 1·oots to bind the soil togetl1er.
become saturated than one tl1at is imperme­ • Sparse vegetation cover will e11courage
able, e.g. clay. surface runoff as precipitatio11 is not inte1·­
• In a non-saturated soil (Figure 2.,22a), the ce pted (page 59).
surface tension of the water tends to draw Human influence
particles together. This increases cohesion • Deforestation increases (afforestation
a11d redt1ces soil movement. In a saturated decreases) the rate of slope move me nt.
soil (Figure 2.22b), tl1e po1·e water pressure • Road constrt1ction or quarrying at the foo·t of
(page 267) forces the particles apart, reducing slopes upsets tl1e equilibrium, e.g. during the
friction and causing soil movement. b11ilding of the MS i11 tl1e Bristol area. •

Climate • Slope development processes 1nay be accentu­

• Heavy ra.in and meltwater both add volu1ne ated either by building on steep slopes (Hong
and weight to the soil. Kong and Rio de Janeiro, Case Study 2B) or
• Heavy rain increases the erosive power of by using them to deposit indt1strial or mining
any river at the base of a slope and so, by waste (Aberfan, Case Study 2B).
removing material, makes tl1at slope less ·• The vibration cat1sed by heavy traffic ca11.
stable. destabilise slopes (Main Tor, Derbyshire).
• Areas with freeze-thaw or wet-dry periods are • The grazing of an . imals and ploltgl1ing help
suqjected to alter11ating expansion-:contraction loosen soil and remove ·the protective
. .

of the soil. '

vegetation cover.

. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ... . .. .... .. . . . ..... . .. , . . . . . ..., . . .. . . . . . .... .. .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . .... .... ... .. .. ... . .. . .. ... .... . . . ... �� ·· · · · · ·�·· � .. .'. ······ · ·· �· ·· ·· ···�·· ·
s·o
4 • • • · � •

Weathering and slopes

 a Rectilinear
b Convex-concave
convex or waxing slope .----- mainly soil creep due convex
(denudation slope) to gentle slopes and (shedding) slope--
vegetation cover

cliff or free face ----

---i
transfer zone
rectilinear or straight --....... (debris slope)----
slope (constant slope) \\"7"- ------L- active weathering and
removal of material;
steepness depends
upon rock strength
concave or waning weathered debris with and jointing
slope (accumulation danger of landslides concave (receiving)
slope) often resulting from slope
water carrying material
downhill'

Figure2.23
•

·- ··· · · · ·· ····· ··�·········· ·· · , ··· · ·· ·· ·

Slope element Slope elements 1�11is is partly due to tl1e time needed for slopes to
models evolve and partly d.ue to the variety of co1nbina­
Two models try to show tl1e shape and form of
a typical slope. The first, Figt1re 2.23a, is more tions of processes �cting upon slopes in various
parts of tl1e world. Slope clevelopn1ent in dif­
widely used tl1an tl1e secon.d (Figure 2.23b)
ferent e11viron1nents l1as led to three divergent
- although, in tl1is aL1thor's view, the first is less
easily seen in the British landscape. Regardless tl1eories bei11g proposed: slope decline, slope
replacement and parallel retreat. Figure 2.24 is a
of whicl1 model is t1sed, confusio11 u11fortL1nately
su1n111ary of these theories.
arises because of the variation i111101nenclatu.re
None of tl1e tl1eories of slope development
used to describe the different facets of the slope.
ca11 be Ltniversa11y accepted, although each may
In reality, few slopes are likely to match U{J
l1ave local relevance in the contex.t of the cli1nate
perfectly with either 1nodel, a11d eacl1 individt1al
a11d. geology (structure) of a specific area. At tl1e
slope is likely to show more elements tl1an those
same time, two different clirnates or processes
in Figure 2.23.
may produce the sarne type of slope, e.g. cliff
retrea.t due to sea actio11 in a humid climate or to
Figure2.24
Slope development through time
.............•... ......... , .... .......• �. weathering in a semi-arid climate.
Slope development
How slopes have developed over tin1e is one of
theories the more controversial topics in geomorph�logy.

Region of study Theory based on slopes in what was to Davis a Conclusions drawn from evidence of slopes in Based on slopes in South Africa.
normal climate, north-west Europe and the Alps and Andes.
north-east USA.
Climate Humid climates. Tectonic areas. Semi-arid landscapes. Sea cliffs with wave-cut
platforms. ' -
Description of slope Steepest slopes at beginning of process with The maximum angle decreases as the gentler The maximum angle remains constant as do all
a progressively decreasing angle in time to give a lower slopes erode back to replace the steeper slope facets apart from the lower one which
convex upper slope and a concave lower slope. ones giving a concave central portion to the slope. increases in concavity.
�s=�--�== - � � -

slope decline slope replacement slope retreat

stage 4
stage 3 stage 2 stage 1 stage 3 stage 2 stage 1
concave stage 4 stage 2
curve h stage 3 stage 1
A ,
' A A
_\ ____ -- ------
convex
... _c- B
watershed
- c L -- free face
--
worn down
convex curve
peneplain ' ,,
By stage 4 land has been worn down talus-scree slope B will replace slope A; concave debris slope pediment
into a convex-concave slope slope C will eventually replace slope B (can be removed by flash floods)
'

p
Assu.med a rapid uplift of land with an immediate Assumed landscape started with,a straight rock Assumed that slopes haa two facets - a gently
Changes over·time
onset of denudation. The uplifted land would slope with equal weathering overall. As scree concave lower slope or pediment and a steeper
undergo a cycle of erosion where slopes were (talus) collected at the foot of the e:liff it gave a upper slope (scarp). Weathering caused the
initially made steeper by vertical erosion by rivers gentler slope which, as the scree grewf replaced parallel retreat of the scarp slope allowing the
but later became less steep (slope decline) until the.original·one. pediment to extend in size.
the land was almost flat (peneplain).
i I f t f I I I I I t I I I t I I t I I f f • I I I t I I t I I I I I I I t i I I 4 t t I I I I I I I
t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t • • t t f f t t • t t • I I t f f f I f I I I I I I I I I I I I t I f f I I I I I I t I I t I I I I
• • t 9 • t • t • t. e • • t 9 • • t t t
t

I I I I I I I • • •
•••••••• • • • I I • I I I' 1 I I

Weathering and slopes -51

 Mexic�
r
iv' N
_ )
"---'\ -
-- --::,�
I 1

A Natural causes ,.____.,-, ·:. . _ ·7Y Guatemala

�
Cl

�Bel.ize Honduras Caribbean Sea (I

r-:, g . ,, -�L
'"'- - Pan a · aY--,--- ?<'-;;
All slopes are affected by gravity and, con­ .,..._r........
� •
sequently, by one or 111ore of the several
'
3537 m "'---- r".c�--
'
r? C,�
�

. �----< .D
mass movemerrt processes by wl,icl1 �-t!� 0;J.../- Nicaragua / / ..,.....__.,_.___
j <:,,� 1
l
• (
Lake ts �c
weathered 111aterial is tra1,sported downl1ill
Atitlan El
Panama
"\W ) Venezuela
�, ('
/
(pages 46-48). Wl1ere slopes are gentle Salvador 1 - :.:,
(aboL1t 5°), tl1e n1overner1t of rnaterial is �� �1��,--r.'s_e_,P£�a Ri�Magdalena )'
I' /; { �)'t� \ -- - ---.,_ ''
slo\rv and l1as relatively little effect on '-!fl� ·s,J- ' \ c: ,,
Arrrnero
- • '-,,.-- . -.
Costa Rica � 1.....,-1 "',
'
/'---)
property, life or l,uman activity. As slope <1, .,,,-· �
Nevadb del. • �---· (
• Bogota
Ruiz 54\Jo I ")
angles increase, l1owever, so too do tl1e rate
\ ·"'" - ../r
arid frequency of slope rnovement and tl,e 2,L !.... • • -;;
I
Colombia _ !IJ
risk of sudden slope failure. Slope failure, ·V ,� /

occurring in tl,e form of either n,L1dflows

Lj
__,,.... '--". _f :
or landslides, is a natural event. When tl,is
failure occurs in densely populated areas, it · � ,
• ouito ; ·"""". .
\.
r /
becomes a potentially dangerous natural { Ecuador /,
-v"
mazon''""/, ,·
lA,�: Brazil
hazard (Framework 2, page 31 ). Tl,ree Pacific ·-,4
) f
./· Basin
,...--
�
examples of how slope failure caused by Ocean I
natural eve1,ts can cause serious loss of (�-�_)· .1·
l 7
� Peru
property and life (Figure 2.25) are: )

(i) earthquakes �.
.J' f ungay \_
�

(ii) volcanic activity / - --").

,,-J \
(iii) excessive rainfall.
Figure 2.25
6768m -�
.................................., ....... , ...............
(i) Earthquakes - avalanches \JI Lima
�

Sites of some recent hazardous

\
�

events in South and Central

and rockfalls (Peru 1970) America
�'
('
O 200 km
In 1970 an offsl1ore earthquake 111easuring �'-'

7.7 on the Richter scale shook parts of Peru to -·-•1 ;-cpz�

the 11orth of its capital, Lima. The shock waves

loosened a mass of unstable ice and s11ow
near the summit of Huascaran, the coun-
try's highest peak (6768 m). The falling ice ..
' . '
and snow formed a huge avalanche which
rushed downhill, falling 3000 m into the Rio
Santo Valley, collecting rocks and boulders en
'
•
•
route. In its path stood the town ofYungay
.
.
•
with � population of 20 000. . "
�

Estimates suggest that the avalancl,e

was travelling ar a speed of 480 kin/hr
when it hit the settlement. It took rescue
workers three days to reach the town. Once
there; they found very few survivors and
only the tops of several 30 m palm trees,
which marked the location of the former
town square (Figures 2.25 and 2.26).

Figure2.26
.............................................
The site of Yun gay after
the avalanche

• • ••• • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • ••• • • ••• • • • • • •• • • •• • • •• • •• ••• • • • • •• ••• •• ••• • • ••••• • • • • •• • • • • • •••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • •• • ••• • • • • • • • •••
.
• ••••• ••• ••••••••••••••••••••• • • • • • • •• • •
• • • • •••

52 Weathering and slopes

 . .,,l
'

Slope failure and mass movement

•

(ii) Volcanic eruptions_

mudflows (Colombia 1985)
The Colombian volcano of Nevada del
RL1iz had r,ot erupted since 1595 ur,til, ir,
November 1985, it sl,ovved signs of activi
ty
by emitti11g gas and s·tearn. As an .increasin
g
amoLint of magma welled upwards to-
wards tl,e crater, the wl,ole peak rnust have
�ecome warmer, as was made evident by the
increased melting of ice and snow around its
surnmit. A rnudfiow, 20 r11 in l1eight, which
travelled 27 km down the Lagunillas Valley,
proved an advance warning that went
unheeded. Ice and s11ow cor1tir1L1ed to melt
uritil, on 13 Novernber, there was a major
eruption. Althougl, this eruption was small
in comparison witl, other erL1ptions such as
Mount St Helens, the lava, ash and hot rocks
so many deaths, but rather the effects of the all that was left of the town were the tops
ejected were sufficient to rnelt the rernair,­
torrer,tial rainfall. of the taller trees. The handful of lucky sur­
ing ice and snow, releasing a tremer,dous
The rainwater collected soil and other vivors described how they were awoken
volume of meltwater. Tl,is 111eltwater, swelled
material as it rL1sl,ed down the mountain by rumbli11gs from tl,e mountainsides, and
by torrential rai11 (often associated with vol­
slopes creating a mudflow 15 m deep that n,anaged to escape because they were
canic eruptior,s), raced dowr, tl1e Lagunillas
er1gulfed the tow,, of Panabaj (Figures 2.25 nearer to the edges of tl,e rnLrdflow.
Valley collecting with it large amounts of
and 2.28). Tl,e devastation was so complete Raging rivers destroyed bridges and n1ade
asl, deposited from previous eruptions. The
tl1at the autl,orities and relief workers soon roads impassable, so the hard-pressed authori­
resultant mud tidal wave (a lahar), estimated
al)andoned efforts to retrieve SL1rvivors, or ties had to struggle to airlift in food, clrinking
to have been 30 m in height, travelled down
even bodies, and declared tl,e area a mass water and emergency supplies.
tl,e valley at over 80 kr11/l1r.
grave. In all, 1400 people disappeared and
So111e 50 km fror1, the crater, the mudflow
emerged onto more open ground on which
was situated the town of Ar111ero. The time
was 2300 l,ours when tl,e mL1dflow struck I

ar1d most of tl1e 22 000 inl,abitants l,ad

already gone to bed. The few survivors
clair11ed that the first onrusl, of muddy
water vvas ice-cold, but became increas­
ir,gly warr11er. By morning a layer of mud, up )

to 8 111 deep, covered Armero and the sur­

rounding area (Figures 2.25 and 2.27). Tl,e
deatl, toll was put at 21 000, making this tl,e
worst single r1atural disaster ever to l,ave
affected people ir1 the western hemispl,ere.

(iii) Heavy rainfall - Hurricane

Stan (Guatemala 2005)
Hurricane Stan swept across Central America
during September 2005. Although by hur­
ricane standards it was not the strongest, it
proved particularly lethal because it struck
a region wl,ere most people lived in Aimsy Figure 2.28•
........ .......................... .......................... .... . ..... ..... .......... . .. .
sl1anty dwellings constructed around, or The view across Lake Atitlan in.Guatemala to the '
at the foot ot steep mountainsides. As is volcanic peaks on the far shore. Beside the lake,
which is a caldera (page 25}, are several long­
often the case with hurricanes, it was not
established Mayan settlements and a few modern
the strength of the winds that was to cause tourist resorts. One Mayan town was Panabaj

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '................ ... .. ..... . ..... .. .." .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weathering and slopes 53
2 Jca,s.e Study·
....-,J,t ·. -

Slope failure and mass movement

,•··:

.. •

B Human
mismanagement
The probability of slope failure in populated
areas is often i11creased by tl1ougl1tless
planning, or a total lack of it, or wl1ere
hLrman activity exerts too rnuch pressure
upon the land available. Three exa,nples of
how slope instability and the risk of slope
failure n1ay be increased by l1un1an activity
are whe,1 land is L1sed for:
(i) building dams to create reservoirs
(ii) tl1e extractio11 of a natural resource or
the du111pi11g of waste material
(iii) rapid urbanisation.

(i) Building dams to create

reservoirs (Italy 1963)
Tl1e Vaiont Darn, built i11 tl1e Italian Alps,
was completed in 1960. The darn, the third ...............,, ..................., ...... , ..
The Vaiont Dam
l1ighest in tl1e world at tl1at tin1e, was built in
a narrow valley with steep sides co11sisting landslide of rocks, clay, mLrd and vegetation almost 1900, although several bodies were
of alternate layers of clays and limestone slid over tl1e l,arder beds of lin1estone and never recovered. Debris from tl1e landslide
(Figure 2.29), and wl1ere landslides were not into tl,e reservoir. The dam itself stood, but filled in almost two-thirds of the lake. A
uncon1rnon. Down the valley were several a wave of water spilled over the lip creating court of enquiry concluded that the site
hamlets and the small town of Longarone. a towering wall of water which swept was geologically unstable and that even
Heavy rain in October 1963 saturated the down the valley. Longarone was virtually during construction many smaller land­
clay. Just before rnidnight on 9 October, a destroyed. The final death toll was put at slides had occurred. The dam was closed.

Figure 2.30 Figure 2.31

.. w•••_..
....
_,_
•
-. . ..................... ........... ....................
' ' .. .... ' ...... , .. . .. . . . . .. .. . .. . .... .. ..... .
Aberfan immediately after A landscaped waste tip
the mudflow :
original profile of spoil tip
steep-sided and devoid of
• vegetation
new landscaped ...... - - - ........ /
spoil tip with ,, .. ' ......... material of original
gently sloping,,' " .. , spoil tip be.neath-····-
r-,,.. sides "",, new t(?pSOil
--.. - � ----......... _.......,_______
. . , , , - .. _, �
'
-· - -· - ---..

-:..i
�.,
�

' .

-----
• • •••• •• •••• •••• ••• ••• ••••••• • •••••• •• •••••• ••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • •• . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
54 Weathering and slopes
 Slope failure and mass movement · Case -Study 2

(ii) Dumping waste material

caused 8000 to be evacuated. In 1976, a landslips caused tl1e death of one person,
(Aberfan 1966) major landslide led to 22 deaths. The conse­ injuries to eight people, the disruption of the
Aberfan, like many other settlements quence of this was tl,e setting up, in 1977, Kowloon-Guangzhou railv,1ay (Places 106,
in tl1e
South Wales valleys, grew up around it of tl1e Geotech11ical Engi11eering Office page 640) and the closure of a six-lane
s col­
li�ry. However, the valley floors were rare (GEO). GEO's main functions were: highway for several hours. These losses and
ly
wide enougl1 to store tl,e coal waste and so • to investigate slopes for potential risk disrL1ptions were, however, relatively minor,
it becan,e common practice to tip it high and to take preve11tive measures becaL1se the community had learned to
above the towns on the steep valley sides. At • to control geotechnic aspects of new cope better with tl1e landslip hazard. Indeed
Aberfan, the spoil tips were on slopes of 25°, buildings and roads tl1e Hong Kong authorities now collaborate
over 200 m above the town and, unknow­ • to promote slope maintenar1ce with tl,eir counterparts in other cities in Asia
ingly, on a lir'le of springs. Water from these by owners and South America with similar climatic and
springs added weight to the waste heaps, • to L1ndertake landslide warning a11d topographic cl,aracteristics, and where eco­
which reduced their inter11al cohesion. emergency services nomic and social development is creating an
Following a wet October in 1966 and a night • to advise on land-Lise pla11s to minirnise unacceptable level of landslip risk.
of heavy rain, slope failure resulted in the public risk. The success of GEO can be seer1 by
waste material suddenly a11d rapidly moving In 1997, most of Horlg Kong experienced the decrease in the number of deatl1s
downhill. The resultant mudflow, estimated over 300 mm of rain in 24 hours. At the (Figure 2.32).
to contain over 100 000 m 3 of material centre of the storm, 110 mm fell in one
Figure 2.32
l1our and 800 mm in the day. Resultant .........................................................................................................
I

engulfed part of the town which included Number of landslip fatalities in Hong Kong, 1957-2007
tl1e local junior school (Figure 2.30). The time
was just after 0900 l1ours on 21 October, 80

soon after lessons in the school had begun.

Of the 147 deaths in Aberfan that morning, -�
·­
-+-'
60
116 were childre11 and five their teachers. IU
+-'
,r'
Since tl1en, the colliery has closed and, ,. GEO
0 40
set up
as elsewl1ere i11 the former coal-mining Cl.I
.0
valleys, tl1e potentially dangerous waste � 20
tips have been lowered, regraded and land­
scaped to try to prevent a11y occurrence of 0
" " " " " °' °' °' °' °'
..- ..... ..... .-- ..... ..... .- ...- ..... ..... - .-- .-- ....... ....... ..... ....... .--. .-- .....
00 0 N 'q'" \() 00 0 N 'q'" \() 00 0 N 'q'" \() 00 0 N 'q'" \() 00 0 N 'q'" \()
a similar ever1t (Figure 2.31). °' °'
Vl
°' °' °' °' °' °' °' °' °' °' °' °' °' °' °' °' °' °' °'
\() \() \() \() \() 00 00 00 00 00 0
0
N
0
0
N
0
0
N
0
0
N
year
(iii) Urbanisation (Hong Kong
1957to2007) Figure 2.33
........... .,, ............. ,........................
Many parts of the world, especially in Consequences of a landslip ·­
•
'"
economically less developed countries, in Hong Kong
are experiencing rapid urbanisation (page
418). As most of the best sites for residential
development have long since been used, it
means that newcomers to a city are forced
to live on land previously considered unus­
ab le (e.g. flood-prone valleys in Nairobi ' --�-
- Places 58, page 444), or unsafe (e.g. steep - ·� ..... - ��--· --
hillsides in Caracas 1999, and Rio de Janeiro
- Places 57, page 443).
In Hong Kong, landslips have been
resp o n si b le fo r 43 0 d ea th s si n ce 19 57
(Fig u re 2 .3 2 ). M o st la n d sl ip s d u ri n g th is
tim e h av e b ee n at tr ib u te d to tw o fa ct o rs :
u ac ie s o f h ill si d e co n st ru ct io n
the inadeq
e la st 5 0 ye a rs , a n d d e fi ci e n ci e s
works in th
in g sl o p e s o n c e th e y a re u ti lis e d
in maintain
3 ). In 19 6 6 , to rr e n ti al ra in st o rm s
(Figure 2.3
m a ss iv e la n d sl id e s w h ic h k ill e d
triggered
64 people , m a d e 2 5 0 0 h o m e le ss a n d

. . ... . . ' . . . . . . . . ..• • • • • • • • • • •• • • ••• •• •

• • • • • •• • • • • ..................................................... , .......... ............ , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . •••••••
Weathering and slopes . SS
 •

Carso11, M.A. a11d Kirby, N.J. (1972) Trudgi.11, S.T. (1986) Weat/1erir1g arzd Erosion, Slope weathering: . ng ,
ri
se a rc l1 fo r 's lo p e w e a th e
Hills/ope For,n a.rid Process, Ca1nbridge Heine111ann. www..bgrg.org-
University .Press. Jai .http://earth sc i. o rg /F lo o d in g /u n it 3 /
_ U GeowelJ, la11dslides:
Goudie, A.S. (2001) Tl1e Natz1re of t/1e www.georesot1rces.eo.uk/edexunit6.htm u3-02-03 .11 t111l
'Erzviro111r1e11t, WileyBlackwell. re so t1 rc e s. eo .u k /e d e x u n it 6 .h tm
Glossary of related tern1inology: www.geo
Guerra, T. et al (2007) 'Mass moven1e11t in www.scottisl1geology.co111/glossary/
Petropolis, Brazil' i11 Geog·raJJl1y Reviel>v · glossary.l1tn1l
Vol 20 No 4 (Marcl1).

Activities ••••••• o
e • • e e • e e e e e • e e 9 e e O O e e ee O o e e • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 e O O O e e e O O O O O O • • 0 0 0 0 • e • 0 0 e e e • e • e e e O

Figure 2.34
. . ...................... " .......
1000 m
Mass movements
Holbeck Hall Hotel, •
Scarborough �

100 m

I ' �

'"
,•

1 a What is 111eant by the following ter111s?

i slope element (7 mark)
ii mass wasting (2 marks)
• ••
111 scree (2 marks)
iv terracette (2 marks)
b Cl1oose three of the features marked 1 to 5 on Figure
2.34. Describe the appearance of each of the features - .•

you have chosen. (6 marks)

c For each of your chosen features, explain the role of
mass wasting in its formation. (12 marks) 3 Use Case Study 28 (iii) on Hong Kong (page SS) to answer
the following questions.
2 Study Figure 2.35 and answer the following questions.
a Describe the physical features of the hillside shown in
a i Explain the meaning of each of the following slope the photograph. (3 marks)
movement terms:
b Why have people settled on this hillside? (3 marks)
earth flow; mud flo�; slide; rock fall. (6 marks)
c Why is a hillside, such as the one in the photograph, in
ii Name two types of slope movement it is possible danger of rapid mass movement even without human
to see in the photograph. State where they can be activities? (1 marks)
found. (4 marks)
d Give two examples of human activities which· increase
iii Identify two ways in which people have tried to the danger of rapid mass movement on such slopes.
protect slopes in th-is photograph. For each one Explain how they increase the danger. (6 marks)
suggest how it is intended to work. (6 marks)
e The heavy rainfall in 1997 was an extreme climatic event
b Had the slope movement finished when this photograph but it created relatively little damage. Explain one way
was taken? Suggest reasons for your answer. (4 marks) in which authorities such as those in Hong Kong are
c Should cliffs, such as the one in·the photograph, be trying to manage the problems caused by the physical
protected? Give reasons for your answer. (5 marks) environment in which they operate. (6 marks)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . .
56 Wea�hering and slopes
 Exam practice: basic structured questions
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
4 a Define the term 'weathering�
(2 marks) c Choose any one climatic region and identify the type
b Choose one type of mechanical weathe of chemical weathering that will dominate the area.
ring.
i �aking u se of diagrams, explain the proce Explain why this type of chemical weathering will be
_ sses
involved 1n the type of weathering. (4 marks) dominant. (8 marks)
ii Describe the landscape features which result from d Human activity can influence the rate of weathering
the weathering type you have chosen. (4 marks) that occurs in an area. With the aid of specific examples,
explain how human activity influences the rate of
weathering. (7 marks)

Exam practice: structured questions

e e e • • e • • • e e e e e • e e e e e • e e e e e e e e e e e e
• • • • 0 • 0 • • • 0 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • e e• e • e e

5 a i Study Figure 2.36. Match each of the following types 6 a Study the photograph of Holbeck Hall Hotel (Figure 2.35).
of slope movement with one of the labels on the i Draw an annotated diagram or sketch map only
graph numbered 1 to 5: to illustrate the landscape features of the slopes.
earth/mudflow; solifluction; rockfall; slide; soil creep. (8marks)
(5 marks) ii Explain what has happened to these slopes and
ii For any two of tl1e flow movements above, explain suggest why it has occurred. (8marks)
how the process occurs and describe the landform b Making good use of examples, explain how human
shape that results. (10 marks)
activities can increase the stability of some slopes and
b Use examples of two types of rural land use you have studied destabilise other slopes. (9marks)
to explain how people in rural areas try to manage slopes to
reduce the downslope movement of soil. (10 marks) 7 Choose a drainage basin that you have studied.
a Describe and suggest reasons for the
. ·-. - - . . = .. .
--, variation in slope types that exist within the
W.PF•.----, - -

••

Extremely slow
Very
Slow Moderate Rapid
Very
Extremely rapid drainage basin. (10 marks)
slow rapid I b For any one slope, identify and explain
.,-
l changes that are likely to affect the slope in
.

,, 1 cm/year 1 m/ 1 km/ 1 km/ l km/ 25 km/ 10 m/sec

year year month hour hour the future: (8marks)
c · Suggest how human activity can influence
.. 0 ... the rate of change and shape of slopes .
(7 marks)
Figure2.36
... , ............................... ' ...........................................
• ·�· __ J Speed of movement of mass movements

Exam practice: essays

. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •- • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •. •
8 'A range of processes, which differ in contrasting environments, • the interaction of factors within environments to create
affect slope shapes: Discuss this statement with reference to slope_s. (25 marks)
slopes you have studied. In your answer you should refer to:
• the variation of slope elements in different environments 9 With reference to case studies from a range of
environments, explain how an understanding of
• the variation in importance of types of weathering process in natural slope processes can be used in planning urban
different environments developments. (25 marks)

---··----·-. ' . - -·
Formulae for chemical weathering p·rocesses Hydration CaS0 4 + 2H20 -t CaS0 4.2H20
(anhydrite + water � gypsum)
Oxidation 4 FeO + 02 -t 2Fe2 03
Carbonation This process is in two stages:
(ferrous oxide + oxygen -t ferric oxide)
H20 + C0 2 -t H2C0 3
Hydrolosis Fo· rmula varies d,epending on rock type
(water + carbon dioxide -t carbon
· ic acid)
involved. For the hydrolosis of feldspar/
CaC0 3 + H2C0 3 � Ca(HC0 3) 2
granite to kaolin, this is a common
(calcium carbonate + carb0nic
example: •
acid -t calcium bicarbonate)
K2 0; Al20
, 3 , 6Si02 + H20 ""?
A€id·rain 2S0 2 + 0 2 -+ 2M 20 � 2H2S0 4
Al203, 2Si02, 2H20
(sulphur djoxide + oxygen + water -t
(feldspar + water -t kaolin)
we·ak sulphuric atid)

· · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · • • • • •• •••• • ••••••••••••• • • •••••• • • ••••••••••• ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • • • • • • • e t f • • t , , , , , • e • , f e , , f e t t e e , e e e t t , e , e , • , e t • e t 6 • e t • t •• • t 9 I 6 I I j I I I I I I • I I t t I

t I I

Weathering and slopes 57

 •

0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 , 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1A ll the ,·i,ve,-s ,·iitz i11to tl1c sec1; yet· tlze sea is 11ot ft1ll; tt11to Precipitation . .
t71e JJ/nce r,-0,11 ,,vJze1'lce tl1e 1·i11e1·.s co,,ne, tl·zitlze,- tf1ey retz11·11 Tlus forms the major input into the system, thoug h
amou11ts vary over ti1ne and space. As a nil�, tl1e
agai11. 1

greater the intensity of a stor1n, the sl1orter its dt1ra­

Tt1e Bible, Ecclesiastes 1 :7
tion. Convectio11al thunderstonns are short, heavy
A drai11age basin is an area of la11d drai11ed by a and may be confined to sinall areas, wl1ereas the
river and its tribt1taries. Its boundary is marked
•
passi11g of a warm front of a depression (p�ge �31)
by a ridge of higl1 land beyond wl1icl1 a11y pre- will give a lo11ger pe1·iod of. 1nore steady rau1fall
cipitation will drai11 i11to adjace11t basins. Tl1is extending over tl1e entire basin.
boundary is called a wate1·sl1ed.
Evapotranspira:tion
A clrai11age basi11 111ay be described as an open
'
Tl1e two components of evapotranspiration
.syste111 and it forms part of tl1e l1ydrological or
are outputs from tl1e system. Evaporation is
water cycle. If·a drai11�ge basin is viewed as a
the physical process by wl1ich moisture is lost
syste1n (Framevlork 3, page 45) tl1en its
directly into tl1e at1nosphere fron1 wa.ter sur­
characteristics are:
faces, includi11g vegetation a11d tl1e soil, due
a i11puts in the form of precipitation (rain
to the effects of air movement and the sun's
a11d s11ow)
l1eat. Transpiration is a biological process by
a outJJuts wl1ere tl1e water is lost fro111 tl1e
whicl1 water is lost fro1n a plant througl1 the
system eitl1er by the river carrying it to tl1e
minute pores (ston1ata) in its leaves. Evaporation
sea or tl1rough evapotJ·anspiration (the loss
rates are affected by ten1perature, wind speed,
of water directly from the ground, water
ht1midity, l1ours of sunshine a11d otl1er climatic
. surfaces and vegetation).
factors. Transpiration rates depend on the time
Within tl1is syste1n, so111e of the water:
of year, the type and an1.ount of vegetation, the
is stored i11 lakes a11d/or in the soil, or
availability of 1noisture and tl1e length of the
passes through a series of transfers or flows,
growing seasQn. It is also possible to distinguisl1
e.g. i11filtration, percolation, throughflow.
between tl1e potential a.nd tl1e actual evapotra11-
spiratio11 of an area. For example, in deserts tl1ere
Elements of the drainage basin syst,em is a l1igh potential evapotranspiration because
figure3.1 Figt1re 3.1 sl1ows the drainage basin syste111 as it the amou11t of moisture that cou.ld be lost is
The drainage basin as is likely to operate i11 a temperate l1u1nid region greater tl1an the amount of water actually avail­
an-open system st1ch as tl1e British Isles. able. On tl1e other hand, in ·Britain. the amount

inputs \
I
storage I
transp·ir:ation precipitation
I
transfers I
interception
��....,_.____,_
.' ___lI.
• outputs I '

,
throughfall • .. .. •,

'
stemflow

surface storage surface runoff

(overland flow)
• infiltration

vegetation
storage
14----=-�-·,-��- ------1 soil w.ater storage throughflow channel storage i---,.;---..i chan,nel flow
'

variable level
p 'ercolation
(water table)----------�-� ...... -- -.I----,
groundwater i-,..;......... groundwater flow i------�--......
1
stor�ge (baseflow)
 •

of water available for evapotranspiration nearly excess water will flolv over tl1e st1rface, a transfer
always exceeds tl1e amount whicl1 actt1ally takes k11own as su1·face runoff (or, in I-Iorton's term,
P lace, he11ce tl1e tern1 actt1al evapot1·a11spira­ · overla.nd flow) (Figure 3.2).
.
t1on. In other words, tra11spiratio11 is li1nited by
tl1e availability of water i11 tl1e soil. Infiltration
In most e11viron111e11ts, overland flow is rela­
Interception tively rare except in t1rban. areas - whicl1 have
"'
l l1e first raindrops of a rai11fall eve11t will fall imper1neable coverings of tar1nac and concrete
on vegetatio11 wl1ich. sl1elters the underlying - or dL1ri11g exce1Jtio11ally l1eavy stor1ns. Soil
grot111d. This is called interception storage. It is will gradually admit water fro1n tl1e surface, if
greater in a woodland area or where tree crops tl1e supply rate is 1noderate, allowing it slowly
are grow11 than . on grass or arable land. If the pre­ to infiltrate vertically througl1 tl1e pores in tl1e
cipitatio11 is light a11d of short dt1.ration, mucl1 of soil. The maximu111 rate at whicl1 water can
tl1e water may never reach tl1e grot1nd and it may pass througl1 tl1e soil is called its i11filtration
be qt1ickly lost fro111 tl1e syste111 tl1rougl1 eva1Jora­ capacity and is expressed in mm/hr. rfhe ra.te of
tion. Estimates st1ggest tl1at in a woodla11d area infiltratio11 depends L1pon tl1e am.aunt of water
tip to 30 per ce11t of tl1e precipitatio11 111ay be lost already i11 the soil (antecede11t precipitation),
tl1rough i11terceptio11, wl1ich helps to explain the po1·osity (Figure 8.2) and structure of tl1e
why soil erosion is li111ited in forests. According soil, the natt1re of tl1e soil st1rface (e.g. crusted,
to Newson (1975), 'Interceptio11 is a cly11amic cracked, ploughed), and tl1e type, a111ount and
process of filling and e111pt)1i11g a sl1allow store seasonal cha11ges in vegetation cover. So1ne of
(abot1t 2 111111 i11 most UK trees). The e111ptying the water will flow laterally as throughflow.
occurs becat1se evaporatio11 is very efficient for DL1ri11g drier periods, so1ne water may be drawn
small rai11drops l1eld on tree surfaces.' I11 an area up towards tl1e surface 'by capilla1·y action.
of deciduotis trees, both interception. and eva­
Potranspira. tion rates will be higl1er in su1n111er,
Percolation
. As water reaches the un.derlying soil or rock
although the two processes do not occur simul­
layers, wl1ich. tend to be 1nore compact, its
ta11eot1sly.
1Jrog1·ess is slowed. This co11sta.11t ·movement,
If a rainfall eve11t persists, then water begins
called perc.olation, creates groundwater storage.
to reacl1 the ground by three possible routes:
Water eventually collects above an impermeable
dropping off the leaves, or throughfall; flowing
rock layer, or it may fill all pore spaces, creating
down tl1e trunk, or stemflow; and by t1nder­
a zone of saturation. The upper boundary of tl1e
going secondary interception by undergrowtl1.
sat·urated 111aterial, i.e. tl1e upper st1rface of the
Following a war1n, dry spell i11 summer, the
grou11dwater layer, is k11own as the water ta.ble.
grot111d 111ay be hard; at the start of a rainfall
Water may then be slowly transferred laterally as
event water will th.e n lie 011. the st1rface (surface
groundwater flow or baseflow. Except in areas
F.igure 3.2
storage) t1ntil tl1e upper layers become suf­
of Carbonifero·us limestone, groundwater levels
ficie11tly moistened to allow it to soak slowly
Surface runoff t1sually respond slowly to surface storms or short
downwards. If precipitatio11 is very heavy ini­
(overland flow), periods of drought (Figure 3.5). Dt1ring a le11gthy
Blyford, Suffolk tially, or if the soil becomes saturated, then
dry p�riod, some of the grou11dwater store will be
t1tilised as river levels fall. In a subsequent wetter
period, grot1ndwate1· must be replaced before the
level of the river can rise appreciably (Figt1re 3.3).
: water table reaches the surface, it means
If the
that the ground is saturated; excess water will
then forn1 a 1narsh where the land is flat, or will
become su.rface runoff if the ground is sloping.
Channel flow
Although some rain does fall directly into the
cha11nel of a river (channel precipitation), most
water reaches it by a combination of three transfer
processes: surface 1unoff (overland flow), through­
flow, or groundwater flow (baseflow). Once in tl1e
river, as channel storage, water flows towar. ds the
sea an. d is lost from the drai11age basin system:

•1•�··-···········-�···· - ... .. .. . ... . .. . .. . . .. .. . ... . .. . . . . .. . .. . . ... .. . .. . . ... . ... .. . . . . .• .. . .. .. �·. ··��··· ·····-�···············�·······�······-···········--··�···································
� ...

'
' .

Drainage basins and rivers 59

 The water bala11ce I:n. Britain, the a1111ual precipitation nearly
. always, i11 1nost years and in most places, exceeds
rf}liS sho,,vs t}1e State Of equilibriLtlll in the evapotra11spiration. As, therefore, precipitation
drai11age basin between the inputs and out1Juts. input exceeds evapotra11spiration loss, tl1e11 there
It ca11 be ex1Jressed as: is positive water balance (or wa.ter bt1dget).
P = Q + E ± change in storage
However in so1ne years, e.g 1974 ancl 1975, and
where: 1995 a11d 1996, the lo11g, dry st1m1ners, especially
P = precipitatio11 (1neasured. using rai11 gat1ges)
i11 the south and east of the cou11try, resulted
Q = ru11off (1neast1red by discl1arge flumes in in evapotranspiratio11 exceeding precipitation
the river chan11el), a11d to give a te1nporary 11egative wate1· balance.
Figure 3.3
.. . . . . . . . .. . . ...
E = e,,apotranspiration. (Tl1is is far n1ore dif­
. . . ' Changes i11 storage in tl1e water bala11ce reflect
A n1odel illustrating ficL1lt to measL1re - l1ow can yot1 measure tl1e a1nou11t of moistt1re in the soil. The soil
soil moisture budget accurately tra11spiratio11 fro111 a forest?)
moisture budget is, according to Newson, a su·b­
150 150
system of the catchme11t water bala11ce.
evapotranspiration Figure 3.3 is a graph showing the soil moisture
80 111m in excess of

-E 125
precipitation
/
,,- ........
'\ F 125
::,
(t)
bala11ce for an area in south-east .England. During
winter, precipitation exceeds evapotran.spiration
--E
QJ
/ ::,
/ \ 3 creating a soil moisture su11Jlt1s which results
c / \ 0
0 100 I ::,
- 100 ,.... in considerable surface rt1noff and a rise in river
·- :r
\
·-a.
m
......
I
I '< levels. I11 st1m1ner, evapotranspiration exceeds
·-u \ (t)
< 1Jrecipitation and so plants a.n d h1tmans have to
I \ QJ
-0
a. 75 1
precipitatlo11 in excess \ 75
...,....
�
0 utilise water fro1n the soil store leavi11g it depleted
-�
/
1
of evapotranspiration, \
\
QJ
.c
...... I ::, a11d cat1sing river levels to fall. By autu1nn, wl1e11
c but 80 mm needed \ -·
V)

I .. -0
0 50 I for recharging soil \ 50 precipitation again exceeds evapotranspiratio11,
E I \ ,....
-·
0,

,,,QJ -3
c 0 the first of tl1e surplL1s water has to be used. to
::i
E I F ·recl1a1·ge tl1e soil until it reaches its field capacity
--3
25 I \ 25
\
'
/ ·(page 267). At no time in Figure 3.3 was the utilisa­
/ rainfall 625 mm in excess of \
•
/ evapotranspiration tio11 of water sufficient to create a soil moisture •

0 0 deficit (as in Figure 3.4b).

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D
months

D water surplus D recharge

soil moisture --- potential
evapotranspiration
Figure 3.4
. . . . . . . ....
. . .- . . . . . . .. . . ... .
.. . . .. . .

Soil moisture budget for

two towns in the USA
D utilisation
soil moisture -- precipitation -�----� field capacity
attained
moisture totals in •
665 mm m,·11·,me
-- ----- ----- tres
,.-- - ----
- ------
-E 150 -E
-c 125
E
a Salisbury (New York state} 150
125 �
-cE 150 b Dalhart (state of Texas) 150

·-
0 -0 .Q 125 - 125 �
......
g�
+-'
m
......
\)

.� 100 100 ·a. 1008 �

·- I \ 0, QJ ·-u 100
a.
u I \ a ::i Q.I QJ
::i
VI :,
� 75 I \ 75 "Q. 3 �
5 75 �.3
7
·Q.
665 mm 1
1 \
... 0
-�· ::i -a.
�
�o
\. � ::i
...... 50
:c I so O so -·
0 ::r
c \ ::i '<
,-+

'
/ ........... :, -
0 \ 3 _'<
E 25 25 3 25 3
c ,,,
Q)
,..,,,,,.
/
', 3
E J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
As precipitation is above potential evapotranspiration throughout By spring, potential evapotranspiration is greater than precipitation. As
the year then there is, in an average year, neither a water shortage there is no water surplus, then plants have to utilise moisture from the
nor a need. to utilise moisture from the soil. soil. By midsummer, water in the soil has been used up and there is a
water deficit - meaning that plants can only survive if they are either
drought-resistant or if they can obtain water through irrig'ation. When
precipitation does exceed potential evapotranspiration, in winter, the
,. rain is needed to replace (recharge) that taken from the soil earlier in
the year, and amounts are insufficient to give a water surplus.

. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • t • • · · · · · · · · " · · · · ' · · · · · ·
60 Drainage basins and rivers·
•
 runoff:
discharge in cumecs
(m3/sec)
Figure 3.5 so peak flow or
'. . . . . . . . .. .. ··-· ....... . . .... discharge
The storm hydrograph c "'O
·-
'- 0
·4 0 >Q) 0
·-
'- c;::

'"-- falling limb or recession

30 rising limb-­
rainfall
20 peak
lag -r-
so 1� time ---�
.......... approach runoff or
E 40 segment storm flow
-S
- 30 · 10
� 20 raiofa'I ------------------
.s 10 r-�µ�-r�-time of rise-.i baseflow
� o
1200 (day 1) 0000 (day 2) 1200 (day 2) 0000 (day 3)
time (hours)

The storm hydrograph 111ost falls elsewl1ere in the basin and takes ti1ne
to reacl1 the cl1a11nel. However, wl1en tl1e initial
An important aspect of l1ydrology (the study
SLtrface runoff and, later, tl1e tl1rougl1flow even­
of water, p1·ecipitatio11, n1noff and evapo1·a­
tually reach the river there is a rapid increase in
tio11/transpirati(?11 processes) is l10v\' a drainage
discharge as indicated by the 1·ising li1nb. Tl1e
·ba.sin reacts to a period of rain. This is i111porta11t
steeper the rising limb, the faster the response
because it ca11 be t1sed in predicti.11g tl1e flood risk
to rainfall - i.e. water reaches tl1e channel more
and. in maki11g the necessary p r. ecautions to avoid
quickly. '"fl1e peak discharge (peak flow) occurs
da111age to property and Joss of life. The response
when the river reacl1es its highest level. The period
of a river can be studied by usiI1g the stor.111 or
betw�en maximL1m precipitation and peak dis­
flood hyd.1·ograph. The hydrograpl1 is a means
charge is referred to as the lag time. The lag time
of showing tl1e d.ischarge of a river at a given
varies according to conditions within the drainage
poi11.t over a short period of time. Discl1arge is tl1e
basin, e.g. soil and rock type, slope and size of
amou11t of water origi11ating as precipitatio11 which
the basin, drainage density, type a11d a1n.ot1nt of
reaches the cl1a1111el by sL1rface runoff, througl1flow
vegetation a11d water already in storage. Rivers
and baseflow. Discharge is tl1erefore the water n.ot
with a short lag time tend to experience a higher
stored in tl1e drainage basin by interception, as
peak discharge and are more prone to flooding
st1rface storage, soil moisrure storage or grot1nd­
than rivers with a long lag time. The falling
water storage or lost through evapotranspiration
or recession limb is the segn1ent of the graph •
(Figttre 3.1). Tl1e model of a storm hydrograpl1,
where discharge is decreasing and river levels are
l�igure 3.5, sl1.ows how the discharge of a riyer
falling. This seg111ent is ust1ally less steep than the
responds to a11. individual rainfall event.
rising lilnb becat1se throughflow is being released
relatively slowly into the cl1annel. By tl1e ti1n.e all
Measuring discha.rge the water fro1n tl1e storn1 has passed through the
Discharge is the velocity (speed) of the river, cl1annel at a given location, the river will l1ave
1neasured in metres (m) per second, 1nultiplied rett1rned to its baseflow level - unless there has
by tl1e cross-sectional a.rea of the river, meas­ been another storrr1 within the basin. Stormflow
ured in m 2 . This gives tl1e volume in 1n3 /sec or is the discharge, both st1rface a11d subsurface flow,
. :
cumecs. It can be expressed as: attributed to a single storm. Baseflow is very
Q = AxV slow to respond to a storm, but by continually
where: releasi11g groundwater it maintains the river's
Q = discha.rge flow during periods of low precipitation. Indeed,
A = cross-sectional area baseflow is more significa.n t ove:r a longer period
V = velocity. of time than an individ.ual storm and reflects
Interpreting the .hydrograph seasonal changes in precipitation; snowmelt,
Refer to the hydrograph in Figure 3.5. The graph vegetation and evapotranspiration. Finally� on
includes tl1e approacl1 segme·nt ·which sl1ows · the graph, bankfull discharge occurs when.a
the discharge of the river before the stor1n (the river's water level reaches the top of its channel;
antecedent flow rate). Whe11 the stor1n begins, the any further increase in discha.rge will result in
river's response is negligible for although some flooding of the surrounding land. This l1appens,
of the rain does fall directly into the channel, on average, once every year or two.
..... ........ ... . .. ....... . . .. .. . ....... ... ..... . . .. .. .... .. ...... . .. .. . ..... ' ............ . ........ ,-.!••·················· .. • ? • • • •
.. ' . . . .. .. .... . . ..... ..
. . . . . . . ... ....... .... . . ' '
.
. .

Drainage basins and rivers •

61
 Shape It has lo11g been accepted that a cir­
Controls in the drainage basin and on
ct1lar· basin is 111ore likely to l1ave a shorter lag
· the storm hydrograph
time and a higl1er peak flow tl1an an _elongated
In some d.rai11age basins, 1iver discl1arge increases basin (Figure 3.6a and b). All tl1e points on the
very qt1ickly after a. storm arid may give rise to
watershed of the former are approximately equi­
frequent, and occasionally catastrophic, flooding. dista11t from the gauging station, whereas in the
• Followi11g a storm, tl1e levels of such rivers fall
latter it takes longer for water from the extre1ni­
almost.as rapidly and, after dry spells, can become
ties of tl1e basin to reach the gauging station.
very low. Rivers i11 other basi11.s seem. neither to
riowever, Newson (1994) has pointed out that
flood 11.or to fall to very low levels. Tl1ere are several
stt1dies 111ade in many regio11s of the world have
. factors whicl1 contribL1te to regL1lating the ways in
sl1own tha.t basi11 sl1ape is less reliable as a flood
wluch a river responds to precitJitatio11.
indicator tl1an basin size and slope.
1 Basin si�e, shape andrelief Relief Tl1e slope of the basin and its valley
Size If a basin is small it is likely tl1at rainfall will sides also affect the hyclrograph. In steep-sided
'
reacl1 tl1e rnain cha1mel 111ore rapidly tl1an in a upland valleys, water is likely to reach tl1e river
larger basi11 where the water has 1nuch furtl1er to n1ore qL1ickly than i11 gently sloping lowland
travel. Lag ti111e will therefore be sl1orter in the areas (Figure 3.6c).
smaller basin.

a two basins, -----' •A b storm hydrographs for

A and B, gauging stations three drainage basins of
with widely •B differing shapes
Basin X Basin Y Basin Z
differing
shapes 1 hour time for discharge to
--- -- I --,\ reach gauging station
1,

• • •
Basin A
. --- ---
x y z
--- --- Basin B
------- --....
. ,
-- - -· watershed _ -- - _.,,.... '
'

/ --..............---. .-- ' ',_,

::::..-

2 hours
,-- -.__.. ,,. -­
c basin relief and
associated storm
hydrographs showing long profile long profile
-- - ....
/

the relationship
1 hour
• • • 1 hour
2 hours between the long
profile and the storm
A B hydrograph
•

Figure3.6
.. ... . .. . ..... ,. . . . . . . .. ... ............ . 2 Types ofprecipitation 3 Temperature
Drainage basin shape Prolonged_ rai11fall Flooding most frequently Extremes of temperature can restrict infil.tra­
occurs followi11g a long period of hea.vy rainfall '•
tion (very cold i11 winter, very hot and dry in
when the ground l1as become saturated and SL1m1ner) and so increase st1rface ru.noff. If evapo­
infiltration has been replaced by surface 1·L1noff transpiration rates are l1igh, then there will be
(overland. . flow). less water available to flow into the 1nai11 river.
Inte11se storms (e.g. convectional thLtnder­
4 Landuse
storms) When heavy rain occt1rs, the rainfall
Vegetation Vegetation may l1elp to prevent
i11tensity may be greater than tl1e i11filtration
flooding by intercepting rainfall (storing mois­
• capacity of the soil (e.g. in summer in Britain,
ture on its leaves before it evaporates back into
when the ground may be harder). l�he resulting
the atmosphere - page 59). Estimates suggest that
surface rt1noff is likely to produce a rapid rise i11
tropical ·rainforests intercept ·up to 80 per cent of
river levels (flash floods) - Boscastle, Cor11wall,
rainfall (30 per cent of whicl1 ri1ay later evapo­
Places 12, page 80.
Snowfall Heavy snowfall means that wa.ter rate) whereas arable la:nd rnay intercept only
lO·per cent. Interception is less during the winter
is held in surface storage and river levels drop.
in Britain when deciduous trees have shed their
When temperatures rise rapidly (in Britain, this
may be with the passage o.f a warm front and its leaves a!}d crops have been harvested to expose
associated. rainfall, page 231), meltwater soo11 bare earth. Plant roots, especially tl1ose of trees,
reaches the main river. It is possible that the reduce throughflow by taking up water fro.m
the soil.
ground will remain frozen for some time, in
•
w·hich Gase infiltra.tion will be impeded. ' •
•
•
• • •
•
• • •

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .. . . t • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • " • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
.. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
•

62 Drainage basins and rivers

•
 100 '\---- R. Wye flowing over
moorland
'
delayed, less high, (witl1 friction reduced) the wa.ter flows away
/
<peak flow 111ore quickly, or ct1lverted, which allows only a
� 66

-
I
!'I")
I , R. Severn flowing lirn.ited a1nou11t of wa.ter to pass tl1rough at one
I ' , through coniferous
<lJ
,forest ti111e (Figure 3.8).
'
0\
Figure 3.7 "'
.c
I
.. ' ........................ ' ............
·-� 33 I
I 5 Rock type (geology)
The effect of /
vegetation on the /
less rapid falling
Rocks tl1at allow water to pass through them are
/
storm hydrographs :.,-
/ limb due to less said to be per111eable. There are two types of 1Jer-
rapid runoff
of the Rivers Wye and 0-r-----------.-----�------------:::::__, 1neable rock:
Severn (geology and 0 10 20 30 Cl Porous, e.g. sandstone ancl chalk, wl1ich
precipitation are the hours from beginning of storm contai11 11u111erous pores able to fi.11 with an
. d
same in both basins)
store water (Figure 8.2).
l�looding is 1nore likely to occL1r in deforested a Pe1·vious, e.g. Carboniferot1s li111estone, which
areas, e.g. tl1e i11creasi11gly frequent and serious allow water to flow· along beddi11g planes a11d
flooding in Ba11gladesl1 is att:rilJuted to the down joi11ts withi11 the rock, altl1ot1gl1 the
removal of trees in Nepal a11d other I--:Ii1nalaya11 rock itself is i.111pervious (Figl1re 8.1).
areas. In areas of afforestatio11, floodi11g 111ay As both types IJermit ra1Jid i11filtration, there is
i11itially i11crease as tl1e la11d is cleared of old little surface runoff and only a li111ited nu1nber
vegetation a11d drained, bLtt later decrease as of surface strea.ms. I11 contrast impermeable
the planted trees mature. Newso11 (1994) points 1·ocks, sucl1 as granite, do not allow water to
Ollt that, after 20 years of data collecting, the evi­ pass tl1rough tl1em. and so tl1ey are characterised
de11ce suggests tl1at tl1e canopy l1as more effect by more surface runoff and a greater number of
011 1nedit1m flows than 011 higl1 flows, streams.
as tl1e main ditc11es re1nai11 active. 6 St;,il type
Figt1re 3. 7 contrasts the stor111 hydrograpl1s Tl1is controls tl1e rate and volu1ne of infiltration,
of two rivers. Although they rise very close tl1e a.mount of soil moish1re storage and t11e rate
together, tl1e River Wye flows over 1noors a11d of throught1ow (page 265). Sandy soils, witl1 large
grassla11d, wl1ereas the River Severn flows pore spaces, allow rapid infiltration and do not
tl1rot1gh an area of coniferous forest.: e11courage flooding. Clays have much smaller
U1·banisation Urbanisation l1as increased pore spaces and they are less well connected;
flood risk. Water can11ot infiltrate through this reduces i11filtration and throughflow, but
tarmac and concrete, and gutters a11d drains encourages st1rface runoff and increases the risk of
carry wa.ter 1nore quickly to the nearest river. flooding.
Small strea1ns may be either canalised so that
7 Drainage density
Figure 3.8 This refers to the nu111ber of surface streams in
.. . . . .. . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .....
t
An urban river a given area (page 6 7). --rhe densi y is higher on
impermeable rocks and clays, a11d lower on per­
- -" '

meable rocks and sands. Tl1e higher the density,

·,
' l. the greater is tl1e probability of flash floods. A
l � flash flood is a sudden rise of wa te·r in a river,
• , sl1own on the hydrogra1)h as a shorter lag time
'
- J. �
and a higher peak flow in relation to normal dis­
;

''
1

charge.
8 Tides and storm surges
High spring tides tend to preve11t river floodwater
from escapi11g into the sea. Floodwater therefore
builds tip in the lower part of the valley. If high
tides coincide with gale-force winds blowing
011shore and a narrowing estuary, the rest1lt may
be a storm surge (Places 19, pag. e 148). This hap­
pened in south-east England.and in the Nether­
lands in 1953 and pr9mpted the construction of
the Thames Barrier and the implementation of the
Dutch Delta Plan.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • ••
· ··· ·· ········· ······· ···• •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•• • • •• • • • • •• • •• •

Drainage basins and rivers 63

 •

River regimes are few rivers flowing today tinder wl1olly natural
' conditions, especially in Britain. Most
The regi1ne of a river is the ter111 used to describe are managed, reg11lated systems wl1ich result
'
the an�1ual variation in discharge. l�l1e av. erage fro1n human activity, e.g. reservoirs and flood pro-
regi1ne, whicl1 can be shown by eitl1er the 111ean
tectio11 schemes.
daily or tl1e 1nean 111011tl1ly figures, is determined
Regimes of rivers, which are used to demon-
pri1narily by the clirnate of the area, e.g. the
strate seasonal va.riations, may be either simple,
a1nou11t and distributio11 of rainfall, together
with one peak period of flow, or co1nplex with
with tl1e rates of evapotranspi_ration and snow-
several peaks (Places 9).
1nelt. Local geology may also be sig11ifica11t. Tl1ere

River Don, Yorkshire and River Torridge, 0evon:

river discharge
Figure 3.9 shows the rainfall and runoff figures the source of the river is in an upland area liable to
for the River Don (South Yorkshire) for one year. heavy winter snowfalls - in this case, the Pennines.
Discharge is usually at its highest in winter when It is possible for runoff to exceed precipitation, e.g.
Figure 3.9
.' ... , .. ,. . . ······· .. . ··- . Britain receives most of its depressions and when when heavy snowfall at the end of a month melts
Rainfall and runoff evapotranspiration is limited due to the low during a milder, drier period at the beginning of the
for the River Don, temperatures. Early spring may also show a peak if next month. In contrast, river levels are lowest in
Yorkshire
summer when most of Britain receives less rainfall
and when evapotranspiration rates are at their
200
D total rainfall (P) = 841 mm highest. There is often a correlation, or relationship,
175 D t�tal surface runoff between the two variables of rainfall and runoff.
- 150 (Q) = 280 mm
This relationship can be shown by means of a
scattergraph (Framework 19, page 612). Rainfall is
5 125
c plotted along the base (the x axis) because it is the
0
·.::; 100 independent variable, i.e. it does not depend on the
·.....
!ti
-
·c; 75 amount of runoff. Runoff is plotted on the vertical
or y axis because it is the dependent variable, i.e .
Q)
0.
so runoff does depend upon the amount of rainfall.
25
The Environment Agency (EA) also produces
o-1..�....L�...L.:."---'-Jl..22..!....:..l!___J1£........:�__;_........L�--L�.....L.-'-"--"1-�...k.J� hydrographs covering longer periods of time than
O N D J F M A M J J A S • for a single storm (Figure 3.5) but with far greater,
and more useful, data than that given for the annual
260
-- river flow regime of a river (Figure 3.9).
240
� precipitation at Figure 3.1O gives rainfall and discharge for a wet
220 � Okehampton
•
month in late 1992 for the RiverTorridge in Devon .
-� 180
200
It shows that:

E 160 40
::, • a as most of the peak discharges occur within a
35
� 140 day of peak rainfall then the river must respond
�
30
'""
E 120 quickly to rainfall and, therefore, is likely to pose
c 100 25 E
·- a flood risk
0 80 20=
c.:: the highest discharge (on the 30th) came after
15 .£: b
6.0
several very wet days during which river levels
40 10
had no time to drop, rather than after a very wet
I 20 5
day (the 17th) which followed a relatively dry
o- 0
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27:28 2930 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 0910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 spell of weather.
day

Figure 3.10
. . . ...... ................... ·� ......... .
'

Hydrograph for the

River Torridge at
'
Torrington, Devon,
late 1992
. . . . . . .. . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <t • • • • • • • • • t, • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·- · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · ·
64 Drainage basins and rivers
•

'
 Morphometry of drainage basins If tl1e 11um.ber of segments in a strea111 order
•
is plotted 011 a se111i-log gr�ph agai11st the strea1n
Morpho1netry means 'the 1neasL1re1ne11t of order, tl1en tl1e resultant best-fit line will be
•
shape or for111'. Tl1e develop111e11t of 111orpho­ straight (Figure3.12a). O� a semi-log graph, the
n1etric tecl1niques was a major adva11ce i11 the vertica l scale,
. sl10,,ving tl1e dependent variable
.
qt1antitative (as opposecl to the qualitative) (Framework 19, page �12)� is divided into cycles,
descriptio11
. of drainage basins
. (Frameworl, 4). each of wl1ich begin.s and ends.ten ti1nes greater
I11stead of studies bei11g purely subjective, it than tl1e preyious cycle, e.g. a ra11ge of 1 to 10, 10
became possible to co1111Jare a11d co11trast dif­ to 100, 100 to 1000, and so on. (If tl1e horizontal
fere11t basi11s witl1 precision . Mucl1 of tl1e early scale, showing the independent variable, had
vvork i11 this field was by R.E. I-Iorton. 111 the mid- also been dividecl into cycles instead of l1aving
1.940s l1e devised tl1e 'Laws of drainage composi­ an arithmetic scale, tl1en Figt1re3.12 wot1ld l1ave
tion' wl1icl1 establisl1ed a l1ierarcl1y of streams bee11 referred to as a log-log grapl1 (Figure 18.25).)
ra11ked according to 'order'. One of these laws, · Logarithmic graphs are valuable when:
the law of stream numbe1·, states tl1at witl1in a o the rate of cl1an.ge is of 111ore i11terest tha11 the
drainage basin a constant geo111etric relatio11sh.ip amount bf cl1ange: the steeper tl1e li11e the
exists between strea1n order a11d stream 11u1nber greater the rate of cha11ge
(I�igure3.12a). a tl1ere is a greater range i11 the data than there
Figure3.11 shows how one of Horton's suc­ is space to express on an aritl11neti� scale (a
cessors, A.N. Stra.hler, define. d streams of differe11t log scale co1npresses values)
order. All tl1e initial, u11brancl1ed source tribu­ c there are co11siderably 1nore cta. .ta at· 011e end
taries he called first order strea.ms. w·ben tvvo of the range than the 0th.er.
first order streams join they form a second 01�der; Figure3.12a shows a perfect negative correla­
wl1en two second. order strea.ms 1nerge tl1ey form tion (Figure 21.14): as tl1e independe11t va r. iable
a thi1·d order; and so 011. Notice that it needs two (i11 this case the stream ord.er) i11creases, the11
strea111 seg1nents of equal order to join to produce tl1e dependent variable (the nu111ber of streams)
a segn1ent of a higher order, while the order decreases. Stt1dies of stream orderi11g for most.
re111ains t1nchanged if a lower order segme11t joins rivers in the world produce a si111ilar straight­
a higher order segment. For example, a second line relationship. For any exceptions to Horton's
ord.er plt1s a second order gives a third order but law of stream qrdering, further studies can be
if a second order stream joins a third order, the made to determine wl1ich local factors alter the
resultant stream re111ai11s as a third order. A basin relationship. Relationships also exist.between
may therefore be described in tern1s of the highest stream order and the mean le11gth of strea111s
!
order stream within it, e.g. a 'third order basin or a (Figure3. l 2b), and stream order and mean
'fourtl1 order basin'. drainage basi1) area (Figure3.12c).

3 1
2 2
I
I
1 watersheds
1 1 1
•
1
1 2 first order
1
1 2 1 streams
2
1 1 · second order
• streams
'1 ' 1
third order
1
1 streams
2 fourth order
streams
-- I
�

1
- ' '

2
0 2km :

sea •

Figure 3.11
·················· ·· ··�·· ....... .
Strahler's method of
stream ordering

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. � �

Drainage basins and rivers 65

 • ·- �--�-�..._.-,__..__�..-----4,, ........... >----�-- .... ---· -------��-----..-----,..-...

Figure 3.12
............................. ' ........... , .
100 100 co 100 c area of drainage/
•
•, a the number b stream length
Relationships so ..... so ro
Q)

so basin
. ' of streams
'\. 0/
between stream order E
·co -
O
O'l
c ·-c

.,
and other variables Q) 11'1 -Q) co
.0
� E 10 E- 10 wr7' 10
f'CI E
- Q)
OIE
o E S "- - 5 5
;·
Q)
co �
"- O'l ..... � •
·- c .._.,
"-
Q) Q)
.0 11'1 c
E-
::::, 1 • Q)
E 1 c
f'CI 1 ;·
0.5 0.5 Q)
0.5 e
0.3 -l-----.---r----,---,----, 0.3 4-----.---r----,---,----, 0.3 ...J_____;---,----,r---.--,
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 O 1 2 3 4 5
stream order stream order stream order

Comparing drainage basins (nL1mber of fir st

Nl _ e a=m
-�or�·d:::.::e'..!..r �str:::.:.=.:. �s) = 2 6 = 4. 33
I-Iorton's work has 1nad e it po ssibl e to con1pare dif­ '-----:-
N2 - (11u1nber of second 6
f e rent drai11age basins scientifically ( quantitatively) order stre ams)
ratl1er tl1a11 relying 011 subjective (qt1ali tative)
(nt1mber of second
descriptions by i11dividuals. It also allows stt1di es
N2 _ -�or��d� e 1�·�st�r=ea=1=n=s�)� = 6
= 3.00
of drainage basin morpl101netry in differen.t parts
N3 - (nu1nber of third 2
of tJ1e world to use tl1e sa111e sta11dard s, meas ure- ord er str eams)
1ne11ts and 'la11guage'. (nu111be r of third
Figt1re 3.13 sl1ow s two imagi11ary and adja­ N3 _ �o� r�d�e�1�· s�t�r=ea=1=n=s�)� = 2 = 2.00
c e11t ba si11s . These ca11 be con1parecl in sev eral N4 - (nu1nber of fourth 1
diff erent way s, including: order strea ms)
II the bift1rcation ratio, a11d
m drainage de11 sity.. and tl1e11 finding tl1 e 1nean of all tl1 e r atios in tl1 e
.basin be ing s tt1died, i. e.
The bifurcation ratio
bifurcation
Thi s is t11e relatio11.ship between tl1 e nu1nber of 4. 33 + 3.00 + 2. 00 = 3 .11 = r atio for
st1· ea1ns of 01,·e ord er a11d those of tl1e next highest 3
ba sin A
orcler. It is obtained by dividing the nt1mber of
s treams in one ord er by the 11t1rnber in the next
The hL1man significa11ce of the bift1rca t io11
highest order, e.g. for basin A in Figure 3.13: ratio i s tl1at as t he ratio i s redt1ced so t11e ri s k of
• Figure 3.13 flooding within tl1e ba sin i11cr ea ses . It al so indi­
.- . .. . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . . . .. . ...... , ..... cates the flood risk for part s, rath er t11an all, of
A comparison between
two adjacent drainage
the basin. l\1o st Briti sh riv e rs l1ave a bifu rcatio11
basins on clays and r atio of b etw een 3 and 5.

sands

- • • I'

. .
I•
___. --- ·-J.-. - -
-- .........
II ,,.. "-- ]/ 1 ..... , ' clays . sar ds
�/ 1 /2 1 , ,__
•
II drainage ·
/ v · ..... ,,
I' L__J basin A ,_ / \ y -
1 \ / -"� 1 '/ V, .
" � II 2 / basir I A ' �. )
.
, , •

- .
' ..
I •'
,, • ., •
gaugtng
v lY -, .,
'

• ••
stations at end I'
I• j1\ .J
, • \

( if
I'
; . ..• ,.. _1:;· . of each basin - -- - 3.-< 1� . J' ,.. J /; ,. \\ I
. ' I

vv
'
/ 21'< �
•• I\\
I•
- - - - w,aterstied l -
I. ' -.r·•·- -
• •• 4 1 ,/ .
'.
, . ,, . \
11

• ,, • "·
-.. -
t
9L----1
'

1
km .
•, I• II I' H
I� II
.... .�
. . . ,-
if" .. . , '

��t
•
j'. • .•

II __.
,•,.' I'
' �I�'.-- .·
.
- .. ..
IV .
&

• • - II I •
L
·.

--
,. .
-
. •
:€� ., =
I '

11II
�
I I
i.o..l . I I•

'...... . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. • • • • ••• ••• • • •

• • • • • • .• • • • • •••••• • • • ••• • • • • • • •••• • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • ••••••••••••• • • • ••••••••• •
•• • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •
• ••• • • • • • ••• • • • • • ••
• •
•

66 Dr.ainage basins and rivers

 --------•� ·-•-• �·-�·----� 4+,..._.Jio__
._.._
... ......
, -•
_,._,.,�. --���--.,....-,.._=-• �-�,.-'#i.-•-e��'-'-"' """-"' �II r�otd� �")uU,·
•�, ,. 11,......,... tee �t-..':S o>rmt,c ,w ,:s«J••M-t O x-:e t bnrrl mr,:i,qt�• e l ti

Drainage density In Figure 3.13 with two adjacent drai11age

Tl1is is calct1lated by 1neasL1ring the total le11gth of basins of approximately equal size, shape a11d
all t11e strean1s vvithi11 tl1e basin (L) a11d dividing probably 1:ai11fall, the difference in. drainage
by the area of the whole basi11 (fl). It is tl1erefore de11sity is likely to be due to basin A being on
tl1e average length of stream vvitl1in each u11it clays and basi11. B on sa11ds.
area. For basi11 A in Figure 3.13, this will be: b Land 11se Tl1e dral.nage density, especially of
1:.. = 22·65 = 1.81 k1n per m 2 first order streams, is muct1 greater in areas
k with little vegetation cover. The density
A 12.50
In Britai11 111ost drainage dens. ities lie betwee11 decreases, as does the nt1mber of first order
2 a11d 4 kn1 per km 2 but tl1is varies consider­ streams, if tl1e area becomes afforested.
ably according to local co11ditio11s. A 11u1nber of Deserts te11d to l1ave the l1ighest densities of
factors i11fl11ence drainage density. It tends to be first order cha11nels, eve11 if the channels are
highest in areas where tl1e la11d surface is im_per­ dry for n1ost of the time.
meable, where slopes are steep, where,rainfall_ c '"fime As a. river patter11 develops over a
is l1eavy and prolonged, and where vegetation period of time, the number of tributaries will
cover is lacki11g. decrease, as will the drain.age density.
a Geology and soils 011 very permeable rocks d Precipitatio11. Densities are usually highest
or soils (e.g. chalk, san in ateas where rai11fall totals and i11tensity are
. ds) drai11age de11sities
1nay be under 1 km per l<m 2 , whereas this also l1igl1.
increases to over 5 km per km2 011. higl1Jy e Relief Density is usually greater on steeper
imper1neable surfaces (e.g. granite, clays). slopes than on more ge11tle slopes.
•

. . . .

. �uantitative te�Gfjn·iques and st�tistical me.tlflods

ofi data interpretation .,
C=:r •••• -,;a e

As geography adjusted to a more scientific 2 Correlation and regression (Framework

approach in the 1960s, a series of statistical 19, page 612) This not only shows possible
techniques were adopted which could be used relationships between two variables but
to quantify field data and add objectivity to the quantifies or measures the stre.ngth of those
testing of hypotheses and theories. This period is relationships.
often referred to as the 'Quantitative Revolution� 3 Spatial distributions (Framework 19, page
At first it seemed to many, the author included, that 612) Not only may this approach be used to
mathematics had taken over the subject, but it is identify patterns, but it may also demonstrate
now accepted that these techniques are a useful aid how likely it is that the resultant distributions
provided they are not seen as an end in themselves. occurred by chance . •

They provide a tool which, if carefully handled and When these new t_echniques first appeared in
understood, gives greater precision to arguments, schools in the 1970s, they appeared extremely
helps in the identification of patterns and may daunting·until it was realised that often the
contribute to the discovery of relations.hips and difficulty of the worked examples detracted from
possible e::ause-effect links. In short, by providing the usefulness of the technique itself. Where such
greater accuracy in handling data they reduce the techniques appear in this book, the mathematics ',

reliance upon subjective conclusions. have be·en simplified to show more clearly_how
,•
methods may be used and to what effect. With the
It is essential to select the most appropriate
wider availability of calculators and computers
techniques for the data and for the job in hand.
it has become easier to take advantage of more
Therefore some understanding of the statistical
complex calculations to test geographical
methods involved is important.
hypotheses (Framework 10, page 299). Much of the
Statistical methods may be profitably employed in 'number crunching' has now been removed by the
these areas. increasing availability of statistical packages for
computers.
1 Sampling (Framework 6, page 159) · Rapid
'
collection of the data is made possible. •

'

• • • • ••• • • • • •• ••• • • • • • • • • • •••• • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . ' . ' .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Drainage bpsins and rivers 67
.- --
r-

- I

-· -..
-- '
•

-
•
l1orizo11taJ 111ovement of v\'a.ter so rarely experi­
.--
••

..• - -
• • . -.
�
e11ced in rivers that it is ust1ally discoL1nted. Such
-· .
a form of flow, if it existed, wotild travel over
sedime11t o11 th.e river bed witl1out distl1rbing
it. TL1rbL1lent flo\i\', tl1e do1ninant inechanism,
consists of a series of erratic ecldies, botl1 ver-
tical ar1d J1orizontal, in a dow11stream direction
(l::igures 3.14 and 3. lSb). TLtrbulence varies witl1
tl1e velocity of tl1e river whicl1, in tu.rn, depends
upo11 the a1nou11t of energy available after fric­
tio11 has bee11 overco111e. It is estiinated that l1ncler
'nor1nal' conclitio11s about 95 per cent of a river's
e11ergy is expended in order to overco111e frictio11.
Influence of velocity on turbulence
If th.e velocity is l1igh, the a111ou11t of e11ergy
IJ
still available after frictio11 has bee11 overcorne
Figure3.14 will be greater and so turbulence increases.
.... .... ..... ...... .. ..
River form and velocity
,,

Tl1is restilts .i11 sedi1.ne11.t on tl1e bed bei11g

'

Turbulence in a river:
the confluence of distLtrbed anci carried clownstrean1. --r11e faster
the Rio An1azon (red A river \vill try to adopt a cl1an11eJ sl1ape that best tl1e flow of tl1e river, the larger the ql1a11tity
with silt from the fulfils its two 111ain f·u11ctio11s: transporting water a11d size of particles whicl1 can be tra11s­
Andes) and the Rio a11d sedi111ent. It is in1porta11t to ltnderstand tl1e ported. The trans·portecl 1naterial is referred to
Negro (black with sig11ificance of cl1a1111el sl1a1Je in order to identify
plant acids) as tl1e river's load.
tl1e co11trols 011. tl1e flow of a river. D Wl1en tl1e velocity is low, tl1ere is less energy to
overcome friction. Turbulen.ce decreases and
Types of flow 1nay 11ot be visible to tl1e l1L1man eye. Sedi111e11t
As water flows dow11hill u11der gravity, it seeks 011 the river bed re111ains t1ndisturbed. Indeed,
tl1e 1Jath. of least resistance - i.e: a river-possesses as tL1rbulence mai11tains the transport of tl1e
pote11tial ene.rgy a11d follows a rotite that will load, a reduction in. turbulence 111ay lead to
i:naxi111ise tl1e rate of flow (velocity) a11d 111i11imise deposition of sedi1nent.
I
the loss of t�;iis e11ergy caL1sed by friction. Most The velocity of a river is i11fluenced by three
friction occL1rs along the ba11k. s and bed of tl1e main factors:
river,. but the internal friction of the water and a.ir 1 channel shape in cross-section
I
•

Figure 3.15 resistance 011 tl1e surface are also significant. 2 rougl1ness of the cl1annel's bed. and
....... ' ' .... ·····
Tl1ere are two patterns of flow, laminar and banks, and
. Types of flow in a river
turbule11t. Laminar flow (Figure·3.15a) is a 3 cha11nel slope .
•
.. ,
a laminar flow
• •

•
b turbulent flow
horizontal eddies
'

'
•

;
'
vertical �--
dddies eddies n,ay
' produceiminor
upstream /
---- whirlpodls on
the surfa,ce
I

downstream "·

upstream

downstream

.. . .. . . . .. . . .... ... . . . . .. . . . ... ..... . . . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . . . . . .. . .. ... . .. . . . . . . . .... . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ...... .. .. ........ . .... . . .... " ........................ .
68 Drainage basins and rivers
 --�··
__..._
,.. ___ ..
--.,..,.tN,.... -- ..."'"*--..,,,,-• -=--•-•----�---·�---

Stream A
•
I
' I
I
I
cross-section area I .•
) de1Jt'J1 of tl1e channel. Tl1e wettecl 1Jeri111eter
is tl1e total le11gtl1 of tl1e bed and bank sid. es in
I
,1
slm =40m2 I Sm contact witl1 tl1e water in tl1e cl1a1111el. Fig·ure 3.16
I
----- wetted perimeter I
(_,,,__�_,......
I
___ _....,. _.
shovvs two ch.annels with tl1e same cross-secti.011
I. ·' Bm area bt1t witl1 clifferent sha1Jes a11d l1ydraulic radii.
Strearn A has a larger l1ydrat1lic radius,
n1ea11i11g that it has a s111aller a111ot1nt of water
in its cross-sectio11 i11 con.tact witl1 tJ1e wetted
perimeter.· This creates less. frictio11 v\7 hicl1 in tt1r11
redt1ces energy loss a11d allows greater velocity.
Strea1n A is said to be the 111ore efficient of tl1e
two rivers.
Strea111 B l1as a smaller l1yclrat1lic radius,
Wetted perimeter Hydraulic radius meani11g tl1at a larger amount of water is in
40 co11tact with tl1e wetted perin1eter. Tl1is results
Stream A: 5 + 5 + 8 = 18 m Stream A:
18
= 2.22 m
i11 greater friction, 111ore· energy loss and reduced
Stream B: 2 + 2 + 20 = 24m
40
Stream B: 24 = 1.66 m ,,elocity. Strea111 B is less efficient than stream A.
The shape of the cross-sectio11 co11trols
the poi11t of maxi1num velocity in a river's
Figure 3.16 1 Channel shape cl1annel. The point of maxi111um velocity is dif­
The wetted perimeter, 'I�l1is is 'best described by the term l1ydrat1lic ferent i11 a river with a straight course wl1ere
hydraulic radius and 1·adit1s, i.e. tl1e ratio between tl1e area of tl1e the cha1111el is lil<ely to be approximately sy1n-
efficiency of two different­ cross-sectio11 of a river channel and tl1e. le11gtl1
shaped channels with m
. etrical (Figt1re 3. l 7a) compared witl1 a 1nean­
equal area of its ,,vetted peri111eter. The cross-sectio11 area is dering chan11el where tl1e sl1ape is asymmetrical
obtained by 1neast1ri11g the widtl1 and the mean. (Figure 3. l 7b).
a symmetrical channel: velocities in a straight stretch of river
greatest velocity is where friction less fast on surface due
is least, i.e. away from banks, bed to air (wind) resistance
and air
f

0.40

0.30
0.20
-----
------ 0.1 o--

slowest flow resulting from ._______ speed (mis)

friction caused by contact
with bed and banks

b asymmetrical channel: velocities in a typically meandering river

greatest velocity away from
banks, bed and the air

0.20
\
0.10
J
Figure 3.18
..... , . . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . , · · · · · · · · · · · · · .. .. .. . . . . . . . , . .. . . , ... ····· ..
Tiger Leaping Gorge on the River Yangtze, China.
speed (m/s) This gorge has been suggested as a site for a
future hydro-electric power station. It is nearly
1500 km upstream from the Three Gorges Dam

slower flow resulting from friction

Figure 3.17
. . .. .. . ... .
.... .. .. ;
. . . . .
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
. .. . .

Cross-sections of a symmetrical and an asymmetrical stream channel

. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . •. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . " • • • • • • • • • • • 'f' •

•
Drainage basins and rivers 69
 -

.
2 Roughness of channel bed and banks wl1ere:
A river flowi11g between banks co111posed of coarse v = mean velocity of flow
.
material vvitl1 nt11nerot1s protrusions a11d over a R = - hydrat1lic radius
bed of large, angular rocks (FigL1re 3.18) meets witl1 S = cl1a11nel slope
1nore resistance tl1a11 a river witl1 cohesive clays n = boundary roughn ess.
•
and silts forming its bed and banks . "fhe for1nula gives.a ttseful approxi1nation: th e
Figure 3.19 shows why the velocity of a moun­ l1igher tl1e value, the rougher tl1e bed an d banks.
tain strea1n is less tl1a11 that of a lovvla11d river. As For exa1nple:
bank and bed roughness in.crease, so does tt1rbt1-
lence. Tl1erefore a mountain strea1n is likely to
pick tip loose 1naterial and carry it downstream.
Uniform 0.02 0.03 0.05
Ilot1gl1n.ess is difficult to 1neasure, but
Man11ing, a11 engineer, calct1lated a roughness Undulating 0.05 0.06 0.07
coefficient by whicl1 l1e interrelated the tl1ree
Highly irregular 0.08 0.09 0.10
factors affecti11g tl1e velocity of a river. 111 his
for1nula, k11own as 'Manning's N': Figure 3.19
...................................................
R o.67 50.s
v = r1
Why a river increases in
velocity towards its mouth
•

a mountainous or upper b lowland or lower

course of the river course of the river
Despite waterfalls wl1ere the velocity is locally high, As there is little resistance from the smooth bed and
the large number of angular rocks, coarse-grained banks, there is little friction and the river flows faster
banks and protrusions increase friction and reduce
the overall velocity
14----- 5 m-----....i �-------SOm-------
•

rock ��d�
protrusion

angular
boulders on cohesive silts small, rounded
river bed and clays bedload
(not to scale)
- •

Figure 3.20
············-···························'·····
The characteristic long
I source l The uRper: pc!(t of the r:i�er has most
profile of a rive'r turbulence •
•
' roughness
I
bedload in comparison to discharge
friction
•

' Jhe lower part of the tiver has

greatest discharge
concave profile greatest velocity
highest average hydraulic radius
• greatest cross-sectional area
• •
\ •

I mouth ·1 I

•
3 Channel slope be lost through fr�ction and the erosive power
As more tributaries and water from surface of bedload material will decrease. As a result,
r11noff, throughflow an·d groundwater flow the river flows over a gradually qecreasi11g gra­
join the main river, the discharge, the channel dient - the characteristic concave long profile
- cross-section area and the hydraulic radius will (thalweg) as shown in Fig11re 3.20.
all increase. At the same time, less energy will •

.... .......... ' ...... . . . . ... . .... . ............ . ..... . .. . ... . . ............... . .. ...... .. ... .. ......... ' ....... .. . ...... . . . .. .. .. ..................................
............. · · · · · · ·
70 Drainage basins and rivers
-------�--···· -· · ·

'

'
In su1n111arising this sectio11 it should be tl1e extra friction is lil,ely to cause deposition 011
n
. oted that: tl1e floodplai_n. A river at bankfull stage ca11 111ove
a a river in a deep, broad cl1an11el, often with a large quantities of soil and rock - its load - along
ge11tle gradie11t a11d a small beclload, will l1ave its chan11el. In Britain, 1nost n1aterial carried by a �

a greater velocity than a river i11 a shallow, river is. eitl1er sedime11t bei11g redistrib11ted from
narrow, rock-filled cha11nel - eve11 if the its banks, or 111aterial reachi11g the river from
gradie11t of the latter is steeper 1nass mov·e111ent on its valley sides.
CJ the velocity of a river i11creases as it 11ears Tl1e load is transporteq by tl1ree main
the sea - t1n.less, like t11e Coloraclo and tl1e processes: suspe11sion, solution and as bedload
Nile (Places 73, page 490), it flows throt1gh (FigL1re 3.21 and Places 10, page 73).
deserts where wa.ter is lost throt1gl1 evapora­
tio11 or by l1t11nan extraction for water supply
Suspended load
Very fi11e pa1ticles of clay and silt are clislodged
a the velocity increases as the de1Jth, vvidtl1 and
and carried by turbule11ce in a fast-flowing 1·iver.
discharge of a river all increase
Tl1e greater t.l1e tt1rbL1lence and velocity, the
Cl as rot1gl1ness increases, so too does turbu­
larger tl1e quantity and size of particles which can .
lence and the ability of tl1e river to pick ttp
be picked up. 1�11e 111aterial held in st1spension
a11d tra11sport sediment.
ust1ally for1ns tl1e greatest part of the total load;
it i11creases il1 amot1n.t towards tl1e river's mouth,
Tran·sportation giving tl1e water its browi1 or black colour.
Any energy remaining after the river l1as over­ Dissolved or solution load
come friction can be used to tra11sport sedi­ If the bedrock of a river is readily soluble, like
ment. Tl1e amount of e11ergy available i11creases limestone, it is constantly dissolved in flowing
rapidl)' as the discl1arge, velocity a11d t·L1rbt1le11ce water and re1noved in solution. Except in lime­
i11crease, 11ntil the river reaches flood levels. A stone areas, the 1naterial in solution for1ns only
river in flood has a large wetted peri111eter and a relatively small proportio11 of tl1e total load .
•

Figure 3.21
............................. ········
Transportation . . . .. .. . . .. . . . .. . ... .. ..• .. . .
•. .
•
•
processes in a river • • •
. I
·. · . 0 o ·. · Lighter material held
or stream
• •• •
· ·0 • •· •• o." o • Dissolved material carried in solution
0 • • 0 •
• •• o . •. . in suspension by
• • •
0
• 0 0 � o : turbulent eddies;
0 0
. 0 • 0 ·
lightest particles
0
• 0
o
0
o
0
.
0 0
nearer to surface Bedl�ad moved by either saltation (bo,uncing)
O
0 00 0 0 0 or traction (rolling)
0
O
oO o o
°
o OO 'I-...., , I - ..., ,
''A. r
,-.__,....,
''A.
..0 0 0 0 00 0
• ,_, ... � ...--....l
) ' (,
'

Bedload It is much n1ore difficult to 1neasure the

Larger particles whicl1 cannot be picked up by bedload than tl1e st1spended or dissolved load.. Its
the curre11t may be 1noved alo11g the bed of the contribution to th.e total load may be sn1all unless
river in one of two ways. Salta·tion occurs wl1e11 the river is :in flood. It has been suggested tl1at tl1e
pebbles, sand and gravel are temporarily lifted proportiqn of material carried in one year by the
up by the current and bounced along the bed i11 River Ty11e is 57 per cent in st1spension, 35 per
a hopping motio11 (co1npare saltation in deserts, cent in solution and 8 per cent as bedload. This is
page 183). Traction occt1rs.when the largest tl1e equivalent of a 10-tonne lorry tipping its load
cobbles and bot1lders roll or slide along the bed. into ·tl1e river every 20 ·minutes· throt1ghout the
The largest of these may only be moved dt1ring year. In comparison, the Amazon's load is equiva­
times of extreme flood. lent. to fot1r such lorries tipping every minute of
the year!
'
'

• • • , • • • � • • • • • • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • i • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Drainage. basins and rivers 'Z1

,S-.....,..:;.S.-. =·:::::,,-e ·� ee ," -··--
•·----- ....�_e, ...,,
·�� Il W !l-1
,...,_ ·-
___ •S Jh+es=- ., ,. ,,_ .>
............,�...,._,,___...,._....o.b,.-'-""'-;;...,..,r.'-'--
!I.,• ...- � ,cf,
-
•<.....;,,,,,, -=•....,: «n-0,,:, 1J...-.� - __..............,.._,__,-·-- -·-
_
..·--

particles eroded --------

-- i11
suspension, JJarticles of various sizes. The 111a­
500
r=n
�.
®�� e
terial carried by tl1e river (ca1Jacity) is respo11sible
u 100 <.,'V' .::.,._
for 1nost of the subsequent erosion. Tl1e mean
� �e>o(.,�-4, =r� v'�e _..:::::_t------1 fall or settli11g velocity curve shows tl1e veloci­
.... a.QJ so rr,ea G) · o<:- ....\ c,;
'-
ties at wl1ich 1Jarticles of a given size become too
E n or critical etas'- ��oi) .,
� heavy to be transported a11d so will fall ot1t of sus-
.q 10""!----t-----+-----����----+-----+----� pension a1.1d be deJJOsited.
- �
The graph sl1ows two important points:
particles transported �o�"
�

QJ 5 particles deposited
>
..... '7> 1 Sand can be transported at lower velocities
·�
�
l -r----+---��(l;---1-----t----jf-------l � tl1an eitl1er fi11er or coarser pa.rticles. Particles
of about 0.2 m111 diameter can. be picked up
0.5 by a velocity of 20 cm per second (labelled 1
@)
on tl1e grapl1) wl1ereas finer clay particles (2),
0.1 -t-----f�--+-----1�--+---t---_J becat1se of their cohesive pro_perties, 11eed a
0.001 0.01 0. 1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
,�-clay ...,-•-silt-,...rc-sand--- ... ,�-gravel-,...rc:-pebbles-,...rc--"
• ....
> � ,..., velocity similar to tl1at of pebbles (3) to be
cobbles boulders dislodged. Dt1ri'ng ti111es of l1igh discharge
size of particles (mm) and velocity, the size a11d a111ot1nt of the
river's load will i11crease considerably, causing
Figure 3.22 Competence and capacity i11creased erosion withi11 the cl1annel.
.. . , ... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .. . .. . .
. . .
2 rfhe velocity reqt1ired to maintain patticles in
The Hjulstrbn1 graph, showing Two f1.1rtl1er ter1ns sl1ould be noted at tl1is
the relationship between suspension is Jess tha11 tl1e velocity 11eeded to
point: tl1e con1petence a11d capacity of a river.
velocity and particle size. It Compete11ce is tl1e maximu.n1 size of 1naterial
pick them up. For very fi11e clays ( 4) the velocity
shows the velocities necessary required to maintain tl1e111 is vi1tually ni.1- at
('critical') for the initiation of wl1ich a river is capable of tra11spo1ti11g . Capacity
wh.icl1 point the river mt1st al111ost have stopped
movement (erosion); for is tl1e total load actually tra11sported. Wl1en the
flov\ i11g! �[his means that 111ate1ial picl<ed up by
1

deposition (sedimentation); velocity is low, only small particles sttcl1 as clay,

and the area where transporta­ tl1rbule11t tribL1taries and lower order streams
silt and fi11e sand can be picked up (Figure 3.22).
tion will continue to occur once can be kept in st1spension by a less turbt1lent,
As the velocity increases, larger 1naterial ca1.1 be
movement has been initiated higl1er order main river. For coarser pa1ticles (5),
111oved. Because the 1naxi1nu1n particle mass
the bottndary betwee11 transportatio11 and depo­
whicl1 can be_ moved increases witl1 the sixth
sition is narrow, indicating tl1at only a relatively
power of velocity, rivers in flood can. 1nove co11-
s111all drop i11 velocity is 11eeded to cat1se sedi­
siderable an1ot1nts of material. For example, if
the stream velocity increased by a factor of four, �11entation. Recently, Keylock l1as argued that
an alternative 1nethod to that of Hjulstrbm for
then tl1e mass of 'bot1lders wl1ich could be n1oved
meas11.ring transport of river sedi111ent is by t1ow
wottld increase by 4 6 or 4096 times; if by a factor
depth rather than flow velocity; fle suggests tl1at
0f five, the maximu1n n1ass it could transport
shear stress- a measure of the force per u11it area
wot1ld be 1nultiplied 15 625 times.
tl1at tl1e flow exerts on a particle on the river
The relatio11ship betwee11 particle size (com­
bed - ca11 cause particles to roll out of their
Figure 3.23 petence) a11d water velocity is shown on. the
. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .' . . .. . . . . . ... . ...
.. .. . riverbed location.
Potholes in the bed
Hju.lstrom grapl1 (Figt1re 3.22). The mean, or
c1·itical, erosion velocity ct1rve gives the approx­
· of the Afon Glaslyn,
Snowdonia i1nate velocity needed to pick u.p a11d tra11sport, Erosion
,
The material ca.rried by a river can contribute
to the wearing away of its banks and, to a lesser
extent and 111ainly in the upper course, its bed.
There are fot1r main processes of erosion.

Corrasion
•
I'
.. � i
� •

.
I• .."#- -. ..... '-r��1�. ....-,...
"".
...
�orrasio11 occurs when the river picks tip 1nater-
� _.
• •
••• 1al and 1ubs it along its bed and banks, wearing
'
�

the1n a�ay by abrasion, ratl1er like sandpaper. This

process 1s most effective dt1ring times of flood and
is tl1e 111ajor metl1od by which the river erodes both
vertically and horizontally. If t11ere are hollows in
the river bed, pebbles are likely to beco1ne trappecl.
Turbulent eddies i11 the current can swirl pebbles
arou�� to form potholes (Figure 3.23).
... . ... .. . ... , ..... . .. ..... ... . ' ...................... " .... .. . . . ' ..... • • • • • • • •
..-....n1.--r:-> ,. - - e, ..,.r •·�-r -·-- -·• -
· --a-.-�---� ·---..- ...,-�---- -
- --- .-

Attrition bl discl1arge is redu.ced following a period of low

As tl1e bedload is 1noved dow11stream, boulders precipitation
CJ velocity is lessened 011 e11tering tl1e sea or a
collide vvitl1 0th.er rnaterial a11d the i1npact 1.nay
break tl1e rock i11to srnaller pieces. In time, a11gL1lar lake (resLilting in a delta)
D sl1allower water occt1rs 011 tl1e inside of a
rocks become increasingly roL1nded i11 appeara11ce.
mea11der (Figure 3.25)
CJ the load is sudde11ly in.creased (caused by
Hydraulic action
debris fro1n a landslide)
1,he sl1eer force of tl1e water as the turbulent CJ the river overflows its ba11ks so that the
curre11t l1its river ba11ks (011 tl1e OL1tside of a velocity outside tl1e chan11el is redL1ced
111.eander), 1)usl1es water i11to cracks. '"fhe air in (resulting i11 a floodplain).
tl1e cra.cks is compressed, presst1re is i11creased As tl1e river loses energy, tl1e following cl1a11ges
a11d, in time, tl1e bank will collapse. Cavitation are likely:
is a form_ of hydraL1lic action caL1sed by bL1bbles a Tl1e l1eaviest or bedload material is deposited
of air collapsing. 1�11e resL1Jtant sl1ock waves l1it first. It is for this reaso.11 tl1at the chan11els of
and slowly weake11 tl1e ba11ks. This is tl1e slowest mou11tai11 streams are ofte11 fillecl with large
and least effective erosion process. boulders (Figures 3.18 and 3.27). Large boul­
ders increase tl1e size of the wetted perimeter.
Solution, or corrosion Cl Gravel, sand and silt - tra11sported either as
Tl1is occt1rs co11tinL10L1sly a11d is i11dependent bedload or i11 suspension - will be carried
of river discl1arge or \1elocity. It is related to tl1e furtl1er, to be deposited over tl1e floodplain
cl1e111ical composition of tl1e water, e.g. tl1e con­ (Figure 3.31) or i11 the chan11el of tl1e ri,.,er as
centration of carbonic acid a11d h11mic acid. it 11ears its moutl1 (Figure 3.32).
a '1,11e finest particles of silt and clay, which
Deposition are carried in SLLspension, 1nay be deposited
wl1ere the river mee.ts the sea - either to infill
Wl1en tl1e velocity of a ri\1er begins to fall, �t l1as an estuary or to form a delta (Figure 3.33).
less energy a11d so no longer l1as tl1e con1petence c The dissolved load will 11ot be deposited, bt1t
or capacity to carry all its load. So, starti11g \vith will be carried out to sea where it will l1elp to
the largest particles, 111aterial begins to be depos­ maintain the saltiness of the oceans.
ited (Figure 3.22). Depositio11 occurs when:

Afon Glaslrn, North Wales: river processes

Figure 3.24
The Afon Glaslyn rises near the centre of the
. .. . . . . . . , . . .. . . . . . . .. . .....
Snowdon massif and flows in a general southerly
The Glaslyn Valley,
direction towards Tremadog Bay (Figure 3.24).
North Wales
'

[fi,g.4j7 J� ,i=..� �
ll}'in Gwynant
...if'.o� Fig,4.25
. rC,�1
�ont . Llyn Dinas
N
Beddgelert Fig.3.25
�!g.B.27' :--Pass of
Aberglaslyn

Porthmadog hyndeudraeth
Fig-S
� 6.33 ' Figure 3.25
. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. .. .
•
Erosion and deposition in the
,..;:,-:::r-- sand and mud middle Afon Glaslyn
exposed at low tide
···· ···· ···· ····· ········· Morfa Harlech ........... . ........ ..... . ... ......... . ....... ' ..................................
�

Tremadog .
Bay 0 20km Drainage basins and rivers 73
•
•
• •
 •

.,

;· •
••

Figure 3.26
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

D
'
•
a long profile Snowdon Heavy rainfall weathers rock The Afon Glaslyn, showing
mainly transportation and erosion
p· rocesses and landforms
D
Llyn Llydaw 1 physically (frost shattering) to give
400 --r--... large boulders and sands
2 chemically (by acids) to give some sands at selected sites mainly deposition.
,'"""',::::::.:::::---1 but rna Inly c1 ays
3 through acids in vegetation being
leached downwards into rock
300 Site C Transportation small amount and size of
Dissolved load �...,
Site A Transportation large boulders, bedload, much suspension. little solution ---i

Erosion attrition and corrasion, a little hydraulic transported

mainly bedload, some suspension, out to sea
little in solution. Erosion attrition, action and corrosion
E
River corrasion, hydraulic action and corrosion
.c 200 Site F Deposition
descending Site D Deposition
Cwm Dyli Site B Deposition
..c
Q)
(hanging small boulders pebbles 1 bedload 2 suspended
cobbles gravel Site E Deposition pebbles and gravel deposited load
valley), mainly pebbles sand as sand deposited
on outside of bends in more turbulent
100 metamorphic
-k cIay
I sand clay as mud
slabs giving
turbulence Beddgelert
50 Aberglaslyn Pass Glaslyn Estuary
Llyn (Lake) Gwynant
(Traeth Bach)
o-+--r�--,--. �.- -r�.------.--� r---.-- ��� ---.� -r----,- �-,- _;.=== Llyn Dinas
::;=:::::::;:: ===:;:::::: :!:::;::::::::: :;::::::::::;:::: �;== =;=� r===;= b=,
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

Landforms distance (km) from Llyn Llydaw

floodplain, gorge, estu,,,y.
waterfalls, rapids, potholes, delta and raoids delta and extensive floodplain with large meanders. exposed sand,
small meanders meanders, rapios, some braiding, pools and riffles
large boulders lake lake braiding potholes
mud at low cide
• and floodolaln

.
b material
•
sizes at
Q) �
O),_
ro
"O
.._ Q)
µ
...., Q) ·­
" Site B Site D
./
Site F
I/
/
-
"
three
c µ V'I
Q.I ro o
"� . /
u Ea. I/ '\ I/
selected
sites·
<ij ._
0.. 0 "O
Q)
I • " �
·- --
1....
-�(---------� � �

large small large small large small

· ·---�
Figure 3.27
.... ······ ..... .. ·················· ····· . .......
, ,

The boulder-strewn river bed

of the upper Afon Glaslyn

' The long profile of the Glaslyn, as shown in Figure 3.26,

does not, however, match the smooth curve of the
model shown in Figure 3.20. This is partly because of:

• the effect of glaciation in the upper course

(Figure 4.25) and
• differences in rock structure in the middle
course (the Aberglaslyn Pass in Figure 3.27).
Figure 3.26 (a summar y of an Open University
programme) shows the relationships between
the processes of fluvial transportation, erosion
and deposition. By studying this diagram, how
likely are the following hypotheses (Framework 1 o;
page 299):

• that as the competence of the river decreases,.

material is likely to be carried greater distances
• that the largest material, c�rried as the bed load,
will be deposited first
• that material carried in suspension will be
deposited over the floodplain or in the channel
of the river as it nears its mouth
• that the finest material and the dissolved load
Will be carried out to sea?

�· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -..
 b to create st1fficient discharge to allow the
river to create e11ough energy t<? 1nove its
bedload and, therefore, to erode vertically, or
· c for rivers to cross desert areas which l1a.ve
little rain to wash down tl1e valley sides,
e.g. the Gra11d Ca.nyon (Figure 7.19).
z;;.;i Roel< st1·uch1re. Resistant, perJ11eable rocks
lil,e Ca1:boniferous lin1estone (Figure 8.5)
often. prodt1ce al111ost vertical sides i11 con­
trast to less resista11t, impermeable rocks
such as clay which are lil<ely to produce
more gentle slopes.
Vegetati.011 Vegetation ma·y l1el1J to bi11d the
soil together a11d thus l<eep the hillslope more
stable.
Interlocking spurs for1n becat1se tl1e river is
forced to follow a wi11di11g course aroL1nd tl1e
protrt1sio11s of the surroundi11g }1ighla11d. As tl1e
rest1ltant spurs interlock, the view t1p or down
the valley is restricted (Figure 3.28).
A process characteristic at ·the sot1rce of a
river is headwarcl erosion, or sp1·ing sapping.
I-Iere, wl1ere throughflo,,v reaches the st1rface, the
river 1nay erode bacl< towards its watersl1ed as it
underct1ts tl1e rock, soil and vegetatio11. Given
ti111e this can lead to river capture or piracy
Figure 3.28 Fluvial landforms (page 85).
V-shaped valley As the velocity of a river increases, sur,plLts energy Waterfalls
with interlocking
spurs, small rapids becomes available wb.ich 1nay be harnessed to A waterfall forms wl1e11 a river, after flowing over
and no floodplain: trans1Jort 1naterial and cause erosion. Where tl1e relatively hard .rock, meets a band of less resistant
Peak District velocity decreases, a11 energy deficit is likely to rock or, as is com111011 i11 Scit1th A111erica a11d
· National Park result in depositional feat11res. Africa, where it flows over the edge of a Plateau.
.
As tl1e water approacl1es tl1e bri11k of tl1e falls,
Effects of fluvial erosion velocity increases because the wa.ter i11 front of
V-shaped valleys and interlocking spurs it loses contact witl1 its bed a11d so is 11nl1a1n- . '

As shown in Figure 3.27, the channel Qf a river pered by friction (Figure 3.29). Tl1e µ11derlying
in its L1pper cot1rse is often choked with large, softer ro�k is wor11 away as v\7a.ter falls 011to it. In
angt1lar bot1lders. 1"his bedload produce� a large time, the harder rock may become t1nderct1t and
wetted perimeter whicl1 L1.ses up mt1ch of tl1e • t1nstable and may eventually collapse. Sorne of
river's energy. Erosion is minimal because little tl1is collapsed rock may be swirled around at the
energy is left to pic·k up and transport 1n.aterial .. foot of tl1e falls by turbt1lence, ust1ally at times
However, followi11g periods of heavy rainfall or. of high discharge, to create a cleep plu11ge pool.
after rapid s110W111elt, tl1e discl1arge of a river may As this process-is repeated, the waterfall retreats
rise rapidly. As the vya.ter flows betwee11 boulders, upstream leaviI1g a dee1J, steep-sided gorge
turbulence increases and may rest1lt eitl1er in tl1e (Places 11). At Niagara, where a hard band of
bedload being taken 11p into st1spe11sion or, as is lim�stone overlies softer shales and sa11dstone,
1110.re usual becat1se of its size, i11 its being rolled or tl1e Niagara River plunges 50 111 causing the
bounced along the river bed. The result is inten­ falls to retreat by 1 m a year and so creatin.g t11e
sive vertical erosiori which enables 'the river to Niagara Gorge.·
create a steep-sided valley with a cl1aracteristic V Rapids
• sl1ape (Figure 3.28). The steepness of the valley Rapids develop wh_ere the gradie11t of tl1e river
sides depends upon several factors. bed increases withot1t a st1dden break of slope
• Climate Valleys are steeper whe1·e there is (as i11 a waterfall) or where tl1e strea111 flows over
sufficient rainfall: a series of ge11tly dippi11g bands of l1arder rock.
a to i11stigate mass 1nove111e11t on tl1e valley Rapids i11crease the tt1rbulence of a river· and
sides and l1ence its erosive power (Figure 3.27) .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . , . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
#
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Drainage basins and rivers 75 '

'

, . . ... •
 �------ -·· --- - - --- --,
lgua�u Falls, Brazil: a waterfall

Tl1e lguac;u River, a tributary top of falls collapses and retreats

Figure 3.29
of the Parana, forms part of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... horizontal lavas
the border between Brazil and Fieldsketch
- . .. . . . ... .
Argentina. At one point along
its course, the lguac;u plunges
of the lgua�u
Falls
.
-
.. .. . ..
:... .········
. ----.....
-- �::L .----� ----- --,
'
,•
....-
··-
�
.
.

- . �-� ...
.. · . •, .,
�as�e-.C:f§!l1i>f'�ats it leaves a
...
.-....... .
...
.

.· .- �.,· �wew·,trf.v�1cal sides, 80 m high

80 m over a 3 km wide, crescent­ hor,zonta
· 11 ayers of �,1..... �......;.......�· . I · 1 • \• 1: A. ·. • �d� ·· r� �
shaped precipice (Figure 3.30). �J r ,,
-., "" �. . . � II
I v • • • • • '·o

The lguac;u
. Falls occur wl1ere
softer rocks being urid-�rcut,: · · .-•.�-- ') r ( � ·� '::;-;?. -�� ' ; ..·
the river leaves the resistant causing the overlying lavas, f'.-�c-:;uJJ."2� r.._ . .
< �-
,i (; ,

basaltic lava which forms the to collapse i!.. · · " •

southern edge of the Brazilian

•
plateau and flows onto less
resistant rock, while their
crescent shape results from the
large, fallen, angular boulders are lgua�u River flowing over rapids
retreat of the falls upstream
swirled around, forming a plunge pool
(Figure 3.29).

By the e11d of the rainy season

(January/February) up to
4 million litres of water a day
can pour over tl1e individual
cascades - numbering up to 275
- which combine to form the
falls. The main attraction is the
Devil's Throat where 14 separate
falls unite to create a deafening
noise, volumes of spray, foaming
•

water and a large rainbow. In ' {'

.. .....-. '
<( /
·, ...-2,

contrast, by the end of the dry

season (June/July), river levels
may be very low - indeed, for
one month in 1978 it actually
dried up.
..
Figure 3 .30
........................................
The lgua�u Falls

Effects of fluvial deposition

Deposition of sedi111ent takes place when tl1ere the hydraulic radit1s. 1,his results in an increase
is a decrease in energy or an i11crease in capacity in friction, a corresponding decrease in velocity
wl1ich
.
makes the river less compete1 1 t to tra.ns- and the de_posi.tion of material previot1sly held in
"'
port its load. Th.is ca11 occur anywhere fro.n1 the st1spension. 1 11e thin veneer of silt, deposited by
upper course, where large boulders may be left, to eacl1 flood, increases the fertility of the land, while
the moutl1 , wl1ere fine clays may b� deposited. the successive floodi11 g causes the floodplain to
bt1ild up in height (as yet it has proved impossible
Floodplains to bore dow11 to bedrock in. the lower Nile valley).
Rivers have most energy when at tl1eir bankfull
The floodplain 1nay also be n1 ade up of material
stage. Should the river contint1e to rise, tl1en tl1e
deposited as point bars 011 the inside of n1eanders
water will cover a11 y adjacent flat land. �fhe land
(Figure 3.38) and can be wide11ed by the lateral
susceptible to flooding in this way is knoW11 as tl1 e
erosion of the meanders. Tl1e edge of tl1e flood­
floodplain (Figure 3.31 and Places 10, page 74). As
plain is often marked by a prominent slope k11ow11
tl1e river spreads over its floodplain, there will be a
• as tl1e blttff line (Figttre 3 .31) .
sudden intrease i11 both the wetted perimeter and
'
•

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
76 Drainage basins and rivers

. . . .
• •
'
---��--���--------�·-------- ---�- - - - -

Levees cor1tain tl1e river, the embank1nents are some­

Wl1e11 a ri, er overflows its ba11l,s, tl1e i11crease i11
1 times a1tificially stre11gtl1ened ancl heightened
frictio11 1Jrodt1ced by tl1e co11.tact witl1 tl1e floocl­ (the levee protecting St Lot1is from the Mississippi
plai11 cat1ses n1aterial to IJe deposited. --rhe coarsest is 15.8 111. higher tl1an the floodpJai11 which it
111.aterial is dropped first to for111 a small, natural is 111ean.t to [Jrotect). Some rivers, such as the
embank111e11t (or levee) alongsicle the cl1a11nel MississipJJi a11cl Yangtze, flow above the level of
(Figt1re 3.31). Dt1ri11g subseque11t [Jeriods of ]ow tl1eir f1oodJJlai11s wl1ich mean.s that if the Jevees
discl1arge, furtl1er deJ?OSitio11 will occt1.r within collapse tl1ere can be seriot1s damage to property,
tl1e mai11 channel cat1sing the bed of tl1e river to and loss of life (Case Study 3A).
rise and the risl, of floodi11g to increase. To try to
I I

I I
bluff line I I bluff line
I
I I
�------------------width of floo dplain--------------------:

coarser material I
deposited first I
levee levee I
I
channel

river

layers of silt deposited �,__� bedload c;:auses be.d finer material

:by earli�r floods of river to rise carr;ied further

Figure 3.31 Braiding Deltas

.. . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
For sl1ort periods of the year, so.me rivers carry a A delta is t1st1ally composed of fine sedi1ne11t
Cross-section of a
floodplain showing very higl1 load i11 relation to their velocity, e.g. wl1ich is deposited when a river loses energy
levees and bluffs during s11ow1nelt periods in Alpine or Arctic and competence as it flows i11to an area of slo\v-
areas. Wl1e11 a river's level falls rapidly, co1npe­ 111oving water sucl1 ·as a lake (Figure 4.22) or the
tence and capacity are reduced, and the channel sea. Wl1e11 rivers like th.e Mississippi or the Nile
may-become choked witl1 111aterial, causing the reach the sea, the meeting of fresh a11d salt water
Figure 3.32 river to braid - that is, to divide into a series of prodt1ces a11 electric charge which cat1ses clay
. . . . ' . .... ' ... . .. . . ........ " ...
' ' . . .. . . .

A braided river, South diverging a11d converging segme11ts(Figt1res 3.32 particles to coagulate and to settle on the seabed,
Island, New Zealand andS.16). a process called flocct1lation.
Delta.s a.re so called because it was thought
that tl1eir shape resembled that of delta, the
fot1rth letter of the Greek alphabet(�). In fact,
• deltas vary greatly in shape but geomorpholo­
gists have grouped tl1e1n into tl1ree basic for1ns:
• arcuate: l1aving a rounded, convex outer
margi11, e.g. tl1e Nile
• ct1spate: where the material brot1ght down by
a river is spread out evenly on either side of
its cl1annel, e.g. the Tiber
• bird's foot: wl1ere the river has ma11y dis­
tribt1taries bounded by sediment and whicl1
extend ot1t to sea like the cla.ws of a bird's
foot, e.g. the Mississippi(Figt1re 3.33).
Although deltas provide some of the world's
most fertile land, their flatness makes them high
flood-risk areas, wl1ile tl1e shallow and freque11tly
changing river channels hinder navigation.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .
Drainage basins and rivers 77
--,1,;,--
�c,• ..
4-.:,,,,
•.. ' ,

. '
-

.'

Figure 3.33
. . . ................
. ... . ..,.,,.,
Effects of combined erosion and
The Mississippi delta deposition
Figure 3.35
Pools, riffles and mea11ders .................. , ............. .... ,..., ... ,...

l�ivers rarely flow i11 a straigl1t li11e. I11deecl, A pool and riffles in the
River Gelt, Cumbria
testing u11der laboratory conditio11s suggests
tl1at a straigl1t coL1rse is abnormal and u11stable. spacing between tJools, areas of deeper water,
Figure 3.34 Ho\1\1 1neanders begin to for111 is u11certain, but a11_d riffles, areas of sl1allower ,;,,vater, is usually
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... very regular, beil1g five to six times tl1at of the
..
tl1ey appear to have tl1eir origins dt1ring ti1nes
" '

A possible sequence
of flood a11d in relatively straigl1t sections where bed width. '1�11e pool is an area of greater erosio11
in the development of
a meander pools and riffles develo1J (Figure 3.34). Tl1e usL1al where the available energy in the 1iver builds t1p
dt1e to a reductio11 in friction. Energy is dissipated
•

5 times tl1e bed width across the riffle area. As a higher proportion of
a
------------------ 1
---------
... . . ..
·1
----------
the total energy is then needed to overcome fric­
tio11, the erosive capacity is decreased and, except
.- ..;-·· •
. .... - .. . .... : ..:
•.

-------------------------------------
Ii s; a - tt
.
a.t ti111es of high discharge, material is deposited
(Figure 3.35). The regt1lar spacings of pools and
riffles, s·paci11gs which are almost perfect in an
b alluvial stretch of river, are believed to result fron1
- - --- --- ------ . -------,. ... .. ----- a series of seco11dary flows which exist witl1in tl1e
...
... . .. . ....,,. .. .. ' mai11 flow. Seco.ndary flows include helicoiclal
... � ,..""'. , ..

... .
..
. ..

-- - ----�� - - -------.. -- - -
.,

---- ----
� ,$

..
..
,
. ....
.. .. ' ..
...
.. ,t • ..
.. ., :: ..
-
, •'
,-
·..:� ,. #

1
,,._,.1, ,"
#
�·'· Y

flow, a corkscrew 111ovement, as shown in FigL1re

�

3. lSb, a11d a series of converging and divergi11g

· 5 times the bed width
lateral rotations. Helicoidal t1ow is believed to
be respo11sible for 111oving material fro111 the
20 •
outside of 011e meander be11d and then depositing
c mucl1 of it 011 the inside of tl1e next bend. It is
S timts the
bed width
thot1gh.t, therefore, tl1at it is tl1e secondary flows
- - --- .,..------ - ..,._ --- ---
�
, .,,-r-
,.
� ------- �'
,-----
"\
.. ..
\
tl1at increase the sinL1osity (the ct1rvi11g natt1re)
.. .....,.,.....
,, ."'.. .I'.
--------------
•• t

.... .
, � "

-----" •'"''-------- •:,-------

\

of tl1e meander (Figure 3.36), producing a regular

\ '"' •
;
#. �

...
' ..
# , . .. ,
-�,.
••• #
'
�
,,

111eander w·avelengtl1 wl1icl1 is about ten tiines

that of the bed widtl1. Si11uosity is described as:
Is , ......., 7 '

one wavelength
usually 10 times the b .ed width
�I ---- -
----- original course
l actual channel length
straight-line dista11ce
pool
riffle •

line. of main current

........................................... , . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. ... . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. ... . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. ............................... .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . ..

78 Drainage basins and rivers
 ..
,

=igure 3.36 Figure 3.37

........ ...... ...... ......... ..... ....... .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
' ,

1"'Meanders on the River Cross-section of a meander

Au�uckmere, East Sussex
small river
bank will cliff
eventually
collapse . - . -. ,
slowest� _____.c....;:,=·-,.., ·-
"'"-'·�

, , ' · fastest-
. ...
, 1,- current current : I
,.,.r" // . J
I -.ll .
•"\\\ ,; ' l, _,·
... ..•' ..
t
j ... ;

,.":.. /

,
. ._. -::.\
::::/::� point bar
•• '
·'.·

;·
!
:·
. .·;:�:� :.:
·; ,_
.� 1
outside bank is
(

sand and shingle

undercut by lateral erosion deposited

• •

bluff line
direction
erosion .of flow
in time, the meander\//' ,. , · , ·-� riffles
migrates down the1r.r· ·-':·:-:;:: :f:--..
floodplain in this i p o o
oxbow lake direction
( / l floodplai�-:":_.�·· ·
- /,_ -- --
, •'; _ . ·.· . •: •
-� - .. '
...

·-
.

- - --
-;-,.-
- '
. ·····-·--
.... .. ..........
••�.
...........__
--.. ., • • •• .. •-"'="--..... ---....._ .. . j!

deposition results in -
�

the for.0er meander

I being blocked off
', former positions ', \',
... '.... '
, -w•• :;> • 1
.... '.,, _ of point bar 8 3,./ lj,Q �
-
from m�in river �� :.,.- - ,. ,. , ,. B ,r ------,"'/ '-- point bar I:
_ _------
::::::: _:::,.,,
- =..;:_--...-
valley is j
�
\'" .
point bar -�.
/�"' · � wi'dened r
pool formed adjacent to outside, by l�teral ·
"�
'\ concave bank·where velocity and erosion .
· erosion are greatest
direction of flow
deposition on inside, convex
bank where velocity is least:
erosion bluff line forms a point bar
- ...-- - ----- ._

Figure 3.38
.,, ........ ,,. ···--····· ····· · · · · ..... ......................... ················ . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . ,, , .. .
Meanders, point bars and oxbow lakes, showing migration of
Figure 3.39 meanders and changing positions of point bars over time
... .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . ..............
'

Meanders and
oxbow lakes,
Alaska, USA
any gradation 11p the slope itself). As erosion
co11tint1es 011 the outer bend, tl1e wl1ole 1neander
te11ds to 1nigrate slowly doWI1strea111. Material
Meanders, point bars and oxbow lakes forming the point bar beco1nes a contributory
A 1neander l1as a11 asymmetrical cross-section factor in tl1e formation of the floodplain. Over
(Figure 3.37) for1ned by erosion on tl1e outside time, the sinuosity of tl1e meander may 'beco111e
bend, w'l1ere discharge and velocity are greatest so pro11ounced that, d·uring a floocl, tl1e river
and frictio11 is at a mini111u1n, a11d depositio11 011 c11ts throt1gh the narrow neck of land i11 order to
the i11side, where discl1arge and velocity are at sl1orten its course. Ha.ving acl1ieved a temporary
a minimum and friction is at its greatest (Figure straigl1tening of its cl1annel, the main ct1rrent
3.25). Material deposited on tl1e co11vex inside of will then flow in mid-channel. Deposition ca.n
the bend may take tl1.e for1n of a cttrving point now take place next to the ba11ks and so, even.t11-
bar (FigL1re 3.38). Tl1e particles are L1sually gradecl ally, tl1e old curve of the riv·er will be aba11doned,
in size, with the largest material being found on leaving a crescent-shaped feattrre known as an
tl1e upstream side of tl1e feature (there is rarely oxbow lake or c11toff (Figt1res 3.38 and 3.39).

• • • • o • o o o "' • • • • o I • o o • • • • • • o • • o o o • o o • o o o o o • • • • o o o • • • o • • o • o • o • • o • o • o o • o o o • • o • o o f • o • o • o O • o • o O o o • • o o • • • o o o o o O o • o • o o o o f. o o • • o • o • • 0 0 o o • o • o • o " • o • • • • • • 0 o <I • • o • • • • o o o • • • o • • • • • • 0 .. o o • •

Drainage basins and rivers 79

--

------ �-------,
Boscastle, Cornwall: a flash flood

On the afternoon of 16 August 2004, 200.2 mm of

rainfall -the equivalent of three normal months - N 83263to
was recorded in only four l1ours on Bodmin Moor, Bude
an upland area lying bel1ind the Cornish village of area
flooded
Boscastle. As the ground was already saturated, most 0
of this water swept downhill and through two narrow, l1arbour
steep-sided valleys which converged on the village River Valency
itself (Fig Ltre 3.40). Added to this volume of water was built-up -­
an estimated further 50 mm of rain that fell between
Boscastle River o os km
Jordan
1300 and 1500 hours that same afternoon on Boscastle
itself. Tl1e result was a wall of water over 3 m in height
CORNWALL
tl1at swept tl1rough the village (Figure 3.41 ).
• Bodmin
B3263to to
The floodwater carried witl1 it cars, tree branches Tintagel Bodmin Moor:
and other debris which became trapped behind '

the two bridges in the village, whicl1 then acted as

Figure 3.40
dams. As the volume of water increased the bridges . . . .. .. , ...... ..... .

were swept away, causing furtl1er surges in the The flood at

Boscastle
height of the River Valency. Residents and tourists
Figure 3.42
alike were forced to flee. Altl1ough some managed .......... . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .
,,, ,

to reacl1 higher ground, the only means of escape Annotated photo from the Daily
for most people was to clamber upstairs and to Telegraph, Tuesday 17 August 2004
await eventual rescue by helicopter from either
upper-storey windows or rooftops.
Six helicopters (1 in Figure 3.42) rescued 120 people
fro_m rooftops and upper-storey windows (buildings
4, 5, 6, 7 and 8), while two lifeboats searched tl1e
harbour fearing people might have been swept
out to sea. The car park (2) and two bridges (9 and
16) were destroyed. Vehicles were carried through
the village by the torrent, some being deposited
en route (12 and Figure 3.41) and over 30 in the
harbour. Two shops (10 and 17) and four houses
were destroyed while other buildings were badly
damaged including the Visitor Centre (3) and two
tourist shops (11 and 15). Among buildings flooded
was a restaurant (13) and the village store (4),
museum (14) and Youth Hostel (18). Power had to be
Figure 3.41
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. switched off to protect rescuers and survivors from
Water rages through electrocution. When the floodwater receded, the
the village of Boscastle
carrying cars with it
village was left under a carpet of thick brown mud.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . .
 !Base leve! and the graded rover 111 a wider i11terpretation, grade is a bala11ce 11ot
only i11 the lo11g profile, but also in the river's
Base level cross-profile a11d i11 the rougl111ess of its channel.
In this se11se, balance or grade is when all aspects
This is tl1e lowest level to which erosion by of the river's channel (width, deptl1 and gradie11t)
ru11ni11g water can take place. In the case of rivers, are adjustecl to tl1e discharge and load of the river
this theoret:ical li111it is sea-level. Exceptions at a given point i11 time. If tl1e volt1me and Joa.ct
occur when a river flows into a11 inla11d sea (e.g. cha11ge, tl1en the river's channel morpl10Jogy
tl1e lliver Jorda11 i11to tl1e Dead Sea) and if there mt. 1st adjt1st accordingly. Such cl1a11ges, wl1ere
hap1Jens to be a temporary local base level, sucl1 and wl1en tl1ey do occur, are likely to take lengtl1y
as where a river flows into a lake, where a tribu­ periods of geological time.
tary joins a 111ai11 river, or \i\ l1ere tl1ere is a resista11t
1

ba11d of rock crossing a valley. Changes in base level

Grade Tl1ere are three groups of factors vvl1icl1 inflt1ence
cl1anges in base level:
Tl1e co11cept of grade is 011e of a river for111ing an o Climatic: the effects of glaciation and/or
ope11 system (Fra1nework 3, page 45) in a sta.te cl1anges i11 rain.fall.
of dyna1nic equilibriL11n where tl1ere is a bala11ce � Tectonic: crt1stal uplift, following plate
\
between the rate of erosio11 and tl1e ra.te of deposi­ 1novement, and local volcanic activity.
tion. In its si111plest interpretatio11, a graded river c Eustatic and isostatic adjt1st111ent: cat1sed by
l1as a gently sloping long ·profile with tl1e gradient the expansion and contraction of ice sheets
decreasing towards its 1not1tl1 (Figure 3.43a). This (page 123).
balance is always transitory as the slope (profile) f\s will be see11 in Chapter 6, changes in base
l1as to adjust consta11tly to ch.anges in discharge level affect coasts as vvell as rivers. Th
. ere are
and sedime11t load. These can cat1se short-ter1n two types of base level 1novem.ent: positive and
increases i11 either tl1e rate of erosion or deposi­ negative.
tion until tl1e state of eqt1ilibriu111 has again bee11 o Positive cl1ange occurs whe11 sea-level rises
"'
reacl1ed. l l1is 111ay be illustrated by two situations: in relation to the lancl (or the land sinks in
c Tl1e lo11g profile of a ri,,er happe11s to contain relation to the sea). Tl1is results in a decrease
a waterfall and a lake (FigL1re 3.43b). Erosion in the gradient of th.e river witl1 a corre­
is like'iy to be greatest at tl1e waterfall, while sponding increase in deposition and. poten­
depositio11 occurs in the lake. I11 tin1e, both tial flooding of coastal areas.
features will be eli1ninated. c Negative cha11ge occurs wl1e11 sea-level falls
ci Tl1ere is a lengtl1y period of heavy rainfall in relation to tl1e land (or tl1e lancl rises i11
within a river· basin. As the volume of water relatio11 to tl1e sea). This rnovement cat1ses
rises and consequently the velocity and load land to emerge from the sea, steep�11ing the
of the river increase, so too will tl1e rate of gradient of the river and therefore increasing
erosio11. Ultin1ately, the extra load carried tl1e rate of fluvial erosion. Tl1is process is
by tl1e river leads to extra deposition further called rejuvena.tion.
dow11 tl1e valley or ot1t at sea.
. Figure 3.43
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
a the graded profile
River profiles

r--- smooth concave profile, decreasing in angle

and gradient towards the mouth •

• moutli
•

. .
•

rno.uth

• • • • • . ........... .. ·. · · . .
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . ... . . .. . . . .. ..... . .' ..........•..... ...... ................ ....... , ...... .... .....•. ..... ..... ..
. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·: · · · · · · · · · ..
�

.
. •

·. Drainage basins and rivers 8�

•
 Figure 3.44
. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
. .. . ..

The effect of 0' . .

'91 nat graded pro
rejuvenation file
--------------------- --------- original sea-level
on the long first reg aded
profile r profil e
------------------- first fall in sea-level
knickpoints inost recent gr aded profile
----------- second fall in and
present-day sea-level

several partly graded profiles (FigL1re 3.44). Where

I••••'"'

the rise in tl1e la11d (or drop in sea-level) is too

rapid to allow a river st1fficient time to erode verti­
cally to the new sea-level, it may have to descend
as a waterfall over recen.tly emerged sea cliffs
(Figure 3.45). In ti1ne, the river will cut down­
warcls a11d backwards a11d the waterfall will retreat
upstrea1n. Tl1e lmickpoint, usL1ally i11dicated by
'
l
the presence of a waterfall, marks the maxi1nu111
extent of the 11ewly graded profile (Plac�s 13).
1
Should a river become co1npletely regraded,
whicl1 is unlikely becat1se of tl1e ti.mescale
•
i11volved, the knickpoint and all of the original
graded profile will disappear.
'
River terraces and incised meanders
Figure 3.45 Rejuvenation River terraces are remnan.ts of for1ner t1oodplai11s
. ................. , . . .. . . .
which, followin.g vertical erosion cat1sed by rejt1-
. . . .. . . . .
A rejuvenated river, A negative cl1ange in base level i11creases the
Antalya, Turkey: the venation, have been left higl1 and dry above the
potential energy of a river, enabli11g it to revive maxi1num level of prese11t-day flooding. They
land has only recently
experienced tectonic its erosive activity; in doing so, it upsets any pos­ offer excelle11t sites for tl1e location of tow11s (e.g.
uplift and the river sible graded lo11g profile. Beginning in its lowest Lo11do11, Figt1res 3.47 and 14.9). Above the present
has had insufficient reaches, 11ext to tl1e sea, tl1e river will tr)' to floodplai11 of the Thames at London are two earlier
time to re-adjust to regrade itself.
the new sea-level ones forming the Taplow and Boyn Hill terraces. If
Dt1ring tl1e Pleistoce11e glacial period, Britain a river CL1ts rapidly into its floodplain, a pair of ter­
was depressed by tl1e weight of ice. Following races of eqt1al height 1nay be seen flanking tl1e river
deglaciation, tl1e la11d slowly and intermitte11tly and creating a valley-i11-valley feature. However,
rose again (isostatic uplift, page 123). Thus 1nore often tl1an not, the river et1ts down relatively
rejuvenation took place 011 more than one occa­ slo,vly, enabling it to mea11der at the sarne tin1e.
sion, with tl1e result that many rivers today sl1ow Tl1e result is that tl1e terrace to one side of the river
'��-·������-�-�-·-·����·---�
Figure 3.46
. . . . . . . . . .,,. .............. ······ River Greta,Yorkshire E>ales National Par-k:
The River Greta (after
D.S. Walker)
a rejuvenated 11iver
·--�-�-�......._�----�----�������--���-
a before rejuvenation b after rejuvenation
The River Greta, in north-west Yorkshire,
graded River Greta meandering side of is a good example of a rejuvenated river.
over a wide floodplain lngleborough original graded section Figure 3.46a is a reconstruction to show
Hill of River Greta what its valley (upstream from the village of
bluff • Ingleton) might have looked like before the l
fall in base level. Figure 3.46b is a simplified
...,,,...­ Beezley Falls sketch showing how the same area appears
knickpoi· nt
fl.oodgtain
- - -_./.-..--
floodAlain
- ,. today. The Beezley Falls are a knickpoint.
Above the falls, the valley has a wide, open
rejuvenated River
er rf 1 appearance. Below the falls, the river flows
Greta flowing in a
errace /-
�

!'--- valley-in-valley over a series of rapids and smaller falls in a

due to an increase
deep, steep-sided 'valley-in-valley'.
in erosion

•
•

. .
• • • •••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
•

. f
•

• • • • • • • • •
•
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
• • f . .. ·• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • # . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. ... . . .. . . . . . .

'
8:2 Drainage basins an.d rivers •

•
 ------------- - -- - -

Boyn Hill terrace Taplow terrace (about Boyn Hill terrace (about
Taplow terrace 15 m above river) 320 m above river)
oldest floodplain----
------------- Figure 3.47

second-oldest floodplain Cross-section illustrating

bluff lin1ited ----..,,------------------=--- the paired river terraces of
early growth River Thames
-i-----: ,-----\
the Thames at London
of London ------ .......

Nortl1 South
I
buried channel floodplain terrace covered with silt

111ay be ren10\1ed as tl1e 1neanders 111igrate down­ river, or tl1e valley sides bei11g resista.nt to erosio11.
strea1n. l�igure 3.49 sl1ows terraces, 11ot 1Jaired, on (the River Wear at D11rham, FigL1res 3.48a a11d
a s111all strea,11 crossing a beach. on soutl1ern Arrat1. 14.6). Ingrow11 meanders occur whe11 the t1pli.ft
111 this case, .rejL1venatio11 takes place twice daily as of tl1e la11d, or i11cision by the river, is less rapid,
tl1e tide ebbs a11d sea-level falls. allowing tl1e river time to shift laterally and to
If the uplift of land (or fall i11 sea-le,,el) co11- procluce an asy1nmetrical cross-valley shape (the
tinLtes for a le11gtl1y period, tl1e river may CLtt River Wye at Tinter11 Abbey, FigL1re 3.48b). As witl1
downwards to for111 incised 1neanders. Tl1ere 111ea11ders in the lower course of a 11ormal river,
are two types of i11cised 1nea11der. Ent1·e11cl1ed incised 1nea11clers can also change their cl1a11nels
mea11de1·s l1ave a syi11111etrical cross-section a11d to leave a11 abandoned meander with a ce11tral
rest1lt fro111 eitl1er a very rapid incision by the meander core (Figure 3.48b).
Figure 3.48
a entrenched meanders: R. Wear, Durham b ingrown meanders: R. Wye, Tintern Abbey to
Incised meanders Symonds Vat
and associated cross­ -
valley profiles

J <Do rn 200m
'oom
-- -j
I
•
old meander core
700m
200m,

cross-valley profile: River Wear has cross-valley profile: River Wye had
cut vertically time to shift
- laterally as well
as vertically
Tintern Abbey

Figure 3.49
., .... . . , . . .... .... .......... . ...... . .
Rejuvenation on a + • •
•

micro scale: a small

,....- ' -
•
.
stream crossing a ,
•
•
...
beach at Kildonan,
Arran, has cut
downwards to the
level of the falling
tide - note the
ingrown meander,
river terraces and
valley-in-valley
features
. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .
 ·.
co11verge L1po11 the 1nain river (trun. k). lt is a
•

Drainage patterns
•

o11 patter11 a1 1d d ev el o p s in ba si n s h av in g
co1111n
A d1·ainage JJattern is tl1e vvay i11 which a river 011e rock type w it h n o va ri at io n s in st ru ct u re
a11d its tributaries arra11ge tl1e1nselves within their (Figure 3.50b).
drainage basi11 (see I1orto11's Laws, page 65). Most
Patterns dependent on structure
patterns evolve over a lengthy period of time a11d . .
Radial In areas wJ1ere the rocks have been lifted
t1st1ally become adj Listed to the structure of tl1e
in.to a do111e structure ( e.g. tl1e batl1oliths of
basin. There is no widely accept�d classificatio11,
Dartinoor a.nd Arran) or wl1ere a conical volca11ic
1Jartly becat1se r11ost patter11s are descriptive.
cone has formed (e.g. Mount Etna), rivers racliate
Patterns independent of structure 0L1twards fro111 a cen.tral point lil,e the _spokes of a
Pa 1·allel Tl1is, the si111plest pattern, occt1rs on wheel (Figure 3.50c).
newly uplifted land or otl1er t1nifor111ly sloping 1,1·ellised 01· recta11gular In areas of
st1rfaces which. a]low rivers and tribt1taries to alterr1ati11g resistant and. less resistant rock,
flow downhill more or less parallel with each tribtitaries will forn1 a11d join tl1e n1ain river
otl1er, e.g. rivers flowing sot1th-eastwards' fro111. at rigl1t-a11gles c1:igL1re 3.50d). So111etimes each
the Aberdare Jvfountai11s i11 I<enya (Figt1re 3.50a). individttal seg1nent is of approxirnately equal
De11dritic Derivi11g its name fro111 tl1e Greek lengtl1. Tl1e 1nain river, called a consequent
Figure 3.50 word dendron, 111ea11i11g a tree, this is a tree-lil<e river becaLtse it is a conseqt1ence of tl1e i11itial
.
.. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
Drainage patterns patter11 in which the many tributaries (brancl1es) tiplift or slope (compare parallel drai11age), flows
i11 the same clirection as th.e dip of t11e rocks
a parallel b dendritic (I�igure 3.5 la). Tl1e tributaries whjcl1 tievelop,
mainly by l1eadward erosion alo11g areas of
vvea ker roc ks, are called. subsequent strea111s
because they form at a later date tl1a11 tl1e con­
seque11ts. In time, these subseqL1ents create
wide valleys or vales (l�igt1re 3 .51b). Obseqt1e11t
st 1·ea.ms flow in tl1e opposite direction from the
conseq·t1ent streams, i.e. dow11 tl1e steep scarp
c radial d trellised slope of the escarpment (Figure 3.51b). It is
t11ese obsequents that often provide the sources
of water for scarp-foot spri11gli11e settlements
(Figure 14.4). Tl1e clevelopment of this drainage
pattern is also responsible for the formatio11 of
the sca1·p and vale topograpl1y of south-east
E11gland (Fig·ure 8.9). Figure3.51
. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .
Development of a
trellised drainage
pattern

a before river b after river capture

capture consequent rivers, a result of the uplift of the land, flow •

in the same direction as the dip of the rock

consequent cuts down to form

a gap in the escarpment
C = consequent
S = subsequent
, " escarpment O = .obsequent
sea
�-- clay vale _ escarpment

clay
-·---- sea
limestone chalk ••

. . .. ... . ................................. ....·.. .. . . . ... . . ... . . . . . .... . . . . ..... . . . . . . . ......... . .. . ..... . . . . ... . . . . . . .. . ..... . . .... . ..... . . . . . .. .... . ... . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
�

84 o·rainage basins and rivers . •

• •

•
 _, -
.... �· .;;;;.,., b_,,.,
--·

a before b after
• I
Eurasian Plate Plateau of Tibet
•
•

Pakistan
Brahmaputra

Tethys Sea (sediments deposited by Indus and "-­

Brahmaputra rivers are already being
squeezed upwards)

India India

(part of Inda-Australian· N
/
Plate)

Bay of Bengal
•
•

Sri Lanka

fold mountains 0 SOOkm

--

Figure 3.52
.. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
... , . Patterns apparently unrelated to limestones a11d sandstones. The radial drai11age
struc ture pattern whicl1. developed, together with later
.

Antecedent drainage,
Himalayas A11tecede11t Antecede11ce is when the drainage glacial processes, cut throt1gl1 a11d ultimately
patter11 developed before sucl1 structural move- removed tl1e surface layers of sedime11tary rock
111ents as the t1plift or folding of the land, and to superimpose itself ttpon the u11derlying vol­
wl1ere vertical erosio11 by the.river was able to ca11ic rocks.
keep pace with tl1e later uplift. Tl1e Brahmaputra River capture
River rises in Tibet, but tu.rns sot1thwards to flo� Rivers, in attempti11g to adjust to structt1r�,
through a series of deep gorges in the I-Iimalayas may capture the head.waters of their neigh-
before reachi11g the Bay of Be11gal (Figure 3.52). bours. For exa1nple, 1nost eastward-flowi11g
It must at one stage l1ave flowed soutl1wards Englisl1 rivers betwe/n the ·1-1umber and central
into tl1e Tethys Sea (Fig11re 1.4) which had NorthL1mberla11d have l1ad their courses altered
existed before tl1e lndo-Australian Plate 1noved by rive 1· caph1re or piracy (Figt1re 3.53).
northwards and collided witl1 tl1e Et1rasian Plate Figure 3.54a shows a case where there are
forming the �Iimala.yas (pages 19 and 20) · The two consequent rivers with one havi11g a greater
Brahn1a1?utra, witl1 an increasing gradient and disc11arge and 11-igher erosioi::ial activity than the
load, was able to cut downwards tl1rough the a tributary (subsequents X and
.other. Eacl1 l1as·--
rising Himalayas to maintain its original cottrse.. Y) flowing along a valley of weaker rock, bt1t st1b-
Superim1Josed In several parts of the world, sequent X (the tributary of the 1naster, or larger,
inclt1ding the E11glisl1 Lake District, the drainage conseqt1ent) is likely to be the more vigorous.
pattern see1ns to J1av·e 110 relationship to tl1e ,� Subseque11t X will, tl1erefore, cut bac·kwards by
present-day surface rocks. Wl1e11 tl1e Lake District headward erosion L1ntil it rea. ches subsequent Y
was uplifted into a don1e, tl1e 11ewly-formed (the tributary of the weaker consequent); then.,
volcanic rocks were covered by sedi111entary by a process known as watershed migration
•

Figure 3.53
•
.. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . ......... . '
a former drainage - 0 30km b present-day pattern ---- wind gap
River capture, ...
Northumberland
pattern
. •
�--- -

Wansbeck flor.
-?ede North Sea North Tyne --- rol/rn
North Sea •

--../.... Wansbecik____2::=>--�
- --- •

•
••
• North Tyne Tyne
.•
N • •

Original Northumbrian consequent rivers, with The North Tyne, the subsequent, has cut
the. early begionings of the North Tyne subsequent backwards by head.ward erosion to capture the
headwaters of the Blyth, Wansbeck and Rede. In

--
time, it cQuld capture the headwaters of the Coquet

... · ·. ·. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·. · · · · ·. · ... · · . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . f .. . . .,, . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • i • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .

..

Drainage_ basins an.d rivers 85

•

•
 . . .. --: -·- ----�----�---�-.._.. _______ ---..----- -.- .
• •
' . (
• •
�

I •
- -
.
.•• .. ., ..
•
• . .

(Figure 3.54b), it will begi11 to e11large its own elbow of c a pture. Below tl1is point, a wind ga p
drai11age basi11 at tl1e expense of tl1e s111aller river. marl<s the for1ner course of the 11ow bel1e aded
In time, tl1e l1ead,,vaters of tl1e 1ninor co11seqL1e11t consequent (a wi11cl gap is a dry valle)1 which
Figure 3.54 will be captL1red a11d. diverted into the drainage was ct1t throt1gl1 tl1e l1ills by a for111er river). Tl1e
........................................ ::igt1re 3.54c). bel1eacled river is also la1own as a misfi·t strea 1n, as
Stages in river capture
basi11 of tl1e 111ajor conseqt1ent (l
shown in plan and The point at wl1icl1 tl1e l1ead,1vaters of tl1e its discharge is far too low to accot111t for tl1e size of
cross-profile 111i11or river cl1a11ge direction is kI1ow11 as tl1e the valley tJ1rough which it flows (Figure 3.54c).
.
a before capture (piracy) occurs (iii) block diagram

(i) plan (ii) cross-profile

minor consequent
(B
watershed
subseqL1entY c
minor
C • watershed sea consequent
•
B
�
-
subsequent x-............
major conse uent A because the major
.......--...-( �
consequent has cut
local base level at A is lower than do�n more rapiqly
(major (minor than"the minor
that at B, subsequent Xis therefore consequent) consequent) consequent,point
b A
more active than subsequentY is l'Wer ,than point B
' major consequent
. . . •

b watershed migration (recession)

•

•
watershed retreats
and is lowered
•

/ ....... -,
....... - .... c
'
-­
/
,,.., :::.. :.-
.......
/
---
A �� / �
....... :;.::.-
r--- ., --
• l '
•

c after capture has taken pla�e

(i) plan
- (iii) block diagram

(ii) cross-profile B is at the elbow

wind gap of capture
misfit
\ stream
---:--..._.....:jB x
or
elbow of.capture beheade
consequ
sea A XandY misfit stream/
A ___ ;___:._
· �,�::::-::.--- beheaded
m_ajor consequent G9nsequent
(major (minor
consequent) consequent) maJor , ortginal subsequent X
consequent

Charlton, R. (2007) Furzdamentals ofFlt,vial Oakes, S. (2006) 'Hi-tech flood warnings' in www.environment-agency.gov.
Geomorpfzology, Routledge. Geograp11y
.
Revie1- v Vol 20 No 1 (September). ttk/?lang=_e
Environment Agency (2000) River Robert, A. (2003) River Processes: An introd1,1c­ WW\v.floodarchive.co.ttk
Rel1abilitation - Practical Aspects fro111 tio_n to fli1vial dy11arr1ics, Hod.der Arnold.
Minnesota. River Basin:
16 Case Sti,dies, ,E11vironment Agency Weyman, D.R. (1975) R11r1offProcesses arJd
Pt1blications. WWvv�soils.umn.edt1/researc11/ lllil-ri ver/
•
Strearrzflow Modelling, Ox . ford_ University
Gregory, K.J. and. Walling, D.E. (2005) Press. Newfotmdland a11d Labrador site
Drainage Basin: Form, Process and
•
(exa111ples of drainage basins and flood-risk
·� River 1na11agement: zones):
Management, WileyBlackwell. http://earthsci.org/Flooding/unit3I www.herita.ge.nf.ca/siten1 ap.html
Leopold, L. (2006) A View ofthe .River, u3-01-06.ht1nl •

Harvard Universi.ty l)ress. Norfolk Broads Authority:

www.broads-authority.gov.uk/ www.broads-authority.gov.ukfbroads/
Newson, M. (1994) Hydrology a11d the River 1nanaging/rivers-a.nd-broads.html pages/river4.htinl
Environrrzent, Ox.ford University Press. Environment Agency, environmental
Yellow River, Gl1ina:
'
infonriatio11 index (OK rivers, floods):
www.cis.umassd.edu/-gleung/

.... ... , ................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • •••• •••• • •• • • • •

·· ·············
86 Drainage basins and rivers '
 A River flooding: the
Mississippi, 1993 1 Where is the river/drainage basin located? The Mississippi - together with its main tributaries, the
Missouri and the Ohio - drains one-third of the USA and a
Flooding by rivers is a natural event wl1ich, small part of Canada (Figure 3.56).
--
because people of1en choose to live in 2 What is the frequency of flooding? Left to its own devices, flooding would be an almost annual
fiood-risk areas, becornes a hazard (page event with late spring being the peak period.
31 ). To people living in the Mississippi valley, 3 What is the magnitude of flooding? Until recently, major floods occurred every 5-10 years (there
'that their river sl1ould fiood is as natural as were six in the 1880s) and a serious/extreme flood occurred
sunshine in Florida or snowfall in the Rockies: approximately once every 40 years.
Witl1out human i11tervention, the Mississippi 4 What are the natural causes of flooding? Usually it results from heavy rainfall (January-May) in the
would fiood virtually every year. Indeed, it has Appalachian Mountains, especially if this coincides with
been tl1is freque11cy of fiooding which l1as,
snowmelt (Figure 3.56).
over many centuries, allowed today's river to 5 What are the consequences of flooding? Initially, it was to develop the wide, alluvial floodplain. The
1927 flood caused 217 deaths; 700 000 people were
flow for n,ucl1 of its course over a wide, fertile,
evacuated; the river became up to 150 km wide (usual width
flat, alluvial floodplain (Figures 3.55 and 3.56). 1 km); livestock and crops were lost; services were destroyed.
- ·---
6 What attempts can be made to reduce the Until the 1927 flood, the main policy was'hold by levees' - by
Figure 3.55 flood hazard? 1993, some levees were 15 m high (Figure 3.57). After 1927,
. . . . . . . . . ...
. . . .. . . . .
The flood hazard and new schemes included building dams and storage reservoirs
the Mississippi River (6 huge dams and 105 reservoirs on Missouri);
afforestation to reduce/delay runoff; creating diversion
spillways (e.g. Bonnet Carre floodway diverts floodwater
into Lake Pontchartrain and the sea); cutting through
----- meanders to straighten and shorten the course (Figure 3.57).
l1 7 Ho.w successful have the attempts to reduce In 1883, Mark Twain claimed that'You cannot tame that
f
U s u a lly , o ·f c o tt rs e , tl 1 e g r e a t flooding been? lawless stream: By 1973, it appeared that the river had been
e r, \ : tamed: there was no further flooding .. . until 1993. Has
1·1oo d s o c c t1 r in tl 1e l o w e r ri v
human intervention made the danger worse? (page 96)
in tl1e la s t 16 0 0 k 11 1 b e lo w C a ir o ,
Illi 1o is . T h is is w l1 e re tl 1e p la i 11
flatten
1
s o t1 t ( th e r iv e r cl ro p s le s s i j Figure 3.56
s n 1o u th ) . .. , . . . · ·�· · ·· ·

tha11 120111 fro1n here to it Flooding in the

a11d w h e re th e O l1io a 11 cl T en 11 e s s e e Mississippi Basin

flow i11to tl1e Mississippi.

Of tl 1e w
,
a
o
te
n
r
ly
tl 1a
a
t
b o
fl
u
o
t
w
3
s
8
p
p
a
�
s t
r
---- ---- - Canada
Mein phis -- - -'\.. ,s---
ce11t c o in .e s fr o n 1 th e M is s o tl r t­ - .. "'-. _r-,
lk .. ":,I
Mississip p i 11 e tvv o 1: k . T h e b u �.;.;...�,
.,
,
5
f1/r--._� \.�-.:J '
c o n1 e s fr o in t 11 e O 11 i O a 11 d
If \. �-
th e lu sl 1 Missouri and other right-bank,,
T e n ne s s e e , f ro 1n
tributaries drain the relatively \ u SA d d
Appala c l1i a 11 s, ra th e r tl 1� IJ tl 1e d ry
dry Mid-West.
........___ 38%of
total
0' Ohio-T®�ssee rise
in the Aipalachians
Mid -W e s t. 'W e d o n 't m in cl to o
Most rain falls in summer whi��iceive heavy.
,' sa y s when evapotranspiration
'

1nucl1 ab o L1 t th e M is so t1 ri "' cyulonfl:: rainfall

le tt , s p e a k in g fo r tl 1e is at its highest. Arkan St Louis r:,t::• betJ�n January and
Do 11i1 a W il sos,n. £..e;e, ·, :},..
May. Flood risk
US Army Co1·1Js of Engineer s e,'>" �
iefl� \o increa.;-ed following
::P)

(who l1ave the res1Jo11sibility of. O sno melt.

Memphis
Mississippi
flo o d p re v e 11 ti o 11 ) . 'It ca 11 ra i11 th e re �

drainage
�
�

for weeks, and \Ve wo11ldn' t ini11cl. basin

/
W c e a n h a n d le tl 1r e e ti 1n e s th . e
watershed Lower Mississippi
usually receives the
w at er coming d ow n in tl1o s e largest and most
floods. But tl1e Ol1io, well, tl1at's frequent floods
anotl1er story. W h e11 that st arts Gulf of-Mexico ·
· · g , w e start watc]1ing ... '
r1s1n
fl'-- 0 SOOkm
 •

1 a Height (metres) of levees at Memphis b The 1993 flood at St Louis

12.5 17.5 1.5 .8 m
riverside landside -
----- -- -
---...::.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---
10.0 15.0 previous 1993 flood peak 15.05 m
QJ
highest 12.3 m
7.5 -� 12.5
- flood level
"-- , 9-m---11
0 10.0 flood I.ever''-· --- --
5.0 • .....
..c
- rn 7.5

I
2.5 QJ
St Louis
o 1882, 1896 ,,, 1914 1928 , ·
I
5.0
1----�/ usual level of Mississippi
4m
0 25 so 75 100 2.5 /
Base widtl, of levees at Memphis (metres) ./ height of St Louis
Q..______________::___:.____�--------'
. .,.._..... -�-- By making the course straighter and shorter, floodwater could
2 new original
be removed from the river basin as quickly as possible. It was
levees � meandering
achieved by cutting through the narrow necks of large
course of the
meanders. Between 1934 and 1945 one stretch of the river alone
Mississippi
was reduced from 530 km to almost 230km. By shortening
the distance, the gradient and therefore the velocity of the
new 'artific1al' floodplain river increases. (But rivers try to create meanders rather
course than flow naturally in straight courses.)
i
!

Figure 3.57
Engineering/planning schemes Why did the Mississippi flood .... . . .. . . . . . . . ....
Two engineering schemes
in the Mississippi basin in 1993? to try to control flooding
Prior to the 1993 flood, it was perceived Tl1e Mid-West was already l,aving a wet year
that the flow of the Mississippi l,ad been • when record-setting spring and summer After the flood: should rivers
controlled. Tl,is had bee1, achieved through rai,,s l,it. The rain ran off tl,e soggy ground
run freer?
a variety of flood preventio1, schemes and into rapidly rising rivers. Several parts
(Figure 3.57). of tl,e central USA had over 200 per cent Since the first levee was built on the
• . Levees had bee11 heigl,tened, in places rnore rain than was usL1al for the ti1ne of year Mississippi in 1718, engineers have been
to over 15 m, and strengthene,p. There (Figure 3.58). It was the ferocity, location and cl,annelling tl,e river to protect farmland
were almost 3000 krn of levees along timing of tl1e flood that took everyone by and towns from floodwaters. But have the
tl,e main river a1,d its tributaries. surprise. Nor111ally, river levels are falling in levees, dan,s and diversion channels actu­
• By cutting through meanders, the midsummer, the upper Mississippi was not ally aggravated the flooding? There are
Mississippi l,ad been straightened and perceived to be the 111ajor flood-risk area, two schools of thought. One advocates
shortened: for 1750 km, it flows in and people believed that Aooding in tl,e accepting that rivers are part of a complex
artificial channels. basin l,ad been controlled. Floodwater at St ecological balance and that flooding should
• Large spillways had been built to take Louis reached an all-tir11e l,igh (Figure 3.58). be allowed as a natL1ral event (Figure 3.71 ).
excess water duri1,g times of flood. Satellite photographs showed the extent The otl,er argues for better defences and a
• The flow of the major tributaries of the flooding (Figure 3.59). Figure 3.60 more effective control of rivers (Figure 3.70).
(Missouri, 01,io and Tennessee) had describes some of its effects.
been controlled by a series of dams. Figure 3.58
. . . . . . , . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .
Extract from US Today, a daily newspaper

April-July 1993 rainfall (in inches) D Normal D

- "'' ___,..__..,,� Rain in the Mid-West J 23.2 (59.3 mm)
. .-
I "'-·-
MarshaII, Minn. i---""---- ----.-----'
.. 13.5 ( 34.3mm)
30 .5 (7 7 .5 mm)
"

Waterloo, Iowa i-· -- --------- -'""-----.------=:.....

- =------1·
. 16.6 (42.2mm)
St Louis
Although there were some nervous moments, the city's massive 11-
mile long, 52-foot floodwall protected the downtown from flooding.
Heavy rains in the
The river crested here August 1 at a record 49.4 feet, and the amount
past two months
of water flowing past the Gateway Arch surpassed a record 1 million
1,ave kept land
cubic feet per second.
saturated a11d rivers
/
running high soi--���-::=====--���
D 200°/o
or more 40 L--./-------
.-
- -- river level
than normal
N .., 30'­ -- bankfull. level
lSOo/o-200% flood stage: 30 feet 1
D of normal
(1)
Cl)
� 20'-
9.1 m
" ,� highest crest
v 125%- 1so010 peak discharge
-- \

0 SOOkm D of normal
10 ._ Aug 1: 49.4
(15.05 m)
• Q ,_____ �-�,·_____
___:__
July 1 Aug 8
 . �' - � ,l.• ,. '(-:
,t

Figure 3.59
.... ,. ................ .....................,. ......
Satellite photograph showing
flooding at the confluences
of the Mississippi with the
Illinois and Missouri. The
water surfaces are shown as
blue, built-up areas as purple,
and farmland/vegetation
as green

�- •·t-:,........ .:::::.-... . � Figure 3.60

...... ,................................... ........................................................ ,.._ .
�
� 1
• ' -c:,.
,
f)
�
, �)J
The consequences of flooding in the St Louis area
<'� . "" \/

US Today, 9 August 1993 .

•• - :<-'\
' �---·� ..,,,
·'I-'·\?� ' ,� .....' •.·. • ,, ..... ,••· ;...<, ••• •41L,:ca sx,p ""' •>, ...--� '.,�
rm,......�.,,.....,..,..
,

,
�� - . \.

=IWil©TI·�
. ;

�J..

�I�-� 't.
-� •
c .•;:,: SIII� 1
12
;e.•: ffi C: ,�.::::;= o :�•: ':::,
, '

)f
Nearly l1alf of tl1e counties in nine states bordering the upper reaches of the - (\
r'
Mississippi and Missouri rivers have been declared federal disaster areas. This Illinois: · In the figl1t against flooding rivers, 17 Ie,,ees ,vere
is the first step ir1 becoming eligible for federal aid, including direct grants from breached, i11c.ludi11g one that flooded the to,vn of
�}
Congress, Federal Emergency Management Agency and many other groups:
-
Valn1eyer and 70000 acres of surround.ing farmland.
011e flood-related death \Vas reported.
<\--\ =
In f\lton, the treat�ent pla11t \Vas flooded Aug 1,
cutting off water to the town's 33000 residents. "Our
levee did not breach, bt1t the ,vater came in throtiob0
the street, the d.rains, anywhere tl1ere ,vas a l1ole, at
such a rate that ptunps couldn't kee1J up," says Mayor
Bob Towse. . \
Statewide J)roperty losses n1ay top $365 million, \\
rl

incl udjng damage to 140 1niles of roads ru.1d eight

bridges. Agricultural dan1age is esti1nated at 111.ore
than $610 million. An estjmated 4% of tl1e state's
cropland-900000 acres-was flooded. In additjo11,
15 727 peo1)le ,vere dis1Jlaced, 860 bt1sinesses closed
and 11early' 9 000 jobs lost.
Missouri: The J1ighest death toll-25-a11d the greatest property
cla1nage-$l .3 billion-of all flooded states ,vere
· reported here. Statewide, 13 au-ports have been '
<''\_
closed, and 25 000 resiclents evacuated. Flooding 011 ,I
((
1.8 nlillion acres of farmland l1as cattsed abot1t
$1.7 billion in crop losses. •
,r
fleroic efforts a1)parently saved historic Ste ;,
Ge11evieve, whicl1 has been battling rising waters
since the start of Jtily.
3 j;(ase,
. -
. St�dy:
. The need for river management

B River flooding: summer months when the sun is almost The people of Mozambique are accus­
overl,ead (Figure 12.12) and when the to1ned to the threat of seasonal fiooding.
Mozambique soutl,-east trades, blowing over the warm In 2000 the country experienced its worst
Mozambique has a pronounced single offsl,ore Mozambique Current, are at their floods for over 50 years, an event that, in the
wet season followed by a ler,gthy dry strongest (page 319). This rai1,fall pattern is following years, seemed to become an almost
season. As sl,own in Figure 3.61, both repeated in the countries to the west and annual occurrence until 2008 when the gov­
Maputo, the capital city, and Beira, the wl,ere Mozambique's three main rivers, the ernment introduced its 'prevention-focused
second city, receive almost 75 per cent of Zambezi, Save a1,d Li1npopo, l,ave their rather than response-oriented' policy.
tl,eir an1,ual rainfall during the five or six headwaters.

N
Zaire Tanzania

Pemba
Malawi Indian Ocean
Zambia

------- Cabora Bassa •

Lake+ HEP e Nampula
�==k;��-PI •

.... ,.... --- � --- ··---�-- .. -�----- - ---- � .. t .......

,� ••

Beira
240�-�--+--�-��
Total 1523 mm

Zimbabwe
- 160+--+--t---t--+--t---t--+--+---+-�f---+--�
• Beira
Buzi -
c
·-
,u
·a.. 120-1---+---t--l---+---t--+---1----l---�---d,--b--.....:i
·-
(1)

� 80-1---t---+---t--+--t---+---+--+-----+--!,,---4--�

•
I 40·
R. Lin1popo
0 )

Tropic of Capricorn I
I
J F M A M J J A s 0 N D

Chokwe 160

•
Maputo
Republic of
Map to
Xai-Xai -Ec 120 -...:!iii:=

Total 761 mm
South Africa

s azilan
-
·-
·-
·-
�
80

40·
�

0 200km
F M A M J J A s 0 N D

2000 the worst-hit being those living in flimsy Figure 3.61

. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . ................ ..
Rivers, especially the Limpopo, began to shanty settlements located on the edges of '

Mozambique, with rainfall

overflow their banks in early February after the city. Houses, roads, bridges and crops graphs for Maputo and Beira
several days of heavy rain, with the extreme were destroyed, electricity supplies were
south of the country the most severely disrupted and towns were left without a
•

affected. In Maputo, tens of thousands of clean water supply after pumping stations
people were forced to leave their homes, were either inundated or swept away.

..........
. . ........................ , .............................. , ................................... , ................................·........... . .... .... .... , .......... ........ . '

90 Drainage basins and rivers

 The need for river management

01122 February the coastal region near

2 million had their lives affected, 11 per the death toll was down to 21. However, i1,
Beira received the full in1pact of tropical
cent of farmland was ruir,ed, 20 000 cattle 2007, several weeks of heavy rain resulted
storm Eline - a relatively rare hazard eve11t ir1 were drowned and local industries in in tl,e worst Zambezi floods since 2000.
Mozambique. Winds of up to 260 km/l1r hit MapL1to were forced to close. Fears tl1at tl,e huge Cabora Bassa dam
a coastal area just north of tl,e still-affected
(Figure 3.61) might overflow led to water
fiooded regions. By 24 February, furtl,er heavy 2001 being released from tl,e lake bel,ind it. This
rainfall over much of southern Africa l,ad resulted in tl,e level of the Zambezi rising
Over a month of l,eavy rain caused rivers in
swollen Mozambique's rivers by up to 8 m ever, higl,er, and increased Aooding in tl,e
central areas, including tl,e Zambezi near to
above tl1eir 11ormal level (Figure 3.62). On 27 lower basir,. As a result 30 people died ar1d
Chokwe, to overflow. These floods led to 41
February, fiash floods i11undated more areas 70 000 people were forced to leave tl,eir
deaths, made 750 000 people homeless and
near to Cl,okwe and Xai-Xai. Estimates sug­ homes.
affected half a millio1, people i1, total. Roads
gested that up to 7000 people, without food
and bridges, some only just repaired from
and water for several days, were surviving in 2008
the previous year, were swept away.
the tops of trees or 011 small islands of higl1
Although an estimated 115 000 people
ground (Fig Lire 3.63). lnternatio11al relief aid,
2006 and 2007 were affected by the 2008 Flood, the death
wl,eri it eventually arrived, was to last for
Followi1,g droughts in 2004 and 2005, toll was limited to 20. This was, according
several montl,s.
l,eavy rainfall at the end of December 2005 to UN aid workers, due to MozarnlJique's
Final figures stated that 7000 people
and througl, early 2006 agai1, affected success in prepari1,g for tl,e flood event
died, half a million were left homeless,
thousands of people, althougl1 this time (Figure 3.64).

[......-,-,•.... -�-,---·
i
f

'
·L, '\

-�'

.•
'
,.
� J •

�
� �
�
r
•

- .. •
•
�"'"-�
:-.:�-·�
,.,,. .
.'JI
�
�'
\.
("
••
·�
-·· •
•

Figure 3.62
................ , . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .
Aerial photo showing the
extent of the 2000 fiood

. ----- � ,,.. . . ' , - ,

''
� - ., I ' .. •

.-
Tl1ere l1as bee11, tl1is year, a ope11ed regjonal brancl1es a11d
bega11 111011itoring weatl1er -
significa11t improveme11t in the
' •
'
gover111ne11t's disaster forecasts, L1pst.ream da111 •
.
capacities and rai11fall i11 •
111anage1.ne11t. Duri11g the
previous year tl1e governme11t neigl1bouring countries. It also
'
'
11ad reva111.ped its policies, set up a11 early-warn.i11g syste111
'/
n1aki11g tl1en1 preventio11- a11d moved boats, togetl1er with
.
focused rather tl1an respo11se­ reserves of foocl a11d 111edical
''
•
orie11ted. Realisin.g tl1at floocls supplies, to places witl1 a l1igl1
l (a11d droughts) are going to flood risk. Finally it drew 11p
,
haJJpen, tl1en tl1e best approacl1 co11tingency plans ai111ed at Figure 3.64
.. ....... ............ . ... . . .... . .... .
is to try to min.i1n.ise their evacuating low-lying villages
\ ) ,,

' : Extract from a 2008 UN

i111pact. The Disaster Age11cy should the need arise. -
.
' report (UN/BBC News Africa)
•l-
' -·. '"' - ' ...,. . .... .......
,
. , . ., - ... .

.... . . .. ..... . . ' ... . ....... . ......... . . .............................................. . ..... ' ...... .·································"······································
Drainage basins and rivers 91

•
 ••
3 }Case Study The need for river management

C Flooding: the Severn in 20July the Severn and Avon, hacl begL1n to leave
tl1eir l1omes. The flooding and the volume
England, 2007 Although forecasters !,ad warned of heavy
of traffic caused gridlock on major roads in
rain for up to a week beforel1and and tl,e
For many parts of England and Wales, 2007 Met Office l1ad issL1ed a severe weather the area, vvith an estin1ated 10 000 motorists
was the wettest year, and certairlly the warni119 tvvo days before, no one quite left stranded for up to 10 hours on the MS
wettest summer, ever recorded. The main expected tl1e doV'1npours of 20 July. Two between Worcester and Gloucester (Figure
reason vvas a failure by the polar fro11t jet montl,s of rain fell in two l1ours, and three 3.66). This gridlock prevented the emer­
strear11 to r11ove 11orthwards as it usL1ally tin1es JLtly's normal total in 24110L1rs in gency services moving equipment such as
does at this time of year (Figure 9.37). This parts of tl1e Midlands wl,ere tl1e soil was portal)le steel flood barriers to places like
meant that instead of the drier, more settled already saturated a11d ma11y rivers were Upton-upon-Sever11 which were threatened
weatl1er associated witl, a British su111mer, close to their ba11kfull level. Pershore, in by flooding, and hampered tl1eir attempts
winds still ca111e from the now warm Worcestershire, received 145 mrn in that one to rescue people already trapped. Tl1e result
Atlantic Ocean. Bei11g warrn, tl1ese winds day. Flash Aooding irnmediately affected was the largest deployme11t of rescue heli­
were able to collect more moisture tl,ar, several towns in the Avon and lower Se,,ern copters and the biggest peacetime emer­
was usual as tl,ey crossed tl1e sea, resulting valleys (Figure 3.65). By early evening 111uch gency ever in tl,e United Kingdom.
in l1eavy rainfall as they reached the British of Evesl1am and parts of Stratford-upon­
Figure 3.66
Isles. Torrential rain durir,g June caused Avon were under water, 1 billion litres of
severe floodir,g ir, Hull, Do11caster and Gridlocked traffic on a flooded
water was pouring through Gloucester
Sheffield tl,at was to leave some properties road near Tewkesbury
where up to 2000 people were to sper1d
unir,habitable for over a year. the night in emergency shelters, and resi­
Figure 3.65 dents in Tewkesbury, at the confluence of
.. . .. . . .
Lower Severn valley .,

N
7
1 MS
/ (to Birn1ingham)

W O R C E T E R S H R E
Pershore
••,
•
(heaviest rain) � R. Avon
�""""'
..
Evesham
(one of the first
Upton-upon-Severn• places flooded)
(cut off for several days)

-- - -- ' --, ... ----------

---
--- -
----- areas most affected
within this zone

MS
R. Severn (gridlocked
on first night)

Cheltenham
G L O C E T E R S H I R E

Severn
Gloucester
estuary (many people h o
(tidal) leave their floo ,, omes)

R. Thames
\ (towards
Oxford)
O 10 km
11111111111

Thames The River Thames

Lechlade Oxford
head
\...r-. __,
Cricklade Wallingford Marlow
HenleY.
Maidenhead
·�

LONDON
Goring
�
Win �taines
Reading Tedd1ngton
�

.............................................. , ...............................................................................................................................................
92 Drainage basins and rivers
 The need for river management

..
·-.
'
, • '--� ...•
-.
•
•

. ,
"· .... •

. -: ,, ...........
Figure 3.67
............. ... ... .............
Flooded Tewkesbury,
at the confluence of
the Severn and Avon

22July in it. This was achieved despite having \tvere warned it would be over a year
More rain, together witl1 runoff arriving only six hours before a higl1 tide at nearby before they could return. While the Severn
from the headwaters of the River Gloucester would cause tl1e level of the was still over its banks in several places
Severn, made the situation even worse. Severn to peak at almost 8 m above its and severe flood warnings remained
usual level. Meanwhile further heavy rain in place between Tewkesbury and
Helicopters were still rescuing people from
Tewkesbury where 75 000 residents were was beginning to cause major disruptions Gloucester, it was now people living close
to places fL1rtl1er east in the Thames Valley. to the Thames in Oxfordshire who were
completely cut off (Figure 3.67). Nearby,
the Avon begar1 to flood a water treatment faced with a real threat from flooding.
works at the Mythe, forcing it to close 23July
down and leaving 350 000 people witl1out Half of Gloucestershire was now without 24July
water for washing, cooking or sewerage. water and people were told that it might Floodwater l1ad by now receded from
Some 20 km to the south, a major crisis be two weeks before supplies could be most places in the Severn valley apart
arose as floodwater began seeping into an restored, and 50 000 l,omes were witl1out from properties adjacent to the river itself.
electricity sub-power station, threate11ing electricity. Freshwater tankers and bottled Mopping up could begin bL1t the real
to cut off supplies to 600 000 people. This water suppliers were struggling to reach clean-up was expected to take months.
led to the military being called in to help places still cut off, while supermarkets Initial estimates of flood damage were put
construct a 1 km embankment around the were experiencing panic buying. Of the at over £2 billion.
station to prevent further flooding and tl1ousands of people who l1ad had to
then to purnp out water that was already evacuate their homes in the region, some

.. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . , . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . .. . . . . . � · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · -- · · · ··· · ·· · · · · , · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · ., · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. , . . . . . . . .. . . . 4

Drainage basins and rivers 93

•
 The need for river management

• managing floods and providing the

D Flood and river on rivers and tidal waters. It also has tl,e
flood warning service.
lead role in r)roviding flood warnings a1,d,
management wherever possible, to protect people and Flood incidents vary in scale and impact,
Economically more developed countries property at risk. Dynamic issL1es such as from low impact of unpopulated floodplains
such as tl,e United Kingdom have tl,e climate change, floodplain development to severe flooding in large towns and cities
capital and technology that enable them and evolving technology mean that tl,e EA which can disrupt key parts of tl1e urban,
to better predict, plan for, manage and l,as to frequer1tly update its flood warning and even regional, infrastructure. According
respond to the flood risk than do less eco­ service and advice. The EA aims to reduce to tl1e EA, a flood incident involves plan­
nomically developed countries sucl, as the irnpacts of flooding by: ning for floods, communicating tl1e risk of
Mozambique. • strategic and development planning flooding, detecting a1,d forecasting flooding,
Flood mar,agement in tl,e UK is the • investment in pla1,ning and managing issuing flood warnings, providing informa­
responsibility of tl1e Environment Agency flood defences tion on flooding and responding to flooding
(EA). Tl,e EA has the powers to set meas­ • mapping areas at risk of flooding and (Figures 3.68 and 3.69).
ures in place to reduce the risk of Aooding managing Aoodi1,g information

Figure 3.68
•
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ,
'. . .

How the EA prepares for and

manages a flood event

Planning for flooding We constantly plan for flooding and organise how we Police, ambulance, fire and rescue services. Local authori­
will respond to each incident. We regularly meet with our ties, utility companies and community groups
professional partners to create multi-agency response
plans and major incident plans for flooding. These detail
how each organisation will respond to flooding in specific
locations.
Communicating flood risk We talk to the public throughout the year about all aspects Residents and property owners living or working in the
of our flood risk management work. We focus on flood area
awareness, our flood warning service (Figure 3.69) and
providing information about what to do before, during and
•
after the event .
Detecting flooding We monitor rivers and sea conditions, 24 hours a day, 365 Met Office
days a year, so we are prepared for potential flooding. We
use remote detection systems to measure rainfall, wind
speeds and direction, water levels and water flows in rivers
and seas.
Forecasting flooding We use flood forecasting so that we know when and where Met Office, emergency services, utility companies, local
to issue flood warnings and when to operate our flood authorities
defences. We share this with our professional partners so
that they can also respond to flooding.
Issuing flood warnings We send warnings by automated voice messages to land­ General public, professional partners, the media
line and mobile phones, and by fax, pager, SMS text, email,
static sirens, public address loudhailers and broadcasts by
radio and television.
Providing information on flooding If the public have not received flood warnings or want Website, the media, telephone
confirmation of the warnings issued, they can view
warnings in force by: visiting our website at www.
environment-agency.gov.uk/fl9odline, viewing Teletext
(page 154} and Ceefax (page 149), or contacting
Floodline on 0845 988 1188.
.
Responding to flooding During a flood our priority is to issue flood warnings and Emergency services, local authorities
make sure that our flood defences are working properly.

'
•

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , t,, . . ' • .. . . . . . . . . . , . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . ..

-

94 Drainage basins and. rivers

--�--
The need for river management

Figure 3.69
., ··············· · · · · · · · . . .
...... . . .... . . . . , ... ····· · • · . . . , , ,

Guide to the EA's flood warning codes

Triggers Triggers Triggers

• Recorded rainfall that will cause flooding As for Flood Warning plus:
• Heavy rainfall that could cause flash flooding
• Recorded or forecast water levels that will cause flooding • Snowmelt • Site observations of severe flooding or major problems
• Snowmelt forecast with infrastructure and services
• Observed rising level - critical trigger point reached
• Forecasts predict a worsening situation and severe
• Forecast level or flow - trigger point for Flood Warning
flooding likely
forecast
• Actual flooding
• Site observations, e.g. blockages or defence failures
r • Actual flooding . • Professional judgement, including consultation with
professional partners
Impact on the ground Impact on the ground Impact on the ground

• Fast-flowing rivers • Flooding of homes • Large numbers (at least 100) of homes/businesses
• Bankfull rivers • Flooding of businesses expected to flood
• Flooding of fields and recreation land • Flooding of cellars and basements • Large numbers of people are likely to be affected by
• Minor road flooding • Underground rail stations and lines vulnerable flooding
• Car park flooding • Flooding of major road infrastructure • Highest risk to life
• Farmland flooding • Flooding of rail infrastructure • Severe adverse impact on local infrastructure antici­
• Surface water flooding (linked to river flooding) • Significant floodplain inundation (high risk to caravan pated, e.g. transport, hospitals, utilities
• Overland flow from rivers and streams parks or can1psites) • Significant impact on the capacity of professional
• Localised flooding due to heavy storms • Flooding of major tourist/recreational attractions partners, organisations and the public (e.g. vulnerable
• Damage to flood defences groups) to respond effectively
• Flood defence failures or overtopping which could result
in extreme flooding
All Clear
We also use an 'All Clear' message to indicate receding floodwaters and a settled outlook.

Management in the future for the excess water to go. A government the water might get and how long it might
Climate modellers are now predicting that report of 2004, 'Making Space for Water: take before draining away.
came to the same conclusion, proposing Others are pointing out that by con­
by 2080, due to climate change, floods
the sacrificing of farmland, meadows and structing hard defences and Aood walls
like those experienced in Eng . land in 2007,
other areas of open space as a way of (Figure 3.70) all that is achieved is to push
whicl, have previously only happened once
ensuring leQst damage to property and the problem further downstream. They
in every 150 years, could happen every 20
disruption to human activity (although this suggest that there needs to be a major
to 30 years. Insurers expect that by that
seemed at odds with government plans to upgrading of the sewerage network and
time annual' losses will be £21 billion - five
build thousands of new homes in flood-risk drainage systems to cope with more severe
times greater than in 2007. Since the floods,
areas - page 400). storm events, that houses should be built
environme·ntal risk consultants have been
Flood experts have begun detailed with the ground floor used for car parking
urging the British gover:nment to take
mapping of large urban areas in Britain. and living space ·above it, and the use of
urgent steps to deal with the increased risk
They hope, by using three-dimensfonal stone and concrete for flooring would
of heavy rainfal.l events and that, instead
maps, not only to show which places are at enable a flooded house to be hosed down
of trying to control and conteiin the flow of
greatest risk, but also to predict how deep and dried ou� more quickly than at present.
rivers as in the past, space should be found

•••• •• • • • ................................................... ,...................................................................... . . . . . . .. . . ' . .' . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .

�

Drainage basins and rivers 95

3 kC:as.e Study.. The need for river management
. -.,h......"';",

�. ..

Farming (field drains) and urbanisation Greater volume and velocity can
(drains and sewers) increase the speed i11crease the river's load and its 1 Flood banks (levees) built too close
of throughflow ability to erode to rivers leave no storage space for
I

excess water
•

l--- Banks and beds· lined with concrete

allow the river to flow more quickly
,.. - . ,-
Farming (bare fields in winter)
and urbanisation (tarrnac)
increase surface runoff

\
' Straightened, artificial courses - �-
increase tl1e river's velocity Artificial defences expensive to
'
'-���=""""-=---=---=�:--��- construct and later to maintain
·- -....
A culverted river may not be able to
'
take the extra water of a flash flood
1 and can trap debris at tl,e same time '
Water draining away faster from
upstream locations can cause
High flood banks (levees) can cause greater problems downriver
I the bed of tl1e river to rise and, if they

i are overtopped, to give a more severe

flood event (Mississippi 1993)

-__ _... __........-� ... -

'Much expense a11d environ,nental degradation is involved in forcing a river to flow w/1ere it is put,
J

1 rather t/1an where it wants to be, and w/1ere the designed plan is inappropriate to that reach of the
Figure 3.70
. . . .. . .. -. . . . . .. . .
A managed river river.' (Newson)

---- ---- -·- - ... ___ --..-- -

l
... _ -- ,,. ---- --·------ .....,.,. __.._ ..------ - -------- ..--..,
Rivers can use tl1eir floodplain for extra l Less risk of flooding and erosion downstream
storage capacity while the increased althougl, a greater risk where houses and
. factories have been built upstream on the
1\ wetted perimeter reduces the river's
velocity l!
floodplain

_______ ___........ ..... lU f 4J < I I peappl(, Ia C(

, - -� ---..-·-· �---- -----

�,
......

Rivers allowed to meander more slowly , New housing and factories

over their floodplains reduces erosion built above the floodplain
'\...--.�7-���---��.-:-:-�

---------{._�o

-----------
............ -- ...,_...- ................... ___ ---.,---,��-

Natural river banks are �

cl1eaper to maintain
- .-..-. "I......

I
Rivers in flood deposit
silt over the floodplain
,. ICr? , tv :•./ir• T& .... •_..,.,.__..,_:7o ,,..._----.,.,..

1 Floodplains and river banks

provide habitats for wildlife
� ..-.. �- ----""----·· ...........

l
------- -·-<
Less throughflow and surface
Vegetation improves the visual runoff reduces the risk of
Figure 3.71 appearance and helps create buffer
. .. .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . .. flooding
A free-flowing river strips \_�-�·�-��
- �-���,���-�·--;;:=,;;��

........................ ...................... ......... .......... , ................... , ..................... , ............................... .....................................

..- �

96 Drainage basins and rivers •

 The need for river management

Should rivers be managed or not? severity, there may come a time when it is The River Skerne, near Darlington in County
People living and working in fiood-risk areas impossible to finance new defences or main­ Durl1arn, had, over 200 years, been progres­
naturally want their lives, property and way of tain existing ones. Figure 3.71 sl1ows some of sively straigl,tened for fiood control, drainage,
life protecting yet increasir1gly this can only be tl1e ways by wl,ich the EA l,as, in a published housing and indL1strial developme11t (Figure
done at greater financial and environmental pack of 16 scl1emes, tried to rehabilitate both 3.72). The floodplain had been a place for
costs. Some of the problems created by trying rivers and their floodplains in an attempt to tipping contaminated waste while the river
to control rivers are shown in FigL1re 3.70. Yet allow people to live witl1, rather than trying to itself had become polluted, unsightly and, in
as flood events increase in frequency and control, them. places, inaccessible. Towards tl1e end of the
20th century various organisations, including
the EA, Northumbrian Water, English Nature,
the Countryside Commission and Darlington
Borough Council, worked together, with con­
siderable effect, to rehabilitate the river (Figure
3.73).This has been achieved without com­
promising flood protection standards.
Rivers may be rehabilitated by:
Figure 3.72 ..' • creati11g new habitats for wildlife
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... .
�
,) ,
The River Skerne before (otters, birds, fisl,)
rehabilitation • reshaping river banks and cl,annels
and replacing artificial beds and banks
('hard' engineering) with natural
materials
• recreating meanders and riffles
• reopening culverts.
Floodplains may be rehabilitated by:
• restoring former ponds and wetland
areas or establishing new ones
• raising water tables and allowing
increased flooding on floodplains
Figure 3.73
. . . " . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ....... .................. ................. • planting trees a11d shrubs and creating
rA The River Skerne after rehabilitation buffer strips
...._..·�_!fi?lzt�
.. • creating recreation areas .

Sources of maps E11vironment Age11cy

www.environ1en.t-agency.gov.t1k/maps
National Hurrica11e Center
www.nl1c.noaa.gov
(see pages 98-99) Geological St1rvey of India On1nin1ap.com
rfextbool<S www.gsi.gov.in www.on1nimap.com
Ross, S. (2002) Essential MaJJwork Skills, Get Ma1Jpi11g Ord11ance Survey
Nelson Thornes, ISBN 978-0-7487-6461-7 ww·w.getmapping.co1n www.ordnancesurvey.eo.uk/oswebsite
Ross, S. (2006) Esse11tial MaJJwork Skills 2, GOAD maps available tl1rougl1 w-wvv.ord11ancest1rvey.co.uk/oswebsite/
Nelson. Thor11es, ISBN 978-0-7487-8436-3 Experia11 at geta1na1J/
Shops www.bu.si11ess-strategies.c0.t1k/sitecore/ Orcln
. an.ce Survey of Nortl1er11 Ireland
In tl1e UI<, Stanfords (branches in London conten t/Products01U20and.o/o20services/ www.osni.gov.ttk
an.d. Bristol) carries an astonisl1ing range Goad.aspx Po1Julatio11 Reference Bt1reau
of n1a1Js a.nd is well wortl1 a visit (website Google ma1Js wv,.rw.prb.org/Pt1blicatiq11s/
address below). www.maps.google.co.uk GraphicsBank/PopulationTrencls.aspx
La11d use maps Brigl1ton and Hove School for Disaster Geo-lnforn1atio11
Online
www· .sussex.ac.uk/geography /1-2-4-1-2. Manage1nent
British Geological Survey
html www.itc.:nl/un11/dgin1/diag/pakistan.asp
www.bgs.ac.uk/enqt1iries/rocks_
be11eath.l1trnl Florida Soil Survey Maps
www.map¥.1 ise.corn/ma1Js/florida/la11d.­ www.cra11field.ac.uk/sas/11sri/i:nclex. jsp
Caribbea11 Disaster E1nergency
use-zoning.html Stanfords Maps
Response Agency (CDERA)
www.cdera.org M·ap Action www.stanfords.co.uk
www.n1apaction.org Streetmap
Cassini Historical Maps
ww·w.cassi11imaps.co.uk Met Office www.streetmap.co.uk
CJ1ina (topogra.phic 1naps)
www�1netoffice.gov.uk u·s Geological Sl1rvey
htt1J://cartographic.com Mt1ltimap www.usgs.gov
www.multixnap.com

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drainage basins and rivers 97
 fr;o�u-sing on maps forr Geograpli¥
----�-------------��----·-----........:=-_.:---�::.._.----........:.--�--�__,.___�--..-.�----�--"--�--'
Maps provide a rich source of information for are an excellent resource wl1en investigating
geograpl1ical study. Tl1ere are many different types, cl1anges over time, for example for an inner city
including the traditional topographic Ordnance area such as London Docklands or on a rural­
Survey (OS) maps, and sp.ecialist ones such as soil urban fringe..
maps, geology maps and historical maps. Detailed • Land use maps provide a further useful historical
maps exist for many parts of tl1e world, providing a record for geographical study. Two sets of such
h�ge amount of information on land use, tourism maps cover the UK. These were drawn up in the
and communications. The Internet is a great source 1930s and 1960s. More recently in 1996, the UK
of maps, enabling the user to have control over scale Geographical Association conducted a land use
and coverage. See page 97 for some useful sources of survey of 1000 x 1 km 2 squares - 500 rural and
maps, including those described below. 500 urban - to enable comparisons to be made
witl1 the historical land use maps. Similar maps are
Paper maps · available for other parts of the world.
In the UK the maps most commorily used by • In South Africa a large range of city maps is
geography students are the topographic OS maps. available from Omnimap.com, together with a
These are widely available and cover England, Wales selection of topographic maps at different scales
. - and Scotland. Maps of Northern Ireland (produced and thematic maps covering land uses, resources
by the OS of Northern Ireland) are slightly different, and geology. Omnimap.com also sells a range of
although there is widespread coverage. Tl,e most , maps of Malaysia, including land use maps and
commonly used OS maps are the Landranger 1:50 000 detailed geology/mineral maps.
·. maps and the Explorer 1:25 000 maps. Now that all the • International Travel Maps (printed in Canada) give
cartographic details are stored digitally it is possible to an excellent coverage of South America including
obtain site-centred maps at a great variety of scales, the Amazon rainforest. These maps can be
including 1:10 000, 1:5000 and even 1:1250, which give obtained from Stanfords bookshop (see 'Sources
detailed layouts of houses and gardens. of maps' on page 97). Similar maps published by
Globetrotter give good coverage of the Middle
Across the world, topographic maps similar to the
East, and are also available from Stanfords.
UK's OS maps have been produced mostly using
satellite information and exploiting GIS. Recently • In the UK, students may come across GOAD maps
1:50 000 topographic maps of China have been at GCSE. Essentially these plot commercial land
_produced and these are now widely used to support uses in towns and cities. Buildings are drawn
. economic development. to scale and the nature of the building use is
.. described; individual shops and stores are named.
Many specialist paper maps are available for GOAD maps provide wonderful historical records
Figure 3.74 geographical study:
... ............ ·- · ·· ... ..................... . and can be used to demonstrate changing urban
Extract from a geology land use (particularly retailing).While these
• The National Soil Resources Institute at the UK'. s
map. Notice how rock
types (coloured) are Cranfield University publishes extremely detailed maps are only available for the UK, they are a
superimposed onto a soil maps. useful source of info·rmation for anyone studying
.
traditional OS map • geography.
The British Geological Survey has produced
Source: www.bgs.ac.uk
similarly detaile� geological maps identifying
•
rock types _ and geological features Maps on the Internet
. '
(Figure 3.74).These have many Today when asked for a map, most students •

applications, for example in studying automatically turn to the Internet. There are several
the location of landslides or the Internet map providers, including Google Maps,
distribution of farms. Multimap, Get Mapping and Streetmap. The Ordnance
· • The Geological Survey of India Survey also provides maps online, and has a service
publishes geology maps at various Get-a.:Map by whi<::h it is possible to find a map for a
scales. These show details of named place and print it, subject to certain conditions.
geology as \Yell as hazards and earth The Internet gives access to.maps of all kinds, quickly
resources. •
and cheaply (often free of charge), and usually offers
• Histori<::al ·maps are now available· interactivity, with zoom and navigation faEilities.
for many parts of the UK and these Increasingly GIS enables the user to select particular
•

··· ··· · ·· · · · · · · · ·· · · � · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · ········ · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··········· · · · ··········· ·· ······· · · · · · ····· ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ···· · · · · · · · ···· · · ·· · ··· · · · ·· · · ··
98 Drainage basins and riyers
 Figure 3.75 ,.

.... , ....... , ................. , , , , ..

relation to other places, or important features of the
Track of Hurricane llurricant Ille

Ike, September 2008

Stpttmberl>. 2008
1 f AU £OT Tue•diy landscape. Geography is about interrelationships and
111·,s Jl'Cllmi.,,111111mic•nc Cmtrr

Source: www.nhc.
1'cM1ory,S
�,
CtATtnt Cmi.r locA!lon n.. mo VI connections and maps are often invaluable in this
U..5v11.&W4Vll...t IIO•ph
C"'7Tnl u,,.._, d Ylt,.., .. , :, """1
respect.
noaa.gov ") ClltTml �trlKllkH!
• rOl'l'aMCr111<rl'o,-lon1
II Sv111mr, """4 • T.J "''"
S ,.,....,r,""'4:r:1·7Jo>pb
C'::::,,
CI:
l'<'lt•1h1Dayt·)Tnc1An1
l'ouli1!.tl Dr,+S TAO fin•
Information on maps can be directly relevant to
- ,1urr1c .... v,....1n9
, - ,,.p1u1s,.... v,....in, geographical study, providing an alternative source of
information about an area. In physical geography, for
example, maps can be used to identify features such
as corries, raised beaches and sea stacks. In human
geography they provide information about services,
patterns of roads and settlements, and land uses.

•- Sketch maps
information to include on a map. Aerial photographs Topographic maps are wonderfully detailed but
and so-called'hybrid'maps (traditional maps sometimes they contain too much information so
superimposed over aerial photos) provide a further that it is difficult to see the overall picture. A sketch
dimension for the geograpl1y student. map enables a geographer to be more focused by
Many organisations provide specialist maps. For · making a careful copy of just a few selected pieces
example: of information. Sketch maps are invaluable when
researching case studies, for example in identifying
• Map Action produces maps of areas hit by natural landforms along a stretch of coastline. When drawing
disasters such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes a sketch map you must be clear about its purpose
or hurricanes. These maps are produced very and avoid adding irrelevant detail. Ensure that your
quickly following an event to support relief map is as accurate as possible and remember to
agencies in their work. always include a scale and a north arrow. Use labels or
• The School for Disaster Geo-Information · annotations to provide interpretation of your map.
Management l1as a tremendous selection of maps
relating to the 2005 Pakistan earthquake; some 40 Using maps in exams
maps have been produced at a scale of 1:50 000 to There is a strong chance that you will be given a map
assist aid workers in the region. extract in one or more of your exam modules; so you
• Maps plotting hurricanes can be found at the do need to prepare yourself thoroughly as part of your
National Hurricane Center (Figure 3.75). revision. Practise the essential ma·pwork skills such as
• A huge variety of maps to support the study of using grid references, measuring distance, describing
tectonics, water resources and geology can be orientation. and drawing simple sketch maps. Make .

found at the US Geological Survey. sure you know most of the symbols so that you can •

• For disasters in the Caribbean, such as earthquakes, 'read' a map without having to keep referring to the
key.
volcanic eruptions, hurricanes and landslides, the •

Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency Take time to learn how to interpret a map in different
provides excellent information including maps. geographical contexts. For example, be clear what
• Up-to-date and archive weather maps can different types of housing look like in an urban area,
be found at the Met Office and a range of UK and make sure that you can identify a high tide line
postcode-related environmental maps can be when examining a stretch of coastline.
found at the Environment Agency's website.
• .A great site providing population maps is the
Population Reference Bureau.

Using maps in geographical research

Maps are an essential part of study at AS/A level and
you should make use of the� when conducting your '.

own individu.. al research. At the most basic level a map Figure 3.76
. .. . . ... . . ..
identifies the location of a study area. It also helps
�

, Detailed topographic map of

to provide context, for example where a place is in S{ngapore
Source: www.omnimap.com

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . .. . .
�

Drainage basins and rivers 99

 •

Activities
• 6 • • • e • • • • • • • • o • • • � o'e • o • o e • o $ o o o • o o o e • o • • • • • o o o e o o o • • • o o o • • • • o o • • • o o o • • • o • • 0 0 • 0 • • • • • •

100.--���---:-���������������------,
,
- �-
channel precipitation and fast runoff
-.
•

·�
-
c 75
·-
surface runoff
ro
....
-ro throughflow, soil moisture
0 storage and groundwater . "
o
...

5 0 storage (varies according to

<lJ torage soil and rock type)
CJ'
ro
......
c
<lJ
�
..
• • • ... • .
25
..;
•
<lJ
0.
interception
0-1--�����-"-�������������----1
start of storm middle of storm end of storm Figure 3.78
' . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .
time from start of storm Fieldsketch of
Figure 3.77 a meander
........ .. . .. . .... ···-·�· ·········,. ..
'-• • ,.. ,

The relationship between rainfall and

runoff in the course of a typicalstorm •

>

1 Study Figure 3.77. iii Why is there no soil moisture deficit shown in
Figure 3.3? (4marks)
a i
What is surface storage? (2marks) b Why would a farmer need to understand the water
ii Why does interception decrease during a storm? balance of farmland? · (6 marks)
(3 marks) c · Why do water companies in Britain depend on winter
iii What happens to surface runoff during the storm? rainfall to maintain reservoirs? (6 marks)
(4marks)
.
3 Study the diagram of a meander (Figure 3.78) and
.
b Wbat 1ould happen t9 a river at the following stages: a i
i at the start of this storm identify the location of the following landforms:
ii at the middle of the storm inside of the bend; outside of the bend; floodplain;
slip-off slope; river cliff. (5 marks)
• iii at the end of the storm? . (8 marks)
ii Describe the features of the channel cross-section
c The figure shows the reaction of a vegetated area to a
of a typical river meander. (5 marks)
.. ' heavy rainstorm. Describe and explain which parts
. of the
b Choose one of the following features of a river: waterfall;
.
model would change if the. area were covered in concrete
.paving and drains. (8 marks) cascade; rapids. Using one or more sketches/diagrams,
.
.� .
describe the features of your chosen landform and
2 · · a Study Figure 3.3 (page 60) and,answer the.following explain how it is eroded by a river. (7marks)
questions: c i How does a meandering river form an oxbow lake?
i What is a 'soil moisture budget'? (2 marks) (6 marks)
ii Explain each of the following terms used in the ii How could the formation of an oxbow lake lead to
description of a soil moisture (water) budget: field management problems on the floodplain of a river?
capacity; water balance; soil moisture utilisation. (4marks)
•
(7marks)

•
•
• . . '

Exam practice: basic structured questions

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• '

4 a I. What is a 'storm hydrograph'?, (3 marks) ii : With reference to specific example/s, suggest how
••
II What is meant by each of the following terms used in river management strategies may be used to alleviate
relation to a storm hydrograph: lag time; peak the problems caused by a 'flashy' regime. (9 marks)
discharge; recession (falling) limb? (6 marks)
5 a i Study Figure 3.27 (page 74). Describe the river bed
bi Identify two drainage basin characteristics that make sl1own in the photograph. (3 marks)
a river react quickly to a rainstorm (have a 'flashy'
regime). For each one explain why it has this effect. ii Suggest where the loose boulders shown beside the
(7marks) river have come from. (4marks)
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . j , 1 0 • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . .
· o O I I I I I o f f f I O I I O O f I .. I t I f O O I t I I f I I I t I f I t t t t t f I t j I o f f 1 1 I j o o ,t 1

1·00 Draina.ge basins and rivers

 iii How does a river erode a river bed such as the one in the ii Making good use of annotated diagrams, explain the
pl1otograpl1? (6 marks) development of a trellis drainage pattern. (8 marks)
b Explain two ways in which you would know that loose b i Study Figure 3.53 (page 85). Describe the valley shape
rocks found on a field trip had been worn away by a river. you would see if you were walking from the River
(6 marks) Wansbeck to the Hart Burn. (2 marks)
c With the aid of diagrams of a waterfall, show how it is ii Explain how the present drainage pattern evolved
being changed over time by river processes. (6 marks) from the former drainage pattern. (6 marks)
c Choose and name an example of a drainage pattern other
6 a i Describe tl1e characteristic features of a dendritic
drainage pattern . than a trellis pattern. Describe it and explain how it has
(3 marks)
been formed. (6 marks)
•

Exam practice: structured questions

• • • o • • o o o • o o • o • • o • • • • o • o • • • o • • • • o o o • o o o o o • o o o o • o o o e o • o o • • o • o o o • o o e o o • o • o • • o o o • • o o • • • o

7 a Usi11g annotated diagram/s to l1elp your answer, illustrate the b Identify and suggest reasons for two variations in the
components of a storm hydrograp/1. (5marks) long profile of a river. (13 marks)
b Explain how it is possible to measure the discharge of a
stream in the field and how the results collected will be 11 a i What is the difference between general base level and
processed. (1o marks) local base level? (6 marks)
c Why do lag times differ on the same stream at different ii Explain what happens to base level in a river system
times? (10marks) if sea-level falls. _ (4 marks)
b Choose two landforms forry,ed in a river valley by a
8 When a housing estate is built on the rural/urban fringe, pre­ change in base level. Identify the direction of change
existing drainage patterns are changed and river systems involved and describe and explain the formation of
respond in a different way to storm events. each landform. (15 marks)
a Study of sucl1 cl1anges must start before building to
establish a 'baseline' for change. Briefly describe one 12 a Under what circumstances do rivers deposit m'aterial?
technique you could use to measure the discharge of a (12 marks) •

stream in a rural catchment. (5 marks) b i Explain how levees form as a result of natural river
b Describe and account for two changes to discharge which processes. (5marks)
may occur once the l1ousing estate is built (1O marks) ii How do levees affect rivers and their tributaries?
c Describe two problems that could occur in the area due (8 marks)
.
to the altered discharge pattern. (7 0marks)
13 Study Case Study 38 on pages 90 and 91.
9 a Using annotated diagram/sonly, show how the velocity of a a Describe the seasonal rainfall pattern in Mozambique and
typical river varies across its cross-section. (5marks) explain why this distribution of rainfall makes flooding
common in the country's major river basins. (7 marks)
b i Describe tl1e processes by which the load of a river is b Population densities are increasing in both the rural and
transported. (8 marks) urban areas of Mozambique. S·uggest how this increases the
ii What factors affect the size of the particles eroded, flood hazard in the country. · . · · (8 marks)
transported and deposited by a river? (12 marks) c ' ... the government introduced its prevention�focused rather
than its response-focus.ed p·olicy:
10 a Describe and suggest reasons for the cross-section shape of •

a river: Suggest what these policy changes might have meant in

different parts of Mozambique. . . (1O marks)
i near the source of the river
ii close to the mouth of the river. (12 marks)
-
'

•
•

'
Exam practice: essays
•• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••• • •••••••••••••
14 With reference to one or more river basins that you have studied, 16 'Flood hazards, resulting from a combination of physical and
describe and evaluate river rehabilitation schemes. · human influences, are increasing in many parts of the world:
(25marks)
Discuss this statement with reference to rivers in countries at
15 Explain how changes in.the base level of a river can affect the · different stages of economic development. (25marks)
valley cross-section and the river's long profile. (25marks) . .
• •
. '
•

,
•
• •
•
•

•
.. .• •
• '

. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . , . . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . . . . . .. .. .
�

Drainag� basins and ri\lers � 01

 • • • • • 0 e o o o o e Q 8 e • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

1
'G,·eat God! tl1is is a,,1 awful place. the Pleistocene epocl1 of the Quaternary period
The South Pole, Robert Falcon Scott, Journal, 1912 (Figure 1.1). In the 2 million years since tl1e onset
of tl1e Quaternary, the tirne subject to most public
Ice ages i11terest and scientific researcl1, there have been
fluctuations in global temperature of up to 10°C
It appears that roughly every 200-250 millio11 which. l1ave led to cold phases (glacials) and warm
years in. the Eart11's history tl1ere l1ave been 1najor pl1.ases (interglacials). Recent analyses of both
periods of ice activity (Figure 4.1.). Of tl1ese, tl1e ocean floor and Antarctic ice cores (Places 14)
most recent and significant occurred duri11g confirm tl1at over the last 7 50 000 years the Earth
has experienced eight ice ages (glacials) separated
Figure 4.1 Holocene (post-glacial) •
by eight interglacials (FigtLre 4.2) .
.......................................
See O Pleistocene: began 2-3 million
A chronology of ice Fig. When the ice reached its maxi11111m extent,
ages (in bold) years ago
4.2 100 it is estimated tl1at it covered 30 ·pe1· cent of the
Earth's land surface (compared with some 10 per
200 Gondwana ce11t today). I-Iowever, its effect was 11ot only felt
Permo-Carboniferous: in ·polar latitt1des and 1nountainous areas, for
300 all southern continents in
the then Pangaea each time the ice advanced there was a change in
400 the global climatic belts (Figu.re 4.3). Only 18 000
Ordovician: evidence in the
Vl

-
years ago, at the time of the maxi1nu1n advance
>- 500 ' Sahara Desert within the last glacial, ice covered Britain as fa1·
0 '
c
Vl
' south as the Bristol Chan11el, the Midlands and
-
·-
0
·-
600 ' Norfolk. T'he soutl1ern part of Britai11 experi­
Svarangian enced tundra conditions (page 333), as did 1nost
700
�Sturtian of France.
800
I

.
I four glacials Climatic change
900 in the
Figure4.2 Gnejso Pre-Cambrian Although it is accepted that climatic flucn1ations
··•··················· ··········•···•···
1000 occ11r on a variety of timescales, as yet there is
Generalised trends
no single explanation for the onset of major ice
in mean global.
temperatures during
2300 · ;:::::> Huronian ages or for fluctuations within each ice age. Tl1e
the past 1 million years most feasible of theories to date is that of Mil11tin
Milankovitch, mathematician/astronomer.
n Between 1912 and 1941, l1e performed exhaus­
the past 1 million years :T
+6 ::,
Q.I
tive calc11lations which show that the Earth's
lO
last ice
-previous ice ages__, -· position in space, its tilt and its orbit around the
(t)

age ::,
3 Sun all change. These changes, he claimed, affect
-interglacials _,,_______ +3 (t)
Q.I
::, incoming radiation from the Sun and prodt1ce
lO
0 three main cycles of 100 000, 40 000 and 21 000
0
-
0-
Q.I tl1ousand years (Figure 4.6). His theory, and the
-·
""
Q.I,
timescale of each cycle, has been given co11sider­
glacials
'
...,_ - - . - -3 .....
3 able support by evidence gained, since the n1id-
'O
([) 1970s, from ocean floor cores. As yet, although
.....
Q)
c tl1e relationship appears to have been established,
-
-6 ""'
800 000 600 000 400 000 200 000 0
years before present 0 it is ·not known precisely how these celestial
• cycles relate ·to climatic change.
• • •• • • • • • • • •• • • • •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • •• • • • ••• • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • ••••• • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • •• • • •• • • • • • • • ••••••••••••• • • • ••
•
• • •

102 Glaciation
 - -- -- -
- --��---- ---- --�- -------- -� - ------ - - -· - - -

. .... ·- ..... . . ... ............ . . . ... ' .. .,,

26--1

28-

26 ___

Figure4.3
1----- ? �-_-
.....•.................•........•..•.....
World climates and
-------- - __ -s :::=�- --
'
_::;:_::,:=
�c·=====:::::::==:J,o4 - -----
---�"""""-;
--�
vegetation 18 000
years ago (after
---- CLIMAP)

ice
I
/
�Okm
1---2000 _,,.-...._
-----------------2900------
----- _ _______

ice dry steppe and sea temperature limit of ice.

semi-desert (OC) 18000
10 years ago
. (] � grassland savanna
<;-,; ·o <: sea ice (some open woodland)
ice height (m)
tundra forest 3000

loess and semi-desert lakes

desert 0 5000 km
Britain still jo �d to Europe
(sea-level was lower dur'ing the glacials)
•.

0th.er suggestions have been 1nade as to the heat in the atmosphere, possibly raising
ca.t1.ses of ice ages. Some of tl1ese processes are world temperatl1res by an estimated 3 ° C. In
likely to act in combi11ation (Places 14) and 111ay · time, some of tlus C0 2 will be absorbed by
well amplify Mila11kovitcl1's _variations. the seas, redt1cing the a111ount remaining in
• Variations in su.nspot activity may increase or the at1nosphere and causi11g a drop i11 world
decrease tl1e amount of ra.diation received by te1nperatt1res an� the onset of another ice age
the Earth. (Figure 4.5).
• In jectio11s of volcanic d.ust into tl1e atmos­ • Tl1e 111ovement of plates - eitl1er into colder
phere can reflect and absorb radiation from latitudes or at constructive margins, where
the Sun (page 207 and Figure 1.48). tl1ere is an increa.se in altitude - could lea.ct to
• Changes in at1nospheric carbo11 dioxide an overall drop in world la11d temperatt1res.
gas could accentuate tl1e greenl1ouse effect • Changes i11 ocea11 currents (pa·ge 211) or. j e·t
(Case Study 9B). Initially extra. C02 traps strea1ns (page 22 7).

• ' • t • • t • • I • • • t t , • • • e • • • e f t • f • f f f f • t t t f f f f f f f f t f t t f f f f f f f f f t f f f f f t f f f f f f f f f t • f t f t f t t f f f f f t f f f t t f f f I I f t f f f f f f f t f f f I f t t f f f f f I f t I f f f t t I t t f t t t f t f t f t t t t t t f f I t f f t t f f I t t f t t t f f f f t

Glaciation 103
 - -- -----
Antarctica and Greenland: previous climatic change

Antarctica
In 1988, the Russians a11nounced the first results
of a five-year drilling experiment in Antarctica
350
in wl1ich they extracted ice cores descending
downwards tl1rough tl1e ice sheet for nearly 2 km.
(0 2 concentration (Antarctic ice core)
Each core is a cylinder of ice 10 cm in diameter and
about 3 m in length.The cores sl1ow a succession 300 Q
Cl
0
of rings, each of which is equivalent to tl1e level 1800 AD -�· :J

accumulation of one year of snow (Figure 4.4). From -·

0
250 �.

-
tl1is, it was estimated that the ice at tl1e bottom of 2 0.
u 11)

tl1e core had been formed 160 000 ago. -0

-0
� 0 3
In 2004, the European Project for Ice Coring in c
ro 200 .$.
£
Antarctica (EPICA) went deeper.Tl1e team, from ten v
(IJ
-2
countries and including members of the former British :,
+-'
ro
Antarctic Survey, produced a 3 km deep ice core that Q) -4
a.
contained, at it lowest point, snowfall from 740 000
-6
(IJ
+-'
years ago. The consortium are still drilling and hope, temperature change (0 ()
by 2010, to reacl1 base rock under the ice sheet and to
150 100 50 0
recover ice tl1at fell as snow over 900 000 years ago.
thousands of years ago
Analysis of the core showed how temperature has
Figure4.5
changed in the past and l1ow the concentration of • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • < • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • •

gases, n1ain.ly C02 and methane, and particles in the Atmospheric C02 concentration
atmosphere, have varied. Results confirmed that: Greenland, 1998 and temperature change

• there have been eight glacials in the last 750 000 Two projects conducted from 1989 to 1993 collected
years and our present warm period is part of an parallel cores of ice from two places 30 km apart in
interglacial that could last for at least another the central part of the Greenland ice sheet. Each core
15 000 years (although this could, witl1out was over 2 km deep and has been shown to extend
evidence, be longer if global warming continues) back 110 000 years. During that period snowfall
averaged 15-20 cm a year. At the same time as the
• there is a close link between temperature
snow was being compressed into ice (page 1OS),
change and the content of C02 in the
volcanic dust, wind-blown dust, sea salt, gases and
atmosphere (Figure 4.5) and the last glacial
chemicals which were present in the atmosphere,
Figure4.4 began when the C02 content was very low
··················�··· ..•.................•••. ·•····•·•· were trapped within the ice.The gases included two
Dirt bands {englacial debris) • there have been several previous periods of types of oxygen isotope, 0-16 and 0-18 (page 248).
in an Icelandic glacier: the • c�nsiderable global volcanic activity The ratio between these two isotopes changes as
amount of ice between each
dirt band represents one year's
• there is a likelihood of the Earth wobbling on its the proportion of global water bound up in the ice
accumulation of snow axis causing Milankovitch's 21 million year cycle. changes (the amount of 0-18 in the atmosphere
- increases as air temperature falls, and decreases
• as air temperature rises).The changing ratios from
the Greenland cores showed short-term and long-
term changes in temperature, and that rapid global
• • change is more the norm for the Earth's climate
.. • •l
than the stability and gradual adjustment that
was previously assumed. The recent ice core from
Antarctica directly correlates 'with an astounding
regularity' with the abrupt climate changes in both
.,..-...::;;�--.....
-�-- � . -- _;,-r--:::�
polar areas. However, findings also suggest that as
Antarctica warms up, Greenland cools and, likewise,
--·-·
__...........,'!- .�::...., . - -c' �-·
'!'#- ,,, ,
when temperatures rise in Greenland, they fall in
.
Antarctica. This link suggests that the two icy regions
'
•

' \,' . c. are connected by ocean currents in a bipolar seesaw

,
� �
-__
. , "�......�,....._ �
I )
(Case Study 4).
•

'

.,.
�
• • • • ••• • • ••••••• • •• • •• • • • • •••••• • • • • • • • ... . .... . . .... ...................... .

-
 a the 100 000 year eccentricity

The Earth's orbit stretcl1es from being nearly circular to an

Q Sun
. .
elliptical shape and back again in a cycle of about 95 000
.
years. During tl1e Quaternary, the major glacial-interglacial
�ycle was �I most 100000 years. Glacials occur wl1en the orbit
is almost circular and interglacials wl1en it is a more
elliptical shape.
Q ,

Eartl1: elliptical orbit

0
Earth: more circular orbit

a, b
.. .. ••

b the 40 000 year obliquity

Althougl1 the tropics are set at 23.5 ° N and 23.S 0 S to equate

_ b
with the angle of tl1e Earth's tilt, in reality the Earth's axis
.: Earth's
varies from its plane of orbit by between 21.5° and 24.5 °. When
axis
tl1e tilt increases, summers will become hotter and winters
colder, leading to conditions favouring interglacials. a = 21.5 °

b = 24.5 °

axis describes a
circle every
c the 21 000 year precession 21000 years Earth's
winter

¢
summer
As the Earth slowly wobbles in space, its axis describes a
Q
.I
circle once in every 21 000 years. 1 Today Sun
1 At present, the orbit places the Earth closest to the Sun
�n tl1e northe�n hemisphere's winter and furthest away axis ·' axis
1n summer. This tends to make winters mild and summers
cool. These are ideal conditions for glacials to develop. summer
winter
2 The position was in reverse 12 000 years ago, and this has
contributed to the onset of our current interglacial.
2 12 000 it'\
'-\l
Sun Q
years
ago

Figure4.6
. . . . .......................................... Snow accumulation and ice formation When snowflakes fail tl1ey have an open,
The orbital forcing featl1ery appearance, trap air and have a low
As the cli1Date gets colder, more precipitation is
mechanisms of density. Where snow collects in l1ollows, it
Milankovitch's climatic
likely to be in the fo11D of snow in winter and there
· becomes compressed by the weight of subseque11t
change theory is less time for that snow to 111elt in the sh�rter
falls and gradt1ally d·evelops into a more compact,
st1mmer. If the climate continues to deteriorate,
dense form called firn or neve. Firn is compacted
s1:iow will lie tl1.roughout tl1e year forming a per­
snow which has experienced one winter's freezing
manent snow liI1e - the level above wl1ich snow
and SL1rvived a summer's melting. It is co111posed
will lie all year. In the northe1n. hemisphere, the
of randomly oriented ice crystals separated by air
snow line is a.t a lower altitude on 11orth-facing
passages. In temperate latitudes, such as in the
slopes, as these receive less insolatio11 than south­
Alps, st1mmer meltwater percolates into tl1e firn
faci11g slopes. The snow line is also lower nearer to
only to freeze eitl1er at night or during the fol­
tl1e poles and higher �earer to the ·Equator: it is. a.t •
lowing winter, thus forming an increasingly dense
sea-level in nortl1ern Greeriland; at about 1500 ID
mass. Air is progressively squeezed. ot1t and after
in souther11 Norway; at 3000 ID in the Alps; and
20-40 years the firn will have turned into solid
at 6000 m at th.e Equator. It is estimated tl1at the
ice. Tl1is same process may ·take several hundred
Cai:rngorms in Scotland would be snow-covered
years in AI1tarctica and Greenland where there is
all year had they been 200 m l1igher. In 2003 when
no �ummer melting. Once ice has formed, it 1nay
Sir Edm.und Hillary revisited the base camp for his
begin to flow dow11hill, under the force of gravity,
1953 ascent of Mount Everest, l1e found the snow­ _
a.s a glacier.
li11e had retreated uphill by 8 km in 50 years.
• • • •• • • • •••• • • • • •• •••••• • • • • • • •••••••••••••••••••••••••• • • •••••••••• • • •••••••••••••• • • • • • •• • • • • • ••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • •• •••••• • • • • • • • • • • • ! • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••••••••

Glaciation 1 OS

•
 ---- -- - -- --:.- - ·

humid and cold inputs

snowfall snow line
(low annual outputs
avalanches from ·
temperatures) valley sides meltwater
zone gf equilibrium
rivers
,:---
- - - -- -____
- (balance between
direct evaporation
accumulation and
ACCUMULATION ablation) from glacier
(usuaJly only in transfers calvi ng (iceb ergs on coast)
,,:·- �- - -- - •
winter) (movi11g ice) stora g e - - - - - - "'-'-::..:-�- � -
� -
- � � ,
(as glacier ice) � '''
net
accumulation ��-::-:-�-���������v��----:-,' �L-�-=���:��
� ��-��c-i
'- -
net ablation AB LATION meltwater
zone zone (usually only in .summer) (summer)

Figure4.7
4 Iceca1Js and ice sl1eets are huge areas of ice
.........................................
The glacial system
Giacoers and ice masses
wl1icl1 spread ot1twards from central domes.
showing inputs, Glaciers may be classified (Fra111ework 7, page 16 7)
stores, transfers
Apart from exposed st1mmits of l1igl1 1noun­
and outputs
accordir1g to size a11d sl1ape - cl1aracteristics tl1at tains, called 11t111atal<s, t he wl1ole landscape
are relatively easy to identify by field observation. is b11ried. Ice s heets, whicl1 011ce covered
1 Co1·1·ie or cirque glaciers are small masses of mt1ch of norther11 Et1rope and Nort.h America
ice occupyir1g armcl1air-sl1apecl l1ollows i11 (Figure 4.3) are n.ow confi11ed to Antarctica
1nou11tai11s (Figure 4.14). Tl1ey often overspill (86 per cent of present-day world ice) a11d
' frorn. their hollows to feed valley glaciers. Greenland (11 per cent).
2 Valley glaciers are larger masses of ice wl1icl1 5 Ice shelves for1n when ice sh.eets reac h tl1e
move dow11 fro1n either an icefield or a cirque sea and begin to float. Icebergs for111 w h e11
basi11·source (FigL1re 4.8). They LISL1ally follow ice breaks a"\l\1 ay, a process knovv11 as calving.
for1ner river courses a11d are botrnded by steep
sides. Glacial systems and budgets
3 Piedmont glaciers are formed vvl1en valley
A glacier behaves as a system (Fra1neworl< 3, page
glaciers extend 011to lowla11d areas, s1Jread
45), with inp11ts, stores, tra11sfers and outputs
011.t and n1erge.
(FigL1re 4. 7). Inpt1ts are derived from snow falli11g
directly 011to the glacier or from avalanches alo11g
Figure4.8 valley sides (Case Study 4). Th e glacier itself is
........ ·•··•··•······ .........•.........•.
The Gigjokull glacier, water in storage a11cl tra11sfer. Outputs from tl1e
Iceland, showing the glacier system incl11de evaporation, calvi11g (tl1e
zones of accumulation, for1nation of icebergs), a11d 111eltwater streams
equilibrium (snow wl1icl1 flow either on top of or 11nder th e ice
line) and ablation d11ring the su111mer months .
.... (..
' The upper part of tl1e glacier, wl1ere i11puts
. - ,'� exceed 011tp11ts, is known as tl1e zone of acct1-
. � I
·� mt1latio11; t h e lower part, wl1ere outputs exceed
l- inp11ts, is called tl1e zone of ablation. Tl1e zone
. I
of equilibriu111 is V\7here tl1e rates of accumula­
tion and ablation are equal, and it corresponds
J

..
with the s11ow line (Figures 4. 7 and 4.8).
· Tl1e glacier bt1clget, or net balance, is the dif­
fere11ce between t he total acct1mulation and the
total ablation for one year. In temperate glaciers
Figure4.9
......, .................................. (page 108), tl1ere is likely to be a negative balance in
The glacial budget or su1nmer when ablation exceeds accumulatio11, and
net balance (northern -
/ \ .c::, a positive balance in winter whe:n the reverse occt1rs
hemisphere) ·-S>
·�
. (Figure 4.9). If t h e su1nmer and winter budgets
C::I \
0
'.i::; I �
\ :::i
�ro I
� \ $�
.c- cancel eacl1 other out, the glacier appears to be
increasing �I \ (f stationary. It appears stationary because the snout
I \ (fJ
amo.unts
� .
of water pos1t1ve I
I
negative
\
positive - i.e. the end of t he glacier- is neither advancing
equivalent balance/ balance ,
' balance nor retreating, alth ough ice from the accu1nt1lation
. zo11e is still movi11g down-valley into the abla­
,/
- .,,.. .....____
• tion zone. Beca11se glaciers are acutely affected by
•
.J F M A M J J A 5 0 N D
chai1ges to inputs and outpt1ts, tl1ey are sensitive
winter spring sum·mer autumn winter indicators of climatic change, both sho1·t terrn and
long term.
.. .... ... .... •. ••••••••• •• •••••••••• • •• ••• •••••••• •••••••• •• ••••••••• • •••••••••• ••••••• •••••••• ••
f
f I f • • • • t I • • I • • • • • • • • f • e e • • • t e • t • f I e I e e
e • • e e • f • • • • • • • • I •
' t • • • • t •••••••••••••

106 ,Glaciation
 Glaciers
Glaciers are composed of a mosaic of thermal types of ice and
most are polythermal.This means that they may be
predominantly 'polar' or predominantly 'temperate: based upon
the climatic conditions in which they occur and their size (e.g.
the base of the 'polar' Antarctic ice sheet is 'temperate' because
it traps huge amounts of geotl1ermal heat).

Cold (polar} glaciers Temperate glaciers .

Occur in very cold areas where no melting occurs and where Occur in areas with milder summers allowing melting to occur,
the relief is usually gentle, e.g. Greenland, Antarctica. The base and where the relief is steeper, e.g. the Alps, Norway. The base l
is much colder than the pressure melting point temperature of a temperate glacier is at about the same temperature as the 1
and so little or no melting occurs (Figure 4.11 a). pressure melting point (Figure 4.11 a).

Internal flow Basal slippage (flow/sliding)

In very cold climates, the glacier will be frozen to its bed. Without If the glacier moves, there will be an increase in pressure and
any friction or an increase in pressure tl1ere will be no melting. friction with the bedrock.Tl1is will raise the temperature and the
Such glaciers may only move 1-2 cm per day and erosion will basal ice may melt.The resulting meltwater will act as a lubricant
be minimal (Figure 4.11b). enabling the glacier to flow more rapidly (perhaps 2-3 m per
I day), to pick up material (debris) and to erode its bed
(Figure 4.11b).

- - .. - ...... - - - - - - - _____________
I
•
I
I .,

J_ - -. . - -
Creep Extending and compressing flow Surges

--
.-----...........--�
l
. -. - - '
\r
\
)

Ice crystals orient themselves If there is an obstacle in the path . As most temperate glaciers occupy These are the result of an excessive
I •

in the direction of the glacier's of the glacier, pressure will 1 previously river-eroded valleys, their build-up of subglacial meltwater
movement. This allows ice increase. As the stress builds up, , initial velocity must have been reservoirs (not, as stated in earlier
crystals to slide past each other. the ice behaves like plastic and controlled by differences in the editions of this book, by excessive
As the surface ice moves faster, flows round or over the obstacle. gradient of those valleys. J.F. Nye · snowfalls in the accumulation zone).
crevasses may develop The lower the temperature, the • suggested that where there was a In addition, they can occasionally
1
(Figure 4.13). (This process can greater the pressure needed to } reduction in the gradient of the occur when rock avalanches fall onto
also operate within temperate allow this process to take place valley floor, the ice would decelerate I the glacier surface or, on even rarer
glaciers.) and so it is less likely to occur in and become thicker. He called this occasions, if triggered by an
I
cold glaciers. compressing flow. Where the valley earthquake. In a surge, the glacier
I gradient steepened, the ice would , moves forward, perhaps by 300 m in
l accelerate and become thinner: a day, an event which takes place in
extending flow. Erosion is greatest some glaciers once in every 30 -100
,
where the ice is thickest (Figure years. The surge may damage farms,
4.12c). and sudden release of meltwater
can cause severe flooding.
crevasses (an important
source of basal debris)
extending
compressing flow
flow
• (maximum erosion)
•
ice thins extending
ice thickens flow
·steeper gradient
----- gradient lessens ice thins
Figure4.10
................ ... ............. ..
gradient increases
, ,
'

Processes of glacier
movement
c.-.-----·�-���------���-----����--��-------��----��--���--�........,,.�--����----- ··-· ·�--�--����- ' 'l

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ! • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Glaciation 1·07
 ' .
Glacier movement and temperature tion (Figttre 4.llb). It can take place by one of
four processes: basal flow (or slipping); c1·eep;
Tl1e cl1aracter and 111ovem.ent of ice depe11d ttpon
exte11ding-co111p1·essing flow; and surges
wl1etl1er it is warm or colct, wl1ich in tur11 depends
(l:;igure 4.10). Polar glaciers 1nove less qt1ickly as,
t1pon the 1Jresst11·e melti11g point (PMP). Tl1e
without the presence of meltwater, they tend to
pressure n1elti11g 1Joi11t is tl1e te111perature a.t wl1ich
be frozen to their beds. Tl1e main process here is
ice is on tl1e verge of melting. A small increase i11
inter11al flow, althot1gl1 creep a11d extencling­
presst1re ca11 tl1erefore cat1se 111elting. PMP is nor-
° compressing flow may also occur.
1nally 0 C 011 tl1e stirface of a glacier, but it ca11 be
Both types of glacier 111ove more rapidly on
lower withi11 a glacier (due to an i11crease i11 pres­
the st1rface and away from tl1eir valley sides
sure caused by either tl1e weight or tl1e mo . vemen.t
(Figt1re 4.12a a11d b), bt1t it is the temperate
of ice). In other words, as presst1re increases, then
° 011e tl1at is tl1e 1nore lil,ely to erode its bed and
tl1e freezing point for water falls below 0 C.
to carry and deposit 1nost material as morai11e
Warm and cold ice (page 117). Recent research suggests that any
°
Warm ice has a te1nperature of a.round 0 .c (PMP) single glacier may exl1.ibit, at differe11t points
throughout its depth (l:;igure 4.1la) a11d conse­ along its profile, the characteristics of both polar
qt1ently is able, especially in st1mmer, to release a11d temperate glaciers.
large amounts of 111eltwater. Tempera.tures in Move1nent is greatest:
°
cold ice are per111anently below 0 C (PMP) a11d • at the point of equilibriu1n - as this is where
so there is virtually 110 meltwater (Figure 4.11.a). the greatest volume of ice passes and conse­
It is the prese11ce of meltwater that facilitates the quently where there is most energy available
111.ovement of a glacier. Temperature is therefore • in areas witl1 high precipitation and ablation
Figure 4.11
an alter11ative criterion to size or sl1ape for use • in small glaciers, which respond more readily
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . ......... ' .. ... ..• . whe11 categorisi1�g glaciers - they may be either to short-term climatic flt1ctuations
Comparison of
te1nperate (mainly warm ice) or ·polar (mainly • in temperate glaciers, wl1ere tl1ere is more
temperature and
velocity profiles in cold ice) - Figure 4.10. Moveme11t is mt1ch faster meltwater available, and
polar and temperate in te1npera.te glaciers where the prese11ce of • in areas witl1 steep gradients.
glaciers meltvvater acts as a lubrica11t and reduces fric-
•
•

a Temperature profiles
Polar glacier Temperate glacier
-30 -20 -10 0 +10 °( -3o -2ow -10 o +10 °c
w --0 ( ° 1 1
surface of t----1.-----=· -... :---j;:-o....-..- 1

s
__J

s.urface of s
!.;;;::::

-- PMP (pressure melting point) glacier ��

glacier
-- annual temperature
increasing W = winter surface temperature
depth (m)
S = summer surface temperature

base
On both graphs temperatures show an
increase with depth due to geothermal heat. base ....___- _______......_____
Temperature a_t base of cold glacier is well below PMP. Temperature at base of temperate glacier is
Little or no meltwater beneath glacier prevents it from about the same as PMP. Meltwater beneath
moving freely. Only under thickest parts of glaciers glacier can either be permanent or seasonal
in Antarctica does temperature exceed PMP to allow allowing the glacier to move freely (less friction).
melting and movement to occur.
b Velocity profiles
Polar gl·acier Tempel'.ate glacier
' .
r--'"'"r,--,---------s ice surface ice suriace
internal flow •
depth (m) depth (m)
.
basal flow
basal flow base of glacier
base of glacier (at pressure
speed of flow speed of flow melting point)

••• ... . .. .. . .. ..... .... ... ..... ... ... ...... ... .. ....... . ...... . ... ... ... .. ...... '... ... .. ... .... . ... ... . . . . ... .. ... ... ....... .. .. .. ..... .. .. . .. ..... .•.. •• • ••••••••• •••
• • •

108 Glaciation
 a surface velocity of b changes in velocity c extending and compressing flow
a glacier with depth
valley wall o.------- glacier exten�ing flow extending flow
sur face bergschrund and crevasses and seracs (ice-blocks or step
crevasses faults), 1000 m/yr (Figure 4.13)
c c w surface of ice breaks and cracks
0 ..... 0 · -
....
·-
u u
·- QJ ·- u
.... n::J
compressing because of the higher velo city
glacier centre of u -
QJ n::J
VI - QJ O"'I flow pr essure bulges as
movement m � glacier ��

U VI
·;::; 0
n::J
�
.....
O"'I
::,
compressive flo w
..... ..... 0
..... ..... compressing begins, 100 m/yr
QJ u ice
> n::J QJ �
> ..., flow
crevasses
cirque (corrie) dead ice
valley rock basin,
valley wall 2 OOm 1--""--r----' at snout
0 25 50 75 100 0 10 20 30 floor g·radi.ent 1 :5 ice
rock step or bar with
mper year mper year
ice-fall, gradient 1 :2 valley rock basin,
O original positio n of O positio n of markerpoles gradient 1:25
markerpoles after one year

Figure 4. 12
.......................................
Plan view to show
�,
a and b velocity
c ftow of a glacier 1
�· -:c.,.:=-=...
, -l
•
_.::-- - '
-=i

----=-·· - ..
·•l.s• [

Figure 4.13
. . . . . . . . . . . .......................... .
Crevasses on an
icefall, Skafta
glacier, Iceland

Transportation by ice Glacial erosion

Glaciers are capable of moving large qt1antities lee that is stationary or contains little debris
of debris. This rocl< debris may be transportecl in l1as limited erosive power, whereas 1novi.11g ice
one of three ways: carryi11g with it 1nucl1 debris can drastically alter
I Supraglacial debris is carried on the surface the landscape. Although ice lacks ttie turbtilence
of tl1e glacier as lateral and 1nedial morai11e and velocity of water in a river, it has the 'advan­
(page 117). It consists of 1naterial tl1at has tage' of being able to 1nelt and refreeze i11 order
fallen 011to the glacier fron1 the surrounding to overco1ne obstacles in its 1Jath (Figure 4.10)
valley sides. 111 st1m111er, the relatively small and. consequently l1as tl1e ability to lower (i.e.
load carried by surface meltwater streams erode) the landscape more quickly than can
often disappears dow11 crevasses. ru11ning water. Virtually all the glacial processes
2 Englacial debris is material carried within the of erosion are physical, as the clin1ate tends to
bod.y of the glacier. It may once l1ave been on be too cold for chemical reactions to operate
the surface, only to be buried by later snow­ (Figure 2.10).
falls or to fall into crevasses (Figt1re 4.4).
3 Subglacial debris is moved alo11g the floor
of the valley eitl1er by the ice or by melt­
wa.ter streams formed by presst1re melti11g
(page 108).
.................'....................................................................... .................. ...................... ........................... .............
�

Glaciation 109
 ------------- - - - -

Processes of glacial erosion Plucl<ing

- At its si111p les t, th is proc ess inv olves the glacier
Tl1e processes associated witl1 glacial erosio11 are:
fre ezi 11g on to roc l< ou tcr op s, aft er which ice move­
frost shattering, abrasio11, 1)lL1cl,i11g, rotatio11al
me nt pL1 lls aw ay 111ass es of roc k. In reality, as tl1e
1110,,e1ne11t, and extendi11g and co111pressi11g
stre11 gtl 1 of tl1 e be dr oc k is gre ate r th an that of the
flO\iV.
ice, it would seem that only previously loosened
Frost shattering materjal can be re111oved. Material 111ay be con.­
Tl1is 1Jrocess (page 40) proclt1ces 111t1cl1 loose tint1ally loosened by one of three processes:
1naterial which 1nay fall fro111 tl1e valley sides 1 rfhe relationship between local pressure and
011to tl1e eclges of tl1e glacier to for111 lateral temperatt1re (the PMP) prodt1ces sL1fficie11t
1n.01·ai11e, be cove.reel by later s11owfall, or J)lunge 111eltwater for freeze-thaw activity to break up
do,,vn crevasses to be tra11s1)ortecl as e11glacial the ice-co11tact rock.
deb1·is. So1ne of tl1is material n1ay be added · 2 Water flowing dow11 a bergscl11·11nd (a large,
to rock loosened by frost action as tl1e cli111ate crevasse-like feature fou11d near the head of
cleteriorated (bt1t before glaciers for111ed) to forrn so1ne glaciers - Figure 4.14b) or smaller cre­
· basal deb1·is (page 117). vasses will later freeze onto rock surfaces.

•
Abrasion 3 Removal of layers of bedrock by tl1e glacier
Tl1is is tl1e sa11d1)apering effect of angular 1nat­ causes a release in presst1re and a11 enlarging
erial embedded. in the glacier as it rt1bs agai11st of joints in the underlying rocks (presst1re
Figure 4. 14 tl1e valley sides a11d floor. It Ltsually produces release, page 41).
........................... ·········• ...
Processes in the s1nootl1ened, gently slOJ)ing la11dforms. Plt1cking generally creates a jagged-featt1red
formation of a cirque landscape.
4f, ............ Ii

a early stages of ,,______ north-facing slope

glacial ero�ion receiving little
insolation

frost shattering provides snow remains in hollow all year,

- a supply of loose hollow is enlarged by nivation
material
rock debris removed by
meltwater stream or by
surface thaws solifluction in summer
- 1 L
'

- in summer

permanently fro,2en ground

.....

1 frost shattering above glacier provides ••

b advanced stages Transportation of debris
morainic debris wl1ich falls onto top of glacier
of glacial erosion X supraglacial debris (on top of glacier)
5 meltwater flows down bergschrund Y englacial debris (within the glacier)
and crevasses to base of glacier Z basal debris (under the glacier, by
A 6a a pivot point for ice and meltwater)
rotational movement A bergschrund and crevasses formed
•

3a plucking steepens the , .o · .... . __ - - - - - - - :. � � as ice pulls away from the back wall
back wall and adds to su_pply - former supraglacial debris - .,., � / / , 1 ', B crevasses
-----::__ ,
of debris ;l which has been coNered ---� · • , C dead ice and moraine
by laier.s Gwtafls
/
l· � � X
� ���...- �-----.
.--- B
•

il
O
6b glacieryas a \8 uneven floor due
,. rota:i�al movemen�c to extending and�.,..---< "::,---·�r 3b rock lip (threshold)
d�ening its base� c�mpressingJlaw where plucking also
,,,,' takes place
,� ..
,' �
�
�
- ;..__ �"
· c> <> 7 some creep
,,
zone of plucking , , , ' 4 wider:,ingiQfjoiots - "" -'a.g.,� "'a ... ,.., .ao ..
Z summer
by pr�s"Sure rele.�
, , , ., 2 ab'tas�{grjnding) oy an·gular material. If pressure
, " meltwater
" , (e).(agger:ates shape) · ...,;;,;�· melting point is.c._eached tt}.e extra supply of water-will
, , , ' , zone of abrasi.on reduce friction and increase velocity-and erosion
•

{Numbers r-efer to different glacial processes)

 •

Figure4.15
......... ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . .......... .
A cirque in West
Wales (Cader Idris).
The steep wall
maintains its shape
as freeze-thaw still
operates. Broken-off
material forms scree
which is beginning
to infill the lake,
which itself has been
dammed behind a
natural rock lip

Rotational movement glacials in wl1ich to form. As the snow patch

This is a dow11l1ill 111ovement of ice which, like a grew, its layers became increasingly compressed
landslide (Figure 2.17), pivots about a point. The to for111 firn a11d, eventually, ice (page 105).
increase in pressure is respo11sible for tl1e over­ It is accepted that several processes i11teract
deepeni11g of a cirque floor (Figure 4.14b). to form a fully developed cirque (Figt1re 4.14b).
Plt1cking is one process responsible for steepeni11g
Extending and compressing flow the back wall, but tl1is partly relies upon a supply
Figures 4.10 an . d 4. l 2c sh ow how tl1is process of water for freeze-thaw a11d partly upon pressure
cat1ses differences in the rate of erosio11 at the release in well-joi11ted rocks. A rotational move­
base of a glacier. ment, aided by water from pressure poi11t melting
Maxi1nu.m erosio11 occurs: a11d a11gL1lar subglacial debris from frost shattering,
°
• wl1ere te111peratt1res flt1ctuate arot1nd 0 C, enables abrasion to over-deepen the floor of tl1e
allowing freqL1e11t freeze-tl1aw to operate cirqt1e: A rock lip develops wl1ere erosion decreases.
• in areas of joi11ted rocks whicl1 can be more This may be increased in heigl1t by the deposition
easily frost shattered of morainic debris at the glacier's snout. When the
• wl1ere two tribt1tary glaciers joi11, or the valley climate begins to get warmer, the ice remaini11g in
narrows, givi11g an increased depth of ice, and the hollow melts to leave a deep, rou11ded lake or
• in steep mou11tainous regions in temperate tarn.(Figures 4.15 and 4.26).
latitudes, where the velocity of the glacier is In Britain, as elsewhere in the northern
greatest. hemisphere, cirqt1es are nearly always oriented
°
betwee11 the nortl1-west (315 ), througl1 the
Landforms produced by glacial erosion north-east (where the frequency peaks) to the
Cirques °
south-east (135 ). This is because in the UK:
Tl1ese are a1nphitl1eatre or armchair-shaped • norther11 slopes receive least insolation and
hollo\,vs with a steep bacl< wall a11d a rock. basin so glaciers remained there mucl1 lo11ger tl1an
(Figure 4.15). They are also known as corries those faci11g in more southerly directions (less
(Scotla11d) and cwms (Wales - Figures 4.25 1nelti11g on 11orth-facing slopes). .

and 4.26). • western slopes face the sea and, altliot1gh still
. During periglacial tin1es (Chapter 5), before cold, the relatively warmer wi11ds whicl1 blew
tl1e last glacial, snow collected in hollows, from tl1at directio11 were 111ore likely to melt
especially on north-facing slopes. A series of the snow and ice (more snow accu111ulated on
processes, collectively known as 11ivation and east-facing slopes)
which i11clt1ded freeze-thaw, solifluction and • the prevailin.g westerly wiJ1ds cat1se s11ow to
possibly cl1e1nical weathering, operated under drift i11to east-facing hollows.
a11d around the snow patcl1 (Figure 4.14a). Tl1ese Lip orientation is the direction of an imaginary
processes cau.sed the tinde�lying rocks to disin­ li11e. fron1 the centre of the back wall of the cirque
.

tegrate. Tl1e resultant debris was then removed to its lip. Of 56 cirques identified in the Snowdon
°
by st1mmer meltwater streams to leave, in tl1e area, 51 have a lip orientation of between 310
°
enlarged J1ollow, an embryo cirque. It has been and 120 , and of 15 on Arran, 14 have an orien­
suggested tl1at tl1e overdeepening process n1ight tation between 5° a11d 1.15° .
need several periglacials or interglacials and •

• • • • • • • • • .• • • • • • • • • •• • • • • •• • • •• • • ••• • ••• • •• • •••••• . .. .. .... .. ... .. . ..... . .. . ...... ... .... ... .. ...... .. .. ... . ........ .. ... . .. .. . . . ... .... . . .. .. . .. ... .. . ... . .... . . .........
�

Glaciation 111
 -- -- ---�------------ - -

. .. . ___ ____ ___, .,_ - ·-�-___...-----�------------�---,

: · Framework..-1 5
.
; ,;.

Mean, median a·nd mo,de

Mean, median and mode are all types of average as 16, then the median would have been the
(measures of dispersion, Framework 8, page 246). mean of the two middle values. The median is
a less accurate measure of dispersion than the
1 The mean (or arithmetic average) is obtained
mean because widely differing sets of data can
by totalling the values in a set of data and
return the same median, but it is less distorted by
dividing by the number of values in that set. It is
extreme values.
expressed by tl1e formula:
- Ix 3 The mode is the value or class that occurs most
x = -
n frequently in the data. In the set of values 4, 6, 4, 2,
where: 4 the mode would be 4. Although it is the easiest
of the three'averages'to obtain, it has limited
x = mean, I= the sum of, x = the value of the
value. Some data may not have two values in the
variable, n = the number of values in the set
same class (e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5), while others may have
The mean is reliable when the number of values more than one modal value (e.g. 1, 1, 2, 4, 4).
in the sample is high and their range, i.e.the
difference between the highest and lowest Relationships between mean, median
values, is low, but it becomes less reliable as the and mode
number in the sample decreases, as it is then
When data is plotted on a graph we can often
influenced by extreme values.
make useful observations about the shape of the
2 The median is the mid-point value of a set of curve. For example, we would expect A-level results
data. For example, you have to find the median nationally to show a few top grades, a smaller
height of students in your class. To do this you number of'unclassifieds' and a large number of
will have to rank each person in descending average passes. Graphically this would show a
order of height. If there were 15 students then normal distribution, with all three averages at the
Figure4.16 the mid-point would be the eighth student as peak. If the distribution is skewed, then by definition
........................................
Normal and skewed there will be seven taller and seven shorter. Had only the mode will lie at the peak (Figure 4.16).
distributions there been an even number in the sample, such

a normal distribution b positively skewed distribution c negatively skewed distribution

mode mode
mean, median and mode median median
mean mean
>­
u
>­
u
>­
u
c:
QJ QJ QJ

- -
:::,

-
::::, ::::,
O" O" O"
QJ QJ QJ

variable variable variable

Aretes and pyramidal peaks

W.he11 two adjacent cirques erode backwards
• or sideway s towards each other, the previously
.,. rounded la11dscape is tra11sformed i11to a na1·rowI .
•

'
rocky, steep-sided ridge called an arete, as at
',
Striding Edge in the Lake District (Figure 4.17) and
....
..
-· lp ...

Crib Goch on. Snowdon (Figu1·e 4.25). If three or

:;;...,-
.# ..� •

more cirqt1es develop on all sides of a mountai11

I
a pyramidal IJeak, or l1or11, may be for1ned. This
feature has steep sides and several aretes radiating
from the central peak (Figures 4.18 and 4.19), e.g.
the Matterhorn.
Figure4.17
..•.•...•..........•.........•.. •..........··················

An arete: Striding Edge on

Helvellyn in the Lake District
...............
. ............ ....................... ........... .. ... .. .........
 Glacial troughs, rock steps, truncated
spurs and hanging valleys
Tl1ese features are i11terrelated i11 their for1na-
tio11. Valley glaciers straight�n, widen a11d deepen
preglacial valleys, turning tl1e origi11al V-shaped,
river-for111ed feature into the characteristic U
sl1ape typical of glacial erosion, e.g. Wast Water in
tl1e Lake District (Figure 4.20). These steep-sided,
flat-floored valleys are known as glacial trougl1s.
The overdeepe11ing of the valleys is credited to the
1novement of ice whicl1, aided by large volumes
of 1neltwater and subglacial debris, has a greater
erosive power tl1a11 tl1at of rivers. Extending and
coinpressing flow 111ay· overdeepe11 parts of the
Figure4.18
........................... ............. ' .............. ... . trough floor, which later may be occupied by lo11g,
Aretes in the Karakoram narrow ribbon lal<es, st1cl1 as Wast Water, or may
Mountains, northern Pakistan
leave Jess eroded, more resista11t 1·ock steps.
Tl1eories to explain pronounced overdeep­
ening of valley floors are debated amo11gst glaci­
ologists and geo1norphologists. SLtggested causes
inclt1de: extra erosion following the
co11flue11ce of two glaciers; tl1e presence of
weaker rocks; an area of rock deeply weathered
in preglacial times; or a zone of well-jointed rock.
Sl1ould the deepeni11g of tl1e trough conti11ue
below the for1ner sea-level, then during deglacia­
tio11 and st1bsegue11t rises in sea-level the valley
may become submerged to form a fiord (Figt1res
4.21 and 6.48).
Abrasion by e11glacial and subglacial debris
a11d plucking along the valley sides re111ove the
Figure4.19 tips of preglacial i11terlocking spurs leavi11g cliff­
............................ . ..... .............. lil<e tr11ncated spt1rs (Figure 4.20, a11d to the left
A pyramidal peak:
of Figure 4.27).
Machhappuchare, Nepal

---<' ___ ........... -·�-�

,•

Figure4.20
.. . . . . . ... . . . . ... . .. . . ........... .. ...... ............... , ... .
Figure4.21
Glacial trough with ribbon lake: ' .. . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .....' ........... .... . . . . . . . ..... ... .... .
Wast Water in the Lake District A fiord: Milford Sound, New Zealand
 <=="'?=.--••• s '"'-r,,,..,.,,., ·-'> -......-. ..._,...,_,_
_..,.....,--,;....a. ,....,_...__.--""�-�·�•·"'-�-----
�··

Figure4.22 Hanging valleys rest1lt fro111 differe11tial

....... .. ....... . . . ...........
Hanging valley:
erosion between a 1nain glacier ancl its tributary
Lake Bigden, glaciers. 1,he floor of any tributary glacier is
Norway deepened at a s lower rate so tl1at when the
glaciers melt it is left l1ang i ng l1igl1 above tl1e
111ai11 valley a.11d its river has to desce11d by a
single waterfall or a series of waterfalls, e.g. Lake
Bigden, Norway (Figt1re 4.22) and Cwm Dy li ,
Snowdo11ia (l:;igure 4.25).
Striations, roches moutonnees, rock
drumlins and crag and tail
Tl1ese are all s111aller erosion features wl1 i cl1 l1elp
to i11dicate the direction of ice 1nove1nent. As a
glacier moves across areas of exposed rock, larger
frag1nents of angular debri s e111beddecl in the ice
tend to leave a series of para llel scratches and
grooves called striations (e.g. Ce11tral Park in
New York).
A roche mot1tonnee is a 111ass of more
resista11t rock. It l1as a smootl1, rot1nded trpvalley
or stoss slope facing tl1e direction of ice flow,
formed by abrasion, and a steep, jagged, down.­
valley or lee slope resulting fro1n plt1cki11g
(Figures 4.23 and 4.24).
Rock d1·t1mlins are 1nore streamlined bedrock
wl1ich lack the qt1arried lee face of tl1e rocl1e
mouto11nee. Tl1ey are so111etimes referred to as
whalebacks as tl1ey resemble the backs of wl1ales
breaking tl1e ocean surface.
A crag and tail co11sists of a larger mass of
resista11t rock or crag (e.g. the basaltic crag upon
which Ed.i11bt1rgh Castle has bee11 built) which
protected the lee-side rocks fro111 erosion, tl1us
forming a gently sloping tail of deposited n1aterial
(e.g. the tail down wl1ich tl1e Royal Mile extends).
It should be reme111bered that wl1ile 1nany of
these erosional landforms may be found togetl1er
in most glaciated upla11ds, tl1eir arrangeme11t, fre­
quency and presence is likely to cl1ange fro1n one
area to a11other. Places 15 describes some of these
glacial features as fou11d in 011e part of Snowdonia.
Figure4.23
......... ............... .... ............
A roche moutonnee:
Yosemite National
Park, California

glacier and direction of flow fluctuating water

pressure causes
. refreezing and plucking
, : ?;? of loosened material
local pressure � - �

melting
roc:'ks, perhaps also
'
eng'lacial an'd s·u'bglaclal pre.ssure release
debr.is causihg abrasion
Figure4.24 •
. . . ...... . . . . .. . . 1 •• • • • • • •• • • • ' • • • • • • •

$,toss some ·ice,behaving like plastic, can flow around the obstacle·
The formation of a • lee
roche moutonnee
•••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••• ••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••• •••••••••••••••••• ' . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . ...... ·······································
1.14 Glaciation ..
 --- ' • > .... .... .• -
Snowdonia: glacial landforms
-··,
-·. ... ·= ,,.
, .
• >
. '•
'

Snowdonia is an example of a glaciated

.,.
'

. Llyn. Peris - ·� ,,,.,'.

r--.................__ ., . "'" ., '
\

ribbon lake.,
,
• . upland area. Althougl, Snowdon itself has
'
I the characteristics of a pyramidal peak, the
1
,
' •
ice age was too short (by several thousand
!
' 1 years) for tl,e completed development of
the classic pyramidal shape which makes the
'
· appearance of the Matterhorn so spectacular
(compare Figure 4.19). What are well
•
developed are the aretes, such as Crib Goch
,/
and Bwlcl, Main, which radiate from the
central peak. Between these aretes are up to
'
..
half a dozen cirques (cwms, as this is Wales),
, ' including the eastward-facing Glaslyn and
. ,,
...1·.
the north-eastward-oriented (page 111)
•
..
.J
Llyn (lake) Llydaw. Glaslyn, which is trapped
••
by a rock lip, is 170 m higher than Llyn
.. ,

Llydaw (Figure 4.26). Striations and roches

\
moutonnees can be found in several places
where the rocks are exposed on tl,e surface.
••
To the north and south-east of Snowdon are
' I
the glacial troughs of Nant (valley) Llanberis,
Nant Ffrancon and Nant Gwynant. These
valleys have the characteristic U shape, with
,,....
steep valley sides, truncated spurs and a
flat valley floor (Figure 4.27). Located on
the valley floors are ribbon lakes, including
Llyn Peris and Llyn Gwynant (Figure 3.24).
Numerous small rivers, with their sources
in hanging valleys, descend by waterfalls,
as at Cwm Dyli, into the two main valleys.
Although the ice has long since gone, the
actions of frost and snow, together with that
of rain and more recently people, continue
Figure4.25 to modify the landscape - remember that
..... ' ................................................................ ........................................
,
rarely does a landscape exhibit stereotyped
Landsketch of glacial features in Snowdonia (looking west)
'textbook'features (see Figure 4.25)!
••

Figure4.26 Figure4.27
.................................................... ........... ........................................................�
Llyn Glaslyn: a cirque lake formed Nant Ffrancon: a glacial trough
behind a rock lip, and a hanging with, at the sides, truncated
valley into Llyn Llydaw spurs and hanging valleys

• o • o f • f O • f f e f f o t ···························••!••· ······· o f O I f • 0 f 9 f f ' f •

t t f f • o t f O f t O f t ! f f O o f t • O t O O ! O 1 f o f f o o f f o f t I f I t o f I f I I f o f I I I f O f t f O f f o O t f I f f t t t I I f t f f I t O • f o I t O I • t f f f .....
Glaciation 115-
 Glacigenetic, or glacial, sediment

.. ·'

Till Glacifluvial
(unsorted material deposited by glaciers) (sorted material deposited by meltwater ,streams}

1 Till
1 Outwash sands and gravels (sandur}
2 Glacilacustrine sediments (e.g. varves)
2 Erratics
3 Moraines 3 Karnes and kame terraces
4 Drumlins 4 Eskers
5 Kettles
6 Braided streams

Figure4.28
.. ..... ............ , . , .......... .... . . .. , Glacial deposition l�ill fabric analysis is a fieldwork teclu1iq11e
Landforms resulting t1sed to determine tl1e directio11 a11d source of
fro1n glacial Glacige11etic sedin1e11t (or glacial sedi1nents) l1as glacial deposits. Sto11es and pebbles carried by a
deposition replaced 'drift' as tl1e tern1 which was t1sed histori­ glacier tend to become aligned witl1 their lo11g axes
cally by British, geologists and glaciologists whe11 parallel to tl1e direction of ice flow, as tl1is offers
referring collectively to all glacial deposits (l�igu1:e least resistance to the ice. For example, a small
4.28). These deposits, whicl1 inclt1d.e boulders, sa1nple of 50 sto11.es was taken from a n1orai11e in
gravels, sa11ds and clays, 1nay be subdivided into Glen Rosa, Arra11. As eacl1 stone was re111oved, its
till, whicJ1 inclt1des all material deposited directly geology was examined and its 01ientation was care­
by the ice, a11d glacifluvial 1naterial, which is the fully 1neasured using a compass. Th.e restilts allowed
debris deposited by 111eltwater strea111s. Glacifluvial two conclusions to be reached:
1naterial inclt1des deposits wl1_icl1 may have lJeen 1 Tl1e pebbles were grot1ped i11to classes of 20 °
deposited initially b)' the ice and which were later and plotted onto a rose diagram (FigL1re 4.29).
, pickecl up a11d redeposited by meltwater- either
The classes were plotted as respective radii from
during or after tl1e ice age. Till co11sists of largely the midpoint of the diagram and t11en tl1e ends
t1nsorted 1naterial, wh.ereas glacifluvial deposits of tl1e radii were joined up to form a sta1·-like
have bee11 sorted. Deposition occurs in tipland polygonal grapl1. As each stone l1as two orien­
valleys arid across lowland areas. A study of glaci­ tations whicl1 mtist be opposites (e.g. 10 ° and.
ge11etic deposits l1elps to ex1Jlai11 tl1e: °
190 ), t.11e. graph will be sy1nn1etrical. The rest1lts
• nature a11d extent of an ice advance show tl1at the ice 1n.ust have co1ne from the
•
• freqtiency of ice advances 11ortl1-nortl1-west or the soutl1-south-east.
• sources and directions of ice movement, and 2 Althougl1 most of the pebbles take11 in the
• postglacial chronology (inclucling cli1natic san1ple were composed of local rock, some
•
cl1anges, page 294). were of material not found 011 the isla11d
Till deposits (erratics). Tl1is suggests that some of the ice
Alth.ough tl1e term till is often applied today to 1nt1st have come from the Scottisl1 mainland.
•

all ma.terials deposited by ice, it is n1ore accurately

N
used to 1nean an unsorted. 1nixture of rocks, clays oo
and sa11d.s. Tl1is 1naterial was largely tra11sported
as supraglacial debris and later deposited to
form moraine - either dt1ring periocls of active
ice movement, or at times when the glacier was
in. retreat. In Britain, till was co1nmonly called.
boulder clay bt1t - since some deposits may
contain neither boulders nor clay- this term is 12
now obsolete. Individual stones are sub-a11gular 16

- that is, they are not rot1nded like river or beach

material but neither do tl1ey possess the sharp
edges of rocks tl1at l1ave recently been broken
up by frost shattering. The composition of till 180°
reflects tl1e character of the rocks over which it s
has passed; East Anglia, for example, is covered
Figure4.29
by chalky till because the ice passed over a cl1a.lk ······•··· • · · · ·•· · · •••·· · ·•··•• · •• · ··•• · · · ··· ·•··• · • · • •··· •••

esca1-pment, i.e. the East AI1glian Heigl1ts. Till fabric analysis: orientation of
a sample of stones taken from a
moraine in Glen Rosa, Arran
'

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . .. . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . .
. ..
116 Glaciation
 -
Landforms characteristic of glacial Moraine
deposition Moraine is a type of la11dfor1n tl1at develops whe11
Erratics the debris carried by a glacier is deposited. It is
Tl1ese are boulclers IJicl,ed up a1.1d carried by ice, 11ot, therefore, the actual 111aterial tha.t is being
ofte11. for man y kilo111etres, to be deposited i11 areas tra11sported by tl1e glacier - witl1 the exception of
of co111pletely different lithology (l�igure 4.30). tl1e medial 111.oraine, wh.icl1 is a term that refers to
Litl1ology is the study of tl1e n att1re and co1n1Josi­ a landform botl1 o n tl1e glacier a.n d i11 the valley
tio11 of rocks. By determi11i11g \,vhere tl1e boulders after glacial recessio11. It is possible to recognise at
Figure4.30
.. .. . .. . . . .. .. ........................... originally ca111e fro111, it is possible to tracl, ice least five t)rpes of morai11e (Figure 4.31):
An erratic near 1nove111.ents. For exa111ple, volca11ic 1naterial fro111. • I�ateral mo1·ai11e is for111ed fro111 debris derived
lngleborough in froin frost sl1atteri11g of valle)' sides and carried
the Yorkshire Dales: 1-\ilsa Craig in tl1e J?irth of Clyde l1as bee11 fot1 nd
Silurian rock lying on 250 k111 to the sot1tl1 011 the La n cashire 1Jlai11, alo11g the edges of the glacier (Figure 4.32).
top of Carboniferous wl1ile so1ne deposits on tl1e north Norfolk coast Wl1en the glacier melts, it leaves an e1nbank­
limestone (Figure 1 .1) originated in sot1tl1er11 Norway. ment of m . aterial along th.e valley side.
• Medial 11101·ai11e is fou11d i n the centre of a
• valley and rest1lts from tl1e 1nergi11g of two
lateral moraines where two glaciers joined
(Figure 4.32). .
• Terminal or end mo1·aine is often a higJ1
mound (or series of mou n ds) of material
exte11ding across a valley, or lowla11d area, at
rigl1t-angles to and marki11g the maxi111t1m
advance of the glacier or ice sheet.
• Recessional moraines 1nark i11.terruptions in ,

t11e retrea.t of the ice when the glacier or ice

sheet remained statio11ary long enough for a
mot1nd to build up. Recessional moraines are
ust1ally parallel to the terminal morai11e.
• Push moraines 111ay develop if the climate
dete1iorates sufficiently for the ice te111pora1·ily
to advance again. Previously deposited moraine
may be shunted up into a mound. It can be rec­
ognised by i11dividual stones whic11 have been
pt1shed t1pwards from t11eir original l1orizontal
positions, or even large blocks of sediment tl1at
l1ave bee11 bLtlldozed whole, while froze11 .
,.,. . . . ./';•"',!'
.·.. /''
....f . ,._
.
/.,'�
f - ..( .
, ,..
- ;J

'
A

Figure4.31 ,
......................................... '

Types of moraine .. .!,

I.
• . '
//

.·. ,,

- �� \\
••
I

.'
.

'-:>1=·; .• --� --
t '
···' t ·· t(r..-- ·
,·

,,,. ·--. l...·

--l
, -�...
: ·;�K .. ;-�
'
J- -- ... ... .. •

r ""--· ,.-.-- - .
'
·�- ,,_ •

'. ..·,'
................. • • •
...'"+' -�·
.:....._.-.
" ..,·\
1 cirque glacier ,�....,.
- • ,. • •

'
�

2 lateral moraine ..• /

·····'\,.••­
•

,
3 medial moraine "'• .·
• I
� .,.,.

..
.

4 valley glacier -
,-...•
...
•

5 frost shattering
.' I
I
.',.•
•

..
. ! , -

6 meltwater streams .. ' -

-

-·
I :-
• L.I ...-·

7 recessional moraine ' ./ j /'4

��·
" .·•
•
,•
!j•
8 push morain�
.. ,' . , .
•,J· I
9 terminal moraine . . . ..
//. (

•
• • •
(

••
' • -.,;;c_.
•
,. .I
'I
' •

-
I
l
bedrock
�.... - .
• !"'
'-
. ·. e (' ,- "\
,,...
.. "�---­
c�
,.. . /. . ..
.. '. (
.,
'
. ;•
.,..... ,. 117
\
'•
f ,-. •
•
..
'r , _·-�� L
.,.,,
•
I.
,
... .,
� ...�� ,�,..f\;,,-�
�

'
r-::;..
. .. ,,.. ,-. .... .. ..
 •

Figure4.32
..... . ...... . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . ...... .
Medial and lateral moraines,
Meade Glacier, Alaska

Figure4.33
. ., .. .. .. ..... . .... ... .. ........ ............... ....
Morainic mounds above
Haweswater, Cumbria
l1ighest poin, t of tl1e feature is near to tl1e stoss
end (Figure 4.34). The sl1ape of drumlins can be
described by L1si11g the elo11gatio11 ratio:
= I
E

v\ h.ere I is the rnaxi111t1m bedform length, and W

1

is the 1naximun1 bedfor1n width. Dru111li11s are

alv\1ays longer tl1an they are ,tvide, and they are
ust1ally fot1nd in swarms or erz eche/011.
There is 1nt1cl1 disagree111e11t as to l1ow drum­
li11s are for1ned. Tl1eories st1ggest they may be
an erosio11 featt1re, or for1ned by deposition
arou11d a central rock. However, neitl1er of tl1ese
accou11ts for tl1e fact that the 1najority of drum­
Drumlins lins are co1nposed of till wl1ich, lacki11g a central
"' ,

1 hese are s1nooth, elongated 111ounds of till core of rock and consisting of unsorted material,
witl1 tl1eir long axis parallel to the direction of would be totally eroded by moving ice. The 111ost
�ce 111ovement. Dr,u1nli11s may be over 50 min widely accepted view is tl1at they were formed
l1eight, over 1 km in lengtl1 and 11early 0.5 km when the ice became overloaded with material '
tht1s reducing tl1e capacity of the glacier. The
in width. Tl1e stee1J stoss e11d faces tl1e direc-,
tio11 fro111 wl1ich the ice came, wl1ile the lee side reduced competence may have been due to the
has a more gentle, streamlined appearance. The 1nelting of the glacier or to cha11ges in velocity
�elated to tl1e pattern. of extending-co111pressing
flow. Once the material l1ad been deposited, it
a steep, stoss highest point gentler, streamlined may tl1e11 have been moulded and streamlined
end near the stoss end lee slope by later ice move111ent. The most recent theory

.. (198 7) is based 011 evidence tl1at drt11nlins can be

composed of both till and glaciflt1vial sediinents.
The rn.ost �idely a�cepted view now is tl1at 'they
- long axis ------'---....• are s11bglac1ally defor111ed 1nasses of pre-existing
_ _
sediment to wh1cl1 more sedi1nent 1nay be added
direction of
ice movement by the melti11g out of debris from the glacier
.. base' (D. Eva11s, 1999) .

b .Figure4.34
....... . .. . . . .... . ....... ....... .... � ··· ···· ··· ·· . . ...... ..
' , , , ,

Drumlins
a plan showing typical dimensions
b swarm - en echelon

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• • • •• • • • • •• • • • ••••• • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • ............................. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

·118 Glaciation
.,_. ,.,_.. ,..... -=">-=-=--''-'·=-�---------------
• -�-------
___ __ __--�---------------------------------·---
........_ .. ----
- - .-

,r
. .
I'
••
, \
,
/•
�,
/ . .
;J \.

\\ ••
\

, 'I
, . . • I.
•
)""
•

.
\
•

.� � - .. 1
,• ?.
I

Figure4.35 .
........................ .................
Features of lowland
•

Glacifluvial landforms latter being up to 20 m in deptl1. Deposition

occLtrs whenever there is a decrease in dis­
glaciation Glacifluvial la11dfor111s are those 111ouldecl by charge, and it is respo11sible for a group of Ia11d­
glacial 111eltwater and l1ave, i11 the past, been forms (Figures 4.35 and 4.37).
considered to be 111ainly depositional. More
recently it l1as been realised tl1at meltwater Outwash plains (sandur)
plays a far 1nore important role i11 the glacial These are co1nposed of gravels, sands a11d, u_pper­
syste1n tl1an was previotrsly thougl1t, especially m.ost and f11rthest from. the s11out, clays. They
in temperate glaciers a11d in creating erosion are deposited by n1eltwater streams issui11g fro1n
features as well as depositional landfor1ns. tl1e ice either duri11g summer or when the glacier
Most meltwater is derived from ablation. The 111elts. The material 111ay originally have been
discl1arge of glacial strea1ns, both supraglacial deposited by tl1e glacier and later picked Ltp,
and st1bglacial, is higl1 during the warn1er, if sorted and dropped by ru.11ning water beyond
not war1n, su1n111er mo11ths. As tl1e water often the maximum exten� of the ice sheets. In parts
flows under considerable pressL1re, it has a high of the North German Plain, deposits are up to
velocity a11d is very turbule11t. It is therefore 75 m deep. Ot1twash material 1nay also be depos­
able to pick up and tra11sport a larger amount of ited on top_ of till following th.e retreat of the ice
material tha11 a normal river of si1nilar size. This (Figure 4·.35).
.

Figure4.36 material can erode vertica.lly, mainly througl1 G/aci/acustrine sediments (varves)
.
.............................. -.. . . . ...................
abrasion bt1t partly by solution, to crea.te sub­ A varve is a distinct layer of silt lying on top of a
'

The formation of varves

in a postglacial lake glacfal valleys and large potholes, so1ne of tl1e layer of sand, deposited annually in lakes found
11ear to glacial margi11s. The coarser, ligl1ter­
a colder, shorter coloured sa11d is deposited duri11g late spring
summer than when meltwater streams have their peak dis­
average: less
year melting results charge a11d are carrying their maximum load.
2 in smaller river As discharge decreases towards autu111n when -
discharge and
less deposition te1nperatures begin to drop,_the finer, darker­
colot1red silt settles. Each band of light and dark •

materials represents one year's acct1mt1lation

average
year annual (Figure 4.36). By counting tl1e nu111ber of varves,
1 mm climate it is possible to date the origin of tl1e lake; vari­
·spring and
early ations in the thickness of each varve indicate
summer
warmer and colder periods (e.g. g.rea.ter melting
causing increased deposition). · ·

•••••••• • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• ....................... .
• • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • •
• ••• • • • • • •• • • ••• •• • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • •••• ........ . ... ... ....'....... ..... .. .
Glaciation 119
 Kames_ and kame terraces and tl1e tra11sported load are botl1 considerable.
I<ames are Ltndttlating n1ou11ds of sa11d and gravel As the bed of the cha1111el bt1ilds up (there is
deposited t111evenly by 111eltwater, si111ilar to a series 110 floodplain), 1nateria] is left above tl1e st1r­ ,

of deltas, along tl1e front of a stationary or slowly rou11ding land following tl1e retreat of the ice.
111elting ice sheet (Figure 4.35). As tl1e ice retreats, Lil<e ka1nes, esk. ers ust1ally form during times of
the u11supported kame ofte11 collapses. Kame ter­ deglaciatio.n (Figt1re 4.35).
races, also of sand. ancl gravel, a.re flat areas fot1nd Kettles
alo11g the sides of valleys. Tl1ey are de1Josited by These for111 from detacl1ed blocks of ice, left by
meltwater strea111s flowing in the trougl1 between the glacier as it retreats, a11d then partially buried
the glacier a11d tl1e valley wall. rlloug11s occur l1ere by tl1e glacifluvial deposits left by 1neltwater
becat1se, in sL1111mer, the valley side heats tip faster stream.s. Wl1e11 tl1e ice blocks melt, tl1ey leave
tl1a11 tl1e glacier ice a.nd so t11e ice in contact witl1 enclosed depressions which often fill witl1 water
it melts. K. ame terraces are disti11gL1isl1able fro1n to form kettle-l1ole lakes and 'kame and kettle'
lateral 1noraines by their sorted deposits. topogra Jhy (Figt1re 4.35).
1

Eskers Braided streams

These are very lo11g, narrow, sinuous ridges Cl1annels of meltwater rivers often become
composed of sorted coarse sands an.ct gravel. It is chokecl with coarse material as a result of
thot1gl1t that eskers are the fossilised courses of tl1e 111arked seasonal variatio11s in discharge
subglacial 1neltwater streams. As the cha11nel is (compare Figures 3.32 and 5.16).
restricted by tee walls, tl1e l1ydrostatic pressure
�·l·""' ·..' ·4' ,
" '.. ,. . ·.
-
-�---- -----�-·-···----�--�-�-----�---------
:., Places 16 Arran: glacial landforrms
, ·r • �--·...--�---

Using fieldwork to answer an mound could not be a terminal moraine as it did not
mark the maximum advance of the ice. When a till
Advanced GCE question:'Describe
fabric analysis was carried out, it was noted that the
the landforms found near the °
average dip of the stones was about 25 , suggesting
snout of a former glacier: that the feature might instead have been a push
Figur.e 4.28 lists the types of feature formed by moraine resulting from a minor re-advance during
glacial deposition, subdividing them into those deglaciation. The orientation of 50 sample stones
composed of unsorted material, left by the glacier, (Figure 4.29) showed that the ice must have come
and sorted material deposited by glacifluvial either from the north-north-west (probable, as this
acti.vity. If the snout of a glacier had remained was the highland) or the south-south-east (unlikely,
stationary for some time, indicating a balance as the lower ground would not be the source of
between accumulation and ablation, and had then a glacier). An examination of the geology of the
slowly retreated, several of these landforms might stones showed that 80 per cent were granite, and
be visible following deglaciation. One such site therefore were erratics carried from the upper Rosa
studied by a sixth form was the lower Glen Rosa valley; 15 per cent were schists (the local rock); and
valley on the Isle of Arran (Figure 4.3·7). 5 per cent were other igneous rocks not found on
the island. It was inferred from the presence of
The dominant feature was a mound A, 14 m high, into these other rocks that some of the ice must have
which the Rosa Water had cut, giving a fine exposed originated on the Scottish mainland. Also at point
section of the deposited material. As the mound was . B, an investigation of river banks showed a mass
a long, narrow, ridge-like feature extending across of sand and gravel with some level of sorting - as
the valley, it was suggested that it might be either a might be expected in an outwash area.
terminal or a recessional moraine. It was concluded
that the feature was ice-deposited because the Upstream from A was a second mound, C, filling
'

material was unsorted: many of the largest boulders much of the valley floor (Figure 4.38). Student
were high up in the exposure; also, most of the stones suggestions as to the nature of the feature included
were sub-angular (not more rounded as might be its being a drumlin, a lateral, a medial, a recessional
expected in glacifluvial deposits). or even another push moraine. When measured it I
.

' ' was fqund that its length was slightly greate.r than
However, an observation downstream at· point B its width (an elongation ratio of 1.25:1) and the
revealed that material the.re was also unsorted and highest point was nearest the up-valley end; it had
this, together with some large granite erratics see.n neither the streamlined shape nor a sufficiently high
earlier nearer the coast, seemed to indicate that th·e

•• ••••••••••• • • •• • • •••••• •• ••••••••••••••••••••••••• • • • •• • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· ·

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •

120 Glaciation
 --� ----�---�----�-------·�-�--��-----------�

'·
low hummocky material: possibly a
· lateral moraine (or a kame terrace)
.\.··--

•
/
,</
•
granite I ,
•
..
flat floor of a . / .,
glacial trougl1
in fi II ed with tiII -------+..,,..,.;,;..�
and covered
with peat frost shattering on
------
steep valley sides

•
granite erratics
moraine nearer coast
(type uncertain)
Rosa Water
push moraine: site of till fabric
analysis (includes granite) --------�����U ���
exposures of -- ---�� glacifluvial sands
-
unsorted material and gravels
Figure4.37
.................................................
Sketch to show features of
glacial deposition in the
lower Glen Rosa valley, elongation ratio to be a drumlin (and there were no '

Arran signs of a swarm!). It appeared to be too far from

the valley side to be a lateral moraine; and as two
glaciers could not have met here, neither could it
have been a medial moraine. It was concluded that
it was another moraine - perhaps formed during an
intermediate stillstand in the glacier's retreat, or if
the glacier lost momentum after having negotiated
a bend in the glacial trough.

Across the river (D), was an area of low hummocky ' ... �

material winding along the foot of the valley side to n

as far as A. It was speculated that the feature may

have been formed in one of three ways: meltwater
•

depositing sands and gravel between the valley

side and the former glacier as a kame terrace; a
lateral moraine from frost shattering on the valley
...-. . •.-<;. . .
sides; or solifluction deposits (page 47) formed as
the climate grew milder and the glacier retreated
(the feature was not flat enough for a river terrace Figure4.38
............................... •···········.
to be seriously considered). Fieldsketch of landform
Upstream, the valley floor was extremely flat (E).
at C in Figure 4.37
Tl1is could be the remains of a former glacial lake,
formed when meltwater from the retreating glacier
had become trapped behind the moraine at C and the deposition of subglacial debris - although the
before it had had time to cut through the deposits. till has since been covered by peat, a symptom of
•
It was impossible to gain a profile to prove or the cold, wet conditions .
disprove the existence of a lake.
Although not every feature of glacial deposition
After crossing the Garbh Allt (a hanging valley), was present - there was no evidence of eskers or
the steep-sided, flat-floored U-shape of the glacial kettles - this small area did contain several of the
trougl1 through whicl1 the Rosa Water flows was landforms and deposits that might be expected at,
visible. The flatness of the floor was probably due to or near to, the snout of a former glacier.

••••••• • • • • •••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• • • • • • • ••••• • • ••• • • ••••• • • • • • • •• • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• •• •• • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • •• •
•• • • • • •• • • • • • • • ••••••• • • • • ••• • • •••••• • • ••••••• • • • • •

Glaciation 1·21
 Other effects of. glaciation southern watersl1ed. As tl1e water overflowed
throL1gh an overspill cl1an11el, there was rapid
.
,

Drainage diversion and proglacial lakes vertical erosion wl1ich formeel ,vl1at is 11ow
\!\There ice sheets expa11d, tl1ey 1nay divert the the lro11bridge Gorge. When tl1e ice had com­
coL1rses of rivers. For example, tl1e preglacial pletely 111elted, the level of tl1is new route was
lliver Th.a1nes flowed i11 a J1orth-easterly direc­ lower than tl1e original course (wl1ich was also
tio11. It vvas progressively· diverted soutl1,,vards by blocked by drift), forcing the prese11t-day River
advanci11g ice (Figure 4.40). Sever11 to flow southwards.
W here ice sl1eets ex1?and and da111 rivers, Otl1er rivers, e.g. the Warwicksl1ire Avo11
I)roglacial lakes are created (Figure 4.39), e.g. (1::- igure 4.40) and the Yorksl1ire Derwent
Lakes Lapwortl1 a11d I-Jarrison (Fi.gure 4.40). (Places 17), l1ave also bee11 diverted as a conse­
Before the ice age, tl1e Ri,,er Severn flowed que11ce of glacial activity. Sometimes the glacial
nortl1wards into tl1e River Dee, but tl1is route overspill cha11nels l1ave bee11 aba11doned, e.g. at
'beca111e blocked duri11g tl1e Pleistocene by Irisl1 Fen11y Co111pto11, where the Warwickshire Avon
Sea ice. A large lake, l..,ap,"lOrth, was i1111?ounded te1n.porarily flowed soutl1-east i11to the Thames
against the edge of the ice until tl1e waters rose (0 1 i11 FigL1re 4.40). Proglacial lakes are also
hig'h e11ough to breacl1 tl1e lowest J)oint in tl1e fou11d behind esl<ers a11d recessio11al moraines.

Figure 4.40
.........................................
Glacial diversion of • E 1 and O 1: preglacial
Esk and Derwent.
drainage and During glacial: dammed El
---
proglacial lakes in by North Sea ice forming
U JI bakes Eskdale and
England and Wales V V-<�ickering. ------
. Esk overflowed(03) � '--
--\-+Lake Pick ering North Sea ice
Irish Sea ice nto L. Pickering and
L. Pickering overflowed see
I
\J (0 ) to the south-west.
4

LR:'--Esk follows preglacial

Places 17
course (E2 ); A.Derwent ,
flows in reverse
direction (02) •
Dee estuary
Preglacial R. Severn (5 1) flowing northwards into
the Dee.
During glacial: blocked by Irish Sea ice.
1...
Overflows to south forming Ironbridge Gorge in
S ', watershed.
\ R. Severn (52 ) now flows south. I
.,, \.A /
Lake Lapwor th I1,'\
� '
A1 +
..;,,..-
. - ./! Preglacial R. Avon (A 1 ).
Figure4.39 "y"\ / = I During glacial: blocked by ice sheet.
.. .. . .. . . .. . . . .. ... . . . . . ... . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . lronbridge 1
1
Lake Harrison formed.
Ice-dammed lake: Gorge /1 L. Harrison overflowed through southern watershed
// (0 1 and 02 ).
Mendenhall Glacier, // 0 1 abandoned after ice age. ,�
,
Alaska 52 //.
� 01 Present R.Avon (0 2) now flows in reverse,,.,,,., ,,.,
---� f 1/2
A direction �
J"
,,.,

02 Lake Harrison
.... ,,,,,,,,,,.,
!�,,., ,,......_,;
,,,.,,,.
,,,. ,,,. //�

r2,,...,,.,,,., ____
.,,,./
--
--
,,.,......
__ .,....-
- - c___,,,,.
......
.,,.
--- (?

Preglacial R. Thames (T 1 ).
A.Thames diverted by ice advance (T2).
R. Thames diverted again by a further ice advance (T 3).

� overflow channel

proglacial lake

edge of ice

• • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • •• • • •• ••••• • • • • • ••••••••••• • • •••• •• • • •••••••••• • • • • • • • ••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • ••• • • • • • •• ••••••• • • • • • ••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • •• •

122 Glaciation
 The Vale ofi Picl<er.ing, Nortfl Yorkshire: a glacial lake
-- - ,....__...
. ___.... __ �

Lake Eskdale, a proglacial lake, formed when the North

North Sea Sea ice sheet blocked the mouth of the River Esk.
ice The level of the lake rose until its water found a new
route over a low point in its southern watershed on
I
the Nortl1 Yorkshire Moors. The overflow river flowed
Lake Lake '
through Lake Glaisdale before cutting the deep,
Eskdale G/aisdale
\
narrow, steep-sided, flat-floored Newtondale valley. At
\ North Yorkshire
\
\
the end of this valley, the river formed a delta where it
Mo�ors Newtondale
(Sc�{borough) flowed into another proglacial lake - Lake Pickering.
e>
{ Lake Pickering, also dammed by North Sea ice, found
(Pickering) • -------
\
" an outlet to the south-west wl1ere it formed an

. overflow channel - the present-day Kirkham Gorge.

..._____._.....
'-.....
- Lake Pickering
(Filey) "
\..,,. After the ice melted, the Esk reverted to its original
course, entering the sea near Whitby; Newtondale
became virtually a dry valley; and the River Derwent,
its eastward exit from Lake Pickering blocked by
glacial deposits, continued to follow its new south­
Vale of 10km westerly course. Today, tl1e site of Lake Pickering forms
York glacier
the fertile, flat-floored Vale of Pickering.
ice movement
•
ice
Changes in sea-level
Tl1e expansion a11d cont1·actio11 of ice sheets Eartl1's crt1st beneath it. 1�11is led to a local
� proglacial affected sea-level in two different ways. Eustatic (isostatic) rise in sea-level relative to tl1e la11d
L--,---1 lakes
• (also now called glacio-eustatic) refers to a world­ a11d a positive change in base level .
highland wide fall (or rise) i11 sea-level due to cl1anges in the 3 As tl1e ice sheets began to melt, large qt1a11ti­
l l1ydrological cycle cat1sed by water being held in ties of water, previously held in storage, were
-.... _ ...., __ present-day
coastline storage on la.nd in ice sheets (or released following rett1r11ed to tl1e sea cat1sing a worldwide (eus­
the 1nelti11g of ice sl1eets). Isostatic (or glacio­ tatic) rise in sea-level (a positive change in base
• (present-day
settlements) isostatic) adjustment is a more local change in sea­ level). This fom1ed fiords, rias a11d drowned
gravel delta
level resulting from tl1e depressio11 (or Ltplift) of the estuaries (page 163 and Places 22, page 164).
Ea1tl1's crust by tl1e increased (or decreased) weight 4 Finally, a11d still conti11L1ing in several places
overflow i1nposed upon it by a growing (or a declining) ice today, there was a local (isostatic) 1:1plift of the
�· (meltwater) sheet. Evans (1991) clai1ns tl1at 'Because of their land as the weight of the ice sheets d:ecreased
channel
great weight, ice sl1eets depress the Earth's cru.st (a 11egative change in base level). Tl1is cha.nge
• ..-,. �regJacz1al
..,....... river below them by approxiI11ately 0.3 ti1nes their created raised beaches (Places 23, page 166)
present riv.er thickness. So, at the centre of an ice sheet 700 111 a11d caused rejuvenation of rivers (page 82).
thick, there will be a maximum of 210 1n of clepres­ Looking into the futt1re:
Figure4.41 sio11.' The history of sea-level depe11ds on the • If the ice sl1eets continue to melt at their
········•····•· ······•··•··•······•···········•··•····•··

Proglacial lakes and overflow location. For example, an equatorial site will expe­ present rate, cat1sed by global warming
channels in North Yorkshire rience the rise a11d fall of the sea solely associated (Case Study 9B) or a milde1· climate, sea­
•

with eustatic changes. In contrast, a site close to, levels could rise by 60 c1n by tl1e end of tl1e
or under, a glacier will l1ave a history dominated century, with 1 m probably a reasonable
by t11e isostatic rebot1nd of tl1e cn1st after glacial high-end (and pessimistic?) estimate.
retreat. The sequence of eve11ts resulting from eus­ • If isostatic uplift contint1es in Britain, it will
tatic and isostatic changes during and after the last increase tl1e tilt that has already resulted in •
•
glacial can be sum111arised as follows: nort11-west Scotland rising b·y an estimated '

1 At the beginning of the glacial, water in the 10 m in the last 9000 years, and south-
hydrological cycle was stored as ice on the east England sinking. Tides. in London are .
..
land instead of rett1rni11g to the sea. There was now more than 4 1n higher than they were
a universal (eustatic) fall in sea-level, giving a i11 Roman times - hence the need for the
negative change in base level (page 81). Thames Barrie,r (and its proposed replace­
2 As the glacial continued towa1·ds its peak, ment) - due to a combi11ation of south.-east · •

the weight. of ice i11creased and depressed the England sinking a11d modern sea-level rise .
•••• •••• ••••••••• •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • ••• • • •••••• •• •• • • • •• •• • •• •• • • ... ... ........ .. � . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .
Glaciation 12.3
 .,..
Figure 4.42 �·,. ..
.......................... '<'S' I\

.
• ..( �
.�'ft'
An avalanche �

.1

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,

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. .. ;'

...... ........ ,..., - . . ,,,.

• •. � ....
- �· • • ·,
- •. � ...
- .,, .,,,, •• ·- "' •• ,..• •J • ,.. J.i, .)-
........
,,, "· • ,
... ..

,.....'..
• • Af • .•• , ••
- • • • ....
• - ' , • .,,,.. -..-
,. .,.." • .. ' ,' •... .... • • ,r_ .L. - • •
'f''-- •
.. - .. • - • .,
'
I • -(.,J / -- • • ' :"' - ',(
_ __..._•_· , .... ,.-1-"'!...-,.\.---• � , ,. .. ' ..,. -�L .... -_..�,...,-"-'
,. .

have shown extreme speeds in excess of· Figure4.43

An avalanche is a sudder1 downhill move­ ......... ,, . ......... ····· ··-·· ,, .......... ,... , ..... , .............. , . ........ ..... , ...........
ment of snow, ice a11d/or rock (Case Study 200 km/hr. A late 19th-century classification of avalanches
2A). It occurs, like a landslide, when tl1e There are several different types of ava­
a Staublawinen Pure
weigl,t (mass) of material is sufficient to lanche, whicl, n1akes a simple classification (airborne powder (completely airborne)
overcome friction (Figure 4.42). This allows difficult. Figure 4.43 gives a n1ainly descript­ snow)
the debris to descend at a co1,siderable ive classification put forward in tl1e 19th Common (some contact
with the ground)
speed under the force of gravity (mass ce11tury, while Figure 4.44 gives a modern
classification based more on ge11etic and b Grundlawinen Rolling
movernent). The average speed of descent •

(ground-hugging)
is 40-60 km/hr, but video-recordings morphological cl1aracteristics. Sliding
•

single point- loose snow avalanche easier (not easy} to predict and manage; originates from a single point, usually soon after
a Avalanche break-away point the snow falls
large area, or'slab' often localised, hardest to predict, greatest. threat to off-piste skiers; originates from a wider
area and after the snow has had time to develop cohesion
--- --- -- ---�-- -- ... - -�· --.......--- -�-··--�----- -._....,-...

total snow depth total mass of snow moves

-i.- ----.- _ ...__ - ·� - -
top layers of snow move over lower layers alpine inhabitants regard this as the most dangerous

c Channel (track) widtli unconfined- no channel wide area, hard to manage

gulley- confined to narrow track dangerous, as it can reach higher speeds, but easier to manage
•

d Nature of snow (water content) dry snow - m·ainly rolling above ground-level so friction is reduced; can reach speeds of 200 km/hr - very destructive
wet snow - mainly sliding follows ground topography, occurs under fohn conditions (page 241 ), limited protection,
much damage

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure4.44
.. . . .. . . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . ............ ... . ........ ..... ................. ...... .
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glaciation A more recent classification
124
of avalanches (1979)
 Avala n c h e s
-------
a � --
�-----�----- --;
) z o ne
- ------------ __
ss
re lsnow-lo
-� . - �-
nc
--
he
· -
tra----,....,_-
ck - - --�"' Ruptu
,..........-_ f!.
�,id
Depos it ion lsn o w
A vala
on ly lim ite d a tte rnp ts
f
!.Si
,
v
,
eb
ri bf
µ il,
!,11 '. !
causes zo n e st o p s n o w nt t h e e J<c e
o
�olle / 'j
) t v
accumulation le r 7f.ti
b e slo
si to p �
e S
it is i m p os f e u p p e r
res sir 1g and slo w z o ne, o n \ h j '!J.!�
p
A
fall co rn m a de t o nt in t his of sn o w
• He a v y s n o w \ly attemp ts ca n be
he mo v e m e • •
ns ca n
tr
r fa\\s , esp ecia av al a n c corn rn_u,��
a t1o
t h e con
f
rlie feS �sed for
t to ea div er t t he o u g
adding ,N e igl, down and tter g
un d alth
h
CY J f·s· _ .,. explosi ala nch es ,:I'
p es. es fl a r o
b ep o te ct � ...., ; r ele as e ol a v ; /;;,
d w ard slo )N he,� rea
ch
n s r .... "
and Sal e {
on win tl em e ,.,. t •�
° where t fI
I
'
_ h s s e � . ,f)
'- ff
· • ;ind.can oa. c
r
e .-.

pe s of ov er 2 5 ..-. �V
' ,::· •
_.
• ,
- .q, ', ,;.
(
', �r;,.J.
' ..
�� ?:-•.,.. :' - ·vi �
• Steep slo
- ..,,

/• '.�&:' / f /·- '° ' . """ -.

,. .
ore 1!,
· f
/
m t;J 1 .,·
is
· �
>.:

on
... . '
ricti • ' , •
ridg
f
-
t' ht
es

,-' .,..
red L1c e d a nd ' o/,. "'
·.. . "';,v "",:',:r:',y,
/'. �'·
.:,,:- ;, ''i", . //
:,«:!')
/J .· . woo den sno w b
stability is '-.. 0 •
/ /' ,/
orn e. ./ " .' .. . .. .
easily overc
•
-· , r � /

pe ratu re, ,
/

te m ·- ti <I.�
� /

d e n in cre as e in .. . .
o A s u d s p and,
.,
win d d ir e ction

y n uth -fa c i ng lo es
especiall
o s o

s, u n de r f ol, n w i1,d
in th e Alp k with do gs
to
-
diver t
s wo to t r y
ge m r
o ns (pa 24 1 ). resc u a f n c s
co nd iti ( m ore
e te
opt e rs
snow e e
t racks'
fall ing L1p o1, s now a nd h elic
·· snow int
' s afe
• Heavy rain
o

nd tl, an the Alp s).

lik ely in S co tla n s,
artl y for ne, rv s k i-ru
o n. p
• Deforestati e sta bilit y .
h re d u ce s slo p ...
wl, ic ff-p ist e s he ds to
protect
tri gg e re d by o avalan che

• Vibrat io ns m o re an d r ailw ays

arb y tra ffic and , r oa ds
skiers, an y ne (C ase
rth m o ve m e 1,t s
y, ea
dangerousl •
Study 2A). inte r f ll ow ed by
, dr w s o
. .'
• Very long, c
•
old y
g. U n d er tl, ese
n o wfa lls in sp rin
h e av y s
s n o w w i\\ tur r,
, ea rlie r fa\ \s of .
co n dit io n s : ' , .
t r fa l s will slid e
;.; ,;.J ;;,. � '
v r whi c h la e l
m ag e
into ice o
uc d a
e p can re d
to
��r;;;;�,
e

pl p rc eive thi s ose

°/o

(s m e l o c al p eo e e (W'. ,
_, by up to 5 0
o
ch e risk ). /; - (,
to try
val a n �· , 21.� ,' -
I

the gre ate st a y- wa rning s ys te m

'· e arl loca tion
ti_ me_ and
to pre dict -
q ue n c es ala n che
Conse of an y av •

d lw ays , figure4.4 5 . ... . . . . ........

.
. . . ..... .. . .... ..
i . .
c k r o d sa n ra
......... ,. ....
. . .
can b lo a me s
Avala nc h es
t l c m m u· m an agement sch e
r pp lie s a n d e e o Ava \anch e
w n s,
t
ff p o e su
ec
Manag em en
I
itio
c u t o
n r xt re m o nd
. It i th is
s a n , u de e
ife c h nd: t h a p p e n s
nication d
c a u l os s o f l b tw n av ala n es a
v nt is lik e ly o
es a
ink where a
ee
di n g a n s e
clo e n e e
val a h
There is a of
d
r y b uil s
w r , in s e l
t 8 0 p c e n t th at m akes a
nc
dest o
1 9 9 1 th e re e e
ear - alm os er
p dic ab ilit a a s.
an in alp
t y
n 1 9 8 0 d
v a· • im of lp o c c u r un re
ntal h a z a r ine re
Bet we e
21 0 re c rd ed a t e y
e F re n c h A s
ir o m d
th major env ny
o e
p a lon e , 1 val an cl 1e s in
e
n
c er t a t , m a
Alpine E u ro e
rl h a f w ere a n d M arc h, th p h u n in y
ea y a is
m n l
nu ary v r, d ite t
'tr a ks'
h between Ja w es
d a th , o f w o
T h H o e e
f l w cert a i n c
a c h e e s
f-p ar e a s . is
son' t nd to o lo
·
avalanch
n
l
a ll i f iste
c h e ea es d o e
t ting p ar
'ava\an
l
- vi tu a ll n o
op
of
s
c e nt o c c ur as w ll a s e u e y
s kiers p
r y it s
in g a th e u la r y
ve r 9 0 p e r q u l , e
t a m
• altitude - o
t
ra s in c re a s s
m C o ns e e n y
d tra n g res c u e e s
. deat h te i
w h er b e co es
a n d 3 00 0 rn . s t m s a n in i

gr w s a n d a lp in e e a t
4 5 ths betw ee n 1 5 0 0
w h e n a n d warning y s e
s b le to tak e s o m e
skiing l of 1 p
e a
o
o t a d
o ssib l p re dic t
4 .4 6), it is o si
p rty
eco ur
to
( a r rd t
i p e
likely (l'ig ife an p e
Although
e ro
pr d ic ta bl e t is
ch es ar m o s t
rY to p r t ec t l d
les e
s av la n e
t t o
measur
s
h g o n a es o
in whic c
i
n 1 99 8- 99). re
p e xa tly
·1 t gure 4.45 ).
ict
, it is le ss e a s y o red
lFi
to occ u r

'' .
<. \

"
figure..4.4 6 . . .. . .. . . . ,,,, ,,"""""",,,, ".
"
,,.
, " ,
... .. . . . . ... . . . ,,, ""
. ...... .... .
. , ",,
.
. • • • •
" ,
.
n • • • •• ,
ct,o • • • • • •• • • • • •
Ava\anch e pr ote . • • •
•• • •••• •••• •
• • •

sch em es ••• •••• • ••

and resc ue • • • ••••
. . .
' ............ .
•• • • • • ••

•• • .
• • • • • • • • • • • • • ••
•• • •
•
 ---- --------- --
- - -- --
- .,
Weddell Sea '
Larsen B ice shelf ,.
/
/
/
I
I
I

Changed rates of melting ice and sub­ I

I
I

sequent poteritial rises in sea-level are Antarctic ----l

Peninsula \

the main reasons why most scientists are I

I
\
\

vvorki1,g on glaciers at the present time, a1,d Ronne ice shelf

I

,I I
I

wl,y it sl,ould interest so many otl1er people. I

I I
I
I
,

Ice l1elps to stabilise the world's climate Wilkins ice shelf I • South
t East
by insulating large areas of ocean in sL1n1r-ner I West Pole
I
I
I
' Antarctic ,
Antarctic J
and prever1ting heat loss in winter. Ice and I
I ice sheet J
\ ice sheet I
I

snow also have a l,igher reAectivity, or I

\
I I
I

I
albedo (page 207), than any other surface,
\
\
I
\ I
\ I

reAecting 80 per cent of incoming solar \ I

''
\ I
I
I
radiation back ir1to the atmospl1ere. As ice '' I
I

''
Ross
/

melts tl,en the albedo will be reduced, less '

... ice shelf
Figure 4.47 ''
solar radiation will be reflected back ar,d tl1e -
,,
. . . .. " ............ ''
-
.. .

Earth's temperatL1re will rise. Antarctica - - .... -

--------- - - - -

(i)Ice shelves: 1 per cent a year, the fastest now travelling SL1mmer. In some places, the meltwater
Antarctica at 3.5 km/yr. begins to fill crevasses in the ice sl,elf.
Antarctica is covered l)y two l,uge ice sheets: The collapses are credited to global Normally, crevasses are only tens of metres
the larger East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS), warming, the average annual temperature deep, but as the meltwater progressively
which is bigger tl1an the USA and holds in the Antarctic l,aving risen by 2.5°C in the fills them the weight of vvater forces the
°
most of the world's fresh water in storage; last 50 years compared witl, 0.5 C globally. lowermost tip of the crevasse to crack ever,
ar1d the smaller West Antarctic Ice Sl,eet According to Bentley in a series of articles in more deeply into tl,e ice. Eventually the
(WAIS). Scientists predict tl,at even if only the Geography Review, 'the key to the collapse is crevasses may penetrate through the full
EAIS melted, tl,e world's sea-level would rise the formation of pools of meltwater on the thickness of the ice shelf and a chunk of ice
by 61 n1. Or, tl,e edges of the two ice sl,eets, surface of the ice shelf during the Antarctic will break off.'
and extending from them, are several ice
shelves, the two largest being the Ross and
Ronne (Figure 4.47). As global temperatures
rise, especially around the Antarctic penin­
sula wl,ich extends beyond the Antarctic
Circle, these ice shelves are becoming less
stable and parts are collapsir,g.
The collapse of the Larsen B ice shelf in
2002 was the latest and most spectacular
(it was the size of East Ar1glia) of ten col­
lapses that have occurred off the coast of
the Antarctic Peninsula since the mid- l 980s
(Figure 4.48). In 2008, part of the nearby
Wilkins ice shelf was said to be 'har,ging on
by a thread: The ice, following its collapse, .f' • •• •

• • I
drifts away from the polar region, often as
/1uge icebergs, into warmer water where it
melts. Being fresh water in a frozen state, its
melting adds to the volume of the ocean,
.
causing a global rise in sea-level. As ice
shelves collapse, glaciers movir,g behind
"i'
them on the ice sheet are accelerating by
; ' •

• • • ••• •••••• • •• •• • • • •• •• •• •• •• •• • • • •••• • ••••• ••••••• • • •••• ••• • • •• • •• • •• •• • •• • ••• •• •• •••••• •••• ••••••• ••••• •• • • • •• ••• • •• ••• • •• • t II • • t t t t t t t t t t • t
• •• • • t t t t t t t t t ' t t t I t I I t I I t I

126 Glaciation
 - --- �-.-.�-- ------- -------�·�-----:----""-
•

The effects of melting ice

.-
(ii) Ice sheets:
accelerated to 5 rn/yr in 2000 and 1Om/yr a speed of 1 rTI/hr as it nears the coast,
Greenland by 2007. Tl1e increase in surface melting is making it the fastest-Aowing glacier in tl1e
The average tl1ickness of tl,e Greenland ice creating rTiore meltwater which sir1ks down world.
sheet has been calculated to be 1800 m. crevasses to tl,e bedrock where it acts as As in Antarctica, Greenlar,d's ice is fresh
However, while this thickness was believed a lubricant accelerating basal flow (pages water in frozen storage. It is believed that
to have decreased by an average of 1 m/yr 107-108). This in tLrrn caLrses glaciers should the whole ice sheet totally melt then
througl,out the last centL1ry, satellite imagery leading from tl1e ice sheet to Aow faster. the global sea-level would rise by 6.7 m.
suggests that the rate of decrease had One of these, the Jokobshavr,, reaches
•
(iii) Sea ice: the Arctic
Sea ice is frozen salt water and forms when
USA
Observed ice extent temperatures remain for some time below
• • •••
••• •••
••
September 2002 -l .S °C. Recent satellite images have shown
• •
••
•
••
•
that the area covered by sea ice is now
••
•
•
• decreasing by 8 per cent annually. More
Canada significar,tly, nuclear submarines, operating
under the ice for over l,alf a century, have
�
••
,• indicated that the thickness of the ice has
•••
•• 2040-2060
• r-...r-....
. - \
•
•
•• decreased i1, that time from 4 m to 1.3 m .
•
•
•
•••
••• • •
As the ice thins, the remaining ice will melt
·, ...• more quickly, speeding up the process. In
•
•
the 19th century, explorers tried unsuc­
.
•
•••
--....,
••• cessfully to fi11d a sea route around the
•
•• Russia north of Canada - the so-called North West
Projected ice extent
Passage - and in the early 20th century the
2070-2090
first explorers claiming to have reached the
•• •• Nortl1 Pole only did so aher several weeks'
·.•••....__,
•
'-'--­..____.,...._ • • •••
• ••• • ••• ••
•• •
•
travelling over sea ice. Some scientists

••• •
•
• . ciJ·: are now predicting that, due to global
warming, all the polar sea ice will have dis­
l..r---._ •• •
•••
• • ••
••• •••
••••
appeared within 30 years (Figure 4.49) .
•••
•••
•••••• As it is frozen seawater tl,at is melting,
······•••
•••••
•:
••
•

then the effect on global sea-level will be

Greenland ••••
{
minimal. Figure 4.50 shows some of the
advantages and disadvantages that will
Q result from an ice-free Arctic.
Figure4�49
..........� ................................................ . Figure4.50
..•....••.. ············-··················· .•....•........
Present and predicted coverage
Advantages and disadvantages
of sea ice in the Arctic
of an ice-free Arctic

Easier to exploit resources such as oil and natural gas found under the seabed. Less ice will mean a reduced albedo and an increase in global warming.
.

Improved navigation will reduce distances and travel time, e.g. An increase in the number of icebergs from surrounding ice shelves could make
i Toky. o to New York- distance reduted from 18 000 km to 14 000 km navigation more dangerous.
via the North West Passage {Canada) which in 2007 was open apart An increased"threat to wildlife- polar bears and other species threatened
from 100 km of scattered ice floes with extinction.
ii Tokyo to London - distance reduced from 21 000 km to 13 000 k�
via the North East Passage (Russia) which in 2007 was open for six weeks.

Glaciation 127
. . .• .
' # - - - - - - - - -
•
---------------� ---- - - -
� -- - - -

''
•
'
•

.. .

Benn, D. a11d Evans, D.J.A. (1998) Glaciers Bentley, M. (2008) 'Climate wa r1ning on � Alaska Science Fort1m - Water, Snow a.11d Ice
and Glaciatio11, Hodder Arnold. the Antarctic Penins·ula' in Geograpl1y Index:
Review V l 21 N 4 (April). l1tt p:/ /d o gbert.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/
Be11tley, M. (2004) , Antarctic ice sllelf col- o o

lapse' in Geograplzy Revie,v Vol 18 No 2 Dawso 11, A.G. (1992) Jee Age Earth, l� outledge. water.lltml
(Novern1ber). Cyb ers1 Jac e S11o w and Ava lan che Center
Hambrey, M. (1994) Glacial Er1viron1nents,
i
Bentley, M. (2005) 'Is tl1e East AI1tarct c ice Ro utledge. (CSAC): .
sheet stable?' in GeograJJhy Revieiv Vol 19 Knigh t, P.G. (2006) Glacier Science a11d www.csac.org/
t
No 2 (Noveinber). E11viro1111ze11tal Change, WileyBlackwell. Glacial landform.s:
www .bgrg, org/pa ges/education/alevel/
Bentley, M. (2007) 'Wl1ere has al. l the sea Mitcl1ell, W. (2008) 'The Ribblehead drumlins'
·
ice go11e.7, in G eograpl1y.Revieiv Vol 20 No in Geograph)' Review Vol 21 No 3 (Febrt1ary). coldenvirons/Lessono/02015.htm
•
5 (May). Glacier Project:
http://glacier.rice.edu
•
••
'

�
'I

Activities
• • • • •· • • • • • • e • • • o o • • o e o • • • o o • • • e • • • • • • • • • e •• •• •o • • • •• • • •• •• o o • • • o • • • • • e • • • • • • • o • • • • • • •

1 a Define the terms 'interglacial' and 'interstadial� (4 marks) d Choose one of the following landforms created by
b Describe tl1e extent of ice across the British Isles at the glacial deposition: drumlin; end moraine; kame terrace.
height of the last ice advance 18 000 years ag o. (4 marks) i Describe its shape, size and composition. (6 marks)
c Suggest and explain one theory for the cause of ii Explain how it was created by the glacier. (1 marks)
ice ages. (4 marks)
4 The area in front of a glacier is a glacifluvial landform often
d How is glacier ice formed? (6 marks)
called a sandur or an outwash plain.
e Explain the difference in movement processes
a i Describe the characteristic depo sits (shape and
between temperate and polar glaciers. (7 marks)
composition) of this area. (4 marks)
2 Choose one of tl1e features named in Figure 4.25 (page 115) ii Explain how glacifluvial processes helped to create
and give its name. the characteristics you have identified. (4 marks)
a i With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe the b Choose one of the following features of a sandur: lakebed
feature. (5 marks) deposits; esker; kame; braided stream. Describe the
ii Explain how a glacier created the feature you shape and characteristics of the feature. (4 marks)
have chosen. (5 marks) c i What is a kettle lake? (2 marks)
••
iii Describe and explain one change in the feature, II How is a kettle lake formed? (5 marks)
probably since the last ice age. (4 marks) iii Suggest how a kettle lake may disappear after the
b Many hollows in a glaciated upland are filled with glacial period. (6 marks)
water. Where does the water come from? (2 marks)
5 a What is a valley glacier? (2 marks)
c Suggest two pieces of evidence you would look for to
suggest the direction of movement of a glacier if you b Describe and explain the origins of two surface
were to carry out a study of a glaciated valley. (4 marks) features of a moving glacier. (6 marks)
d Describe and explain one difference between a glaciated c Explain how you could measure the movement of
upland area and an unglaciated one. (5 marks) a valley glacier. (4 marks)
d Why does the snout of a glacier sometimes retreat
3 A glacier erodes, transports and deposits material using a even though the ice always moves forward? (6 marks)
range of methods.
. e What feature may mark where the snout of a retreating
a i Name two types of glacial erosion. (2 marks) glacier was in the past? Describe the shape and
ii For one of the types of erosion in a i, exf?.lain composition of the feature. (7marks)
how the glacier erodes. (4 marks)
. b Some loose material is carried on top of the glacier. 6 Ice movement during the last ice age had indirect as well as
Making good use of diagrams, show where, on the direct effects on the landscape. Indirect effects occur where
surface, this material is carried. (4 marks) the ice itself was not involved in the effect.

c Where else is material carried by a glacier? (2 marks) a i Explain what is meant by the term 'drainage diversion�
(2marks)
'
•••••• • • • •• ••••• • • •••••••••• • • •••••••••••••••• • • • • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

128 Glaciation
 ii Choose one example of drainage diversion. Draw a b Why do gla"cialdeposits have a pa_rticular orientati�n?
sketch map to show the diversion and explain the role · (7marks)
..
of glacier ice in the cause of the diversion. (6 marks) c Suggest two other sources of data to indicate the direction
b Why did the land experience an isostatic change of of ice movement in an area. For one of these sources, explain
sea-level during the ice age? (4 marks) how it shows the direction of ice movement. (5marks)
c Why are'raised beaches'found in coastal areas where
glacial ice caused an isostatic change in sea-level? (6 marks) Degrees No. of clasts Degrees No. of clasts Degrees No. of clasts
d Choose one landform (other than a raised beach) which has 0 0 120 2 240 8
been affected by sea-level change associated with glaciation. 15 0 135 3 255 3
Describe the feature and explain how it was formed. (7marks)
30 10 150 1 270 1
7 In a field survey (till fabric analysis) the orientation of clasts 45 12 165 1 285 1
(stones) showed the data given in the table on the right.
Orientation sl1ows two possible directions (e.g. NW/SE). 60 8 180 0 300 2
a i Draw a graph to illustrate the data. (6 marks) 75 3 195 0 315 3
ii Using the data, suggest an interpretation of the 90 1 210 10 330 1
ice movement in this area. (7 marks) 105 1 225 12 345 1

Exam practice: basic structured questions

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

.
8 a Describe how ice can erode the rocks of upland areas by: c With reference to one or more areas that you have studied,
i frost sl1attering explain why upland glaciated areas are often difficult for
human settlement. (10 marks)
ii plucking
iii abrasion. (9 marks) 9 Study Figure 4.25 on page 115. Select and name any two
b Explain how these processes combine to produce cirques features of glacial erosion shown on the diagram.
(also known as carries or cwms). (6 marks) a Describe each of your chosen features. (5 +·5 marks)
b Explain how each of these features was formed. (15marks)
'•

Exam practice: structured questions

e e e e e e e e e e e e O e e e e O e e ee e e e e e e e e e e O O e e e O O e e e O O e e e O • e e e e O O e e•e O e e e e e •.• e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

1 O a Identify two pieces of evidence to suggest that climatic c Explain the difference in movement between glaciers in
change in an area has included at least one glacial period. polar and temperate latitudes. (8 marks)
For one of these pieces of evidence, show how it suggests .
a past glacial period. (5 marks) 12 a i How has glacial ice affected sea-level in the past, and
b i Describe how a glacier operates as an 'open system� h_ow might it affect sea-level in the next century or so?
(Bmarks) (9marks)
ii How and why does a glacier budget vary between ii How is glacial ice involved in sea-level change?
winter and summer seasons? (12 marks) (9marks)
b i Describe the shape and scale of a fiord.
11 a Geographers often classify glaciers into different types. ii Explain the roles of glacial processes and sea level
Describe one system of classification. (5marks) change in the formation of a fiord. (12 marks)
b Why does movement of glacier ice vary across and
within the glacier? (7 2marks)
•

Exam pr�ctice: essays

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •.• . . . . . . . . .
•

.
•
•

13 Describe and evaluate the evidence (including recently melted, and explain how you would recognise the
geomorphological evidence) that there has been a difference between selected features of glacial origin and
series of ice ages in the northern hemisp�ere during the selected features of glacifluvial origin. (25 marks)
last million years. (25marks)
. 16 Scientists have �uggested that there is evidence from the Arctic
14 For any one drainage diversion system you have studied, and Antarctic ice sheets that glpbal warming is.happening.
discuss the role of glacial ice and other factors in its formati_on. Describe and evaluate this evidence, and ·suggest how melting
. (25marks) of the ice might affect the Earth's future geography. (25marks)
. •

15 Describe the features of glacial and glacifluvial deposition that '

might be found on a lowland plain from which an ice sheet had

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • !" • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ! • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •·• • • • •

Glaciation 129
 er1
•

• • • • • • • • • • • • e e o o o o e • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

1
Pe1·er111ially fr·ozen n1ate1·ial li1rks be11eatl1 at least one­ Quater11ary ice age (Figure 4.3b). ,.foday, the
{iftfz, and per·/1aps as n1i1cl1 as one-four·th, of tlie Earth's 1nost exte11sive periglacial areas lie i11 the
Arctic regio11s of Canada, Alaska a11d RL1ssia.
la11d su,·face.' Tl1ese areas, which l1ave a ttrndra cli111ate, soils
Frederick Nelson, 1999
a11d vegetatio11 (pages 333-334), exhibit their
own ch.aracteristic lanclforms.
Tl1e ter111 JJe1·iglacial, strictly speal<ing, 1neans
'near to or a.t tl1e fringe of a.n ice sheet', vvhere Permafrost
frost a11d snow l1ave a 111ajor impact upon tl1e Permafrost is per1na11ently frozen grouncl. It
la1.1dscape. I-fo,.vever, the tern1 is often more occt1rs where soil temperatures remain below
widely used to i11clude any area tl1at has a cold °
0 C for at least two consecutive years. Per1nafrost
cli111ate - e.g. 1nountai11s i11 te111perate latitudes covers almost 25 per cent of the Earth's la11d
FigureS.1 st1cl1 as th.e f\lps and tl1e Plateau of Tibet - or surface (Figure 5.1) altl1ough its extent changes
wl1icl1 l1as ex1Jerie11ced severe frost action in over periods of time. Its deptl1 and conti11t1ity
. . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . * • • • • • •

Permafrost zones
of the Arctic tl1e past - e.g. southern E11gla11d during tl1e also vary (Figt1re 5 .2).

,.
continuous
permafrost D cf
(J
discontinuous
permafrost
£ ,., ,. �

,·
,_..._ .. sporadic 60° N �

permafrost

present-day major storm

............� tracks - annual mean
• •
warm ocean currents
------,

"'O '
0
ll.i 180°

-
-· i,

-·
('\

0
('\
• \
'
\
� \

''
t;))
'
-::)

•••• •• ••••••••••••• ••• •• ••••• ••• • •• ••• • • •• • ••••• • ••• •• ••• •••••• • •• • ••• • ••• •• • • • • • •••• ••• ••• • •• • • •• ••• •••••• • •• •
• • •• • •• •••• •• • ••• • ••••••••• •• •••• ••• ••• •••• ••••• •• ••••••• ••

130 Periglaciation
 ---- ----- �-------�---------�----------�----- -
•

0 ° 0 °
latitude ( N) 74 N -. 6S N 61 N
Hay
settlement Resolute River

mean annual
°
temperature ( C) ° -a·c discontinuous -1 °C sporadic
-12 ( continuous permafrost
---- -----�-�.--------------- -- -------�· � __ _;_______.,�
permafrost permafrost �

deptl, of active
layer (m) 0.5 1.0-1 .5 1 .5-3.0

permafrost
4Sm 12 m
deptl, of 396m
permafrost
(m) talik
(unfrozen ground)

---�-� ------· .
FigureS.2
............' .....................................
Continuotts per1nafrost is fot1nd 1nainly central Russia, and corresponds to tl1ose areas witl1
Transect through withi11 tl1e
- Arctic Circle wl1ere tl1e 1nean. annual a 1nea11 annual te1nperature of between-I ° C a11d
° °
part of the air te1nperature is below -S C. I-Jere wi11ter te1np- -5 C. As is shown in Figt1re 5.2, discontint1ous per­
permafrost zone eratt1res may fall to -S0°C a11d sun1111ers are mafrost con.sists of islands of perinanently fi·oze11
in northern Canada too cold an.ct too sho1t to allow a11ytl1ing but a ground, separated by less cold areas \vhicl1 lie near
superficial 1nelti11g of the ground. Tl1e permafrost to rivers, lakes and the sea.
l1as been estimated to reach a depth of 700 1n Sporadic permafrost is found where 1nean
in northern Canada and 1500 m i11 Siberia. As annual temperatures are jt1st below freezi11g
Figt1re 5.1 shows, continuous permafrost extends point a.nd st1m111ers are several degrees above
°
ft1rther south in continental interiors tha11 in 0 C. This results in isolated areas of frozen
coastal areas wl1ich are subject to the warming grottnd (Fig11re 5.2).
FigureS.3 i11fl11ence of the sea, e.g. the North Atlantic Drift 111 areas where su111mer temperatures rise
in nortl1-west Ettrope. above freezing poi11t, the surface layer thaws to
Soil temperatures
in permafrost at
Discontinuous pern1af1·ost lies further south form the active layer. 1,11is zone, wl1ich under
Yakutsk, Siberia in the nortl1ern hen1ispl1.ere, reaching 50°N in some local conditions ca11 become very mobile for
a few months before freezing agai11, can vary in
depth from a few· centim.etres (where peat
° ° 0 °
or vegetation cover protects tl1e ground fro1n
-20 -15 -1 o· -s· 0( +5 active zone (i.e. melts insolation) to 5 m. Tl1e active layer is often
i-.=-.-. -+--:
_,.-.,,,---1 in summer)
saturated because m.eltwater cannot infiltrate
_..J__ _..__
_ _.1,.__

=-=:-·"...:..;• "--• .. ...- ;;;...;;...----=::;...;..�,..:::;;:;..�; ...,.._ permafrost tab I e:

March ·�..... ••• , August usually 15 m (below
, downwards through tl1e impermeable perma­
temRerature •• • . .. - , tern erature this point there is no
change in seasonal frost. Meltwater is unlikely to evaporate i11 tl1e
temperature) low summer temperatures or to drain clownhill
since most of the slopes are very ge11tle. The result
annual is that permafrost regions contain 1nany of the
temperature permafrost world's few remaining wetland e11vironments.
depth of The unfrozen layer be11eath, or indeed any
soil (m) unfrozen. materia.l wtthin, the permafrost is
k11own as talik. The lower limit of the permafrost
soil temperature
increases with depth is determined by geothermal heat which causes
due to geotherm·al temperatures to rise above °
0 C (Figure 5.3).
he:.::at Iim it of pe rm afr ost
1-==-..;:; ....::... = � = = =
:::::= �\ �:-:::�i � Ternperatures taken over a period of years in
(about 200 m)
the discontin11ous and conti11uo11s permafrost
talik s11ggest that, in Ca11ada, Alaska and R11ssia., there is
a general tl1awing of the frozen gro11nd, an event
accredited to global war1ning (Case Stt1dy 5).
0(
0
. ............................................................................... ..
�

Periglaciation 131
 , "'
...
etS .,.....
•
" •*•"*-•
" � =· � ,- Wtr t&tG. <-!o,,,,.;.At ,!.,•

Periglacial processes and stricles have been 1nade i11 the last 30 years, tl1ere
is still t1ncertai11ty as to how certai11 featL1res have
landforms de·velo1Jed and, i11deed, whetl1er st1cl1 features
Most IJeriglacial regio11s are sparsely popt1lated a11d are still being formecl today or are a legacy of a
t1nderde·veloped. U11til tl1e searcl1 for oil a11d gas previous, even colcler climate - i.e. a fossil or relict
i11 tl1e 1960s, tl1ere l1ad been little need to study la11dscape. 1:igure 5.4 gives a clas. sification of tl1e
or t1ndersta11d the geo111orpl1ological processes various processes which operate, and the Ian.d­
wl1icl1 operate in tl1ese areas. f\ltl1ougl1 sig11ifica11t forrns wl1ich develop, in periglacial areas.
Figure 5.4
Classification of
periglacial processes Ground ice Ice crystals and lenses (frost-heave) Sorted stone polygons (stone circles and stripes: patterned ground)
and landforms Ground contraction Ice wedges with unsorted polygons: patterned ground
Freezing of groundwater Pingos
Frost weathering Frost shattering/Freeze-thaw Blockfields, talus (scree), tors (Chapter 8)
Snow Nivation Nivation hollows
• ,

Meltwater Solifluction Solifluction sheets, rock stream.s

'

Streams Braiding, dry valleys in chalk (Chapter 8)

Wind Windblown Loess (limon), dunes

Figure 5.5
... .................................. , ... .
;·

Frost-heave and
Ground ice Britain to explai11 why a plot that was left stone­
less in tl1e autu.inn has become sto11e-covered by
stone-sorting Frost-heave: ice crystals and lenses
a doming occurs when tl1e spring, followi11g a cold winter.)
Frost-l1eave includes several processes which
the ground freezes During periods of tha1A1, meltwater leaves fine
cause eitl1er fine-grained soils such as silts a11d
in winter but may material u11der tl1e Ltplifted stones, preve11ting
disappear in summer
clays to ex1Jand to form sn1all do1nes, or indi­
them from falling back into their original posi­
when the ground vidual sto11es withi11 the soil to be moved to tl1e
tions. In areas of repeated freezing (ideally
thaws - the ground surface (Figt1re 5.5). It rest1lts fro111 tl1e direct for­
is warmed from where temperatttres fall to between -4 °C a11d
n1ation of ice - eitl1er as crystals or as lenses. Tl1e
above -6 °C) and tl1awi11g, frost-l1eave both lifts and
thermal condt1ctivity of stones is greater tl1an
b stones roll down sorts material to form patterned grot111d on the
into the hollows
tl1at of soil. As a result, the area t1nder a stone
st1rface (Figure 5.6). The larger stones, witl1 tl1eir
between mounds becomes colder than the st1rrounding soil, a11d ice
extra weight, move outwards to form, on al111ost
and material crystals form. Further expansion by the ice widens
becomes sorted- flat areas, stone circles or, more accL1rately, stone
tl1e capillaries in. tl1e soil, allowi11g 111ore 111oisture
in size, with the to rise a11d to freeze. The crystals, or the larger ice polygons. Wl1ere this process occurs on slopes
°
finest deposits left - witl1 a gradient in excess of 2 , the stones will
lenses ,,vhicl� form at a greater depth, force tl1e
in the centre of the slowly move downhill under gravity to form
polygon and on top stones above them to rise until eve11tt1ally they
elongated stone stripes.
of the mound reacl1 the surface. (Ask a gardener in nortl1ern

ice crystals Figure 5.6

• stones ....,
. ..•.......•.•.. .....••..••... ......
t movement of stones
and/or lenses .. .•.•.•.•
Frost-heave: the formation of
� ,;,,

angular polygons on polygons and stone stripes

.. .. . . . flat ground (under 6° ),
•
a
__ � -:---. -:-:. . . ..
. . . . ..
•. . .. .
.. 1-5 m in diameter elongated stripes on

•...
___,. • . . . .
•

. . . ..
• • • • • • • • • •

.
• •
• • t•

..
• ••

.
•

. . slopes exceeding 6°
•• •

. . .. . ....
- . .. . .. .. . . . .
! " • . . .
•
. .. .·
� . ··
.• ,, � ...... .•
.
•
.
·
.
. . ..
• • • •
• • #

. . .
•
• • •

.
• • • • •

. . .
• • •

. . . .
• • • • .. I..

.
• • •

. . . . . . . · . . '· : .. , . . . .... ...

••

.
' •• .. • • ••
• •• • •

'
• • • • ••••• ,

·
• • • • ! •
•
•
:]' , •• •
•
• ••
' ••
• , • •• ••
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·.. • ·
•
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· ·· • · �
., • • • •
••
: . ":
t � •• • •

·
, -
•

. ,
. � ·,
stones forced to the surface by frost heavin.g, subsequent � capillary
action of water g 'ives more freezing and enlarges ice lenses
-
-
•
.
st
••
b silt •
•
•
••
• ••
,
•
.

•
smaller stones •• • • • • • •
- • • •

larger stones . . .
" t •
• • . '

. .. . . .
... , .. . .. . • • • •
.
·-- •
..
. . . . . . · . ..,
. . . .. . .. -
• •• . . .
. •
·
-� . • • �...
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.... �• • f. • • �

• . . ,
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···;-�-.!
••• •
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.
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.
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... "• . ... . . . .

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o o � • • •,• •, O o1 • I

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1

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Ifo
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· � , . · . ,•' • , • . •
• t • • ' ' • •
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 frozen surface contracts tl,awed surface frozen surface contracts again frozen surface
0 '
I active O
.
. .
..
.
/
.. _\ •
. \ "\
I'

. .. . . . .
.
. . . . .. . . layer
. • . • .
. . . . . I . .
. . . .

--
. . . . . . .
. . . . •
. .
-- 1 .
. ..
. . •
.. 1
. .
E . . .
• '

. small tension crack .. meltwater wi�h some +-' E

.c
VI

....a. . •
. . water freezes, widening . ....
0 r-
.. . sand and.dust . 4-
. . • and deepening the crack . . .
l'U
(1)
. . . .
.. ... E
.....
(1)
. .
2 •
. '
.. . (1)
a. 2
.
'
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . .
.
. . . . . .
. . . .
•
•
.
. . . .
3 3
first winter first summer second winter several centuries later

Figure 5.7
.' ................................... Ground contraction
The formation of Tl1e refreezing of tl1e active layer dL1ring tl1e
ice wedges
severe winter cold causes tl1e soil to co11tract.
Cracks open up wl1icl1 are sin1ilar i11 a1)1)earance
to tl1e irregularly sl1aped J?Olygons fot1nd on.
tl1e bed of a dried-t11J lake. DL1ri11g the following
su111111er, tl1ese cracks ope11, close or fill with melt­
water a11d, so1neti111es, also with water a11d wi11d­
blown deposits. Whe11 tl1e water refreezes, duri11g
tl1e following wi11ter the cracks widen and dee_pen
to for111 ice wedges (Figure 5. 7). Tl1is process
is repeated annually u11til the wedges, wl1icl1
u11derlie tl1e peri111eters of tl1e polygons, grow to
as 1nuch as l 1n in width and 3 111 in clepth. Fossil
ice wedges, i.e. cracks filled with sa11ds a11d silt
left by n1eltwater, are a sig11 of earlier periglacial
conditions (Figt1re 5.9).
Patterned grot111d (Figure 5.8) can, tl1erefore,.
be prodt1ced by two processes: frost-heaving
(Figure 5.6) and ground contraction (Figt1re
Figure 5.9 5. 7). Frost-heaving results in s1nall do111e-shaped
................. ,.................... ,.,
Fossil ice wedge polygons witl1 larger sto11es found to the ot1tside

of the circles, whereas ice contraction prod.uces

larger polygons with the centre of the circles
depressecl in height and containing the bigger
sto11es. The diameter of an i11dividual polygon
ca11. reacl1 over 30 1n.
Freezing of groundwater
Pingos are dome-shaped, isolated hills which
interrt1pt the flat tL1ndra plains (Figure 5.10).
Tl1ey can have a dia1neter of up to 500 in and n1ay
rise 50 m in height to a summit tl1at is sometimes
ruptured to expose a11 icy core. As they occt1r
mainly in sand, they are not susce1Jtible to frost­
heaving. American geograpl1ers recog11ise two
ty1Jes of pingo (Figure 5.1 la and b), althougl1
recent investigations have led to the suggestion
of a third type: polygenetic (or mixed) pingos.
•• •• ••• •••••• • •• • • •••• ••• ••••• • • •• • • •••••••• • • •••••••• • • • • • ••• • • ••••• • • • • • •

Periglaciation 133
----�--- ,..
- � ,,
- . ·--'""'
'-'�

tl1e per111afrost js contin.uous. '"fhey ofte11 form

on the s.ites of s111all lakes where water is trapped
(en. closed) b)' freezing from above and by the
advance of the pern1afrost inwards from the
lake margins. As tl1e water freezes it will expand,
forcing tl1e grot1nd above it to rise upwards i11to
a dome shape. ,.[his type of pingo is known as the
Macke11zie type as over 1400 l1ave been recordecl
i11 the delta regio11 of the River Macken. zie . It
results from t11e down.ward growtl1 of the
pern1afrost (Figure 5.11 b).
As tl1e st1rface of a pingo is stretcl1ed, the
sL1mn1it may rupture a11d crack. Where the ice­
core 1nelts, tl1e hill may collapse leavi11g a melt­
water-filled hollow (Figure 5.1 lc). Later, a new
pingo n1ay form on the same site, a11d there may
Figure 5.10 be a repeated cycle of formation and collap. se.
········•· ······••···········•···· .... ..
, Open-system (l1yd1·at1lic) pi11gos occur in
A pingo, Mackenzie valley botton1s and in areas of tl1in or discon­
Delta, Canada
tint10L1s permafrost. St1rfa.ce water is able to Frost weathering
i n.
. filtrate into the Ltpper layers of tl1e ground Mecl1a11ical weatheri11g is far more sig11ifica11t
where it can ci rct1late in tl1e unfroze11 sedimen. ts i11 periglacial areas than is cl1e111ical weathering,
before freezing. As tl1e water freezes, it expands witl1 freeze-thaw being the dominant process
and forms localised masses of ice. Tl1e ice forces (Figure 2.10). On relatively flat t1pland surfaces,
any overlyi11g sediment t1pwards into a dome­ e.g. the Scafell ra11ge in the Lake District and the
sh.aped feature, i11 the same way th.at frozen Glyders in Snowdo11ia, tl1e exte11sive spreads of
1ni1k lifts the cap off its bottle. This type of large, angular boulders, formed in sitt.t by frost
pingo, referred to as tl1e East G1·eenla11d type, action, are know11 as blockfielcls or felsenn1eer
grows from below (Figure 5.1 la). (literally, a 'rock sea').
FigureS.11
Closed-syste111 (hyd1·ostatic) pingos are Scree, or talus, develo.ps at the foot of steep
········································- 1nore characteristic of flat, low-ly'i11g areas where slopes, es1Jecially those composed of well-jointed
Formation of pin gos

a open-system (East Greenland) type b closed-system frozen lake with sediment on its floor insu­

---
'
(Mackenzie) type lates the ground beneath it, creating talik
summit of pingo ruptures 0 '

and opens

new\y frozen surface permafrost unfrozen water permafrost,

rce core talik under lake
�----------�-�-�- -

permafrost permafrost as water freezes and expands, the frozen lake

breaks up and slides away as the ground heaves
··------ ------
upward movement of groundwater ice core expands
by hydraulic pressure upwards due to increase
. �in hydrostatic pressure............._
ad vanc1ng - - I advancing
permafrost talik 1111 •
permafrost
'

c a ruptured pingo as surface· ruptures, heat enters, hollow on site of ruptured pingo

\!
ice core •
melts the core and the
pingo collapses
__...,__ rampart
�vaticing permafrost

===���=::::::::�::--- talik ���==::::=====::=�=;;._

. . . .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . .
134 Periglaciation
·�
·I
�
rocks pro11e to frost action.. 1�reeze-tl1aw 111ay also Meltwater
tL1r11 well-joi11ted roe.ks, sucl1 as granite, into to1·s
DL1ring periods of thaw, tl1e t11Jper zone (active
(page 202). One scl1ool of t.l10L1gl1t 011 tor for11.1a­
n� I tio11 sL1ggests that tl1ese la11dfor111s result fro.111 frost
layer) 111elts, beco111es saturated and, if o.n a
slo1Je, begi11s to 111ove downl1ill Linder gravity by
�� sl1attering, with tl1e weatl1erecl debris later l1avi11g
;111L. tl1e process of soliflt1ctio11 (page 47). Solifluctio11
been. re1noved by solifluction. If tl1is is tl1e case,
leads to the infilling of valleys and hollows b · y
jj� tors are tl1erefore a relict (fossil) of periglacial ti111es.
sa11d.s and clays to form soliflt1ction sheets
(Figures 5.12 and 5.13a) or, if the sot1.rce of
Snow th. e flow was a nivatio11 l1ollow, a rock strea1n ,

Snow is tl1e age11t of several JJrocesses which (.FigL1re 5.21). Solifluctio11 deposits, whether they
collective!}' are known as 11ivation (page 111).­ have in-filled valleys or have flowed over cliffs,
These 11ivation processes, so1neti111es referred as in soutl1ern E11gland, are also known as l1ead
..
• to as 's11owpatcl1 erosion', are believed to be or, in chalky areas, coo111be (Figure S.13b).
resJJ011sible for e11largi11g l1ollows on hillsides. rl�h� chalklands of SOL1ther11 E11gla11d are
Nivation hollows are still actively for111i11g in characterised by nL1merot1s dry valleys (Figure
places like Icela11d, but are relict featt1res i11 8.11.). 1�he 1nost favoured of several l1ypotl1eses
sot1tl1er11 Engla11d (as on the scarp slope of the put forward to explain tl1eir origin suggests that
Soutl1 Dow11s behind Eastbourne). the valleys were carved ot1t under periglacial
Figure5.12 co11ditions. Any water i11 the .Porous chalk a.t this
........................., ....•.•.•.••.•..•.
ti1ne would l1ave frozen, to produce permafrost,
Solifiuction sheet in
the Ogilvie Mountains,
leavi11g tl1e surface i1npermeable. Later, meltwater
Yukon,Canada rivers would have flowed over this frozen grou.11d
to for1n V-sl1aped va· lleys (page 200).
Rivers in periglacial areas l1ave a different
regime fro111 those flovving in war111er climates.
Many may stop flowi11g altogetl1er dt1ring the
long and very cold wi11ter c1�igt1re 5.1. 4) ancl l1ave
a peak discharge i11 late spring or early Slim.mer
when 1nelting is at its maximu111 (Places 18).
Wit11 tl1eir l1igh velocity, tl1ese rivers are capable
of transporting large amot1nts of ma.terial whe11
a.t their peak flow. Later in the year, whe11
river levels fall rapidly, mucl1 of tl1is material
will be deposited, leaving a braided cl1an11el
(Figures 3.32 and 5.16).

FigureS.13
········-········································
Formation of solifluction
sheet and head

a sheet at the foot of a chalk b head exposed in a cliff in south-west England

escarpment in south-east England soil, formed since
...-, ice age
.,.... ', former position
, of chalk scarp
\

permafrost \ head:
\ solifluction sheet:
r--

\ material deposited on top of

\ cemented chalk and clay
chalk beach deposits by solifluction
\ forming coombe deposits
(frozen durjng � during the ice age
ice age) •
• r, •
?:� ;_-o; 0°.
0•
:·o·. ·(; · .o ·. ·c:. iJV..t>·.
0. 0. • • 0 • ---:-------.\
0

--11� r--- marine sands and shells

•
of intergl,acial beach

--_,__
•

clay vale
--.- (
_J_.{
.) ---i------,,---___,
bedrocl<

................................................. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • .....................................................................
Periglaciation 135
 . .

175
as temperatL1res rise,
150 snowmelt leads to increasing as winter approaches
Figure 5.14
..................................... .... ,.
,
-u 125
discharge; this may cause
'rejuvenation: perhaps
and temperatures fall,
there is less snowmelt
Model of a river regime for111ing river terraces in the and the river level falls
in a periglacial area :l
u 100 old floodplain (page 82)
'
75
efficiency of river is reduced:
-0 so braiding often occurs annually
as discharge falls and the load
usually no discl1arge in
becomes too great for
25 winter because water is held
transportation (Figure 5. 16)
in storage as ice and snow
Q I
J F M A M J J A s 0 N D

---- ---- --- . --- - _,.. ------.-___,,..-----;

Alaska: periglacial river regimes
------·<

Permafrost also affects tl1e hydrological regimes responds much more readily to changes in both
of subarctic rivers. Figure 5.15 sl1ows the regime of temperature (increased snowmelt or freezing) and
two Alaskan rivers, both of which flow in first order rainfall (amounts and seasonal distribution). It has a
drainage basins (page 65). One river, however, is more extreme regime showing that it is more likely to
located in northern Alaska where over 50 per cent of flood in summer and to have a higher peak discharge
the basin is underlain with continuous permafrost. and then to dry up sooner, and for a longer period, in
The other river, in contrast, is located further south winter or during dry spells. Figure 5.16 was taken on 7
Figure 5.15 August 1996 in the Dynali National Park. The river level
......................................... where most of the basin co11sists of discontinuous
Contrasting regimes permafrost and only 3 per cent is continuous had already fallen (as had the first snow of winter!),
of rivers flowing over permafrost. The northern river, flowing over more and the large load carried by the early summer
continuous and impermeable ground (more permafrost giving meltwaters had already been deposited.
discontinuous
permafrost increased surface runoff and reduced throughflow)

250 .
.... ..._......
�,--�- continuous pe·rmafrost
..�.,t:__
•
f Figure 5.16
...........,.,.,......... ······· .............. ,,,. ........,......... ,...,..
-- discontinuous permafrost I A river in the Dynali National Park
I

' .

2 00 · · · -· · · -· · · · --... · · · ... · ---· - · · · · · -· · · · · · · · -· · · · · · --· · -· -· -· -· - · · · · -· · · · · · -· · · -· - · --..-.. -....--. -.-.. ---... -.. --..------ -... -.... ---.-.- .

E , so
VI

········-···-····-···············-·····-············-···-·-··· ··········--············-··········-·······-·························
::,
u
°'
(l)

� 100 ···················································----------·-··--·
u
·-
V\

ok�:::::::::::::::::::::::'C�bL���-==s�;;;�
1 Jan 1 Mar 1 May 1 Jul 1 Sep 1 Nov 1 Jan

Wind depth and forms the yellow soils of the Huang

A lack of vegetation and a plentiful supply of He valley- Case Study 10). 111 all areas, it gives
fine, loose 1naterial (i.e. silt) found in glacial an agriculturally productive, fine-textured,
environments enabled strong, cold, out-blowing deep, well-drained and easily worked soil which
winds to pick up large amou.nts of dust and is, however, st1sceptible to further erosion by
to redeposit it as loess i11 areas far beyond its water and wind if not carefully managed (Figure
source. Loess covers la1·ge areas in the Mississippi 10.35). Large t1·acts of central Europe, other tl1an
-Missouri valley in tl1e USA. It also occurs those consisting of loess, a.re covered in du11es
a�ross France (where it is called li111on) and
• (coversands) which were formed by wi11d depo­
the Nortl1 European Plain a11d into north-west sition during periglacial ti1nes.
China (where in places it exceeds 300 m in
• • • • • • • •• • • •• •• • ••• • • • • •• • • • • •• • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• • ••••••••••• ••

136 Periglaciation
In 2008, Dr Mike Bentley claimed in • The removal of mosses and other three days in Canada and Alaska and by
Geography Review tl,at one of tl1e most tundra vegetation (page 333) for one day in Russia.
important, yet least publicised, effects of construction purposes means that in • There is an increase in the extent of
global warming is the melting of the per- sum111er n1ore l1eat penetrates the soil, thermokarst, which is a landscape
111afrost (Figure 5.19). Measurements taken increasing the depth of thaw. that develops where masses of groL1nd
along a 11orth-south trar1sect adjace11t to the • The construction of centrally heated ice melts. As the depth of the active
Alaska11 pipeline suggest that the depth of buildings warms the ground beneath layer increases, parts of the land surface
the active layer is increasing and the deptl1 them, while the laying of pipes in the subside. Thermokarst is, therefore,
of the permafrost table is getti11g lower active zone, for heating oil, sewerage the general name given to irregLilar,
(Figure 5.3). and water, increases the rate of thaw l1ummocky terrai11 with marshy or lake­
(Figure 5.17). Aiied hollows created by the disruption of
• Heat prodL1ced by drilling for oil and the thermal equilibrium of the permafrost
Causes natural gas in botl1 Alaska and Russia (Figures 5.18 and 12.43). This development
• Global warmi11g is causing melts the surrounding permafrost. also increases tl1e risk of local fiooding.
temperatures to rise more quickly in • HoLises and other buildings tilt as their
arctic areas, where the permafrost is foundations subside and sink into the
located, than in more temperate
Effects ground (Figure 5.20).
regions. As the air temperature rises, • There is a reductio11 in the polar extent • Earth movements can alter tl,e position
the froze11 groLind beneath it warms up. of the permafrost in arctic areas and an of the supports for oil pipelines,
In northern Canada, where tl1ere has increase in the frequency of landslips threatening to fracture the pipes. Roads
been an increase in temperature of just and slope failure in more temperate, a11d railways can lose alignment, and
over 1 °C since 1990, the rate of thaw mountainous regions. dams and bridges may develop cracks.
l1as trebled. However, although global • There is evidence that the tree line • A new railway across the permafrost
warming is the main and obvious cause (page 331) is beginning to extend that makes up much of the Tibetan
for the melting of the permafrost, there further northwards and that the length Plateau has had to be built on crushed
are otl1er contributory reasons. of the growing season has increased by rock as this reduces temperatures and
consequently the rate of thaw.

The 'igloo'
roads and airstrips built on gravel pads:
RgureS.17
cl1urch,
lnuvik drained so tl1at ice cannot develop and Attempts to reduce
frost levels will not alter problems created by
steep roof to allow the development of
Public buildings, such as churches and halls,
snow to slide off periglacial areas
built on concrete 30cm thick, laid on a pad of
gravel 2 cm thick to prevent upset in thermal
equilibrium. Schools close when temperature lightweig'> t
drops to -40°(. wooden :uilding
'
car in ga_rage (night) or parked on
g;�=
dou le wall with triple
problems of street, plugged into electricity supply
insu ation in · ·etween . glazing
. blizzards, icing to stop battery running down and ,u.....i
1��
and gales petrol and oil from freezing
• I

fresh water ou·ses built on

;&icrete stilts
u-'-c::ofef air can blo
ttriverr nto the
under house, snow .
p,ermafrost
•
does not pile up •
during a blizzard
active layer
' fresh water frost table
•'

• •

oil pipeline built above oil storage tank built on stilts 'Utilidor': steel frame with
ground level and insulated as oil has to be kept heated to aluminium panels heated
prevent it freezing by steam to prevent
freezing and protected
with fibrous insulation
 - - .- -- --��---�-----------...-"' �_________,____.--� __�--__...�_,,�-�-----
_._____._.._.,.._ ....,, .. _.,,......_.�

.
- ---

s_}:case·study The melting permafrost

• Of all tl,e effects resulti11g from '

Figure 5.18
tl1e ,nelting of tl,e permafrost, it is . ..
........... , ........... �1!11"
the release of organic ,natter fron1 Thermokarst
permafrost soils as they tl1aw tl1at is scenery
causing scientists tl,e 111ost concern
(Figure 5.19). Tl,is organic matter
co11tains large amour,ts of carbon in
storage. As temperatures rise due to
global warn1ing, this carbon is released
as one of two greenl1ouse gases -
either C0 2 in drier areas or metl,ane in
wetter places (Figure 9.78). Tl1e release
of tl,ese gases will i11crease the speed .
of global war,ning which in turn will
accelerate the rate of melting in the
permafrost, creating a vicious cycle.

Conclusion
..- f"y ,,,. ,.,, • -·� I • � � •,
� < ' , "' '- \. .._, ' ' - ·) \ ,

Latest estimates suggest that the depth of FigureS.19

... .. .... .. .. . , ....................... Norn1ally, the soils of permafrost areas are
. . . . .
the active layer could increase by 20 to 30 Extract from an article , cram111ed with undegraded, well-preserved
per cent by 2050, a11d tl1at between 60 per in Geography Review
organic 111atter i11 the form of leaves, roots,
cent (the ,nost conservative figure) and 90 February 2008, by Dr
t\\1igs a11d so on. This is a11 enormot1s store of
Mike Bentley
per cent (the worst-case scenario) of the carbon, kept inert by being frozen i11 tl1e
permafrost could disappear by 2100. As Dr grot111d. Bt1t if that grot111d begins to melt ancl '

Bentley suggests: 'Permafrost may seem like tl1e orga11ic 111aterial can start rotti11g, it will
a remote irrelevance to us in the temperate , release its carbon as carbon dioxide or
;
mid-la\itudes, but it has the potential to Figure 5.20
1netha11e, botl1 greenl1ouse gases.
....... .............................................,. ................... . I11 otl1er words, the newly thawed soils may
affect every one of us through its impact on
'

Buildings in Yukon, Canada, whose · release vast an1ot1nts of g·reenhouse gases into
greenl,ouse gas emissions.' footings have sunk into the permafrost tl1e at1nosphere, vvhich wi 11 of course give a
· ft1rtl1er 'kick' lo global \Var1ni11g. Tl1is \vill
, •
111elt more permafrost and so on, in a
•

· worse11ing positive feedback cycle. This

process is a11 example of biogeocl1e1nical
feedback vvhicl1 could inf]t1ence global cli1nate
cl1a11ge. The alarn1ing tl1i11g about it is the '
i a.1nount of carbon contai11ed i11 tl1e Arctic, a11d
.· the speed at whicl1 war111i11g is occt1rring. The
combined effect could be catastrophic.
To illt1strate tl1is, co11sider that the Arctic is
estimated to contain abot1t 900 gigatonnes (Gt)
. of carbon. Ht1ma11s e1nit abot1t 9 Gt of carbon .
. from fossil fuels and deforestatio11 every year.
So it wo11ld only take tl1e release of 1 % of '
\

· carbo11 i11 A:rctic permafrost soils to effectively

double ottr emissions of gree11l1ouse gases.
, ·. , .. .. , ,. .. . , ' ,r'

Bentley, M. (2008) 'On shaky ground' in Goudie, A.S. (2001) The Nati,re of the � Periglacial JJrocesses and landforms:
Geography Revieiv Vol 21 No 3_ (February). Environ,rzent, WileyBlackwell. www.bgrg.org/pages/education/alevel/
French, H.M. (2007) Tl1e Periglacial . 1
Middleto11, N � (200.8) 'Arctic warming·' i11 · cold ei1v iron s/Le sso n °/o2019 .ht1n
.
En:viro11111ent, WileyBlackwell. •
I
. Geography Review Vol 21 No 4· (April). www.fettes.com/Cairngorms/periglacia.l.
htm
• •

· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ..· · · · ·.· · · · · · - · · · · · · · · · · · · - · · · · · · · · ., · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

1·38 Perjgla�iation
 •

Activities
• • • • • • • • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • • • • • • • • • e o • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • e • • • o o • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

1 Study Figure 5.1 (page 130), which shows where there is e Why does the permafrost not occur throughout the
permafrost in the northern l1emisphere, and Figure 5.2 crustal rocks? (5 marks)
(page 131 ).
a i Where is the place closest to the Nortl1 Pole where 2 Study Figure 5.14 (page 136) which shows the flow of
there is no permafrost? a river (its regime) in a periglacial area.
ii How close to the North Pole is this place? (2 marks) a i When does water not flow in this river? (2 marks)
b i From Figure 5.1 suggest two reasons why there is ii Why does water not flow during this time? (3 marks)
no permafrost in some places while there is in iii How would you recognise 'river terraces in the
other places. Give examples from the map to old floodplain' cut by such a river? (5 marks)
support your answer. (6 marks) b Using diagrams in your answer, explain the meaning
iii Identify the cause/s of the 'pocket' of permafrost of the term 'braiding' as used in the diagram. (5 marks)
in north-west Scandinavia. (2 marks)
c Give two reasons why the wind has a greater erosional
c What is the 'active layer' in permafrost like? (3 marks) effect in periglacial environments than in most other
d i What is meant by the term 'mean annual areas. (5 n,arks)
temperature'? (3 marks) d How could you recognise that the wind had:
ii How deep is a the active layer and b the permafrost
i removed material from one area and
at Resolute Bay? (2 marks)
ii deposited the material elsewhere? (5 marks)
iii Use data from Figure 5.2 to suggest tl1e relationship
between depth of permafrost and latitude. (2 marks)

Exam practice: basic structured questions

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • o • • • • • • • • • o • • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

3 a Describe the shape and scale of two of the following c Figure 5.10 (page 134) shows a pingo in northern Canada.
periglacial landforms: ice wedge polygons; scree; Write a description of the pingo from the photograph,
nivation hollow; solifluction terracettes. (6 marks) including the area around it and its scale. (6 marks)
b For one of the landforms you have described in a, explain d How is a pingo formed? (7 marks)
t1ow periglacial processes have led to its formation. (6 marks)
•
..

Exam practice: structured questions

••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••• • ••• 0 ••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

4 Study Figure 5.21 which shows a range 0 horizontal scale SOOm

of periglacial landforms and their A nivation hollow with snow patch G braided stream
B stone polygons, garlands H ice-wedge polygons
locations.
and stripes K pingo
a Choose one of the landforms C solifluction sheets/benches L tor •
labelled B to H. Describe its size and D blockfield M talus {scr�e) ,
location in the field and suggest E rock stream N cliffs with head
how it has been formed. (8 marks) F debris fan deposits upper limit of
b Explain the processes that are permafrost
operating in the snow patch (A).
(5 marks)
c Explain the role of i wind and ii
meltwater in the formation of
landforms in areas of periglacial
landscape. (12 marks) s.ea

• ••

Exam practice: essays •

.
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• •••••••••••••••••••••••
s 'Changes to soil stability due to frost are a major problem for 6 . 'Permafrost may seem like a remote irrelevance to us in th�
developm.ent in regions where there is a periglacial climate: temp�rate mid-latitudes, but its destruction could have big
Using examples you have studied, explain why this could be implications both locally and globally:
the c_ase, and describe methods people use to overcome the Discuss this statement. (25 marks)
problems of living in such areas. (25 marks)
� .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.

Periglaciation 139
 . .

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
'

1
A ,·ecent esti,nate of the coastline of England and Wales exception to this definition is tl1ose waves -
is 2750 miles and it �s ve,·y ,·a,·e to find tl1e same kind of tst1namis - that result from submarine shock
waves ge11erated by earthquake or volcanic
coas·ta[. scener·y fo1· 1rzo1·e than 10 to 15 n1iles together.' activity.) As tl1e strength of the wind increases, so
J.A. Steers, T/1e Coastline ofEngland and Wales, 1960
too does frictional drag and th . e size of the waves.
1
1 do not know wliat I may appea,· to the worlcl; bi1t to Waves tl1at result from local winds and travel 011ly
sl1ort d.istances are know11 as sea, wl1ereas those
,nyself I seem to have been only a boy playi11g on the sea­ waves for1ned by dista11t storn1s and travelli11g
sl101·e, and dive,·ting myself i11 11ow and tl1en fi.nding a large distances are referred to as swell.
sn1ootl1e1· pebble 01· a p1·ettie1· shell tl1an 01·dina1y, while the The energy acquired by waves depends upon
g,·eat ocea11 of tri,t/1 lay all ·undiscove,·ed befo,·e 1ne.' three factors: tl1e wind velocity, tl1e period of
time during which the wi11d has blown, and tl1e
Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Natura/is
Principia Mathematica, 1687
le11gth of the fetch. Tl1e fetch is the maximum
distance of open wa.ter over which the wind can
The coast is a narrow zone where the land and blow, and so places with the greatest fetcl1 pote11-
the sea overlap and directly interact. Its devel­ tially receive the highest-e11ergy waves. Parts of
opment is affected by terrestrial, atmospheric, south-west England are exposed to the Atlantic
marine and l1un1an processes (Figure 6.1) and Ocean and when the south-westerly winds blow
their interrelatio11ships. Tl1e coast is the n1ost it is possible that some waves may have origi­
varied and rapidly changing of all landforll'\s nated several thousand kilometres away. The
and ecosystems. Thames esh1ary, by comparison, has less open
water between it and the Conti11ent and conse­
quently receives lower-energy wa.ves.
Waves
Figure 6.1
� • • • • '• • • • • • • • • • • o • • • • • • • ' • • ,. • • • t • • • I • • • Waves are created by the transfer of energy from
Factors affecting the wind blowing over tl1e surface of the sea. (An
coasts
--w�-
- ------ --�-----·-�----�
iERBESTRIAL::
i HUMAN:
buildings
ATMOSPHERIC:

'
pollution
tectoniGs tourism and recreation
(plate m0vement and volcanic sea defences
adivit}!) conservation gravity
globa·I warming
,

geoJo�y,
(r:Qck cype a,nd str.ueture)
t
solar energy
weatheri.hg MARIN Et
waves and tst1namis '
•

deposition tides
. climate
salt spray '(temperature, precipitation, winds,
bfuti( features biotic feature� glaciations)
(e.g. mangroves) (e.g. cofal)

�- .

. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... .... . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . ··························

·
• t t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I •

140 Coasts
 •
•

•
,
t

Wave terminology be destroyed and that wave power is a potential

T?e crest a11d tl1e trot1gl1 are respectively tl1e source of renewable energy (page 541). · ·
· h1gl1est and lowest 1Joi11ts of a wave (Figure 6.2). Swell is characterised by waves of low l1eight,
Wave l1eigl1t (H) is the dista11ce between th.e gentle steepness, long wave length and a long
crest and the trough. The l1eight l1as to be esti­ period. Sea, with opposite cl1aracteristics, usually
has l1igher-e11ergy waves.
rn.ated when in deep water. Wave heig'ht rarely
exceeds 6 m althot1gh freak waves of 15 m have Waves in deep water
been reported by offsl1ore oil-rigs, and 25 m by Deep wa.ter is when tl1e depth of water is greater
a wave-tracking satellite. Such waves can be a tha11. one-quarter of tl1e wave length:
serious l1azard to shipping.
Wave period (T) is the time taken for a wave (D = >l._
4 )
to travel tl1rough one wave length. This can be The drag of the wi11d over tl1e sea surface causes
ti1ned eitl1er by cot1nting the num.ber of crests water and floating objects to move in an orbital
per mi11ute or by ti111ing 11 waves and dividing 1notion (Figure 6.3). Waves are surface fea-
by 10 - i.e. the 11·urnber of i11tervaJs. tures (st1bmerged subn1arines are t1naffected
Wave lengtl1 (L) is the distance betwee11 by storµis) and therefore tl1e sizes of the orbits . '

two successive_crests. It ca11 be determined decrease rapidly with depth. AI1y floating object
by the formula: i11 tl1e sea l1as a s1nall net horizontal move1nent
I

L = 1.56 T2
bL1t a 1nuch larger vertical motion.

Wave velocity (C) is the speed of movement Waves in shallow water

of a crest in a given JJeriod of time. As waves approach shallow water, i.e. when their
Wave steep11ess (H + L) is tl1e ratio of the deptl1 is less than one-quarter of the wave length,
wave heigl1t to 1 :l1e wave le11gth,. This ratio cannot
exceed 1:7 (0.14) because at that point tl1e wave
(D = < t)
friction with the seabed increases. As the base of
will break. Steepness determi11es whether waves the wave begins to slow down, the circular oscil­
will build up or degrade bea.ches. ivfost waves 11ave la�ion becomes more elliptical (Figu1·e 6.4). As
a steepness of between 0.005 and 0.05. the water depth continues to decrease, so does
Tl1e energy (E) of a wave in deep water is the wave le.ngth.
expressed by tl1e formula: Meanwhile the height and steepness of the
•• E oc (is proportio11al to) LH 2 wave increase un.til the upper part spills or plunges
This means tl1at even a slight i11crease in wave over. The point at which the wave breaks is known
height can generate large increases in energy. It is as the plu11ge line. The body of foaming water
esti1nated that the averag. e presst1re of a wave in . which then rt1shes Ltp the beach is called the
winter is 11 tonnes per m 2, but this 111ay be three­ swasl1, while any water retu1·ning down to the sea·
times greater dLtring a stor1n - it is little wonder is the backwasl1.
tl1at under such co11ditions sea defences may

crest 1 crest 2

..

wave height (H)

trough

,•
Figure6.2
, .. ,. •.. •...... . .... ...... ....... ..... ...
Wave terminology

· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coasts 141
 stage1 stage2-

Figure6.3
••··•·· ···•················· •··•····· ···· crest 1 crest 2 crest 1
Movement of an
object in deep water:
the diagrams show l /

trougl1 2 trough 1 trough 2

the circular move­
ment of a ball or piece
of driftwood through
five stages in the i--�- -----·-- ---·
passage of one wave
length (crest 1 to crest
2); although the ball stage3 stage4
moves vertically up
and down and the crest 2 crest 1 crest 2
wave moves forward
horizontally, there is
very little horizontal
trough 2
rnovement of the ball
until the wave breaks; •
. trough 2 •
the movement is
orbital and the size
of the orbit decreases ,�-�--------�------ '---------·�-·-------'
with depth
stages
wave direction

crest 2

'
'-.. trough 3 trough 2
..

Figure6.4
....... ,, .... ......................... .
,

Why a wave breaks

crest of wave rises as wave steepens until it

it moves forward: reaches a ratio of 1 :7
velocity and wave (wave height: wave
length decrease length) when it will
break
- .. water rushes up the
'
:
.. . ,
'I
beach as 'swash'
,

increasingly ---------
--
water from previous
-
wave becomes more elliptie:al orbit ----------- ---- ·
elliptjcal in mox,ement f w ave ---- ---- ---- wave returns as
ow-·
n·b --
ase -
o 'backwash'
O s\ows d
fr\ctlo -
shelving sea bed (beach)

•
•

Wave refraction drag), causing the wave to bend. The ortl1ogo­

Where waves approach ·an irregular coastline, nals (lines drawn at rigl1t-angles to wave crests)
they are refracted, i.e. they become increasingly in Figure 6.5 represent four stages in the advance
parallel to the coastline. This is best illust1·ated of a particular wave crest. It is apparent from
where a head.land.separates two bays (Figure 6.5). the convergence of lines 5 1 , 52 , 53 and 54 that
As each w�ve crest nears the coast, it tends to wave e11ergy pecomes concentrated. upon, and
drag i11 the sl1allow w�ter near to a headland, or so accentuates erosion at, the headland. The
indeed any sl1allow water, so that the portion of diagra1n also shows the formation of lo11gshore
the crest in deeper water moves forward wl1ile (littoral) currents, wJ1ich carry sediment away
tl1at in shallow water is retarded (by ·frictional from tl1e headla11d.

. . . . . . . . . . .• . . . . . · . · · · · · · · · · · ·
•

· '
• f • f f I I I I f I I f f I I f I ! I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I f I I I I I f I I I I I I I. I I I I I • I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1,1 I I I I I I f I I I I I I I t I f f I I I I I I I I • •

142 Coasts •

•
Figure 6.5
. .. . . ... ..... . ... . . . ... .. ' .............
-
'

Wave refraction at a
headland orth ogonals sand
longshore (littoral) 5 1 5-2 5 3 54 four stages marking positions
��.....�.
bay currents of an advancing wave crest bay •

low-energy low-energy
•

waves
'

waves
54 54

headland
(paths of crests (paths of crests
53 diverge) diverge) 53
waves in deeper
water do not lose high-energy waves
velocity as rapidly (paths of crests converge)
and are lower and
less steep than s '
depth of water decreases, waves
2-
those off the get higher and s\eeper, velocity
headland decreases, shortfl r wave length

51 wave approaches irregular coastline 51

Beaches • Wave ene1·gy Field studies l1ave shown a close

relationship betvveen the profile of a beach and
Beaches 111ay be divided into three sections - the action of two types of v.1ave: constructive
backsl101·e (u1Jper), foreshore (lower) and 11ea1·­ and deshuctive (page 144). However, the effect
sl1ore - based on tl1e i11fluence of waves (Figure of wave steepness on beach profiles is compli­
6.6). A beach forms a bL1ffer zone between tl1e cated by the second variable.
waves and the coast. If tl1e beach proves to be • Particle size There is also, dt1e to differe11ces
an effective buffer, it will dissipate wave e11ergy in the relative dissipation of wave e11ergy, a
without experiencing any net cl1ange itself. distinct relationsl1ip between beach slope and
Because it is composed of loose material, a beach particle size. This relationship is partly due
.
can rapidly adapt its shape to c0anges in wave to grain size and partly to percolation rates,
energy. It is, tl1erefore, in dynamic equilibrium both of whicl1 are greater on shingle beaches
with its environment (Framework 3, page 45). tl1an 011 sa11d (pages 145-146). Consequently,
Beach profiles fall betwee11 two extre1nes: those shingle bea.ches are steeper than sand
that are wide and relatively flat; and those tl1at are beacl1es (Figure 6.6).
narrow a11d steep. Tl1e gradient of natural beaches
is dependent upo11 the interrelationsl1ip between Figure 6.6
...................................................................
two mai11 variables: Wave zones and beach morphology
(after King, 1980)
�,-- offshore--
...,: ...
-�nearsl,ore �...-:�---foreshore --1...�'..---- backshore ___.., I •

beyond the : zone in whicl, : (lower beach: often (upper beach:

I

influence of ' waves affect under 5 ° ) usually 10°-20 ° )

I I

the waves the seabed

I

inter-tidal or usually above the ',.

surf zone influence of the waves ""' cliffs

I

,· ""(or dunes)
I
I

breakpoint bar:zone maximum s ring tides ,/

I I
I

of breaking waves � l ,,,--�-�

,:,..,-.,__,�.,.. -r--_c-� .:i.

low-water mark (low tide) . rJ,r' -.::::11

· 1'P�· . ( .�,·2gm
• "i-t,.(Pi.',' � 6;-7)
�t'f1re 1t
\' } r•q 'i" '
t ?"f.\ , •

.. s
>:,, �.. �·
_
. ,,
.
,11,,�·
-�· • ! ,, •,. • �-· d \

• •• ·-··-·-......--._;.;,,,-;:,,;;-;---.-��� ( • •I.
' • �... �� �� ���
-�---�-,,::,�.�---:r.--::-,,,---.,.,.._.� ��n�.....,
•
·-
... ...,......� .. ·-.;::::;;:..:_:·_ :::---�· ,,....:s�a....;n d · 1

-· -· - .-....-------
' - -:- san-a· - -- - ..... -: ...... - ---- - ... - -� - ---� �-
__.......
�
.,...., • -·
. 41!' • - --- _..._ ..-J',; - - ___ ..._..._.
•

ridges and runnels

....,..

b edrock
ong shoreb a rs de ess ons
-l_--�-�-�-�-�------�----.;.;.__1 _ � - _ _ _ _ _ _ ____...:___f _ _p_r _ _ i_ _ )_ __.:.-____�.;;......;;..;....;;..._______ �_,.�-·=·-��;..;.;;;..______..;..________ !...-J 143
 ---- ---- -- -
-

Types of wave . '

consta.ntly, 1noved up the beacl1. This will
gradually increase the gradient of tl1e beach
It is widely accepted tl1at there are two extreme
and leads to tl1e formation of ber111s at its crest
wave types that affect the s.l1ape of a beacl1.
(l:;i g·ures 6.9 and 6.10) a11d, especia11y on sandy
However, whereas tl1e extreme ty·pes .l1ave, in. tl1e
beaches, ridges a11d runnels (Figure 6.6).
. '
past, bee11 labelled co11st1·uctive and destructive
• Destn1ctive waves are more co1nmon wl1ere
(Figt1re 6.7, and A11drew Goudie Tl1e Nal1tre of tlze
tl1e fetch dista11ce is sho1ter. They are often large
E11vironr11e11t), it is now becomi11g 1110.re usual to
(or high) waves, stee1J in forrn and witl1 a short
use t11e terms lligh ene1·gy and low energy (Figure
wave lengt11 (perhaps only 20 m) a11d a higl1 fre­
6.8, an.ct Jol1n ·retl1ick An I11trod1.1ctio11 to Coastal
Geo11101JJr10/ogy). Note that '.l1.igl1-energy waves' and
que. 11cy (10 to 14 per mint1te). Tl1ese waves, on
'low-energy waves' are 11ot syno11ymous term.s for approacl1ing a beacl1, steepen rapidly until tl1ey
'constructive waves' a11d 'destructive waves'. 'plunge' over (Figure 6.7b). Tl1e near-vertical
breaking of the wave creates a powerft1l back­
Constructive and destructive waves wasl1 whicl1 ca11 1nove considerable a1nounts of
• Constructive waves often for1n where the sediI11e11t down tl1e beach and, at the same time,
fetch distance is long. Th,ey are usually small redt1ce the effect of the swash from tl1e following
(or low) waves, flat in forin and with a lo11g wave. Althou.gh some shingle may be thrown 11p
wave length (up to ·100 1n) a.nd a low fre­ above the l1igh-water rna.rk by very large vyaves,
quency (a wave period of 6 to 8 per 1ninute). forming a stor1n beacl1, 1nost material is rnoved
On. approacl1ing a beach, the wave front dow11wards to form a longshore (breakp.oi11t)
steepens relatively slowly u11til tl1e wave ge11tly bai: (Figures 6.6 and 6.7b).
'spills' over (Figure 6.7a). As the resultant
swash moves up the beacl1, it rapidly loses High-energy waves and /ow-energy
volume and energy due to water percolati11g waves
through tl1e beacl1 1naterial. 1�he result is tl1at Recent opinion appears to SL1pport the view that
tl1e backwash, despite the additio11 of gravity, beach sl1ape is 1nore dependent on, and linked
is weak and l1as insufficient energy either to to, wave energy. Tl1e correlation between the two
transpor�t sediment back down. tl1e beach or to types of wave energy and beach profile is given
impede the swash from the folJowi11g wave. in Figure 6.8.
Co11sequently sand and shingle is slowly, bt1t
Figure6.7
.......................... ............. . a constructive (flat) waves strong swash: much water is
--
'

Constructive and
-
-
---
-
lost through percolation;
destructive waves sand is carried up the beach
-,- - - --
and forms a berm
--
//-- berm
relatively flat and gentle waves /
I
/
;
I
/
/

· -
/

_ -- _.,.,,.. weak backwash: little material

"smaller, longshore
.,
,;-
........., ___. is returned down the beach
-//
.,0fl\e - _ - - --- -
_ - - --;;w-beach p rofile
. . a\ beach p,
--
1 (breakpoint) bar
0r,g,n
- ---
_
- -- - ...... -- ......"
b destructive (steep} waves some large material ----
forming a storm beach �
high, steep waves I
I
I
I
/
/
I
I

'""
,,' Ii�� water lost
; ;

/
I

.,., , '
<'
, th ro ugh percolation,
I

Iii'
;' I

k' ,,,,,./ most of material

weak swash
· _ ,, carried d.o wn beach
. ·-_ _
e
h nrof\\ , / .,,.. ..... ' by backwash
ea
....t,i,;\na\.\J _c _""_____ _ ____ ...,,
·- ��
,,,,,.
.... ________ ,..,,.- - ---
\ - - gradient decreases
new beach profile larger longshore dowr, beach
• (breakpoint) bar

••••••••••••••••••••••••• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • •• • • • • •··• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• •
f! • • • • • • • • • • • e II e e e e e e e • .. e • e # • e e • • e e f • e e ,t, e e • # • e e
·················
144 Coa sts
 ------ �---�-- - - --
-

Figure6.8
........ ,.... , .. , .. ................ ., ...
High-energy and
low-energy waves Produced by distant storms Source Formed more locally
(ofter J. Pethick) Large Fetch distance Short
Long (up to 100 m) Wave length Short (perhaps only 20 m)
High and short Wave height Low and flat
Move quickly and so lose little energy Speed of wave movement Move less quickly and so lose more energy
Spilling Type of breaker Surging
Long Dissipation distance Shorter
Flat and wide Beach shape Steeper and narrower

Particle size Shingle beaches

1�his factor co111plicates the in.flue11ce of wave Sl1ingle may 1nake up the whole, or just tl1e
steep11ess 011 the n1orphology of a beacl1. Tl1e tipper part, of the beacJ1, and, like sand, it will
fact that sl1ingle beacl1es have a steeper gradient l1ave been sorted by wave action. Ust1ally, tl1e
Figure6.9 larger tl1e size of tl1e shingle, tl1e steeper the
···················· ................... . tl1an sandy beacl1es is dt1e mainly to differe11ces
Storn1 beaches and i11 percolation rates resulti11g froin differences i11 gradient of tl1e beacl1, i.e. the graclient is in direct
berms: berms mark 1Jroportion to sl1ingle size. This is an interesting
the limits of particle size - i.e. water will pass tl1rougl1 coarse­
grai11ed sl1ingle more rapidly tl1an, through fine­ l1ypotl1esis to test by experiment in t11e field
successively lower
high tides grained sa11d (I;igu,re 8.2). (Framework 10, page 299).
Regardless of whether waves on shi11gle
beac11es are constructive or destructive, 111ost of
tl1e swash rapidly percolates downwards leaving
limited st1rface backwash. This, together witl1 the
loss of energy res11lting fro1n frictio11 ca11sed by
the uneven surface of the sl1in.gle (compare tl1is
with t11e effects of bed rougl1ness of a stream,
5+2 page 70), 1neans that under normal conditions I

S + 3, etc. • very little shingle is 111oved back down the beach..

. .
\:
'
.. . . Indeed, the strong swash will probably transport
. . ). �
material up the beacl1 for111i11g a berm at the
. '
spring higl1-tide level. Above tl1e berm there is
•' .• • •
ofte11 a storm beach, co1nposed of even bigger
'

� . . .\. '\ . bo11lders thrown there by the largest of waves,

10.1 hile below may be several smaller riclges, eacl1
1narking the height of tl1e successively lower
. �·---::ii
... '
'
higl1 tides which follow the 111axi1nu111 spring
tide (Figures 6.9 a11d 6.10).

Figure6.10
............ ' ............................
Berms and storm
beaches in north-east
,,,...._.:- ---_,..,.,,.,,.
.- .
.,________ �

Anglesey, Wales

• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . • . . ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • • • • • ••
Coasts 145
 •

Figure 6.11
.. ........................... I a the gravitational pull of the moon
Causes of tides low tide
Sand beaches
Sand usually produces peacl1es witl1 a gentle ,,
gradient. Tl1is is becat1se the small particle size
high high gravitational . ·� moon
.allows the sand to becon1e compact wl1en wet, tide .. title attraction
�
-·"t

se,,erely restricti11g the ra.te of percolation. ''

Percolation is also l1i11dered by tl1e storage of

water in. pore spaces i11 sand wl1ich enables most
low tide
of tl1e swasl1 fro111 both co11structive and destruc­
tive waves to return as backwash. Relatively '
little energy is lost by friction (sa11d presents a b spring tides maximum tidal
smoother st1rface than sl1ingle) so material vvill range
be carried dow11 tl1e beach. Tl1e 111.aterial will
bt1ild up to form a lo11gshore bar at the low- Y. •
\
)
sun

tide 1nark (Figure 6.6). This will cau.se waves moon

to break further from the sl1ore, giving tl1em a
""'' -
Earth .
wider beach over which to dissipate tl1eir en.ergy.
Tl1e lower parts of sand beaches a�e someti111es •

crossed by shore-parallel ridges and rt111nels c neap tides moon

(Figure 6.6). The ridges may be broken by cl1an­
nels which drain the r11n11els a.t low tide. minimum tidal
The interrelatio11sl1ip between wave e11ergy, range
•
beacl1 t11aterial a11d beach pr<;>files may be su111-
Earth
;( sun
marised b·y the following generalisatio11s which •

\
••
refer to 11et move111e11ts:
'
•

- • Destructive waves carry 1naterial down tl1e

{not drawn to scale)
. beacl1.
• Constructive waves carry material up the
beach. A lunar month (t11e time it takes the moon to
'

. • Material is _carried upwards on sl1i11gle beaches. orbit the Earth) is 29 days and the tidal cycle
• Jviaterial is carried downwards on sandy (the time between two successive l1igl1 tides) is
•

. b�acl1es. 12 hot1rs and 25 minutes, giving two high tides,

near e11ough, per day. The sun, with its smaller
gravitational attraction, is the cause of the dif­
Tides ference in tidal range rather than of tl1e tides
The position at. whicl1 waves _break over the beac11, themselves. 011ce every 14/15 days (i.e. twice in a
and tl1eir range, are determi11ed by the state of lunar month), tl1e moo11 and sun are in alignn1ent
the tide. It l1as already been seen that the levels on the san1e side of the Ea1il1 (Figure 6.1 lb). Tl1e
·of high tides vary (berms are formed at progres­ increase in gravitational attraction generates tl1e
·sively lower levels follow!ng spring high tides; sp1ing tide which produces tl1e highest high tide,
,
Figt1re 6.9). Tides are co11trolled by gravitatio11al the lowest low tide an . d the maximurn tidal range.
effects, mai11ly of the moon but partly of the sun, Midway between the spring tides are the neap
•
· together witl1 the rotatioi1 of the Earth and, more tides, which occL1.r when the sun, Earth and rnoon
locally, the geo1no1·phology of sea basins. form a right-angle, with the Earth at the apex
(Figure 6.1 lc). As the sun's attraction pa1·tly coun­
'Tl1e moon has the greatest influence.
· Although its n1ass is much smaller tl1an that of terbalances that of the 1noon, the tidal ra11ge is a.t
the sun, this is more tha11 compensated for by its a mini1nt1m witl1 the lowest of high tides and the
closer proximity to the Ea·rtl1. The moon attracts, �ighest of low tides (Figure 6.12). Spring and neap
•
or pulls� water to the side of.the Earth nearest tides vary by approximately 20 per cent above and
to it. This creates a bulge or high tide (Figure below the mean _ high-tide and low-tide levels.
· 6.1 la), with a complementary bulge on the So f�r, we have seen how tides might cha11 ge
opposite side of the E-artl1. This bulge is on a uniform or totally sea-covered Earth. In
compensated. for by the intervening areas where practice, tl1e tide. s 1nay differ considerably from
water i'S repelled and which experience a low the above scenario due to such factors as: the
tide. As the moon orbits the Earth, the high tides Earth's rotation (a11d the effect of the Coriolis
follow it. force, page 224); the distribt1tion of land masses;
and the size, depth and configuration of ocean
and sea basins.
........ ... .'..... ..' ... ..... ... ..'....'.. .. • • • • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • !' . . . .. . . .
. .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
·· ··· ·· · ····· ··· · · · ···· ····· ··· · ··· ··· · ··· ····· · ··· · ··· ·
146 Coasts
·---�- - -- -
- - --

sun sun
Figure 6.12 \
................................... ...... new new
Tidal cycles during
10 moon
10 moon

r�
the lunar month
.� --
l1alf
moon
spring : spring
tides I Earth v
half
tides
�

moon
neap tides full moon neap tides

Day1 Day7Yi Day15 Day 22 Yi Day29

Sun and moon combine to Sun and moon are 90° out of Sun and moon combine to Sun and moon are 90° out of Sun and moon combine to
give spring tides phase giving neap tides give spring tides again phase giving neap tides again give spring tides
sp,·ing t' rin tide s
Ides sp g
ne a p tide s ne a p tid es

(0
·-
""C
Note tl1at low tides are lower at springs than at neaps, and l1igh tides are higher at springs than at neaps.
Dayl Day7 Yi Day 1 S Day 22Yi Day29

Figure 6.13 N 200km greater than in 1101�thern Scotland (Figure 6.13).

................ ...... ...................
Tidal range and m Estuaries where incoming tides are forced into
difference in times •• rapidly narrowing valleys also have considerable
of high tide in the •• tidal ranges, e.g. the Severn estuary with
North Sea 13 1n, the Rance (Brittany) with 11.6 m and tl1e
Bay of Ftrndy (Canada) with 15 m. It is due to these
extreme tidal ranges that the Ra11ce has the world's
3,n •• first tidal power station, while the Bay of Fu11dy
Aberdeen • ••
•• 2 a11d the Severn have, respectively, experimental
•• •• 3 and proposed schemes for electricity genera-
•• ••
•• • • tion (page 542). Extreme narrowing of estuaries
• ••
•• •• O l can concentrate the tid.al rise so rapidly that an
• o.... I
�o advancing wall of water, or tidal bore, may travel
upriver, e.g. the Rivers Severn and Amazon. In con­
trast, small enclosed seas have only 1ninimal tidal
ranges, e.g. the Mediterranean with 0.01 m .
.
Storm surges
Storm st1rges are rapid rises i n sea-level caused
by intense areas of low pressure, i.e. depressions
(page 23.0 ) and tropical cyclones (page 235). For
every drop in air pressure .of ·10 mb (page 224),
sea-level can rise 10 cm. In tropical cyclones,
•
0, pressure can fall by 100 mb causing the sea-level
to rise by 1 m. Are�s at greatest risk are those
2m
•••••• • tidal range in metres w.here sep. basins becon1e narrower and 1nore
3 shallow (e.g. southern North Sea and the Bay
/g
'•'
�
co-tidal lines: the position of the high­
tide wave at each hour in the tidal cycle; of Bengal) and where tr(?pical cyclones move
, 'sf X amphidromic point lies at centre froJ?.1 the sea and cross low-lying areas (e.g.
Bangladesh and Florida). When these stor1ns
The morpl1ology of the seabed and coastline coincide with ht1rricane-force winds and
affects tidal range. 111 the example of the North high tides, th .e surge can be topped by waves
Sea, as the tidal wave travels sot1tl1 it moves into an reaching 8 m. in µeight. Where such events
area where both the width and the depth of the sea occur i n densely popt1lated areas, they pose a
decrease. This results i11 a rapid accu:qiulation, or 1najor natural haza.rd as they can cause con­
htnnelling, of water to give an increasingly hig:her siderable loss of life and qamage to property
tidal range - the range at Dover is several metres (Places 19 and 31, page 238).

• t t t • t t ' • t t t t t f f t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t ! t f t t I t t I t t t t t t I t t t t t I f t I t t t t I t I r t I f t � I t t �t t I • t t ! t f t t f' f t t t I I • f I • i f f f f t t t t f I t t t t ' t t • I t I t t t I t t t I t t t t t• I t t t t � I t t f , t t t I t t t I t t t , t I t

Coasts 147
 -- ---- ---
-- ------ --------�- --- - ---

�--··----·�-·-· ---�-----·-·-w-•�ut �· •---·-�· -�---------�--------,,

The North Sea and the Bay of; Bengal: storm surges i
··�--- .- -- ______.. ._.....

North Sea, 31 January- Bay of Bengal

'

1 February 1953 The south of Bangladesh includes many flat islands

A deep depression to tl1e north of Scotland, instead formed by deposition from the Rivers Ganges and
of following the usual track wl1ich would have taken Brahmaputra. This delta region is ideal for rice growing
it over Scandinavia, turned soutl1wards into the and is home to an estimated 40 million people.
North Sea (Figure 6.14). As air is forced to rise in a However, during the autumn, tropical cyclones
depression (page 230), the reduced pressure tends (tropical low pressure storms) funnel water northwards
to raise the surface of the sea area underneath it. If up the Bay of Bengal which becomes increasingly
pressure falls by 56 mb, as it did o� this occasion, the narrower and shallower towards Bangladesh. The
level of the sea may rise by up to 0.5 m. The gale-force water sometimes builds up into a surge which may
winds, travelling over the maximum fetch, produced exceed 4 m in height and which may be capped by
storm waves over 6 m high. This caused water to pile waves reaching a further 4 m. The result can be a wall
up in tl1e southern part of tl1e North Sea. This event of water which sweeps over the defenceless islands.
coincided with spring tides and witl1 rivers discharging Three days after one such surge in 1994, the Red Cross
into the sea at flood levels. Tl1e result was a high tide, suggested that over 40 000 people had probably
excluding the extra height of tl1e waves, of over 2 m been drowned, many having been washed out to
in Lincolnsl1ire, over 2.5 m in the Thames estuary and sea (Places 31, page 238). The only survivors were
over 3 m in the Netherlands. The immediate result was those who had climbed to the tops of palm trees and
the drowning of 264 people in south-east England managed to cling on despite the 180 km/hr winds. The
and 1835 people in the Netherlands. To prevent such Red Cross feared outbreaks of typhoid and cholera in
devastation by future surges, the Thames Barrier and the area because fresh water had been contaminated.
Figure 6.14 Famin� was a serious threat as the rice harvest had
. . . .. . . . . . . ' ..................... . the Dutch Delta Scheme have since been constructed.
The North Sea Both schemes needed considerable capital and been lost under the salty waters.
storm surge of technology to implement.
1 February 1953 There is increasing international concern about the
--- possible effect of global warming on Bangladesh.
\0 N CO � 0 Estimates suggest that a 1 m rise in sea-level could
- ,.... 0 0 0
� 0
..- q
�
O O
..... ...... submerge 25 per cent of the country, affecting
over one-half of the present population (page 169).
Because Bangladesh lacks the necessary capital and

---·991-
technology, for the last three decades the World
Bank has been helping in the construction of cyclone
��------ 9881 early warning systems, providing flood shelters and
improving coastal defences. It is partly because of
()

984 1
these precautions, and partly because recent storm
surges have not reached the peak heights of 1990
and 1991, that the death toll from flooding caused by •

980 storm surges has decreased significantly. However, the

problem is likely to get worse in the near future due to
the rising sea-level caused by global warming, and the
lowering in height of the delta region resulting from
"'
1032
°'
°' the extraction of groundwater for agriculture.
'o
o,°' Height of Death toll
,ooo
--...L----
�- , oo A
Vear
1966
storm surge
6.1
{estimated)
80 000
1985 5.7 40 000
---,oos
1988 4.8 . 25 000
1990 6.3 140 000
1991 6.1 150 000
1994 5.8 40 000
1 F.e6ruary 1953, 2007 5.1 2300
.............................••.•• •••••••••••••• •••• •.. .... ." ..."... ... ....
,a
'

flooded ar as
 will have l1ad its energy dissipated as it travelled
across tl1e beach (Figt1re 6.15).
Wave steep11ess J-Iighest-e11ergy waves, asso­
ciated with longer fetcl1 distances, h.ave a high,
stee1J appearance. They l1ave greater erosive
power than low-energy·waves, wl1icl1 are gener­
ated wl1ere the fetcl1 is sl1orter and have a lower
and flatter form (Figure 6.8).
Figure 6.15
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. ................ ... .
Waves breaking on
' '•

Processes of coastal erosion Depth of sea, le:ngth a11d directio11 of fetch,

co11figt11·ation· of coastli11e A steeply shelving
Filey Brigg, Yorkshire: St1baerial According to J. Pethick, 'Cliff reces­
wave energy rs
beach creates higher ancl stee1?er waves than
absorbed by a band of
sion is pri111arily the rest1lt of mass failure.' Mass 011e witl1 a 111ore ge11tle gradient. The lon.ger the
residual rock and so failure 111ay be caused by sucl1 0011-marine proc­ fetcl1, the greater the ti1ne available for waves to
the cliff behind esses as: rain falli11g directly 011to tl1e cliff face; collect e11ergy from the wind. The existence of
is protected by tl1rot1gl1flow or, under extre111e conditions, l1ea.dlands with. vertical cliffs tends to concen­
surface ru.noff of wa.ter fro111 the land; and the tra.te e11ergy by wave refractio11 (page 142).
effects of weatl1eri11g by tl1e wi11d and frost. Su1Jply of beacl1 material Beacl1es, by
1"hese processes, i11clividually or in. combination, absorbing wave energy, 1)rovide a 111ajor protec­
can cause 1na.ss moveme11t either as soil creep on tio11 against coastal erosion.
gentle slopes or as slt1mping and la:ndslides 011 Beach n1or1Jl1ology Beaches, by dissipati11g
steeper cliffs (Figures 2.17 and 2.18). wave e11ergy, act as a buffer between waves and
Wave pounding Steep waves have consider­ tl1e land. As tl1ey receive high-energy inputs at a
able e11ergy. Wl1e11 tl1ey break as they hit the foot rapid rate fron1 steep waves, and low-e11ergy inputs
of cliffs or sea walls, they 111ay ge11erate sl1ock­ at a slower rate from flat waves, they 111ust adopt
waves of up to 30 ton11es per m2 . So11.1e sea walls a n1orpl1ology (shape) to counteract the differe11t
in parts of easter11 Engla11d need replaci11g witl1in energy inputs. High, rapid energy i11puts are best
25 years of bei11g built, due to wave {JOt1nding · dissipated by wide, flat beaches which spread ou.t
(Case Study 6). tl1e oncomi11g wave energy. In contrast, the lower­
Hydraulic JJressure When a parcel of air is energy inputs of flatter waves can easily be dis­
trapped and compressed, either i11 a joint in a sipated by narrow, steep beaches whicl1 act rather
cliff or between a breaking wave and a cliff, tl1en like a wall against which the waves flot1nder.
the resultant increase in pressure may, over a A11 exception is whe11 steep waves break onto
period of time, weaken and break off pieces of a shi11gle beacl1. As energy is rapidly dissipated
rock or damage sea defences. through friction and percolatio11, then a wide, oa·t
Abrasion/corrasion Tl1is is tl1e wearing beach profile is unnecessary (page· 145).
away of the cliffs by sand, shingle and boulders Rock resistance, st1·t1cture a11d dip The
hurled agaiI1st them by the waves. It is tl1e inost strength of coastal rocks influences the rate of
effective n1ethod of erosion and is m.ost rapid on erosio11 (Figure 6.16). In Britain, it is coastal
coasts exposed to stor111 waves . areas where glacial till was de:posited that are
Attrition Rocks and boulders already eroded . bei11g worn back 1nost rapidly (Places 20). When
from the cliffs are broken down into smaller and St1rtsey first arose out of the sea off the south­
111ore rounded particles. west co�st of Iceland in 1963 (Places 3, page 16),
•
Corrosion/solution This inclt1des the it consisted of unconsolidated volcanic ash. It
dissolvi11g of limestones by carbonic acid in was only when tl1e ash was covered and pro­
sea water (co1npare Figure 2.8), and the eva1Jora­ tected by a lava flow the following year that the
tion of salts to produce crystals wl1ich expand island's st1rvival was seemingly guara11teed.
as they forn1 and cause the rocl< to disintegrate Rocks that are well-jointed (Figure 8.1) or have
(Figure 2.Z). Salt from s�a yVater or spray is been subject to faulti11g have an increased vulner­
capable of corroding several rock types. ability to erosion. The steepest cliffs are usually
where the rock's structure is l1orizontal or vertical
Factors affecting the rate of erosion and the gentlest where the rock d.ips upwards away
•
Breaking point of the wave A wave that breaks fro1n tl1e sea. In the latter case, blocks may break
as it hits the foot of a cliff releases most energy and off and slide downwards (Figt1re 2.17). Erosion
causes maximu1n erosion. If the wa.ve hits the cliff is also rapid where rocks of differe11·t resistance
before it breaks, then 111t1cl1 less energy is trans­ overlie one another, e.g. chalk and Gault clay
mitted, wl1ereas a wave breaking fttrther offshore in Kent.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
�

Coasts 149
 Figure 6.16 I-It1ma11 activity The increase in presst1re
......... . . . . .. , . . ... . . . .. . . . .... ....... ..
Rock type and average . resL1lti11g fro1n bt1ildjng on cliff tops and the
rates of cliff recession Volcanic ash removal of beacl1 material wl1icl1 111ay otl1er­
Krakatoa 40
wise l1ave protected the base of the cliff both
Glacial till Holderness 2 contribttte to more ra1Jicl coastal erosion.
Glacial till Norfolk 1 AJthoL1gl1 rates of erosion may be reduced
locally by tl1e constructio11 of sea defences, sucl1
Chalk South-east England 0.3 defences ofte11 lead to i11creased rates of erosio11
Shale North Yorkshire 0.09 in adjacent areas. I-Iuman activity tl1erefore has
Granite South-west England
th.e effect of disturbing tl1e equilibrit1m of the
0.001
coast system (Case Stt1dy 6).
...... ·- -----�
Places 20 Holderness: coastal processes
I
The coastline at Holderness is retreating by an is important to recognise that the natural erosional
average of 1.8 m a year. Since Roman times, the processes here are neither random nor pernicious.
sea has encroached by nearly 3 km, and some 50
The process of cliff retreat along the Holderness
villages mentioned in the Domesday Book of
coast is more complex than appears at first sight.
1086 have disappeared.
Mass failures of the cliff are triggered by wave action
The following extract was taken from a at the cliff toe. Such failures may be 50 to 100 m
·n,anagement rep?rt, 'Humber Estuary & Coast' wide and up to 30 m deep giving a scalloped edge
(1994) prepared by Professor J.S. Pethick (then of to the cliff. The retreat rate varies temporarily; a
the University of Hull and now at the University of large failure may produce a 10 m retreat in one year
Newcastle) for Humberside County Council. but no further retreat will then occur for 3 or 4 years
· - giving a periodicity of 4 or 5 years in total. This
•
'The soft glacial till cliffs of Holderness are eroding
means that attempts to measure erosion rates over
at a rapid rate. The reasons for such erosion are,
periods of less than 10 years, that is over 2 cycles,
however, less to do with the soft sediment of the
can be extremely misleading, resulting in massive
cliff than with the lack of beach material and the
over- or under-estimates of the long-term retreat
poorly developed nearshore zone [Figure 6.6].
rate which is remarkably constant at 1.8 m per year
Retreat of the cliff line here is matched by
[Figure 6.17]. Three issues may be highlighted here.
progressi_ve lowering of the seabed to give a wide
shallow platform st�etching several kilometres • The beaches of Holderness are thin veneers
, seaward. Eventually this platform will be so covering the underlying glacial tills. The beaches
extensive that most of the incident wave energy do not increase in volume since, south of
will be expended here rather than at the cliff so that Hornsea, a balance exists between the input of
Figure 6.�7 . erosion rates will decrease or even halt. Since this sand by erosion and the removal of the sand by
··-······ · · · · ··· · · · ····-·············· · · ·

Houses collapsing may take several thousand years, it cannot form wave action, principally from the north-east,
iDto the sea, part of any management plan for this coast - yet it which drives sands south.
Holderness
• The sediment balance on the Holderness coast
is maintained by the action of storm waves
• from the north-east. These waves approach
the coast obliquely, the angle between wave
crest and shore being critical for the sediment
transport rate. A clockwise movement would
increase the transport and erosion rate while an
--tI
anti-�lockwise swing would decrease both of
these. Random changes in the orientation of the
shore are quickly eradicated by changes in the
sediment balance, but any permanent change
in the orientation of the coastline, such as that
caused by the introduction of hard sea defences
as at Hornsea, Mappleton and Withernsea,
means that the sediment balance is disturbed.

• ••• ••••• •• • • • •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 • Hard defences [Case Study 6A] ca·n have two and seabed erosion are not transported along
long-term effects: first, although erosion is the beaches as are the sands and shingle but
halted at the defence itself, several kilometres are moved in suspension. Research is presently
to the nortl1 erosio11 continues as before. under way which is intended to chart the
This causes an anti-clockwise re-orientation precise movement of this material but it is
of the coast, sand transport is reduced and clear that its dominant movement is south
sand accumulates immediately north of the towards the Humber. A large proportion may
defences - as can be seen north of Hornsea. enter the estuary and become deposited there.
Second, the accumulation of sand north of The remainder is moved south and east into
the defences starves the beaches to the south the North Sea where the transport pathway is
Figure6.18 causing an increase in erosion there. The fine­ towards the Dutch and German coast:
······ .... . . . .......... ..... ................ .
Wave-cut notch at grained sediments from the Holderness cliff
Coromandel Peninsula,
New Zealand

Erosion landforms
Headlands and bays
These are most likely to be fou11d in areas of alter-
11ating resista11t and less resista11t rock. Initially,
the less resista11t
.
rock. experiences most erosion
a11d develops into bays, leaving the more resista11t
ot1tcrops as l1eadlands. Later, the headlands
receive the highest-e11ergy waves a.11d so become
more vult1erable to erosio.n than tl1e sheltered bays
(Figure 6.5). The latter now experience low-energy
breakers which allow sand to accu111ulate and so
help to protect that part of the coastline.

--·., - Abrasion or wave-cut platforms

•

- -.

Wave energy is at its 1naximt1m when a higl1,

steep wave breaks at the foot of a cliff. This results
in undercutting of the cliff to form a wave-cut
· 11otch (l:;igtire 6.18). Tl1e conti11ual t1ndercutting
causes i11creased stress and. te11sion in the cliff
t1ntil eve11tually it collapses. As tl1ese processes
are repeated, the cliff retreats leaving, at its base,
a gently sloping abrasion or wave-ct1t platform
°
which l1as a slope a11gle of less than. 4 (Figure 6.19).
"'
l l1e platfor1Ti, whicl1 appears relatively even whe11
viewed from a distance, cuts across rocks regard­
less of tl1eir type and structure. A closer inspec­
tion of tl1is i11ter-tidal feature usually reveals tha.t
it is deeply dissected by abrasion, resulting from
1naterial carried across it by tid.al movements, and
corrosion. As the cliff contint1es to retreat, the
wide11i11g of the platform means that incoming
waves break further ot1.t to sea and have to travel
over a wider area of beach. This dissipates their
ene1·gy, reduces the rate of erosion of the head­
land, and limits the ft1rther extension of the . .
'
platform. It l1as been hypotl1esised that wave-cut
Figure6.19
.. .... ........ . . . ..... � •.. •.. ....•...... . . . . � ... platforms cannot exceed ..
0.5 km in width.
Abrasion or wave-cut Where there l1as been negative change i11
platform at Flamborough sea-level (page 81), former wave-cut platforn1s
Head, Yorkshire
remain as raised beach�s above the present
influe11ce of the.sea (Figure 6 .' S 1).
. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . ... . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .... . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . ... . . .. ... .. .. .. . .. . ..... . .. . . . . . .. . . ... ... . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . .
. '
�

, •
Coasts 151
headland, e.g. Flambo'rougb Head I
N wave-cut notches
occasionally water rises up a
• vertical joint and is ejected
--

- i_.1.-) ·;
�---------------- --. v-:t f�
,f,.iI
a stack is an isolated
-- _ _ _ _ _ -- portion of the cliff

•
I

i"'
I
' I / /
/ '
�·1} · t /V / roof of arch becomes too
.._ '

',:
('
l
.
I
. .
__ Joint oj_fault in
';( heavy to be supported •
I
__,;�

1 1-� , · 1. • and collapses i•

· · - · - resi._•stant rock I1 ,�, • �
.. '
II • • I•I 4:
;'
. .-
•"
\ ' ,

'
� �
}, '-' . . 1-,'1 \�1 . ••;
•
.,.., I .'t( 1
\,,'/•
. ' I{
•·•l . '
: ' fl
wavE:5 <li\ t through l1eadland to form an
-.t II' .
,,-
., _..,..,._�_ \ I•
' . . arch ��j�h-is contiriuallywidened·at1ts base
(
'
••

'• •
•
\

stack is worn away

leaving a stump
,,

, N high tide N •

,•
..
•
.
,. '

• •
•

•
.,....),od,.,..,..;;,;·---=-..:ll,�
· ·��-���.......:�---=
Figure 6.20 Caves, blowholes, arches and stacks through a headland to form a1·ches a11d stacl<s
.........................................
The formation of (Figt1res 6.20 and 6.21).
Wl1ere cliffs are of resista11t rocl,, wave action
caves, blowholes, Tl1ese la11dforms, wl1icl1 often prove to be
attacks a11y li11e of weakness such as a joi11t or a
arches and stacks attractions to sigl1tseers a11d 111ountai11eers, can
faL1lt. So111eti1nes the sea cuts i11la11cl, alo11g a joint,
be foL1nd at The Needles (Isle of Wigl1t), Old
to form a 11arrow, steep-sided inlet called a geo,
I-Iarry (11ear Swanage) and FlamboroL1gh I-lead
or at other ti111es it can trndercut part of tl1e cliff
(Yorksl1ire, Figure 6.19), whicl1 are all cut into
to for111 a cave. As sho,N11 in I-'igure 6.20, caves
chalk, and at Tl1e Old Man of Hoy (Orkneys)
are ofte11 enlarged by several co1nbined processes
which is Old Red Sandstone (Figure 8.12).
of 111arine erosion. J:rosion 1nay be vertical, to
forn1 blowl1oles, but is more ty·pically backwa1:ds

Figure 6.21
• ........................................
Icelandic coastline
•

... . . ... .. . . . . . ... . ......... . . . ........... . .. . . .. . ...... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. " ....................·····································································

152 Coasts
 Transportation of beach material of beacl1111aterial. 1:-:lowever, brief cha11ges in wind.
Up and down the beach - a11d tl1erefore wave - direction can cau.se tl1e
movement of mateiial to be reversed.
As ,ve l1a,,e alrea d. y seen, flat, co11strt1ctive waves Of lesser importance, but more interesting a.nd
te11d to 1110,,e sa11d ancl sl1i11gle 111J tl1e beacl1, easier to observe, is the move111ent of material
wl1ere,1s the net effect of steeJJ, destrt1ctive waves alo11g the sl1ore in a zigzag pattern. '°fhis is because
is to co111b tl1e n1aterial downwards. whe11 a wave breal<s, the swash carries material
up tl1e beacl1 at the sa111e angle as that at wl1icl1
Longshore (littoral) drift the wave a1Jproached the sl1ore. As the swash dies
Ust1all)1 wave crests are 11ot parallel to the shore, away, the backwash and any material carried by
bt1t arrive at a slight angle. Only rarely do waves it returns straight down the beach, at rigl1t-angles
a1)1)roacl1 a beacl1 at rigl1t-angles. The wave a11gle is to the waterline, under the influence of gravity. If
deter111i11ed by wi11d directio11, tl1e local configura­ beacl1 material is carried a considerable dista11ce, it
tio11 of the coastline, an.ct refTaction a. t headlands beco1nes s1naller, 111ore rounded and better sorted.
a11d iI1 shallow water. Tl1e obliqt1e wave angle Wl1ere beach rnaterial is bei11g lost through
creates a 11earshore CL1rrent knowr1 as lo11gsho1·e lo11gshore drift, the coastline in that locality
(or litto1·al) d1�ift wl1icl1 is capable of moving large is likely to lJe wor11 back 1nore quickly because
qL1antities of material i11 a down-drift direction. the bufferi11g effect of the beach is lessened. To
(Figt1re 6.22). 011 n1any coasts, longshore drift is counteract this process, woode11 breakwaters
predo111inantl)' in one direction; for example, on or groy11es may be built (Figt1re 6.23). Groy11es
the soL1tl1 coast of E11gland, wl1ere the 111aximum encoL1rage the local accumulation of sand (impor­
Figure 6.22 fetch a11d prevaili11g wind are both from tl1e soutl1- ta1. 1.t in tourist resorts) but can resL1lt in a depletion
. . . . . . .. . .. . ··-· · · · · · · · ·· · . . . • . • . . . . . . . .

The effects of west, tl1ere is a predo1ni11antly eastward movemen.t of material, and therefore an increase in erosio11,
longshore drift further along the coast (Case Study 6A).

wooden groynes slow , -

down movement and
'

•
widen the beacl1 cliffs protected by
accumulation of sand
backwash carries material
I
directly down the beach
under gravity
accumulation C depletion
s
u of sand
-�� ·,1
· of sand
'
- '
""
l

A first position B second position C third position

of pebble
most material is driven
within the nearshore
waves refracted zone by a steady current
on approaching
shal.low water
waves approach beach at an angle, from a direction of longshore clrift and
[.;:: ""':::!'..:gac V
�
direction similar to that of the prevailjng wind movement of beach material
'

Figure6.23
................... ..... ... , ... , .. , .. , . . , . , - , . .. .... ···· · ··· ·· · ··
The effect of groynes on longshore
drift, Southwold, Suffolk: this type
of coastal management is usually
undertaken at holiday resorts
where sandy beaches are a major
tourist attraction

.....................................
 !11 FigL1re 6.25, tl1e li11e X-Y 1narks the position
of the original coastline. At IJOint A, because tl1e
prevailing winds and maximum fetcl1 are from
the soLtth.-west, material is carried eastwards by
lo11gshore drift. Wl1en the orientation of tl1e old
coastli11e bega11 to change at B, some of tl1e larger
shingle an.ct pebbles were deposited in tl1e slacker
water i11 the lee of the l1eadla11d. As the SIJit con­
tinued to grow, storm waves threw some larger
1naterial above the higl1-water 1nark (C), 1naki11g
tl1e featLtre more per111anent; while, under 11ormal
conditions, the fi11er sand was carried towards the
end of the spit at D. Many spits develop a hooked
or curved end. This 111ay be for two reaso11s: a.
change i11 the prevailing wind to coincide witl1
the second-1nost-do111inant wave directio11 a11d
second-longest fetcl1, or wave refraction at the
end of the spit carryi11g some material into more
sl1eltered water.
Eventually the seaward side of the spit will
Figure 6.24 retreat, while longshore drift conti11t1es to
............................... '............ .
A spit: Dawlish Warren
Coastal. deposition extend tl1e feattire eastwards. A series of recurved
at the mouth of the Deposition occurs \,vl1ere tl1e acct1mulatio11 of e11ds 1nay for1n (E) each time there is a series
River Exe, Devon
sa11d a11d shingle exceeds its depletio11. Tl1is may of stor111s fro111 the sotith-east giving a lengthy
take place in sheltered areas witl1 low-energy period of altered wind direction. r.Iaving reached
waves or ,;,vhere ra_pid coastal erosion furtl1er its present-day positio11 (F), tl1e spit is unlikely
to grow any ft1rther - partly because tl1e faster
along the coa.st provides a11 abu11dant supply of
material. In ter1ns of the. coastal syste111, de1)osi­ ct1rrent of tl1e river will carry 1naterial out to sea
tion takes place as inputs exceed ot1tpt1ts, anci and partly because tl1e depth of wa.ter beco1nes
the beacl1 ca11 be regarded as a store of eroded too great for the spit to build t1pwards above sea­
level. Meanwhile, the prevailing soLtth-westerly
material.
\<\1ind will pick Lip sand fro1n tl1e beach as it dries

Spits out at low tide a11d carry it inla11d to form dunes

(G). Tl1e stability of the spit 1nay be increased by
Spits are long, narrow acct1mulations of sa11d the ancl1oring qt1alities of marra111 grass. At the
and/or sl1ingle with one end joined to the same tin1e, gentle, low-e11ergy waves entering tl1e
mainland and tl1e other projecting out to sea sl1eltered area bel1ind tl1e spit deposit fi11e silt
or exte11di11g part way across a river estt1ary and mtid, creating an area of saltmarsh (H).
(Figure·6.24). Whetl1er a spit is 1nainly composed Figt1re 6.28 shows the location of so111e of
of sand or shingle depe11ds on tl1e availability tl1e larger spits arou11d tl1e coast of England and
of sediment and wave energy (pages 145-146). Wales. I-low do these relate to tl1e direction of the
Figure 6.25
...................... '.................... . Co111posite spits occur when the larger-sized maxin1um fetcl1 and of the prevailing ar1d domi­
Stages in the formation sl1i11gle is deposited before the finer sands.
of a spit na11t winds?

l
(for key to lettering, see text) y
�
•
e
·$' H "o
��

§ river
•
or
I 0
-�
0 �
�-
estuary
·�
�
�
("
�·
- 0�03 F

headland
G i......,,..
.
E G �

G
�

X.
B

Arevailing winds second-most-dominant .

fetch open sea w ni ct and second-largest fetGh
.
,.________ .r______
____,,__________...,,___._____ ___
__ •

. . . . . ...• ..................... ' ..................... . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ............................................... . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

1 54 Coa s t s
-----

--
'

'

\
•

'

• . ''• . •

•
• ' .. . .. . .....
• . -

.
Figure 6.26
. ........ . . ... . . . . . ................... . Tom bolos, bars and barrier islands extend for several hu11dred kilometres, and the
A tombola: Loch mainla11d is a tidal lagoon (Figure 6.29). Althot1gh
A to111bolo is a beach tl1at exte11ds· outw·ard.s to
Eriboll, Highland, relatively unco1nmon in Britain, tl1ey are wide­
Scotland join witl1 a11 offsl1ore isla11d (Figtire 6.26). Chesil
S[Jread globally, accounting for 13 per cent of tl1e
Beacl1, in Dorset, li11ks the Isle of Portland to
world's coastlines. They are easily recognisable
tl1e mai11la11d. So111e 30 l<m long and Ltp to 14 1n
on maps of the eastern USA (Places 21), the Gulf
l1igl1, it prese11ts a gently s1nootl1ed face to the
of Mexico, the nortl1ern Netherlands, West Africa
prevailing wi11ds in tl1e E11glish Cl1annel.
and sot1ther11 and wester11 Australia. Altl1ot1gl1
If a spit develops i11 a bay into wl1ich no major
their origiI1 is t1ncertain, tl1ey te11d to develop on
river flows, it may be able to build across that
coasts with relatively lligl1-energy waves a .nd a low
bay, li11ki11g two headlands, to form a bar. Bars
tidal range. One theory suggests tl1at they fom1ed,
straighten coastli11es and trap water i11 lagoo11s on
below the lo'v\1-tide mark, as offshore bars of sand
the landward side. Bars, such as that at Slapton
and l1ave moved progressively landwards. A11
Ley, in Devon (Figure 6.27), 111ay also result i11
alternative theory suggests tl1at rises i11 post-glacial
places where constrt1ctive waves lead to the land­
• sea-level may l1ave partly SL1bmerged older beach
ward migration of offshore, seabed material.
ridges. 111 either case, the breaches between the
Barrier islands are a series of sandy islands
islands seem likely to have been caused by storn1
totally detached from, but rtrn11i11g al111ost parallel
waves.
to, the mainland. Betwee11 the islands, whicl1 may
!JU
Figure 6.28
........... , ............. � ......... , ....
Location of some Ravenglass ---------- Dawlish Warren spit .Llandudno tombolo
- --,
major spits, Llandudno --- Slapton Ley I bar Dungeness cuspate foreland
tom bolos and bars in
England and Wales Llanddwy.n .Island 1
--------...

Menai Straits --- Spurn Head

--
Morfa Harlech ---� Blakeney Point
Morfa Dyffryn -------1 r----- Yarmouth

Ro Wen (Barmouth) --­ ...____ Orford Ne�

-- --
Borth __,.,
Dawlish Warren ----- -....,,...r ,..J----- Dungeness

-- - -
Hurst Castle

0 100km ! L��e� [slapt�n Ley Poole Harbour Christchurch

I I
•

.
• • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. .... .....'. ... .... ..........................
Coasts 1 SS
 ' . -

Figure 6.29
Eastern and·southern USA: barrier islands
. . ..... . ...... . . . . . . . .. .. ......... . .. . . .... . .. . . ' ..
Barrier islands off North
Barrier isla11ds l1ave a unique morphology, flora by higl1 grasses (Figure 6.30). Behind the dunes, the
Carolina, USA, tak en
from the Apollo space­ and fauna. The smooth, straigl1t, ocean edge is 'island' interior may contain shrubs and woods, deer
craft (X = position of characterised by wide, sandy beaches which slope and snakes, insects and birds. The landward side is
Figure 6.30) gently upwards to sand dunes which are ancl1ored punctuated by sheltered bays, quiet tidal lagoons,
saltmarsl1es and, towards the tropics, mangrove
swamps. These wetlands provide a natural habitat
for oysters, fisl1 and birds. Although barrier islands
form tl1e interface between the land and the ocean,
they seem fragile in comparison with the power
that the wind and sea brings to them. It is virtually
impossible for a tropical storm or hurricane to
move ashore without first crossing either of the two
longest stretches of barrier islands in the world:
either tl1at which extends for 2500 km from New
Jersey to the southern tip of Florida (Figure 6.29); or
the one stretching for 2100 km along the Gulf Coast
states to Mexico.

Barrier islands are subject to a process called 'wash

over: This process, which might occur up to 40 times
in some years, is when storm waves carry large
quantities of sand over the island from the seaward
face to the landward side. This results in the seaward
side being eroded and pushed backwards. The
landward marshes and mangrove swamps become
suffocated, and the tidal lagoons are.narrowed.
From a human viewpoint, barrier islands form an
essential natural defence against hurricanes and
their storm-force waves.

1<-....ii

Figure 6.30
...................................................... . .
..
Barrier island on Core Banks, •

looking south (see X on

..... .. .
Figure 6.29 for location)
'

. . .

. . . . ... . . . ... . . . . . .. . . . . . ... ... . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . .... .. . . . . . . . . .......... ... ... ....... . .... ... . . . .. .... . . . . . . . . .. . ..' .... . . . . . .. . . ... .. . . .. . . . . . . ..... .. . . ... ... ..
156 Coasts
 ----��--= ----•_,,_-."""---'--.A "
.. ) I*ere- >F,2 .,;, ,ner:::--:.1:t,, •• t'e-:a- ·c•S-••· ,, .,.,,. ,ec. ,'",. _« .. _,, ,...,.,s- ,v, , -

Sand dunes form foreclt1nes wl1ich can attain a height of S m

San? clunes are a d.yna111ic lan (Figures 6.3 1 and 6.32). DLte to a lacl, of h11mus,
. . dfor 111 whose
eqt11l1br1t11n depends o n
. tl. 1e .111terrelationsl1ip th.eir coloL1r gives tl1e111 the 11a111e yellow dt1nes.
1Jet · · .
n n11neral content (sand) and vegetati
on. The du11es become increasingly grey as hu1nL1s
��� _
I gsl1ore d 11 ft m ay deposit sand i11 tl1e inter- a11d bacteria fro1n J?lants and animals are added,
. .
tidal �011e. �s tl1e ticle ebbs, tl1e a11d tl1ey gradually beco.111e n1ore vegetatio11-
sar1d will dry ot1t
allow111g '"rinds fr om tl1e sea .to . covered and acidic. Tl1ese g1·ey (matt1r�) du11es
.tl1e bea . 111o ve material ul)
.
ch b y salta·tio11· (1)age 183 ). 1"'111s may reac_h a l1eigl1t of 10-3 0 111 before tl1e supply
. process 1s
111ost likely to occt1r whe11 tl1e 1Jrevaili of fresh sand is cut off b}7 their increasing dis­
11g winds
con1e fr • o 1.11 tlle sea and wl1ere th
ere is a large tidal tance from the beacl1 (I:ig·L1re 11.11). There may
rang� wl11ch exposes large expanses of sa11d at be several parallel ridges of old du11es (as at Morfa
low tide Sand 1 naY becon1e tra1JJ?ed by seaweed 1-farlech, l�igure 6.33), s�parated by low-lying,
. ·
a1 1d driftwood. on ber111s or at tl1e point of tl1e da111p slacks. Heatl1 plan.ts begin to domi11ate tl1e
:
l11gl1.est spri11g tides. })lants begi11 to colonise area as aciclity, l1L1rnus and 111oisture co11tent all
tl1e area. (Figu1·e 11. 10), stabilisi11g the sa11d and increase (J:igure 11.9). Paths CLlt by hu111a11s a.11d
r e11cour�ging further accu111t1latio11. The regolith animals expose areas of sa11d. As tl1e wind fu1111els
has a high pl-I va.lt1e due to calciL1111 carbonate alo11g tl1ese tracks, blowouts 1nay for1n in the
from seasl1ells. .11ow wasti11g du11es. To combat ft1rther erosio11
En1b1·yo dt111es are the first to develop at 1v1orfa I-Iarlecl1, JJarts of tl1e dt1nes have been
"'
(Figure 6.3 1). 1 hey beco111e stabilised by tl1e fenced off and marram grass has bee11 planted
growt·h of ly111e and marram grasses. f\s these to try to re-stabilise tl1e area a11d to prevent any ,

grasses trap 111ore sand, tl1e dt111es build ttp a11d, i11land migration of the cluries.
dt1e to the l1igl1 ra.te of J?ercolation, become The above idealised sch.eme can be i11ter­
increasi11gly arid. Plants 11eed eitl1er st1ccule11t rupted at any stage by stor1ns or hLtman. L1se. If
leaves to store ,,vater (sa11d coucl1), or tl1orn- ·. tl1e st1pply of sand is ct1t off, tl1en new e1nbryo
Figure 6.31 dt111es ca11not form and yellow dur�es may be
.... .............................. .... .
' ,
like leaves to reduce tra11spiratio11 in tl1e strong
A transect across degraded so that it is the older, grey dunes that
sand dunes, based on winds (prickly saltwort), or long tap-roots to
line tl1e beach.
fieldwork at Morfa reacl1 the water table (marram grass). As 1nore
Harlech, Nor th Wales sand accu111t1lates, the e111bryo dunes join to '

10
blowout

8
1
!I dominant wind
•
E 6
·-
.c -- - --- - - - - r-'-� - - -- - - - - -.._ - - - -

·cu
C'l
4 high­ \
-- -- - - - -
tide - - - I
mark berm I _ - � - - • - -f ta'o\e I
2 __ _ - - \f'Jate
- -- - I
I
- .... - - - -
.... --,- -- I
I
•
I

Dun·e height {m) 1 5 8-10 6-8

-
Percentage,of exposed 80 20 les s than 10 over 40 on. dunes
sand
very littlehumus, mixed s al t somehumus, very little mois ture, humus increases inl and, water content s til l low, high humus, br ackish
Humus and moisture
content and fresh water fresh water f resh w-ater wat�r in slacks •

pH over8 sltgh tly alkaline increasingly acid inl and: pH 6.5-7 acid: pH 5-6
• '

Plant tJP.�/s s and couch, lyme g r as s m ar r am, xerophytic s pecies creeping fes cue, sea spur ge, some marr am, cotton heather, gor se on dunes,
gr ass, heather Juncus in slacks

•• •••• ••• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • •
••••• ••• •••• ••• •••• •••• •••• •• •••• • • • • • • • • • • •
• • •• • •• • • • • • • ••• •• • • • •• • •
•

• • • • • • • • • • • •
•
• • • • • • • • • • • •
•
• • • • •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •

Coasts
• • •
157
• •
 •

Figure 6.33
.. ................... , . . . . .. . ... . ..... . .. . ... . .. . . . . . .. . ,. ....
Morfa Harlech from Harlech
Castle showing foredunes, grey or
wasting dunes, old cliff-line and,
in the distance, saltmarsh
__ _, __ --." -
-
. •
-- -
-- - -- -
-· _...·---.. --- I**
•
. --
-

-
..

-· -
..._.._,_. -...

... ,' __ .. ...: ..-

0
'-;:!
... :.;'�
.r::;.,._. ..__ .�
. ,,
.
---._·-,....,......:�-

-- -
·'

,,. . -.. - .....- .. -

�

------.·... ' ... -.

•

- .... ... . ' .

- ......, ..., - -
..-

- -. -
�

. ._ - . - . _.....__ . .. - .... -.... - - ·

-"(�- -...
' '' ..._........ ,-
• -......._· �
. -lit.. --.
' _. ...
- ..-;...,.,'..,.
-
' .,
....
. - - ....
.,.
�

-... -... .. C: ... �

�-
- . : . ........ . .
&C-

- ,.,
___
.._

.....___ .,,.� .. ""'·.

'

-' .. ..
'
• -....... ... 4··. ..�
.,. -
.. ·-
.. ...�
- '. . ..
"t / .

....... .' .
•

.-
'

, · - _J"
•• '
·�

Figure6.32
............. , ............ ,...................... . Saltmarshes
Embryo and foredunes
Wl1ere tl1ere is sl1eltered water i11 river estLLaries
at Morfa Harlech, North
Wales (refer also to or behi11d spits, silt a11d mucl will be de1Josited
• Figures 11.lOand 11.11) eitl1er by tl1e gently rising and falling tide or of tl1e inter-tidal m11dflats is marked by a small
by tl1e river, thtLS forming a zone of i11te1·-ticlal cliff (Figure 11.12), above wl1ich is th.e flat sward
111t1d.flats. Initia.lly, the area may only be uncov­ zone. This zo11e 111ay only be covered by the sea
ered by tl1e sea for less tha11 1 l1ot1r in. ever1r for less tl1an 1 hour in each tidal cycle (Figure
12-hotir tidal cycle. Plants such as algae and 6.12). Seawater collects in l1ollows which become
Salicor11ia can tolerate this lengthy su·bmergence i11creasi11gly saline as the water eva·porates. Tl1e
a11d the high levels of sali11ity. Tl1ey are able to l1ollows often enlarge i11to saltpans (Figure 11.13)
trap n1ore 111L1d arou11d tl1e1n, creating a surface wl1ich are devoid of vegetatio11 except for certain
tl1at remain.s exposed for increasingly longer algae and the occasio11al halophyte (page 291). As
Figure6.34
.................................................. periods between tides (Figure 6.34). Spartirza eacl1 tide retreats, water drains into c1·eel<s wl1icl1
Llanrhidian saltmarsh, are then eroded rapidly both laterally and verti­
grows throt1gl1ot1t tl1e year a11d si11ce its intro­
Gower peninsula, South
Wales (refer also to Figures dt1ction into Britain l1as colo11ised, and becon1e cally (Figt1re 6.35). The upper sward zone n1ay
11.13and 11.14) domi11.ant in, many estuaries. �fhe landward side only be int1ndated by tl1e highest of spri11g tides.
.-
Figure6.35
.................... " ... . .... .... . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . ............ .

Llanrhidian saltmarsh showing the

sward zone, creeks and saltpan

,_,.._ - -�•

......................................................................................................
158 Coasts
-
,,,.,JI•
..M

Sampling
•
-------��--�--��----�,�-.---------------------------------------
figure 6.36
.. .. . . ... . . . .. . . .... . .................. . Sampling basics
A san1ple population total or parent
in relation to the total population Most sampling procedures assume that the total.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • •
• • • • • • • • • ••• • • ••• •• • ••• • • •• ••••••
populatio n •
• • • • population has a normal distribution (Figure
• • • • •• • •• • • • • • • • •• •• •• •• • • • • • • •
• • • •• • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• • •
• •• • • • • ••• • • • • •• • • • • •• • • •• •• • • • • • • • • 4.16a) which, when plotted on a graph, produces
• • • •
• • • • • • •• • •• ••••• •••• ••• • •• •••• • • • • • •••
• • • • • •
• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• ••••••• • ••• • a symmetrical curve on either side of the mean
• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • value. This shows that a large proportion of the
• • • • • • • •• •• •• • • •• • • •• ••• • • ••• • • • • • • • • • •
•
•• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • •
•• • • • • • • •• • •• • • • • • • • • •• • •• •• •• •• • ••• • • • • •• • •• • ••• • •• • values are close to the average, with few extremes.
• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • •• • •• • •• • • •• •••• •• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •
•
• •• • •• • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• Figure 6.37 shows a normal distribution curve and·
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .•. . . . .
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
the standard deviation (page 247) - the measure
............... .......
•••• • • • • • •�• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • •' • • • .. • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • '41, • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • of dispersion from the mean. Where most of the
............ ..... ..
•

• • ••• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•• • •• • • • • • • • • • � • • • • • • • values are clustered near to the mean, the standard
..................
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • "' deviation is low.
. ••• .· . •• · . •. · • · . • • · • ••• • · .
• • • • • • • • • • • • samp I e
.. . . . . . population The larger the sample, the more accurate it is
likely to be, and the more likely it is to resemble
the parent population; it is also more likely to
Why sample?
conform to the normal distribution curve. While the
Geographers are part of a growing number of generally accepted minimum size for a sample is 30,
people who find it increasingly useful and/or there is no upper limit - although there is a point
necessary to use data to quantify the results of their beyond which the extra time and cost involved in
research. The problem with this trend is that the increasing the sample size do not give a significant
amount of data may be very expensive, too time­ improvement in accuracy (an example of the law of
consuming, or just impracticable to collect - as it diminishing returns, page 462).
•

would be, for example, to investigate everybody's

shopping patterns in a large city, to find the number Figure 6.37 shows that, in a normal distribution,
of stones on a spit, or to map the land use of all the 68.27 per cent of the values in the sample occur
farms in Britain. within a range of ±1 standard deviations (SOs)
from the mean; 95 per cent of the values fall within
Sampling is the method used to make stattstically ±2 SOs; and 99 per cent within ±3 SOs. These
valid inferences when it is impossible to measure percentages are known as confidence limits, or
the total population (Figure 6.36). It is essential, probability levels. Geographers usually accept
therefore, to find the most accurate and practical the 95 per cent probability level when sampling.
method of obtaining a representative sample. This means that they accept the chance that, in
If that sample can be made with the minimum of 5 cases out of every 100, the true mean will lie
bias, then statistically significant conclusions may outside 2 SOs to either side of their sample mean.
be drawn. However,
•
even if every effort is made to
achieve precision, it must be remembered that any
sample can only be a close estimate.
•
Figure6.37
. ..•..•...•.........•.......•.•..........
A normal distribution
showing standard symmetrical
deviations from
the mean

•
-0.5 -2.0 +13.5 +2.0 +0.5 •

•
•
-3 -2 -1 0 •
+1 +2 +3
standard deviation standard deviation
'
68%
950/o
- - 99°/o

•
•

. .. . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ...............................................................................
·
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . .. . • •

• • •
C oa st s 1 59
 Sampling techniques One feature of a genuine random sample is that the
same number can be selected more than once - so
Several different methods may be used according
remember that if you are pulling numbers from a
to the demands of the required sample and the
hat, they should be replaced immediately after they
nature of the parent population. There are two have been read and recorded.
major types, with one refinement:
.
There are three alternative ways of using random
Part of a random number table
• Random sampling This is the most accurate
numbers to sample areal distributions (patterns
method as it has no bias.
9271 0143 2141 over space) (Figure 6.38).
9381 • Systematic sampling This method is often
1498 3796 4413 1405 quicker and easier to use, although some bias or 1 Random point A grid is superimposed over the
selection is involved. area of the map to be sampled. Points, or map
6691 4294 6077 9091
references, are then identified using random
• Stratified sampling This method is often a
'
9061 1148 9493 1940 number tables, and plotted on the map. The
very useful refinement for geographers; it can
'2660 7126 7126 4591 •• eight points identified earlier (in the random
be used with either a random or a systematic
3459 7585 4897 8138 number table) have been plotted on Figure
sample.
6.38a. A large number of points may be needed
6090 7962 5766 7228
to ensure coverage of the whole area - see
2191 9271 9042 5884 Random sampling
Figure 6.40.
Under normal circumstances, this is the ideal type of
2 Random line Random numbers are used to
sample because it shows no bias. Every member of
obtain two end points which are then joined by
the total population has an equal cl1ance of being
selected, and the selection of one member does
a line, as in Figure 6.38b which uses the same
eiglit random points, in the order in which they
not affect the probability of selection of another
occurred in the table. Several random lines are
member. The ideal random sample may be obtained
needed to get a representative sample (e.g. lines
using random numbers. These are often generated
across a city to show transects of variation in
by computer and are available'in the form of printed
land use).
tables of random numbers, but if necessary they
can be obtained by drawing numbers out of a hat: 3 Random area Areas of constant size, e.g. grid
Random number tables usually consist of columns squares or quadrats, are obtained using random
of pairs of digits. Numbers can be chosen by reading n_umbers. By convention, the number always
either along the rows or down the columns, provided identifies the south-west corner of a grid square.
only one meth_od is used. Similarly, any number of . If sample squares one-quarter the size of a grid
figures may be selected - six for a grid reference, square are used, together with the same sample
four for a grid square, three for house numbers in a points, their locations are as shown on Figure
long street, etc. Using the grid shown in Figure 6.38, 6.38c - no,e that the point in the north-east
the random number table given above yields eight cannot be used because part of the sample
6-figure grid references: 927114; (986691 has to be square lies outside the study area. This method
Figure 6.38
...... .............•.......•..•..•......
,
excluded because the grid does not contain these can be used to sample land-use areas or the
Random sampling distribution of plant communities over space.
using point, line and numbers); 906126; etc.
area techniques

a point b line c area (using squares) -

-
- I
15 ---�---.-----r--�I
15 I
0

! •
j

• I
.J 1---·-t·. __ I
I
··-

14
•
-- -- - --
• 14 �-----,.i•-______.I
•

I I ·-· - _..i.__ ·--·

i
I
:1
•
---
.
13 131,---r---i--�-'f--�-l-�__J
• • •
• 131-L"
: • ,,
·!-----4--�----·-I

12 --- - - J r�-+--�-+-- �i��+-�-�

.
• - -- • •
I l
•
•

I
r--�4·�--ri�-·�1���-� -j
-- 11
r ·- · [
11 . 11 !--,
-"--+----- ·----- f--.----1

ol------· __,!_---�---"--�---.Ll ___

,
. '

-- --· -- "�___j____ _l"____,_4 1

90 91 92 93
j
91 92 93 , 94 95 90 91 92 · 93 9 95 94 95

.
........... ............................... · . . . . ... . . . . ......... . ..... . .. . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · ...
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . .. .. . . . . . . . . .............. ....

1 ·60 Coasts
 The advantages of random sampling include sampling small populations, and when sampling
its ability to be used witl1 large populations and over a large area. Also, when used in the field, it may
its avoidance of_ bias. Careful sample design· involve considerable time and energy in visiting
is needed, however, to avoid the possibility of every point.
acl1ieving misleading results, for example when
• •

· a point (using grid 'intersections) b· line (using eastings) c are� (using grid squares)
o-----o·----·-o· ---o---·--o 15 --------· --- ------- -------
1s
1 I
I•. i.
1 ,-
5 -
-, I - --·--1-· . i---··-: •

i
I
I•
: .t•
14 O·---·--·O·············O·- 0 1 ·
--- ----------0- . 14 ...---.....---· _...............____.. __ -------·- . ......, ____..__.._ ----·-
·,

:
Q
I :
l j ! I : I
I I I
I i !
I l ! I 1 I
I

13 c----- o------- 0·-·------0----·-0·····-----·0 13 -··-···---- -.....,._.,._...___ -�- --· ----�.... ··------------

. .
1

-
I I ( j

I
I
I I I
' i. l l
, I I
.I · , I I
12 -------- o-----·---o .... o------·-o
.. -o�-- 12 ·-·----- ·--.... ......-..-.-� ------·----- ···--------· _..............--.... - 12 I ---- ·-1---------�-- ··-----if---·-

i I
I j
I·
-,

!
I
1 1
I
I I [
I '

j
I i ! I Ie----·----·or ···-··--· j---·- j''
11o--·--···o·--·---o------Q·----- 1 1 · ....__ ...__..__ .. -------· - --·--· ....--.. -----···-· 11 ,._
' __________ _,_______ �
f i
I
I• !.
J
I
! i
I
I'
:
j I
I I
I. f
I
! I,
J______
! I
. -o----o-
I
o----------·o 10 ------· ------·· --··----...... ------·--- ___.___ _ 10 L __ ..•. _J ________ J,__
lo o------o
I
_c

90 91 92 93 94 95 90 91 92 93 94 95 90 91 92 93 94 95
.,.__ ! _

The main advantage of systematic sampling lies

........ ···•·••·•··•· .. ···-·····················
Figure6.39 Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling in its ease of use. However, its main disadvantage
A systematic sample is one in which values are
using point, line and area is that all points do not have an equal chance of
selected in a regular way, e.g. choosing every 10th
techniques selection -it may either overstress or miss an
person on a list, or every 20th house in a street.
underlying pattern (Figure 6.40).
This can be an easier method in terms of time
and effort than random sampling. Like random
sampling, it can be operated using ind.ividual Stratified sampling
points, lines or areas (Figure 6.39).
•

When there are significant groups of known size

1 Systematic point This can show changes within the parent population, ir:i order to ensure
over distance, e.g. by sampling the land adequate coverage of all the sub-groups it may be
use every 100 m. It can also show change adv\sable to stratify the sample, i.e. to divide the
thro·ugh time, e.g. by sampling from the population into categories and sample within each.
population censuses (taken every 1 O years). Although categorising into groups (layers or strata)
may be a subjectiv� decision, the practical applica-
2 Systematic line ·This may be used to choose
tion of this technique has considerable advantages
a series· of equally spaced transects across an
for the geographer. Once the groups have been
area of land, e.g. a shingle spit.
•

Figure6.40 decided, they can be sampled either systematically

.•....•..........•....•...........•...••........ 3 Systematic area This is often used for land­ or randomly, using point, line or area t�chniques.
Poor sample d.esign
use sampling, to show change with distance or
and selection can lead Stratified systematic sampli�g Thfs method.
•

through time (if old maps or air photographs 1

to inaccurate results:
are available). Quadrats, positioned at can be useful in many situations-when inter­
an area of woodland is
completely missed in this equal intervals, are used for assessing plant viewing people, sampling from maps, and·during·
example distributions. fieldwork. For example, in political opinion
polls, the total population to be sampled can
•

be divided (stratified) into equal age and/or

socio-economic groups, e.g. 10-19, 20-29,
15 '�---i--,---- re etc. The number interviewed in each category
•

•
• random
point
14 -·- --.,,...___-· ----0,--0 should be in proportion to its known size in .the
parent population. This is most easily achiev�d
•-----6':-�--'-G -.�r
• systematic
p.oint r
'-- ,w, �
by sampling at a regular interval (systematically)
throughout the entire population, so that the
I .systematic
line •
��ft -�·-·--�"---"'·0
'
required total sample size is obtained. For exam­
systematic
• • ••
' ple, if a sampl� size of 800 is re�uired from a total

. 11 0, -'--••"-----'f--�---@----o---�
area • •
population of 8000 (i.e. a 1O per cent S?mp,le),
.
woodland ever-y 10th person would be interviewed.
-
•.
I
10 0--- 1---.::--- e' ·e--- e -·
•

. .
1

• •• ••••••••••••••••••••• ••• ••
94 95 •• • •
t
• • • •
90 ·93
• • •
91 .92
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • " • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•
•
•
•
' Coasts 161
•
'
•
 - - -------
--- -- -
. .

rock types: granite occupies 600/o of the total

15 area and limestone 40%. To discover whether
0 0
0 limestone the proportion of moorland cover varies with
0 . .
00 (40o/o of
14 rock type, the sampling must be in proportion
n.
' total area)
"'c. 0 0 to their relative extents. Thus, if a sample size of
c

random 0
c point 13 0 ,.,,.,... 30 points is derived using random numbers, 18
0
r: ,,.. are needed within the granite area (18 is 60 per
0 ' • o.o
12 0 0 cent of 30) and 12 within the limestone area
moorland (12 is 40 per cent of 30). If it was decided to area
•
0
0 0 sample, 18 quadrats would have to fall within
. 0
11
granite o the granite area, and 12 in the limestone.
,(60% of total area)
0 ca 0 The advantages of stratified sampling include its
10
90 91 92 93 94 95 potential to be used either randomly or systematically,
and in conjunction with point, line or area techniques.
This makes it very flexible and useful, as many
Figure6.41 2 Stratified random sampling This method can
... ' ................................. ' ,
populations have geographical sub-groups. Care must
A random point • _be used to cover a wide range of data, both in
be taken, however, to select appropriate strata.
sample, stratified • interviewing and in geographical fieldwork and
by area .. map work. For example, Figure 6.41 shows the
distribution of moorland on two contrasting
'
. -.

.• �hal)ges in sea-level During times of maximum glaciation, large

volumes of water were stored 011. the land as ice
Although the daily move1nent of tl1e tide alters - probably three ti1nes 1nore than today. This
the level at wl1ich wa.ves break 011to the 'foreshore, modification of tl1e hyclrological cycle 1neant
· the average positio11 of sea-level in relatio11 to the ·that tl1ere was a worldwide, or et1static (glacio­
· la11d has re111ained relatively consta.nt for nearly eustatic, page 123), fall in sea-level of an esti-
6000 years (FigL1re 6.42). Before that time there mated 100-150 m.
had been several major changes in this mean As ice accu1nt11ated, its weight began to
level, the 1nost dra1nat.ic being a result of the depress those parts of the crust lying beneath it.
'
Quaternary ice age· a11d of plate 1novements. This caused a local, or isostatic (glacio-isostatic,
. '•
•
page 123), change i11 sea-level.
'
' ;
Figure6.42 •

·················································-··
greenhouse effect
Eustatic changes in sea­ present raises world
level since 18.000 BC time 4 temperatures and
.
+20 •
// melts icecaps,
Britain separated
from France ,,,,," resulting in a
·-=:::: .......
E North Sea flooded;
- . "'0.

v·
• . future sea-level rise
-.,
Britain separated
.
''
,-- .......
from Ireland
'�
Q) •

ro ,,

v
Q)� -20 _/

formation of generansed
V)

c .
onset of new ice
/
•
Q) estuaries eustatic curve
�c.. -40
V)
age; water held in
maximum extent storage as ice on
of last ice age:
/
0
land; sea-level falls
c
. -60 world's sea-level
/
·- again
, i . •

/I
ro at its lowest point
•
Q)
Flandrian
·-.....
c -80
transgression
'

Q)
>
� -100 • . -,

ro
Q)
VI
_/ ,, 11
'

-120 . . - - '

18000 16000 14000 12000 1 0000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 2000
BC AD
•
•

•
•

. . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . . ... . . .. . .. . ... . . .. . ... . . . . ..... . . . . . ... . .... . ..... . . . . . . ...................... . ...... . .... ' ...... . . . ....... . ....... . ... . ..........................
...... .
�62 Coasts '. . .
--- - -
-· - - -- - -
- - - ---�--�- ---�-------· ----�
· ----- -.

. -

Tl1e vvorld's sea-level was at its mini1nu111 Landforms created by sea-level

18 000 years ago wl1en tl1e ice was a.t it.s changes
. 111aximt1m (Figure 6.42). Later, as te111peratures
Cha11ges i11 sea-level l1ave affected:
began. to rise a11d icecaps melted, tl1ere was first a
• tl1e sl1ape of coastlines a11d the formatio11
et1static rise in sea-level followed by a slo,t\Ter iso­
of new featt1res by increased erosion or
static t1plift whicl1 is still 01Jerative i11 parts of the
depositio11
world today. Tl1is seque11ce of sea-level changes
• the balance between erosion a11d deposition
1nay be summarised as follovvs:
by rivers (page 81) resulti11g in the drowning
1 J�or111ation of glaciers and ice sl1eets. Et1static
of lower sections of va.lleys or in tl1e rej11vena­
fall in sea.-level gives rise to a negative change
t.io11 of rivers, and
:i11 base level (page 81).
• tl1e migration of .tJlants, a11imals and people.
2 · Conti11ued growth of ice sl1eets. Isostatic
depression of the la11d under tl1e ice produces landforms resulting from submergence
a positive cl1a11ge i11 base level. Eustatic rises in sea-level follo\,ving the decay of
3 Ice sl1eets begin to 111elt. Eustatic rise in sea­ tl1e ice sheets led to tl1e d.rowni11g of many low­
level with a positive change i11 base level. lying coastal areas.
4 Continued decline of ice sheets and gla­ Estuaries are the tidal m·ouths of rivers, most
ciers. Isostatic uplift of tl1e la11d u11der of wl11ch ·11ave inherited the shape of the for1ner
former ice sheets rest1lts i11 a negative river valley (Figure 6.45). In 1nany cases, estuaries
change in base level. have resulted fro1n the lower parts of tl1e valleys·
During tl1is deglaciation, there may l1ave being drowned by the post-glacial rise of sea-level.
been a contint1ing, albeit small, et1static rise Being tidal, estua.ries are subject to tl1e ebbs a11d
:i11 sea-level but this has bee11 less rapid tl1an flows.of the tide, a11d usually large expa11ses of
tl1e isostatic uplift so that base level appears mud are revealed at low tide (Figt1re 6.43). Many
to be falli11g. Measure1nents suggest that p.arts estuaries wide11 towards tlJe sea and narrow to a
of nortl1.-west Scotland are stilt rising by 4 mm . 111eandering section.in.land_.(Figure 6.44).
a year and some IJOrthern areas of the Gt1lf Estt1aries are affected by processes that are
of Botl1nia (Scandinavia) py 20 mm a year very .different from those at work along rivers
(l)laces 23, IJage 166). Tl1e uplift in norther11 a11d �oasts; because of particL1Jar fea·tures.
Britain is cat1sing tl1e British Isles to tilt and tl1e ,
• Residual cu.1·
- rents are. created by the mixing
la11d in south-east Engla11d . to be depressed. This of fresh vyater (from rivers) and saline water
process is of ut111ost importance to tl1e futt1re (sea water brought in by the tides). Mixing
natural developme11t a11d huma11 ma11agement tends to take place only when discharge and
of British coasts (Figure 6.56). velocities are l1igh; otherwise the fresh river
1ectonic cl1anges have rest1lted in: water, being less dense, te11ds to rise and flow
• the uplift (oroge11y) of 11ew mountai11 ranges, over the saline water.
especially at destructive and collision plate • Tidal currents l1ave a two-way flow associ­
margins (pages 17 and 19) ated witl1 tl1e incoming (flood) and outgoing
• local tilting (epeiroge11y) of tl1e land, as in (ebb) tide.
so·uth-east E11gla11d, wl1ich h · as increasecl .tl1e • Continuous variations in both discl1arge and
flood risk, a11d i11 parts of. the Mediterranean, - velocity resttlting from the tidal cycle. Tida1
leading to the submerge11ce of several ancient velocities are highest at mid-tide and reduce
ports and leaving others stranded above the to zero around high and low water. Times of
JJresent-day sea-level zero velocity result in the depos:itio11 of fine­
· • local volcanic and earthqt1ake activity, as in grained sediments, especially in uppe1· estua.ry
Iceland. chan11els, which for1n mudflats a11d saltmarsh.
Figure6.43 I cial and-r�af N
.... .......... .................
' ' a Scheide b
The Humber . d.epo ts
estuary
oI 10km Severn
I
0I 1f·0km

c Thames
mud exposed � Humber
at low tide
Figure6.44 0 lOkm oI 10km
............. .. .................... ' ..... .
'
I

Estuary morphology
15 km
(after Pethick, 1984}
'
 Classificatio11 of estuaries tl1at deter111ines tl1e tidal curre11t, the residual
a f:\cco1·ding to origin 'fl1is traditio11al 111ethod ct1rrent velocities and, tl1erefore, the a.mount
divides estuaries into different shapes but on and source of sedi1nent.
the basis of tl1ei r river valley origins. • Mic1·0-tidal estuaries, which have a tidal
• I)rowned 1·iver valleys, resulti11g fro1n ra11ge of less tha11 2 m, are dominated
1Jost-glacial rises i11 sea-level, includes by fresl1water river discl1arge and wind­
n1ost estt1aries. drive11 waves f1·om tl1e sea. They te11d to
• Rias, formed wl1en ,,alleys i11 a dissected be long, wide and shallow, often witl1 a
·upla11d are SL1b111erged, are one type of fluvial delta or coa�tal spits and bars.
drOv\1 11ed river valley (Places 22). • Meso-tidal estL1aries l1ave a tidal ra11ge
• Daln1atian coasts are similar to rjas except of between. 2 1n a11d 4 in. Tl1is fairly
tl1at tl1eir rivers flovv almost parallel to the limited range 1nea11s that, although
coast, i11 co11trast to rias where they flow fresh water has less i11flt1ence, the tidal ,

n10.re at right-a11gles, e.g. Croatia. flow does n.ot extend far 11pstream a1.1d
• Fiords, formed by the drowni11g of glacial tl1e resL1ltant shape is said to be stL1bby,
troughs (page 113), are extre111ely deep with tl1e prese11ce of tidal 1neanders in
a11d steep-sided estL1aries (Places 22). tl1e la11dward section.
• Fia1·ds are drowned, glaciated lowland • Macro-tidal estuaries have a tidal range
areas, e.g. Strangford Lough, Nortl1er11 in excess of 4 m and a ticlal i11fluence
Ireland. tl1at extends far inla11d. They have a
b . Acco1·ding to ticlal process and est-i.1ary characteristic trtimpet shape (Figure
shape Tl1is 111odern approach, sup1Jorted by 6.44) and long, li11ear sa11d bars formed
Petl1ick, ack11owledges that it is tidal range parallel to tl1e tidal flow.
--•-<_m _-e,-,,.J,!1• -----�-�-�,--------�---�..--,
_•_o:_.• - -���·----•••-•a-w-a;-----...._,. --.-·
--

E>evon and N·or.way: a ria and a fiord

Kingsbridge estuary drowning of a dendritic drainage system (Figure

3.50b). The deepest water is at the estuary mouth, a
During the last ice age, rivers in south-west England
characteristic of a ria, with depth decreasing inland.
were often able to flow during the warmer summer
The result is a fine natural harbour with an irregular
months (compare Figure 5.14), cutting their valleys
shoreline and, at low tide, 800 hectares of tidal creeks
downwards to the then lower sea-level (page 163).
and mudflats.
When, following the ice age, sea-levels rose (Figure
6.42), the lower parts of many main rivers and their Apart from south-west England, rias are also found
tributaries were drowned to form sheltered, winding in south-west Wales, south-west Ireland, western
Figure 6.45 inlets called rias. The Kingsbridge estuary (Figures Brittany and north-west Spain.
....... '..................... � .......... .
6.45 and 6.46) is a natural harbour produced by the
Kingsbridge estuary

N '
Figure 6.46
.. . .. ... . .. . . .. . . ... . ... . .. ' ........... .
G) E V N Kingsbridge estuary,
looking north
,

Kingsbri� - �.
,
J<ings6ridge , ·- - -
'L ................

estuary
----1 mudflats at.
low tide
•

'
1

0 Skm
---
sand
•

.......... . ... ....... . . . . ..'.. . ....... ......... ............................................... . . . . ............... . . ..••• ••• •• • ••••• ••• ••••• •• •• • ••• • •• •••• •••• •••• •••• •• ••
� •

164 Coasts

-'
 ---·--��--- -...--- ------ .....

Sognefjorden line (Figure 6.47). Unlike rias, fiords are deeper inland
Fiords (fjords) such as Sognefjorden (the Sogne and have a pronounced shallowing towards their
Fiord) were formed by glaciers eroding their valleys seaward end. The shallow entrance, comprising a
to form deep glacial troughs (page 113). When rock bar, is known as a threshold.
the ice melted, the glacial troughs were flooded
The Sognefjorden extends 195 km inland and, at its
by a eustatic rise in sea-level (page 163) to form deepest, has a depth of 1308 m (Figure 6.48). One
long, deep, narrow inlets with precipitous sides, description of the Sognefjorden is given in Figure 6.49.
a U-shaped cross-section, and hanging valleys
(Figure 4.21 ). Glaciers seem to have followed lines Apart from Norway, fiords are also found on the west
of weakness, such as a pre-glacial river valley or, as coasts of the South Island of New Zealand, British
suggested by their rectangular pattern, a major fault Columbia, Alaska, Greenland and southern Chile.

Figure6.47
. . .. . .................. .
.,.- Suphelleb een
- . "h-··-=-�-·•

�r
.

Location of
Sognefjorden Boyaberen
D
�f �
Fjaerlandsfjord �-?"/
Bal.estrand J'--....._'
(
D glaciers Figure6.49
. . . .. . . . . . . . . ....... ... .......... .
Naerofjorden """-
.D overSOOm
�

Extract from Blue

0 SO km Ice, a novel by
Figure6.48
.... , .................... .
Sognefjorden
�---�--- ··- -�------ Hammond Innes
..
w,,, w
--. ,-...... �-- ----- ....... __...--,.../
I As we sailed up th.e fjord, the wind died away leaving the water as
.r""
�..-....,--._..---·· ..__�_,-.._...._.,.-- ..., ••• -----. - -____,--
_...
....

nat as gla ss. Th e vie w wa s breath tak ingly be au tifu l. Mo un tains rose (
l
to sno w-c ov ere d,jag ge d pe aks .Th e da rk gre en of the pin es cov ere d
f
'

the lower slopes, but higher up the vegetation vanished leaving \

sheer cliffs of bare rock which se(;ms to rise to the blue sky. In the I
•

dis tan ce, on a pie ce of flat lan d, wa s Bal est ran d, wit h a ste am er f
1
i moving to the quay. Beyond was the hotel on a delta of green and \
fertile land.
I

'Isn't it lovely?' Dahler said.'lt is the sunniest place in all the

Sogne Fjord.The big hotel you see is built completely of wood. Here \
the fjord is friendly, but when you reach Fjaerlandsfjord you will
find the water like ice, the mountains dark and terrible, rising to
1300 metres in precipitous cliffs. High above you will see the Boya
and Suphelle glaciers, and from these rivers from the melting snow /
. plunge as giant waterfalls into the calm, cold, green coloured fjord.' \
Figure6.50
.......... .. ................................... ..... ........ .. ... ... . . ........... .
,

Erosion surfaces (marine peneplanation) at l--------�·..,.------------- . -· I

St David's, Dyfed, South Wales
Landforms resulting from emergence
Followi11g the global rise in sea-level, and still
•
occt1rring i11 several parts of tl1e world today,
can1e the isostatic uplift of land as the weight of
•• �-�
!Ci
the ice sheets decreased. Landforms created as
.. . a result of land rising relative to tl1e sea inclucle
• erosion surfaces and raised beaches .
Erosion surfaces In Dyfed, the Gower
peninsula (South Wales) and Cornwall, flat
planation surfaces dominate the scenery. Wl1ere
their general level is betwee11 45 1n and 200 m,
the surfaces are thought to l1ave been cut during
tl1e Pleistocene period when sea-levels were
higher - hence the alternative name of 1narine
platforms (Figure 6.50).
............ ..........'.............•••••••••• ••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Coasts 165
 liclised beacl1es As the land rose, for111er notcl1es, caves, arcl1es and stacks (FigL1re 6.52).
wave-cL1t platfor111s and their beaches were raised Tl1e presence of such features i11dicates tl1at
above tl1e reacl1 of the waves. Raised beacl1es isostatic uplift could not l1ave been constant.
a re cl1a racteristic of the west coast of Scotland It l1as bee1.1 esti111ated tl1at it woL1Jd l1av e ta .ke11
(l::igt1re 6.51). They are recog11ised by a.11 t1ncha11ging sea-level up to 2000 y.ea rs to ctit
a line of degraded cliffs fro11ted by wl1at was eacl1 wave-cut platform. (This evidence l1as been
origi11ally a ,,vave-cut platform. Witl1in tl1e old used to show th at the cli111ate dicl not a 111eliorate
cliff-Ii11e may be relict la11dfor1ns such as wa.ve-cut steadily follo\i\1ing tl1e ice age.)

Arran: raised beaches

The Isle of Arran is one of many places i11 western lies at heigl1ts of 4-6 m. Where the raised beach is
Scotland where raised beaches are clearly visible. extensive, there is a considerable difference in height
Early workers in the field claimed that there were between the old cliff on its landward side and the
three levels of raised beach on the west coast of more recent cliff to the seaward side, e.g. the 30 m
Scotland, found at 25, SO and· 100 feet above the beach in south-east Arran rises from 24 to 38 m.
present sea-level. These are now referred to as the
It is now more acceptable to estimate the time at
8 m, 15 m and 30 m raised beaches. However,
which a raised beach was formed by carbon-dating
Figure 6.51 this description is now considered too simplistic,
, . .. . .. . . .. . . . . .. ... ..
. . .. .. ............ . seashells found in former beach deposits, rather
Raised beaches on the since it l1as been accepted that places nearest to
than by referring solely to its height above sea-level
Isle of Arran: the lower the centre of the ice depression have risen the
(i.e. to indicate a 'late glacial raised beach' rather
one relates to the most and that the amount of uplift decreases with
younger'8mbeach'; than a '100 ft/30 m beach'). Figure 6.53 is a labelled
distance from tl1at point. Tl1us, for exa�ple, tl1e
the upper one to the transect, based on fieldwork, showing the two
much-quoted '8 m raised beach' on Arran in fact
older'30mbeach' raised beaches in western Arran.
.. =··- ii
::
t.q •4:,.»
-----·
•·
Figure 6.52
................ .. ...... ... ......... ........� .............. .
The abandoned cliff-line at King's
l Cave, Arran, with its '8m raised
beach' (see Figure 6.53)
. j .

(not to scale) '

30 m upper
raised beach
•

abandoned ___
·sandstone cliffs

.. • • •• cave, 25 m deep, with

present wave-cut rounded stones formed by
platform covered in earlier storm waves
small cliff 2 m high
pebbles and boulders • ""---.
-------.:.____ ..._____
.
. former high-tide level - ----..> wave-cut notch.
Figure6.53 ---------- --------- _____________ _;_ _ ........ _ --------- '""-' .. ...
.. ............. ............
' -- �

Diagrammatic present high-tide level .'

•

transect across
-------- . --�r -r. -- '-:,;
- �- - - lower raised beach 1.5 m
•
r.
• �
present storm beach
r ..
---,<"f' l.

wide, cave 4 m above

,•....;;..___

raised beaches ... ':Iii -� ,.,. •

present high-tide level

of Arran ���----������--�����----- ���--� � -
-- - -------�--- J
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·. ·
166 Coasts
 1 --- ------��---,....._----�·----- --�- -
Figure 6.55
.. ... ........... ..... ... ..... ...... ..... ...... ... .. ..
: A discordant (Atlantic) coast- f
low-lying area
(inland) and bays
· line: Swanage Bay, Dorset (coast) form on
less resistant
Stud/and
sands and clays
Bay
ridge (inland) and cliffs
• Old Harry Rocks (coast) develop on the
more resistant chalk
Swanage vale (inland) and bay (coast)
Bay form on less resistant clay
ridge (inland) and
headland with cliffs
Durlston (coast) develop on
Head the more resistant
limestone

Figure 6.54
................ ..... .......... ' .. ... ... . Rock structure in sea-level, or a breaching of the coastal ridge,
A concordant (Pacific) •

coastline: Lulworth Co11co1·dant coasts a11d discorda11t coasts are tl1en st1m1nits of the r_ idge may be left as islands
Cove, Dorset located where tl1e natural relief is determi11ed by ancl se1Jarated fro111 the 1nainland by drow11ed
rock stru.cture (geology). Tl1ey for111 where the valleys. T11ese ca11. be_ see11. on atlas maps sl1owing
geology co11sists of alte.r.nate bands of resistant Croatia/tl1e forn1er Yugoslavia (Dalmatia11 coast)
and less resista11t rock w11ich form l1ill ridges or Sa11 Fran.cisco an.ct southern Chile (Pacific
and valleys (page 199). Concorda11t coasts occur coasts). Discordant coasts occL1r wJ1ere the coast
vvhere tl1e rock strL1ctL1re is parallel to the coast, 'cuts across' the rock structt1re, as i11 Swa11age Bay,
as at Lulworth Cove, Dorset (Figure 6.54). Should Dorset (l:;igL1re 6.55). Here t�e ridges end as cliffs
tl1ere be local tecto11ic 1noveme11ts, a eustatic rise at headlands, wl1ile t11e valleys form bays.

Classification

Why classify? As classifications are used for convenience and to

assist understanding, they should be easy to use. They
Geographers frequently utilise classifications, e.g.
should not be oversimplified (too generalised), or too
types of climate, soil and vegetation, forms and
complex (unwieldy); but they should be appropriate
hierarchy of settlement, and types of landform. •
to the purpose for which they are to be used .
This is done to try to create a sense of order by
• grouping·together into classes features that No classification is likely to be perfect, and several
have similar, if not identical, characteristics into approaches may be possible.
--
identifiable categories. For example, no two
stretches of coastline will be exactly the sam_e, An example
yet by describing Kingsbridge estuary as a ria, The following landforms have already been referred
and Sognefjorden as a fiord (Places 22), it may be to in this book:
assumed that their appearance and the processes ..
arch; braided river; corrie; delta; esker; hanging
leading to their formation are similar to those
valley; knickpoint; moraine; raised beach;
of other rias and fiords, even if there are local
rapids; spit; wave-cut platform. -•
differences in detail.
• Can you think of at least three different·ways in
which they may be categorised? The following are
How to classify some possibilities:
When determining the basis for any classification, a Perhaps the simplest classification is a two-fold
care must be taken to ensure that: division based on whether they result from
• only meaningful data and measures are used erosion or from deposition.
• within each group or category, there is the b They could be reclassified into two different
maximum number of similarities categories: those formed under a previous
• between each group, there is the maximum climate (i.e. relict features) and those still being
number of differences formed today. . ..
• there are no exceptions, i.e. all the features c The most obvious may be a three-fold division
should fit into one group or another, and into coastal, glacial and fluvial landforms.
• there is no duplication, i.e. each feature should d A more complex classification· would result from
fit into one category only. . combining either a and b, or a and c, to give six
groups.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • •• • • • ••• • • •••••••• • • • •• • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • •• ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • •• •• • •• • ••• • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

•
Coasts 167
 :t'.-�- '- .. .. . - .,
- ...
.,,,,; .,15
..
�
�)o.,_
�
'
-
<,�ie
•.,..._
--
...

future sea-�eve� rose ano� nts

o 100 km
effects :,
I I
We have· already see11 (page 162) tl1at over long i.
s�a-level rising
periods of geological time (te11s of millio11s of years) (._. .(eustatic) ..
+ l .O , land rising . +0.5
· sea-level l1as been co11trolled by the rnovement of
+1.0 . ,(isostatic) O equilibrium
tecto11ic plates and over shorter periods (the last i
millio11 years) by tl1e·volu.me of ice on tl1e land (sea­ (] 7 _
�'---
le,,el fa.lliI1g during glacials, risi11g i11 i.11terglacials). -r -0.5
SiI1ce the 'Little Ice Age' in tl1e 17th centL1ry, wl1en
+0.5�
�Yf
..
glaciers i.11 alpi11e and arctic regio11s advanced, t .he
world l1as slo\,vly bee11 warming. This warming u· �/
0 .r
l1elps to explai11 vvhy global sea-levels are now some (, ":yA:
\
20 c111 l1igher than they were a.· century ago a11d
-1.0
why they are rising by 2 min a year. r
The fact that sea-level is co11ti11L1i11g to rise, sea- I eve
-----1
'1!
/.. . g
r1s1n
and at an accelerati11g rate, is clue al111ost e11tirely (eustatic)
to two factors: land:£ink�ng
-0.5 (isostatic)
1 Ther111al expansio11 Since 1961, tl1e average
te111perature of tl1e global ocean ha.s i11creased � -1.0
. ·"'t. )
to deptl1s of over 3000 m and the sea is now -0.5 rise/fall
�

absorbing 111ore than 80 per cent of the heat peryear (mm)

added to tl1e climatic syste111 tl1roL1gh global
warming. Such war1ni11g caL1ses seawater to Figure6.56
........... .... ...... , ........................ ·"········
expand, contributi11g sig11ificantly to sea-
,

Relative sea-level (RSL): the

level rise. combined net effect of sea and
2 Melti11g ice A less sig11ificant, but increasing, land surface changes
contributio11 is from melting ice - mainly
alpine glaciers, inclL1di11g the 1500 or so in as 3. 7 mm/yr, increasi11g to 5 n1m/yr by 2100
. , to a lesser exten
the Hi1nalayas ....: anct . t as yet, (Figt.1re 6.57). Other models have suggested a greater
polar ice sl1eets and ice caps. 'Doo1nsday' sce11ario with sea-levels rising by
Global sea-level rose at a rate of 1.8 mm/yr·between 8 mm/yr by tl1e end of this ce11tury (one has even
1965 a11d 2005 and by 3.1 mm/yr 1:?etwee11.1993 suggested 16 min/yr). Whichever predictio11 even­
and 2005. Some co1nputer models are suggesting h1ally proves to be the most accLu:ate, sea-level rise
that between 1990 and 2090 it could be as l1igh will have serious co11sequences:
•

••
Figure6 •.57 .
············· · · · ··· ············� ··········· · •
Projections of future 70 Mediterr a n e a n Se a
sea-level rise resulting •
'
from global warming:
60
the extreme values
cover the 95 per cent
probability range (after - so high
Clayton, 1992) ,

� 40
3 rn
· rise
(0
' • '{anta
·-E 30 best
(1)_
estimate . • . .
lsma11ia.
•
(0 •
i
-5 20

0 SO km Cairo
10
N Figure6.58
....... .. .. ... . . .....................................
' '

The effect of a 1 m and a 3 m

sea-level rise on the present­
2000 2010 2020 2030 ·2040 2050 2060 River Nile
day coastline of the Nile delta
year
•

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .• • • • • • • • • •
••
• ••• •• •
••• • • • • • • • • • •• • ••••• • • • •••• • • • • • •••• • • • • • •• • • •• • • • • • • • ••• • • • • ••• • ••••••• • •••••••••• • • •••• • • •••• • • • •
. '
•

168 . Coasts
•
'
 • Storm surges, tsu11a111is, higher tides and Larger waves
larger waves will ca11se more da1n.age.
Mid-Atla11tic waves tl1at eventt1ally pouncl the
• An increase in tl1e freque11s:y and severity of
western coasts of the Britisl1 Isles l1ave j11creased
coastal flooding wottld int111date 11u111erous
in l1eight over the last 30 years. Oceanographers
coastal settleme11ts sucl1 as Tokyo, Sl1anghai,
l1ave fou11d tl1at the mean he.igl1t of tl1ese waves
Lagos, London, Ba11gkok, I<olkata, I-lo11g I<o11g
in winter has risen from 4 111 to 5.3 m. Added to
a11d Mia111i, cat1sin.g the displacement of large
that, tl1e 1nea11 l1eight of the largest a11d most
centres of populatio11s as well as destroying
destrt1ctive type of wave has risen from 8 111 to
i11dt1stry and farmla11d (I�igure 6.58). At
11111. "fhis suggests that waves now l1ave far
present over 65 1nillio11 people live in an11L1al
111ore e11ergy tJ1an they did i11 1980 and wl1ile
flood-risk areas, 50 1nillio11 of those in danger
tl1ey may be a potential form of renewable
of storm surges. A rise of 1 n1 in the next 100
energy, at prese11t tl1ey under111i11e cliffs, strip
years would i11u11date one-qt1arter of tl1e land
sa11d from beac}1es and threaten coastal defences
area of Ba11gladesh, affecti11g n. .early 70 JJer
(Figure 6.59).
ce11t of its poJ1t1latio11.
F1·eal< waves of 15 111 and over in l1eight were
• Several low-lyi11g ocea11 states st1cl1 as the
i11 tl1e IJast considered to be a 1narine 1.11ytl1.
Maldives in tl1e l11dia11 Ocea11 ancl Tt1valu a11d
Opi11ions began to cl1ange when workers 011 off­
tl1e Marshall Islands in tl1e Pacific are likely to
sl1ore oil - rigs reported that waves of that l1eight
be inundated.
occurred fairly frequently. rlwo orbiting satellites
• Tl1ere will be a11 i11crease in coastal erosion
lat1nched by tl1e European Space Age11cy in 2000
a.11d expen.sive coastal defences will 11eed to
were given tl1e task of recording a11d plotting
be bt1ilt and mai11.tained.
Figure 6.59 these so-called fieak waves. Radar sensors on t.l1e
. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. ....... • Various coastal ecosyste1n.s will be threa.tened,
satellites soon showed that freak waves were rela­
Some impressive including s·a11d dttnes, salt111arshes, 1nangrove
waves tively co1n1no11 and, withi11 one period of tl1ree
swamps, coral reefs a11d coral islands, ·wl1icl1
a North Cape, Norway wee.ks, a tea1n of land-based observers 11oted tl1e
111ay 11ot be able to adapt quickly enough if
- note the relative size existence of 111ore tl1.an ten waves of over 25 111
of the people tl1e rise is too rapid.
spread across the various oceans. l:;rea.k waves
b A wave breaking • So111e sea-life species will 1nigrate to cooler
1nay explai11 tl1e sudden disappearance of sl1ips,
over a lighthouse, waters.
Seaford, Sussex
some as large as oil-tankers.

•
 sand dunes, saltmarsl1,
mudflats, cliffs 3 °/o
]
c heathland 2%

A The need for for, and conflict over, land use (Figure 6.61 ). woodland 70/o l -
management Combining tl,e threats posed by:
• natural ever,ts such as flooding and \\
Altl10L1gh Britain's coasts are rarely affected erosion, and pasture '\\
• human dernands that include 33%
by extreme eve11ts such as the lndiar1 Ocea11
arable
tsunami (Places 4), storm surges as in the Bay
of Bengal (Places 19) or tl,e tropical storms
settlement, economic activities and
recreational Lise
25% I
in Central An,erica and Florida (Places 31, tl,ere is a continuing need for a national, sus­ \
\ buildings, roads,
page 238), large stretches are u11der threat from tainable management plan. Sucl, a plan has to leisure facilities
one or more sources (Figure 6.60). Much of consider on the one l,and the rapidly increasing 30°/o
Britain's coastline is used for human activity and costs of providing new defences and main­
althougl1 in some more remote places there taining both new and existing defences, and on • 23% of tl1e UK lies within 10 km of the coast.
is ofter1 a demand frorTI only one or two main the other hand tl,e need t o protect people • 17.2 million people live within this coastal
land users, in many otl,ers there is competitior1 and property. zone.
•• • 35°/o of UK manufacturing and electricity
ig:;Figure 6.60 Threat Examples production is close to the coast.
.. ...... .. - , ......................
• Most of the coastline is used for
lrhThreats to Increased risk of flooding
rhrBritain's recreational purposes, especially walking.
• Coasts attract larger number of specialist
ritccoasts rising sea-level linked to global warming estuaries, south-east England
groups (ornithologists, geologists, school
higher high tides Thames estuary parties).
risk of increased number of storm surges southern North Sea
-
Figure 6.61
r ,

Increased risk of erosion .... . ........ , ................. .

Coastal land use
larger waves (generating more energy) western Britain
human activity (use of footpaths, building on cliff-tops} Yorkshire, East Anglia
Overuse and/or misuse •. Figure 6.62
........................................................
settlements and economic development ' estuaries
. Coastal cells around the coasts
leisure and tourism (caravan and car parks, golf courses) , . , close to large urban areas of England and Wales
•

,,
Who is responsible for coastal ,, ' St Abb's Head
,,
management? N

The Department for Environment, Food •

. - - • major cell boundary

and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) l,as overall

responsibility for coastal defences in
, ,
England, although the Environment , ,
,
, Flamborough
.. Head
Agency has powers to reduce Aooding •
Solway Firth "
in tidal waters. In order to protect the
Great Orme .._/) ....---
. 11 . "<
coast, DEFRA has to produce a shoreline. .. , 2
management plan (SMP):To do this, it is
necessary to understand coastal processes 10 .. .. .. The Wash
..

-t--------..
in any given stretch of coastline. It would ,,
.. ,.s--.>-.._
be impossi ble to achieve this for the whole Bardsey
British coastline, so it has been divided into Sou rid •
3
a number of separate units referred to as
. 9
'coastal cells' (Figure 6.62); tl,ere are eleven St David's \
for England and Wales. The location and Head • - - - - - -• The Thames

-- -�-
size of each of these cells is defined so that ' '

..
''
--- --
coastal processes within each individual . The Severn{::;!
8
. . ::::: ::::::;;;:;; ����
cell are totally self-contained, and changes b
7
.. •

,,
4
. . .. I

....
• • • • • • � • �' • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .• • •• ., • • ' • • • • • • • • t . I I
I I

170 Coasts
•
• • I

I 4 • 5
I

I
•

•
I
Selsey Bill o
• Portland Bill 100km
... . --�-· -·

Coastal management in the UK

taking place witl1in tl1at cell do 11ot signifi­ How has the coast been More rece11t hard defences include:
cantly affect tl1e coastline of adjacent cells. protected in the past? O wooden slatted revetments,
Two basic pri11ciples in SMP prodL1ctio11 constrL1cted parallel to the coast, which
are that: Traditio11al sea defe11ces, now referred to as
dissipate tl1e force of waves
e natural processes should not be hard defences (Figure 6.63), involved the o concrete blocks, known as rip-rap,
interfered witl1 unless it is necessary constructio11 of distinctive features:
whicl1 also absorb the power of vvaves
• Concrete sea walls were often
to protect life or property o offshore breakwaters and reefs which
• all schemes mL1st be econo111ically built, in the 19th century, at l1oliday
reduce wave e11ergy but still allow
resorts. Tl1e>' created more space for
viable and u11dergo a cost-benefit some longsl1ore drift (Figure 6.70).
prome11ades and leisure amenities and
analysis to ensure that they make good Most of the earlier schemes, apart from
protected hotels from storm waves.
use of public money. being u11sL1stainable, were not er1viron­
• Groynes, usually of wood, were
tilentally friendly, either visually or i11 rela­
co11structed at right-angles to the
What are the options? tion to local habitats (ecosystems), and
coastline. They l1elped to reduce
A shoreline management 1Jlan has, for each were expensive to build and to maintain.
tl1e force of the waves and trapped
coastal cell, foL1r defence options: Wherever possible they are being replaced
n1aterial being movecl along tl1e
• Do notl1i11g, otl1er than mo11itor and or supplemented by soft defences. Soft
coast by lo11gsl1ore drift (FigL1re 6.23).
review. defences include:
This l1elped to widen beaches and to
• Hold tl1e existi11g defer1ce line by reduce the removal of beach 111aterial.
• the use of beach replenisl1ment at the
maintainir1g or changing tl1e star1dard base of cliffs and sea walls wl,ere lost
• Concrete breakwaters protected small
of protection. sand and shir1gle is replaced (altl1ougl1
harbours from strong wave action.
• Advar1ce the existir1g defence line . More recently it has been realised tl1at:
such replacement is expensive and
• Retreat the existing defence line by • concrete sea walls absorb, rather than
needs to be maintained for long
realigning the coast, i.e. managed periods)
reflect, wave energy and so now they • cliff stabilisation, either by inserting
retreat. are often curved at the top (bullnose)
SMPs are developed by groups of people pipes to remove excess water or by
to divert waves
planting vegetation to redL1ce mass
that include planners, e11gineers, geomor­ • groynes, by trapping sand, cause the
phologists and others with special local movement.
loss of replacement material further
knowledge. along the coast, increasing the problem
elsewhere.

b
•

. ..
.. . . ..- - . . . - - - . .. . .
,.
.. ..
�

-. - .
•
.. ,. . ...
I -

·-- . -
�
. .. - � ....._, r. ,. • - .,. • .

_'""_..... ____.. ,, -....-

t
•

Figure 6.63
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • � • ' • • o • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • ' • • • • I' • •••• • • • • • • •

Coastal defences
a Rip-rap
b Groynes and a bull nose sea wall
c Revetments

•• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • •
 Coastal management in the UK

B Coastal management fresl1water areas of tl1e River Aide immediately

to the west of the town. The existing sea wall
schemes in East Anglia was exte11ded at its base in tl1e section con­
Erosion has always been a major problem sidered most tl1reatened. Several 10-tonne
along mucl1 of the coast of Norfolk (Figure rock blocks were placed in front of the sea
6.64) while further soutl1 flooding is the wall to absorb the wave energy; 200 m of
major l1azard in Suffolk and Essex (Places wall origir1ally protecting tl1e northern end
19). Present-day shoreline management of Orford Ness was demolished, and a rock
plans (SMPs, page 170) must aim to strike armour bank put in its place. A total of 24 new
tl1e seemir1gly i111possible balar,ce between groy11es were built, stretching south beyond
protectir1g the coastline at a viable cost and the Martello tower (Figure 6.66), and 75 000 m3
minimising the disruption of natural proc­ of shingle were deposited as beach replenish- Figure 6.64
... . .. . .. . . . . . ......... ' .. . ........ .
esses a11d nearby defence schemes. In r1orth 111ent. More rocks were brought in to make a
Figure 6.65 Erosion near
Norfolk, hard engineering solutions are now 400 m bank between tl1e existing sea wall to • • " •• ' • • " • • • • • • ' ' • ' ' • ' • o ' • • ' • • ' o ' • 0 • • I • • ' • •

Overstrand, Norfolk
less i11 favour than softer options. In Suffolk tl1e south and the shingle bank. The scheme Aldeburgh's sea
defences
and Essex controversy l1as arisen over SMP was completed in 1992. It took into account •• .,[

proposals to re-alig11 parts of the coastline in the risk tl1at storm damage could cause to an r'
I
I
a 'managed retreat'. This case study considers important 11atural area.
several specific places and their problems. In 2004 tl1ere were increasing fears that ·1 sea
· · Aldebur:gh
Aldeburgh coLrld become ar1 island and that t.
Aldeburgh and East Lane Point, the Suffolk coastline as far south as Felixstowe .I
I
t
Suffolk could change if the sea broke through obso­
lete defer1ces during the next winter's storms. \
AldelJurgh, in Suffolk, at the northern e11d
At greatest immediate risk is East Lane
of Orford Ness (Figures 6.28 and 6.65), was
Poi11t, near Bawdsey, south of Aldeburgh
protected by a sea wall and timber groynes e: a kment
(Figure 6.67). Mucl1 of the land behind the

J
: I I
to reduce.the loss of beach material. Six .:- ea wall
Point is considered by the government
streets to the east of the town have bee11 , Joynes
to be a 'non-viable fiood defence area' as --
lost to tl1e sea since the 16th century, and
it does not reach the requisite number of e'> 1j f
the only visible remains of the former
village of Slaughden, 1 km to the south, are
points required for funding under the new
DEFRA scoring system mainly becaLrse the
A'.7>
"\'
'!..� f,S, �':::-. �
·$" ::
:

rrtello
a Martello tower and wl1at is now a r11arina. -: ower
1/

area is sparsely populated. A spokesperson

Following the partial failure of the sea wall --'..
for DEFRA stated that'there will never be 0 1km
in 1988; Anglian Water and the National Rivers -
-
J 1 � bankment
sufficient money available for every coastal
Authority (now the Environment Agency)
defence need and so priority must go to pro­
devised a £4.9 million plan to provide sea i 1fnd groynes:
tecting people and their property: N i m above
defences that would also protect the tidal
.--i sea-level

...
' ......
N I
,
I
Aldeburgh
',, Riv�....... I
- present coastline
I
(could be an
',,A/de-, . _ present rivers
'
, I
/" I - island)
/
,,,,,,.
/
__ ..-
_ _,, I
l - - - predicted new I

'-'
/ j
coastline - 10 km to tip of I/ J Orford Spit
Sudbourne,
-�---- -, ., - ·-" l flood zone to 4 m Orford Ness f -.•-•
' (
- I - '
land -·
f· NB Track south along
/
\

--� I . t7ey Ri�ei'rfor

- ' / ,, /'
-. I area likely to flood � · the spit now closed
J ,_.,
"I i
settlement f because of damage
' /
( �

I•
'/

,,,. ,.. - - Orford Ness

\ .,._ I
1 Martello towers f from trampling.
Boyton 1 --
, - ..... ,_'
tip of spit Figure 6.66
.............................. ' ....................
Shingle Street (worn away in 20 years)
Groynes close to the Martell
. tower at Aldeburgh
' .
I!1,IV ·
br;��,,-,
I
• East Lane Poin
concern
. t - area of erosion causing most
 Coastal management in the UK

Sea Palling, Norfolk offshore reefs desigr1ed to reduce incoming a houses, farmland, SSSls and nature reserves
Much of the Norfolk coastline from Cromer wave energy and to protect the beach while just above sea-level

at the same tir11e allowing some longshore b 1.6 m high sea wall built in 1954
soutl,wards to Great Yarmouth is protected
c rip-rap added in 1992
by exper1sive coastal defe11ces. At Sea Palling drift so as not to deplete the supply of sa11d
d beach material replenished as needed
the beacl, is backed by sand dunes which, to beacl1es furtl1er along the coast (Figure since 1992

in earlier times, helped provide a natural 6.69). These reefs were completed in 1995
defence. Bel1ind these are 6000 l,a of la11d but almost im111ediately presented a problem a b c d

used for settlement, farrni11g and (this area that l1ad not been predicted: sand began
being part of tl1e Norfolk Broads) tourism to accumulate in the sheltered lee of tl1e
and wildlife. 111 1953 a storm sL1rge (Places 19) reefs, leading to the formation of tombolos
sand dunes
broke through the coastal defences, flooding (page 155 a11d Figure 6.70) which in turn
............ ........................................... .. .•. ······ -··· ............ ...
large areas and, at Sea Palling itself, washing interrupted the process of longshore drift.To �
mean sea-level

away houses a11d drowni11g seven people. try to overcome tl1is problem, the next five
Figure 6.68
Following tl,e flood, a sea wall was con­ reefs to be built were shorter (to reduce areas .................... '.....
of shelter behind them), lower (to allow more Sea defences
structed in fro11t of tl,e du11es (Figure 6.68)
overtopping waves) and closer together (to 1954-92
and tl,ere was some replenishment of beach
material. However, by tl1e 1990s the beach in prevent erosion in tl1e gaps). A further five are Figure 6.69
...............................
front of tl1e sea wall l,ad narrowed due to the planned 3 km to the south.
Artificial reefs at
removal of material southwards by longshore Sea Palling
drift during times of nortl1erly and easterly
gales, a process that led to an increase in
wave energy. Following the severe winter
storms of 1991, rip-rap was positioned against
the sea wall as a temporary measure.
In 1992 a beach management strategy \,rzrnls •4,•

was introduced witl, the conditions tl1at it

would not significantly affect adjacent coastal
areas, it would have mini111al environmental .. •

impacts and it would be cost-effective. Over •

•

150 000 tonnes of rock were placed in front of

the wall to prevent further undermining and
l .4111illion m 3 of replenisl1ment sand were
added in front of the rock. The major part . ...
,. . , /
••
•
of tl1e scheme was the cor,struction of four

to' existing groynes to be maintained

Cromer Phase 1 Phase2
1993-95 1996-97
Eccles on Sea direction of
longsl1ore drift 250 m offsl1ore 250 m offshore
sea wall in --� each 240 m long each 160m long
Phase 1
front of each 2.8 m above each 1.2 m above
sand dunes , , mean sea-level mean sea-level
, ,
each gap 240 m each gap 160m
,,
,'' , Phase2
' Figure6.70
... . ... . . . . . . •..• . .•. . ........ . ·······

Sea defences at Sea

Costs direction of Palling since 1995
longshore drift
Phase 1 £5.9 m
Phase 2 £10.0m
after 1998, beach
Phase 3 £45.0m to be replenished
when necessary
Waxham
•
proposed Phase 3
3km to south
to Hickling Broay to Great Yarmout�
0 1 km
(nature reserve) and Horsey Mere

.......... . .. ... ... .'.... .... ..... .... • • • • • • ••• • • ••••• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • ••• •••• • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••••• • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••••• • • •• • • •••••• • •• • • • • • • ••• • • ••• • • • • • • • • •

Coasts 173
 .- •••,. •
•..:;__ ___
�---'J ... -
___ ---�..___...- -- - •'. - ·
- - ----
··· · ·
- �----- -

Coastal management in the UK

Proposed 'managed retreat' Should tl1e scl,eme go ahead, it would tl,e 1953 flood. Churches and other build­
in Norfolk mean allowing tl,e sea, over a period ings listed by Englisl, Heritage would also
of time, to breacl, 25 km of tl,e north be lost.
Controversial plans by Natural England
Norfolk coast between Eccles 011 Sea and Proposers suggest that the plan is more
to flood parts of Norfolk ernerged in early
Winterton-on-Sea. In time the sea would economically sustainable than present
2008. Tl,e proposal, if accepted, would see
create ar, area of salt,Nater lake and salt­ policies and that a newly created saltmarsh
Britain for tl,e first tin,e admitti1,g defeat
marsh covering 65 km2 (Figure 6.71 ). Over could be used by farmers for cattle grazing,
in the battle to rnaintain all of its coastal
the r,ext 50 years or so this lake would it could act as a buffer zone helping to dissi­
defences. Experts doubt if the present
eliminate six villages: four on the coast pate wave energy, it would provide storage
defer,ces can cope with the rising sea-level
(Eccles 01, Sea, Sea Palling, Waxl,am and for excess water during times of storm
resulting from global warn,ing and the
Horsey) ar,d two inland (Hickling and Potter surges, and provide a welcome haven for
sinking of soLrth-east England, and tl,e pla1,
Heigham). The lake would also i1,undate wilcllife when little of Britain's original salt­
to 'realigr, the coast' in a 'managed retreat'
aboL1t 600 houses, many hectares of good­ marsh ecosystem remains (page 175). They
is the less expensive and more practical
quality arable farmland and five fresh­ also claim tl,at experiments have shov1Jn
optior,. Tl,is would i11volve building a new
water lakes that currently for111 part of the tl,at a sea wall can costs £5000 a metre
sea wall further back from the preser,t
Norfolk Broads, i1,cluding the tourist area to build and maintain, whereas an inland
coastline, at a cost of a fraction of that of
of Hickling Broad (Figure 6.72) and the rare retreat of 80 m, allowing a saltmarsh to
tryir,g to n,aintain tl,e existing defences.
fauna and flora of Horsey Mere. form a buffer against tides and waves, only
Tl,e Environment Agency, ir, response,
Opponents to the plan claim that it costs £400 a metre to build and maintain.
stated that it is co111mitted to'holding tl,e
would mean in the short ter1T1 makir,g Natural England claim that the 'surrender'
present lir,e' of sea defe11ces for the next 50
tl,eir properties unsaleable and, in tl,e long option is only one of several possibilities,
years, altl,ougl, it admitted that tl,at optio,,
term, relocatir,g l,undreds of people and but it considers the issue to be so impor­
was becoming increasi,,gly difficult and
paying them compensation. A millennium tant tl,at it is time to open discussions and
more expensive, while DEFRA said it was
of history would vanish ur,der tl,e waves to encourage debate. No final decision has
committed to the sustainable protection
and with it villages like Hickling, which is been made about the plan.
of people and property here in Norfolk and
mentior,ed in tl1e Domesday Book, and Sea
elsewl,ere.
Palling, wl,ich the sea failed to destroy in

. Happisburgh
approximate area
that might be flooded
Eccles on Sea

· .._ Sea Palling '

N

Waxham
0 Skm
Hickling
A149
Hickling
, Horsey(1-, �·
·Ho1'sey

Broad MereV-
'
''

• Potter
Heigham Winterton-on-Sea

Figure6.71
····•····· ·•··················· ····•··· ··········

Proposed area of flooding

on the north Norfolk coast

Figure6.72
............ , . . .. . ......... .
Hickling Broad
. . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • • • • • • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
•

17 4 Coasts
 Coastal management in the UK Case Study 6

Sand dunes and saltmarsh • people eitl1er walking along paths V'1ithin sea wall
then,, especially wl1ere tl1ey form part of a
Large tracts of the coast of East Anglia
coastal footpath, or playir,g (or shelteri11g
co11sist either of sand dunes(1Jages 157 and
from the wi11d) in blow-outs.
290) or saltmarsl1 (pages 158 a11d 291 ). Both
are fragile ecosystems that are under threat Where human influence is limited, the sea,

and receive less attention and manage­ ecosystem can repair itself, but where it is
ment tl1ar1 they deserve and need. severe the damage may be irreversible. 011e
As we have see11, sand dunes fringe solutio11 is to fence off selected areas to
The old sea wall
mucl1 of tl,e Norfolk coast, either backing allow time for recovery (Figure 6.73).
sandy beaches (Figure 11.1 O) or stabilising Saltmarsh develops behind coastal spits as
spits such as that at Blake11ey Point. Sand at Blakeney Point (Figure 11.14) but is most
lagoon
dunes are under threat from: extensive in the river estuaries of Suffolk and
• the rising sea-level which attacks the Essex (Figure 11.13). Saltmarsl1 l1as been
embryo and foredunes (FigL1re 6.32), L1nder tl1reat since Saxon times when parts
narrowir1g beaches and thus depriving were drained around the present-day Norfolk
them of their source material Broads. Essex was said to have 30 000 l,a of
• excavatior1 for sand by construction saltmarsl1 in 1600, yet 400 years later only
companies 2500 ha remai11. This remaini11g saltmarsh
A new bank is built well back using soil dug
supports around two million wildfowl and
out to create lagoons.
Figure 6.73 wadi11g birds in wi11ter and is a habitat for rare A hole is made in the old wall, allowing the
, . . . ... . . .. . .. .. . .
. . . . . .. . ..
. . . . . . . . . ...
species of plants, birds and insects. Currently sea rn.
· Restoration of sand
· · dunes another 100 ha/yr of saltmarsh is being lost
across England alone due to the rising sea­ saltmarsh
level and human activity. However, there lagoon
are several plans in Essex to recreate more
saltmarsh to provide alternative habitats for
wildlife, to act as a buffer zone against the sea
larger waves, and as storage for surplus water
during storm surges or as the mean l,igh-tide
level rises. The most ambitious and expe11sive
project(£12 million) is being undertaken by Saltmarsh grows in between the banks,
the RSPB, which intends to break the sea walls soaking up wave energy and creating a
(Figure 6.74) around Wallasea Island, near habitat for wildlife.
Southend, changing 730 ha of farmland back
into a mosaic of saltmarsh, creeks and mud­ Figure 6.74
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... ............... .
fiats - althoL1gh these will only be covered by Breaching of an old sea
50 cm of water at high tide. wall to create a saltmarsh

Chapman, R. (2005) 'Changing a.ttitud.es Holmes, D. (2003) 'Investigating coastal � Coastal erosion:
to coastal protection' in Geography sand dunes' in Geograpliy Re·view Vol 16 www.walrus.wr.usgs.gov/hazards/
Review Vol 18 No 4 (Ma.rcl1). No 3 Oanu.ary). erosion.html
Dove, J; (2000) 'Pla.nt distribution in t.he Horton, B. (2005) 'Cli1nate a11d. sea-level Coastal management case studies:
Sonoran Desert' in Geography Review Vol change' in Geography Review Vol 18 No www.westdorset-dc.gov.uk/westbay
14 No 2 (November). 4 (Marcl1). Holderness coastline:
Gee, N. (2005) 'Coasta.1 ma·nagement: Sea Marshak, S. (2007) Eartlz -Portrait of a www.hul.l.ac.uk/coastalobs/general/
Palling, Norfolk' in GeograJ,IJY Review Planet, W�W; Nor: ton & Co. erosionandflooding/erosion.html
Vol 18 No 3 Ganuary). Pethick, J .. (1984) A.n Introduction to Land Ocean Inte. raction Study:
Gee, N. (2008) 'Man. agen1ent of the East Coastal Geomorphology, Hodder Arnold. www.nerc.ac.uk/research/progran1mes/
Anglian coast' in Geography Review Vol Skinner, B.J. and Porter, S.C. (2003) The lois/
21 No 3 (Feb11.1a.ry).. Dynamic Eartlz, Wiley. Sea-level changes (Antrim coast):
Goudie, A.S. (2001) Tf1e Natt1re of the ' www.ehsni.gov.uk/natural/earth/
Environment, Wiley Blackwell. geology.shtml

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coasts 175
 •

• '

Activities '
e e e e e e • e e e e e •.• e e e e e e • • • e e • e • e O e e • $ 0 0 e•• e e e•• e• e e e• e e e ••• e O e e • O O e e O O • e ••• e O O e e • O O e e e e O

1 a Study the photograph in Figure 6.75 and answer the d Marine erosion is concentrated at the base of a cliff.
following questions. Suggest two ways in which the rest of the cliff is eroded.
i Describe the material found between the two stacks. (5marks)
(3 marks)
ii Describe the beach material found in the foreground of 2 a Making good use of diagrams, describe two landforms that
the photograph.
· may be found on a beach. (6marks)
(3 marks)
iii Describe the main stack. (4marks) b Why are large stones and boulders found at the back of a
b How is a feature like this stack formed? (6marks) beach? (4marks)
c Some cliff coastlines, such as Old Harry Rock near Swanage c Making good use of diagrams, explain how sand and
(Figure 6.21, page 152), have no beach while others, such as other material is moved along a beach by the action of
Marsden Rock (Figure 6.75), have. waves. (5 marks)
Suggest a reason for this difference. (4marks) d Why are shingle beaches steeper, on averag e, than sandy
beaches? (5 marks)
Figure 6.75
e How and why may human activity change this marine
•
l . � . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . l transport process? (5 marks)
Marsden
3 a Making good use of annotated diagrams, explain the
process of longsl1ore drift. (5marks)
b i Study Figure 6.23 (page 153). Suggest, with reasons,
the direction of longshore drift on this coastline.
(3 marks)
ii Why were the sea defences put along this shoreline?
(6marks)
iii What effect would you expect there to be further
down the coast as a result of the building of these sea
defences? Explain your answer. (6marks)
c �hoose one landform created by marine deposition.
(?escribe the size and shape of the landform and suggest
how marine deposition has helped to create it. (5marks)
•

. '

Exam practice: basic structured

. . questions
• • ••• • • • • • • • •' • • • • • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
" .

. . .
4 a What is m�ant by each of the foll.owing terms useq in relation ii one other mechanism could cause sea-level change.
•
to the effects of waves on a coastline: (7marks)
• •

i abrasion (sometimes called co·rrasion) c Choose one landform that has been created by or
ii attrition significantly changed by a fall in sea-level.
iii hydraulic action? (6marks) Describe the landform and explain the role of sea-level
change in its formation. (7marks)
b Explain how the processes identified in a cause a cliff to
change its shape. (6marks) d Choose one landform that has been created or changed
,.. . . significantly by a rise in sea-level.Describe the landform and
c Study Figure 6.1 7 (page 1 SO). explain the role of sea-level change in its formation. (7marks)
. I Describe and .suggest reasons for the shape of the cliff ·. ·
•
shown in the photograph. (6marks) 6 · a Study Figure 6.25on page 154.
••
II Although there are hous'es on top of this cliff it has been Why has saltmarsh formed at H? (6marks)
••
decided not to attempt to protect this coastline.. b Explain the meaning of:
Sugg�st two.. reasons
.
for thi?
. decision._ . .(7 marks) i dominant wind ·
· ·
5 a Explain the terms 'eustatic' a_nd ;i�os!atic' used \fl(hen studying ii embryo dune. (4marks)
sea-level change. · ,. . · '(4 . c Explain h_ow sand dunes go �hrough a series of stages
b Explain how: · ·· from the �pp�arance of t;>e�ms to the formation of grey
• • (or mature).dunes. . (15 marks)
I an ice age

.. . ... .... ... .. . . ... . .. . ... . ...... . ... . . ..... . . ..... ..... ..... . . .. . ... ..... . .. . . . .. .... .. .. ... . ................. . .. .. .... .... .. ... ...... .. ....... ........................ .. ....
176 Coasts
•
 ••

Exam practice: structured questions

• • 8 • • • • 0 • • • • • • • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • o o o • • • o e o • • • • • • • • o • • • o o • • • o • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

7 a On a coastline with cliffs, deposition can cause the shape b Describe one way in which the people prepare to face
of tl1e coastline to change. Suggest where there will be marine hazards and evaluate their success when the
deposition on sucl1 a coastline and the reasons for danger occurs (11 marks)
deposition there. (1o marks)
b i Study Figure 6.75. Draw an annotated diagram to 12 a Using an example from your studies, explain why a
identify the main features of the landform in the particular coastal management scheme was felt to be
photograph. (5 marks) necessary.
(6marks)
ii With reference to evidence from the photograph,
explain l1ow marine processes may have created b Describe the planning and decision-making process
this landform (7 O marks) involved in the creation of the management plan for
the area. (6 marks)
.
8 a With reference to one or more examples of cliff coastlines, c Outline the plan and suggest why the changes outlined
explain how marine and sub-aerial processes have should overcome the identified problem/s. (6 marks)
combined to shape the cliffs. (7 2 marks)
b i Identify and describe two ways in which people d Evaluate the success of the project. (?marks)
can manage the erosion of a cliff foot. (6 marks)
13 Study the sand dune area in Figure 6.76.
ii Evaluate the success of one of these management
a i Identify and locate one feature of the photograph
strategies. (7 marks)
which indicates that this area is popular with people.
9 a Choose two of the following micro-morphological features of Explain how it shows the presence of people. (4 marks)
a beach: berm; beach cusps; ridge and runnels; longshore bar. ii Explain one piece of evidence from the photograph
For each feature that you have chosen: which shows that this popularity is causing damage
i Making use of annotated diagrams, describe its shape to the environment. (4 marks)
and location on a beach. (6marks) b i Suggest one possible effect of the environmental
ii Explain how it is formed. (JO marks) damage caused in this area. (7 marks)
b What effect do storm waves have on a beach profile?(9marks)
ii Explain how conservation work could overcome the
damage done to this sand dune belt. (7 0 marks)
c Describe one method you could use to survey tl1e profile
of a beach. (5 marks)
, •
10 a Using an annotated diagram only, explain the process by . Figure 6.76 •
........... . ..... . ,\, .... . , .. ........ . . ; '
which beach material is moved along the coastline. (5 marks) Damaged sand dunes.
b Choose one landform that is created when beach , ••.
�-:� ,
1

at Gower, Wales
material is deposited. Name and describe the landform.
Explain the processes by which the landform is created.
(JO marks)
.
c Why do people try to reduce the movement of beach
material on some coastlines? Suggest and explain two
methods for reducing such movement. (10 marks)

11 a Using your own case studies, choose two examples of hazards

that occur on marine coasts. For each hazard:
i Identify the hazard and its location. (2 marks)
ii Explain how the action of the se� leads to danger on .
the coast. (12 marks)
•

Exam practice: essays •

• • • • • • • .• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
14 'The interface between the sea and the land is an area of conflict in 17 Discuss the arguments for and against the managed retreat of
nature and for people:Using examples, explain this statement. parts of the coastline in the UK. Evaluate the strength of these
(25marks) arguments as · they apply to one or more areas · that you have
studied. . (25marks)
15 Discuss possible causes of future changes in sea-level and explain . . .
how these changes might produce both short-term and long-term 18 'Coastal sand dunes form some of the most important defences
effects on the physical and human environment. . (25marks) . against the sea, so every effort should be made to conserve and
strengthen our dune systems: . .
16 Choose one system of coastal classification. Describe and explain Evaluate this statement. (25 marks)
the principles on which it is based and, making use of examples,
describe some of the problems of applying your classification
system to cover all coastal areas. (25marks)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . .
Coasts 177·
 o o o o o o o o o o o o ·o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o O O O O

1
'Novv t·he wi11cl g·,·ew str·o11g c1nd /1a1·d a1 .d it wo,·ked at the �fl1e traditi.011al definition of a desert is an area
,·ain c,·ust i11 tJ1e co1·11fields. Litt�le by lit1:le t/1.e sky was dar·k­ receivi11g less tl1a11250111m of rain JJer year. W11ile
very few areas receive no rain at all (Places 24,
ened by t·/1e ,nixing· dust1 a11cl tl1e wirzd felt ave,· t·/1e ea,�t·/1 1 page 180), ainou.nts of precip'itation are ttsually
loosenect the dz1st a11d ca,·,·ied it· away. 1
small and occurrences are both i11freque11t and
J. Steinbeck, The Grapes ofWrat/1, 1939 t111reliable. Cli111atologists l1ave sometimes tried
to differentiate betwee11 colcl deserts wl1ere for at
What is a desert? least one n1onth a year the mean temperature is
°
below 6 C, ancl hot deserts. Several geo111orph­
'The d�serts of the world, whicl1 occt1.r in every ologists l1ave used this to distingt1isl1 tl1e la11d­
co11tinent includi11g Antarctica, are areas wl1ere for111s found in the hot st1b-tropical deserts - our
there is a great deficit of 1noisture, predominantly t1st1al me11tal .image of a desert - f1·om tl1ose
because rai11fall levels are low. I11 some deserts this fou11d in colder latitudes, e.g. the Gobi Desert
sitL1atio11 is iJ.1 part the rest1lt of higl1 temperatures, and tl1e tundra.
wl1ich mean that evaporation rates are h.igl1. It is Modern atten1pts to define cleserts are 1nore
tl1e sl1.ortage of 111oistl1re which deter111ines in.any scientific and are specifically linked to the water
of tl1e characteristics of the soils, tl1e vegetatio11, balance (page 60). This approacl1 is based on the
the la11dforros, tl1e animals, a11d the activities of relationsl1ip between tl1e input of water as pre­
l1u111ans' (Got1die and Watson, 1990). cipitation (P), tl1e ot1tput of moistt1.re resulti11g
A desert enviro111nent l1as conventionally from ev·apotranspiration (E), and changes in
bee11 described in terms of its deficie11cies - water, water held in storage in tl1e grot111d. In parts
soils, vegetation a11d populatio11. Deserts inclt1de of the world wl1ere there is little precipitation
those pa1ts of the world that prodt1ce the smallest annually or wl1ere there is a seasonal drought,
• amount of 01·ganic matter and have tl1e lowest 11et the actual evapotranspiration (AE) is compared
primary production (NPP, page 306). In reality, with potential evapotra11spiration (PE) - the
111any desert areas have potentially fertile soils, evi­ a111ount of water loss that would occur if suf­
de11ced b· y successful irrigation schemes; all l1ave ficie11t n1oisture ,vas always available to the veg­
so1ne plant and animal life, even if special adapta­ "'
etatio11 cover. C.W. 1 hornthwaite in 1931 was
tions are necessary for their survival; and so1ne are the first to defi11e an aridity index using this
populated by httmans, occasionally only season­ relationship (Figure 7.1).
ally by n . omads but elsewl1ere 1Jerma11ently, e.g. i11
la.rge cities like Cairo and I<arachi.

Figure 7.1
...... ............................. .
'

The index of aridity P is nil extreme aridity; P= E P greatly exceeds

throughout 12 consecutive throughout E throughout
the year months with no P the year the year

arid semi-arid sub-humid

I I I
Index -100 -40 -20 0 +100
j percentage of total world land area I

............................... ............... ........................ ............... ........................... ..................................................................

·• � " "

178 Deserts
 -- - -- ----�---�----�--����._._._. ________..._.__.--�--��-�------��-----

Location and causes of deserts a conti11ent, tl1e rainshadow effect creates a

111ucl1 larger exte11t of desert (e.g. 82 per cent of
On the basis of climatic characteristics, i11clL1di11g the land area of At1stralia) tl1an wl1en tl1e moLtn­
Tl1orntl1waite's ariclity i11dex, 011e-tl1ird of the tains are to the west, as i11 Sot1t11 America.
world's land surface ca11 be classified as desert, Aridity is increasecl as the trade winds blow
i.e. arid and sern.i-arid. Alarmingly, tl1is figure, towards the Equator, becoming warmer and there­
and therefore tl1e exte.11.t of deserts, may be fore drier. Where the tra.de wincls blow from tl1e
increasing (Case Study 7). sea, any moistt1re whicl1 they 1nigl1t have held
As sho\i\7n in FigL1re 7 .2, tl1e majority of deserts will be precipitated on eastern coa.sts leaving little
Figure 7.2
.............. ····· ., .......................... ,
lie i11 tl1e ce11tre or on tl1e west coast of con. ti- 1noisture for mid.-conti11e11tal areas. The tl1ree
° °
Arid lands of the world 11ents between 15 and 30 north a11d sot1tl1 of the major deserts in the nortl1ern l1emis1)here which
Equator. Tl1is is tl1e zone of sub-tropical high pres­ lie beyond the st1b-tropical higl1 pressure zo11e
.0 extreme aridity
sure wl1ere air is SL1bsiding (the desce.11di11g. limb of
tl1e Hadley cell, Figure 9.34). 011 page 226 tl1ere is
(the Gobi and Turkestan in Asia and the Great
Basi11s of tl1e USA) are mid-conti11e11tal regions far
arid a11 explanation of hovv warm, tropical air is forced removed from any rain-lJearing winds, and sur­
to rise at tl1e Eqt1ator, producing convectio11al rain, rounded by protective mou11tains.
semi-arid
a11d l1ow later tl1at air, once cooled and stripped of A tl1ird combi11ation of circumstances giving
°
H l1igh pressure its moisture, desce.11ds at approximately 30 nortl1 rise to d.eserts is also shown i11 'Figt1re 7.2. Several
R rainshadow a11d. south of tl1e EqL1ator. As this ah· desce11ds it deserts lie along wester11 coasts wl1ere tl1e ocea11
M mid-continent is compressed, wa1·111ed a11d prodt1ces an area of ·water is cold. In each case, tl1e prevailing winds
u upwelling of per1nanent high l)ressure. As the air war.1ns, it can
cold water blow parallel to the coastline and, dtte to the
l1old an increasing amou11t of water vapour which Earth's rotation, they tend to push surface water
1 Australia (e.g. causes the lower atrnospl1ere to becorn.e very dry.
Simpson Great seaward at right-angles to the wind direction.
Sandy) HRM The low relative l1umidity, combined with the fact The Coriolis force (page 224) pushes air and
2 Gobi M tha.t tl1ere is little surface water for evaporation, water coming from the south towards tl1e left
3 Thar H gives clear skies. in t11e souther11 l1emisphere and water from tl1e
4 Iran HM A second cat1se of deserts is the rainshadow
5 Turkestan M
north to the right in the northern hen1isphere.
6 Arabia H
effect produced by high 111ountain ranges. As Con . seqtiently, very cold water is drawn upv\1ards
7 Somalia H tl1e prevailing wi11ds in the st1b-tropics are the to the ocean surface, a process called 11pwelling,
8 Kalahari HM trade winds, blowing fro1n tl1e nortl1-east i11 the to replace that driven out to sea. Any air which
9 Namib HU nortl1ern he1nisphere and tl1e south-east in tl1e tl1en crosses tl1is cold water is cooled and its
1 O Sahara H (U in sot1thern l1emispl1ere, then a11y barrier, such
west, Min centre)
capacity to hold moistL1re is diminished. Where
11 Patagonia R
as tl1e A11des, prevents 1noisture from reaching tl1ese cooled winds f1·01n the sea blow onto a
12 Monte H the wester11 slopes. Where plate move111ents war111 land surface, advection fogs form (page 222
13 Atacama HR U have ·pt1shed tip moL1ntain ranges in the east of and Places 24).
14 Sonora H - .
0
���\ r f'

15 Mojave HR
(U on coasts)
16 Great Basins R "•
c
� 5

J
�

� I 16 �
�
I\ 15 tf1��

---- -- --- --- --. ----.- -- --

\J I� ,,..
10
---- (J ... � 0

• 6
:7 E uator

a
v

9
13 O C>

·-----------------------------

12

• • • • • • • 4 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •••• • • • • • • • .. .. .... .. ......... ..... . .. ........ .... ... . ...... . ..... ... ............. . .. ..... .. .. ... ...
�

Deserts 179
 . ------ -------------

The Atacama Desert: climate

The prevailing winds in the Atacama, which
lies in the sub-tropical high pressure belt,
blow northwards along the South American
coast. These winds, and the northward­
flowing Humboldt (Peruvian) current over
. which they blow, are pushed westwards (to
the left) and out to sea by the Coriolis force
as they approach the Equator. This allows tl1e
upwelling of cold water from the deep Peru­
Chile sea trench (Figure 1.12) that provides
the rich nutrients to nourish the plankton
which form the basis of Peru's fishing industry.
The upwelling also cools the air above which
then drifts inland and over the warmer desert.
The meeting of warm and cold air produces
advection fogs (page 222) which provide
sufficient moisture for a limited vegetation
cover. Inland, parts of the Atacama are alleged
to be the only truly rainless desert in the world,
but even here the occasional rainfall event
does occur.
• •

Figure 7.3
........... .......... ' ...... ' ........... . ' '

The Atacama Desert

•
Desert_landscapes: what does a of dL1nes, k11own as erg, do exist - but t]1ey cover
011ly about one-qt1arter of tl1e world's deserts.
·desert look like? Most deserts co11sist either of bare rocl<, k11ow11 as
Deserts provide a cla. ssic exa111ple of l1ow easy it hammada (Figure 7.4), or sto11e-covered plains,
. .
is to portray or to accept an inaccurate 111ental called reg (Figt1re 7.5). Deserts co11tain a great
IJicture of different places (or peo1Jle) in the diversity of landscapes. This diversity is dt1e to
world. What is your image of a desert? Is it a Ia11d­ geological factors (tectonics and rock type) as well
Figure 7.4 �cape of sa11d dunes similar to tl1ose shown i11 as to climate (te111peratL1re, rainfall and vvind) and
Figure� 7.15-7.18, perhaps with a camel or IJalm rest1ltant weatl1ering processes.
A rocky (hammada)·
desert, Wadi Rum, tree somewhere i11 the background? Large are_as Figure 7.5
. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . ........ . ............... .
'

Jordan • A stony (reg) desert, Sahara

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Deserts
 Arid processes and landforms temperatures to fall to zero. Altl1ough in so1ne
colder, 1nore moL1ntaino11s deserts, frost shat­
I11 their atte111pts to t1ndersta11d the de\reloprnent tering is a com1non process, it was believed that
of arid landform,s, geograpl1ers have come lllJ the major process i11111ost deserts was insolatio11
against three main difficulties: weatl1eri_ng. l11solation weatl1eri11g occLtrs when,
1 How shot1ld tl1e natt1re of the weatl1ering during tl1e day, the clirect rays of the sun heat
processes be assessed? Desert weatheri11g was tip the st1rface layers of tl1e rock. T.hese surface
initially assu1ned to be largely .rnechanical layers, lacki11g any protective vegetatio11 cover,
a11d to result fro1n extreme diurnal ra11ges in 111ay reach 80° C. Tl1e different types a11d colours
te1111Jerature. More recently, tJ1e realisatio11 of minerals in n1ost rocks, especially igneoLtS
tl1at '\.Yater is present in all deserts i11 so111e rocks, heat LIP a11d cool down a.t different rates,
forin or otl1er J1as led to the view tl1at cl1e1n­ causing i11ter11al stresses and fractt1ri11g. This
icaJ weathering is far more significant tha11 process was t}1ought to C3LISe t}1e Sltrface layers
l1ad previously bee11 thot1gl1t. Latest 01Ji11ions of ex1Josed rock to peel off- exfoliation - or
see1n to suggest tl1at tl1e n1ajor processes, e.g. i11dividual grai11s to break away- gra11t1la1·
exfoliatio11 and salt weatherin,g, n1ay involve clisintegration . (page 41). Wl1ere st1rface layers
a combi11ation of both mecha11icaJ and chem­ clo 1Jeel away, , newly exposecl sL1rfaces experi­
ical weatl1ering. ence pressure release (page 41). This is believed
2 Wl1at is the relative in1porta11ce of win,d a11d to be a contributory process in tl1e formation
water as agents of erosion, tra11sportation and of rounded exfoliation domes such as UlL1ru
de1Josition in deserts? (Figure 7.6) and SL1garloaf Mo11ntain (I:igt1re �.3).
3 I-low importa11t l1ave bee.11 tl1e effects of cli­ Doubts abot1t insolation weatl1ering bega11 •

matic change on desert la11dforms? Dt1rin,g wl1e11 it was noted that the 4500-year-old
some phases of tl1e Quaternary, and previ­ ancie11t mont1m.e11ts in Egypt showed little evi­
ously wl1en co11ti11ental plates were in dif­ dence of exfoliation, and that mo11t1m,ents i11
ferent latitt1des, the cli111ate of present arid Upper Egypt, where tl1e cli111ate is extre1nely
areas was n1tlcl1 wetter th,an it is today. How arid, showed markedly fewer signs of decay than
111a11y of tl1e landfor111s tl1at we see 11ow are, . tl1ose located in Lower Egypt, where there is a
tl1erefore, relict and l1ow m.any are still in limited rainfall. D.rr. Griggs (1936) conducted
the process of bei11g formed? a series of laboratory experiments in which he
subjected granite blocks to extremes of ternpera­
Mechanical weathering °
tt1re i11 excess of l00 C. After the eqt1ivalent of
Traclitio11ally� weathering in deserts was attrib­ almost 250 years of diurnal temperature cl1ange,
uted to mecl1anical processes resulting fro111 he fottnd no discernible difference i11 the rock.
extremes of ten1perature. Deserts, especially Later, he subjected the granite to the sa111e
Figure 7.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ' . ' . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ......... . those aw . ay from the coast, are usually cloud- temperatL1re extremes while at tl1e same time
An exfoliation dome: Uluru less and a,re cl1aracterised by daily extrer11es of sprayi11g it with water. Within the equivalent
(formerly called Ayers temperature. Tl1e lack of cloud cover can allow of two ancl a l1alf years of diur11al te1nperature
Rock), Uluru-Kata Tjuta ° change, he found the rock begi11ning to crack.
National Park, Australia d.ay te111peratures to exceed 40 C for much of the
(compare with Figure 2.3) year; while at 11ight, rapid radiation often causes I-Iis conclt1sions, and tl1ose of later geomor­
phologists, suggest that so1ne of the weathering
previously attribt1ted to insolation ca11, now be
ascribed to chemical cha11ges caused by mois­
ture. Although rainfall in deserts may be li1nited,
the rapid loss of temperature
, at 11ight frequently
prodL1ces dew (175 nights a year in Israel's
Negev) and the mingling of warm and cold air
on coasts (e.g. of the Atacama) causes advec-
tio11 fog (page 222). There is sufficient moisture,
therefore, to combine witl1 certain minerals to
cause the rock to swell (hydratio11) and the outer
layers to peel off (exfoliation). At present, it
would appear tha,t the case for insolation weath­
ering is neithe.r proven nor disproven and tl1at
it 1nay be a consequence of either mechanical
weathering, or cl1emical weatheri11g, or both.

· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • ••••••• • • • •• ••••• • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • ••• • •• • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Deserts 181
•
 b e c o 1n e c e m e 11 te d to g e th e r t �
Tl1e seco11d mechan,ical process i11 desert particles :may
. ru st s · T h es e ha rd c1 ·11st s ar e cl as si fi e d
e11viro111ne11ts, salt weatl1ering, is more readily for1n dt1r1c. · . .
. · to · t h. e 11 at
· Li·re o f th ei r ch em ic al co 1n p o s1 -
accepted altb.0L1gl1 the actio11 of salt ca11 cause accord1ng
1d e 11 ts w it h a sp e c ia l in te re st in g e o lo g y
ch,e111ical, as well as physical, changes i11 the rocl< ti. on. (Stt
m ay · w is ll to re se ar cl 1 th e m ea n in g
(page 40). Salts in rai11water, or salts brottgl1t to or che1n.1st.ry
s ca lc re te s, si lc re te s a n � g y � cr et es .)
tl1e surface by caJ?illary action, forrn crystals as of tl1e ter.111
A· nother fo im o f cr L1 st , d es er t v a rn is h , is a h ar d ,
the moistt1re is readily evaporated in tl1e higl1
darl< gl az ed su rf ac e fo t1 n d o n ex p o se d . ro e k,.s w h. ic h.
ten1peratures and low relative l1umidities. Further
l1ave bee11 co at ed b y a fi lm co m p o se d la rg el y o f
evaporatio11 causes tl1e salt crystals to ex1Ja.ncl and
oxides of . ir o n an d m an ga n es e (F ig u re 7. 7) an d ,
1necl1a11ically to break off pieces of the rock upo11
wl1ich tl1ey l1ave formed (page 40). Subseque11t possi bl y, ba ct er ia l ac ti on . It is h op ed th .a t t � e
rai11fall, dew or fog 1nay be absorbed by salt min­ dati11g of dese1t varnish may help to :stabl1sl1 a
erals causiI1g them to swell (hydration) or che1ni­ cl1ronol og y of cl i1n at ic ch an ge s in ar id an d se 1n .1-
cally to cl1a11ge their crystal structure (page 42). arid environments.
Wl1ere salts accu1nulate 11ea.r or on the surface,
Figure 7.7
.........
. ............................ .. '

Carvings in desert
varnish, Wadi Rum,
Jordan

' '

The importance of wind and water practices. While such conditions do occur locally
Geomorphologists workin·g i11 Africa at the in temperate latitudes, e.g. coastal dunes, st1mn1its
e11d of tl1e last century believed the wind to be of mo11ntains and dt1ring dry summers in arable
responsible for most desert landforms. Later areas, tl1e optimum conditions for u·a11sport by
fieldworl<, carried out 1nai11ly in the higher and wind are in arid and semi-arid environments.
wetter se1ni-arid regions of North America, recog- Wind can 1nove material by tl1ree processes:
'
'
11ised and emphasised tl1e i111portance of rt1nning suspension, saltation and surface c1·eep. The
wa.ter and, in· doing so, de-e111phasised the role of effectiveness of each method is related to particle
'
wind. Today, it is inore widely accepted tl1at both size (Figure 7.8).
wind and water play a sig11ificant, bt1.t locally Sttspension Where material is very fine, i.e.
· varying, pa1·t in the development of the differe11t
less tl1an 0.15 mm in diameter, it ca11 be picked
types of d.esert landscape. up by the wind, raised to considerable l1eights
< and carried great distances. There have been
· Aeolian (wind) processes occasions, thougl1 perhaps recorded only once
Transport a decade, wl1en red dt1st from the Sahara h as
•
· The movement of particles . is determined by ,
been carried. northwards a11d deposited as 'red
several factors.
. Aeolia.n movement is greatest rain' over parts of Britain. Visibility in deserts is
•
where winds are strong (usually over 20 l<m/hr), so1neti1nes reduced to less than lOOOm and tl1is
turbulent, come. from a constant direction and is called. a dt1st stor1n (Figt1re 7.9). The 11umber
blow steadily for a lengthy period of time. Of of recorded dust storms on th e margi11s of the
considerable i1nportance, too, is the na.tu.re of tl1e Sah. ara has increased rapidly in the last 25 years
regolith. It is more likely to ·be moved if ther� is no as the drougl1t of tl1at regio11 has intensified. In
vegetation to bind it tog�ther 01· to absorb so1ne of Mat1rita11ia during the early part of the 1960s,
:
the wind's energy; if it is dry and t1nconsolidated; there was an average of only 5 days/yr with dust
if particles are sn1all enougl1 to be transported; stor1ns compared with an average of 80 days/yr
and if material ha. s been loosened by far1ning over a similar period in tl1e early 2000s.
. • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
'
• • •• • • • ••••••• • • • • • ••• • • • ••• • • • • ••••• • • ••••• • • ••• • • • • • • •••••••••• • •• ••• ••• .

182 Desert's
 300
- particle
••
•

� prevailing
•

size (mm)
••
.. .
wind .. ...
dust s·torin red 'Saharan'
•

.. dust deposited transport process

•
•
.• •

.•
in southern
.. Europe and
. .
.
• occasionally under 0.15
even the UK
•

. . . . ... (also known

.. . .. suspension (dust)
. . as loess)
• • • •
.• •

. . . •' .
.. . ..
1.0 - ----- - _:_ - ..:.... -- -- ,--- ----- ------
.
..,....-.....,..- --/ ----1------------- 0.15
.......

saltation (fine sand)

....... ......
I ......
............ ......
----·+------- -- .............. ·-·- ----------------- 0.25
I

' (coarse sand

{ff)) 'Q Q � � Q '�� � � surface creep
Q �� Q O Q Cl t,) D1 � @ o � C2 � � D2 <� and pebbles)
'-----�---- -=::::..........:_____.::=-.....-=-:.__.::::____::.____:_::=_�:__-=-i__________J 2.00
Q �

Figure 7.8
'

...... '. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .... Saltatio11 Whe11 wind speeds exceed the

Processes of wind tl1resl1old velocity (tl1e speed required to initiate 4x4 vehicles are being accused of da111agi11g the
transportation
grain 1nove1nent), fi11e and coarse-grai11ed sa11cl ecology of tl1e Sahara Desert a11d. co11tributing to the
particles are lifted. They 111.ay rise al1nost verti­ world's growing dust sto1111 problem. Si11ce the
1990s, 4x4 Lru1d Cruisers ha.ve replaced the c,1n1el as
tl1e vehicle of choice (a process refen·ed to as
cally for several ce11ti111etres before returning to
'Toyotru·isation'). Tl1ese vel1icles, according to
the ground i11 a relatively flat trajectory of less
° :;,
than 12 (l igL1re 7 .8). As the wi11d co11tint1es
. Professor Goudie, are gradually destroyir1g the thin
to blow, the sand particles bo11nce alo11g, leap­ . layer of Jjcl1en and gravel tl1at keeps tl1e desert
frogging over one a11other. Even in the worst . surface stable i11 higl1 wiJ1ds. In tl1e worst-affected
\ regions, estimates suggest that 1270 111illion
·
storms, sa11d grai11s are rarely lifted higl1er tl1an
2 m above the grot111d. of dust are th1·ow11 LIP each a year - te11 ti:mes ,nore
Surface creep Every ti1ne a sa11d particle, : tl1an half a. centt1ry ago. The dust, w11ich may contain
·· l1ar1nfL1l 1nicrobes a11d pesticides, is transported l1igh
,

:
transported by saltation, la11ds, it may dislodge a11d
Figure7.10 push forward larger particles (1nore tl1an 0.25 mm into tl1e atmospl1ere dLtri_ng stor1ns ru1d deposited
. . . ............................ ' .....
i11 diameter) which are too heavy to be uplifted. _: (known as blood rain it1 ce1trun places) as far afield
as the Alps (see11 as a red layer 011 top of the snow),
A desert pavement <

the Caribbean (wl1ere fu11gal pores carried witl1 it

with ventifacts in This co11sta11.t bombardme11t grad11ally moves
have been blamed. for destroyi11g coral reefs) and 011
Jordan, created by
,
small sto11es and pebbles over tl1e desert surface.
deflation
cru·s and property in southern England.
·- . , '' . -

Figure7.9
............. ....� ............................ ' . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .... .
Dust storms created by human activity
Erosion
rfl1ere are two main processes of wind erosion:
deflation and abrasion.
Deflation is the progressive Iemoval of fi11e
material by the wind leaving pebble-strewn desert
pavements or reg (FigL1res 7 .10 and 7 .11). Over
mu.ch of the Sahara, and especially i11 Sinai in
Egypt, vast areas of monotonous, flat a11d colour­
less pavement are the product of a11 earlier, wetter
cli1nate. Pebbles were transported by water from
the surrounding highlands and deposited with
sand., clay and silt 011 the lowla11d plains. Later,
Figure7.11 . the lighter particles were removed by the wind,
..............................................
The process of deflation causing tl1e re1naining pebbles to settle and to
interlock like cobblestones.
silt and sand removed by wind, leaving stones ,., , Elsewhere in the desert, dew may collect in
.
...
·• .. .. .
't-•
hollows and rnaterial n1ay be loosened by che1n­
.• ......,...4 •. ••
�
. • . ·J ;:·•
••••••
'I' .. •

. ical weatl1ering a11d tl1en removed by wi11d to

. . -
leave closed depressio11s or deflation hollows.
Closed depressions are ntrmerous and vary in size
from a few metres across to the extensive Qattara
leaving desert pavement: a coarse mosaic of stones
resembling a cobbled street, which protects against • • t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

further erosion Deserts 183

 -- ------ -------------- . .
•

.
(Figure 7.12).1111Jarts of the Sal1ara, Arabian and
Ataca1na Deserts, they are large enot1gl1 to be
visible on air photograpl1s and satellite i1nagery.
Zeugen are tabular 111asses of resistant rock
separated by trencl1es where the wjnd l1as cut verti­
cally through the cap i11.to underlyin.g softer rock.
Deposition
Dunes develop wl1en sand grains, moved by salta-
tion a11d surface creep, are deposited. Although
large areas of dunes, knoW11 as ergs, cover abo11t 25
per cent of arid regions, they are mainly confined
to tl1e Sal1ara and Arabian Deserts, and are virtually
absent in Nortl1 A1nerica. Mt1ch of the early field­
Figure7.12 Depression in Egy1Jt wllich reaclies a deptl1 of work on dunes was carried otit by R.A. Bag.nolcl in
Landshore yardangs, 134 1n below sea-level. Closed depressions 111ay North Africa in tl1e 1920s. I-le noted tl1at some, but
Western Desert, Egypt also have a tectonic origin (tl1e soutl1-west of by no 1neans all, dunes formed aroLtnd an obstacle
the USA) or a solution origi11 (li111estone areas - a rock, a bush, a s1nall l1ill or even a dead ca111el;
in Morocco). The DLtst Bowl, for111ed in the a11d most dunes were located on st1rfaces that were
American Mid-West in the 1930s, was a conse­ even and sandy and 11ot on those which were
quence of deflatjon following a severe drought in irregular and rocky. He concentrated on two types
a region wl1ere i11appropriate farming techniques of dune: the barcl1an and the seif. The ba1�chan is
hacl been introduced. Vast quantities of valuable a small, crescent-shaped du11e, about 30m lugh,
topsoil were blown away, some of wl1icl1 was whicl1 is rnoved by the wind (Figures 7.13 a11d
deposited as far away as Washington, DC. 7.15). The seif, named after an Arab curved sword,
Abrasion is a sandblasti11g action effected is 1nucl1 larger (lOOkm iI1 length and 2001n in
by materials as they are 1noved by saltation. height) a11d more cominon (Figure 7.17), althougl1
Tl1is process smooths, pits, polisl1es and wears tl1e process of its for1nation is more complex than
away rock close to the ground. Since sand par­ initially tl1ot1ght by Bagnold. Textbooks often over­
ticles ca.nnot be lifted very high, the 2011.e of emphasise these two du11es, especially the barcha11
n1axi1nt1m erosion tends to be within 1 m of tl1e whjcl1 is a relatively uncommon feah1re.
Eartl1's surface. Abrasio11 produces a number of While Bagnold had to travel the desert in spe­
' distinctive la11dforms which inclt1de ventifacts, cially converted cars, moder11 geographers derive
yarda11gs and zeugen. tl1eir picture of desert landforms fro1n aerial
Ventifacts are individual rocks with sharp pl1otographs and Landsat images. These new
ed.ges and, due to abrasion, smootl1 sides. The techniques l1ave l1elped to identify several types
white rock in the foreground of Figure 7 .10 has a of dt1ne, and the modern classification, still based
Figure7.13 long axis of 25 c1n. on morphology, contains several additional types
. . ............. ' ......................... .
Yardangs are exte11sive ridges of rock, (Figt1re 7.14). Dune morphology depends upon
The movement of
a crescent-shaped separated by grooves (trot1ghs), with an align­ tl1e sttpply of sand, wi11d directio11, availability of
barchan ment similar to that of the prevaili11g winds vegetation and the nature of the ground surface.

a in plan b in profile
prevailing wind prevailing wind
eddying helps to maintain
saltation and surface steep slopes
gentle, horn moves faster than
slightly centre of dune as there creep on gentle slope
concave is less sand to move �

x slope y
•
maximum
height 30 m
A steep, upper slip slope of coarse grains and with continual sand
avalanches due to unconsolidated material (unlike a river, coarse
grains are at the top)
---------=:::=::::::::�=-- horn B gentle, basal apron with sand ripples: the finer grains, as on a beach,
barchans migrate, moving forwards by up to 30 m/yr give a gentler gradient than coarser grains

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•••
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • t • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • •

184 ' Deserts

•
 -�----·-------- ·----------� - -

f
•

•
•

barchan individual dunes, crescent li,nited highly mobile

constant direction, at none
shape with horns pointing right-angles to dune
downwind (Figures7. 13 ".
and7.15)

barchanoid ridges asymmetrical, oriented at limited constant direction, at none mobile

right-angles to wind, rows right-angles to dune
of barchans forming parallel
ridges

transverse oriented at right-angles to abundant steady winds (trades), vegetation sand checked by barriers,
wind but lacking barchanoid {thick) sand constant direction but with stabilises sand limited mobility
structure, resemble ocean cover reducing speeds, at right­
waves (Figure7.16) angles to dune

'

r
dome dome-shaped (height appreciable strong winds limit height none virtually no movement
restricted by wind) amounts of of dune
coarse sand

I •

seif {linear) longitudinal, parallel dunes large persistent, steady winds none regular (even) surface,
with slip faces on either side, (trades), with slight seasonal virtually no movement
can extend for many km or diurnal changes in direction
(Figure7.17)

parabolic hairpin-shaped with noses limited constant direction where present, highly mobile (by blowouts
pointing downwind, a type of can anchor in nose of dune)
blowout (eroded) dune where sand •
middle section has moved
forward, may occur in clusters
•

"
star complex dune with a star (star- limited effective winds blow from none virtually no movement
fish) shape (compare aretes several directions
•
radiating from central peak)
(Figure7.18)
'

reversing ondulating, haphazard shape limited winds of equal strength and none virtually no movement
duration from opposite . '
directions

Figure7.14
...............-..........................
Classification of sand
dunes (after Goudie)
•

••• ••••• • •• •••• • •• •••••••••• • • • ••••••• •• • • •

• • • • • • • • • • i • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•
• • •••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • ••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Deserts 1.85
•
•
 - -
--
�.p-· , ::�·- --::-� -
j
• ,...

'

•
- •

.-- -
•

.....)... 'aoi
,r -

.,,,. - •
• -
- ..
. •

-
•

-' -
•

·- ��··
�

• • ' •

•
,.. ..... .....
...... ,r • •
' .- -

'·
•
•

�­" --
---
Figure 7.16
Figure7.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. t • • . . . ..

Barchan dunes near

Luderitz, Namibia
- •
- 11 Transverse dunes nea
Djanet, Algeria
,,
•

. .-
.. . . .
. I

.
- • .,

-. -
-
.., ... ' - '•

. . .
•
'
• •
•

'
'� ' '
•

Figure7.17 Figure7.18
. . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ....... , ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... '" . . .....
Seif (linear) dunes, Star dunes, Sossusvl1
Sossusvlei, Namibia Namibia
•

.. - The effects of water Exogenous Exoge11ous rivers are tl1ose

.
It has already been noted that, in arid areas, like tl1e Colorado, Nile, Indus, Tigris and
.
moisture must be present for processes of Euphrates, wl1icl1 rise i11 mou11tains beyond tl1e
'
'Chemical weatheri11g to operate. We have also desert margins. These rivers continue to flow
..
seeh that often rainfall is low, irregt1lar and infre-· throughout the year even if tl1eir discl1arge is
quent, with long:term flt1ctuatio11s. Altl1ot1gh re·duced by evaporation wl1en they cross tl1e arid
most desert rainfall. occurs i11 low-intensity land. (Tl1e last fot1r rivers me11tioned provided
tl1e location for some of tl1e earliest urban set­
•
. . stor111s, the occasional sud.de11, 111ore isolated,
· heavy downpot1r, does occt1r. T:here are records tle111e11ts - page 388.) The Colorado has, for over
' •
of several extre·1ne desert rainfall events, eacl1 300 km of its course, cut down vertically to form
equivale11t to t'lie three-n1onthly 1nean rainfa.ll of the Grand Canyon. The canyon, whi.cl1 in places
•
London. The impact of water is, th.erefore, very is almost 2000 m (over 1 mile) deep, l1as steep
•
significant i11 shaping dese_rt landscapes . · sides partly _ dt1e to rocl, structure and partly
· · Rivers in arid e11viro11ments fall into three ' due to i11sufficient rainfall to degrade then1
111ain categories . (Figtire 7 .19).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
186 Deserts
 Stuclies i11 I<enya, Israel and Arizona suggest
tl1at SLtrface ru11off is likely to occur witl1in 10
mi11utes of tl1e start of a downpour (Figure 7.20).
1�11is may i11itially be in. the for1n of a sl1eet flood
wl1ere t11e water flows evenly over tl1e la11d a11cl
is 11ot co11fined to cl1a11nels. Mucl1 of the sa11d,
gravel and pebbles covering the desert floor is
thot1gl1t to J1ave been deposited by tl1is process;
yet, as the eve11t has rarely been witnessed,
it is assL1med that deposition by sl1eet floods
occL1rred. mai11ly duri11g earlier wetter periods
called plt1vials.
Very soon, tl1e collective rt111off becomes co11-
centrated into deep, steep-sided ravi11es known
as wadis (Figure 7 .22) or arroyos. Normally dry,
wadis 111ay be sL1bjected to irregt1lar flasl1 floods
(Figt1re 7 .20 a11d Places 25). The average occt1r­
rence of tl1ese floods is once a year in the se111i­
arid margins of tl1e Sahara, a11d once a decade in
th.e extreinely arid interior. �fl1is infreqt1ency of
floods compared witl1 tl1e great nt1111ber and size
of wadis, suggests tl1at they were created whe11
storms were more freque11t and severe - i.e. tl1ey
are a relict featL1re.

Figure 7.20
. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. ....
A flash flood

Figure 7.19 E11do1·eic Endoreic drai11age occt1rs where

........ ................. ............. . . .
The Grand Canyon, rivers ter111i11ate in inla11d lakes. Exa111ples are tl1e
Arizona, USA River Jordan i11to the Dead Sea and the Bear into
the Great Salt Lake.
EJJhemeral Ephe111eral streams, wl1ich are
more typical of desert areas, flow intermittently,
or seaso11ally, after rai11stor111s. Altl1ough often
shortlived, these strea1ns can ge11erate high levels
of discl1arge due to several local characteristics.
First, the torre11tial 11ature of the rai11 exceeds Pediments and playas
tl1e infiltratio11 capacity of the ground and so Stretcl1ing from tl1e foot of tl1e highlands, there is
m.ost of the water drains away as surface rt1noff often a gently slopi11g area either of bare rock or of
(overland flow, page 59). Second, the high tem­ rock covered in a tl1i11 veil of debris (Figt1res 7 .21
peratures and tl1e freqt1ent presence of duricrust and 7 .24). Tl1is is know11 as a pediment. There is
combine to give a hard, impermeable sttrface often an abrupt break of slope at tl1e jt1nction of
which i11hibits infiltration. Tl1ird, the lack of the highla11d a.rea and the pedi111ent. Two main
vegetation 1nea11s that no moistt1re is lost or tl1eories suggest the qrigi11 of the pediment,
delayed through interception and the rain is able 011e involving water. This theqry proposes that
to hit the grot1nd with maxi111t1m force. Fourtl1, weathered 111_ate1:ial from cliff faces, or debris
fi11e particles are displaced by rainsplas_h action • from alluvial fa_ns, was carr-ied during pluvials by
and, by infilling surface pore spaces, further sheet floods. The seoiment pl�ned tl1e lowlands
reduce the infiltration ca1Jacity of the soil. It is before being d e_ posited, leaying a ge11tly concave
as a result of these 1ninimal -infiltration rates .. slope of less tl1an 7° (Figt1re 7.24). Tl1e alter11a­
that slopes of less than 2 ° can, even t1nder quite tive theory_ inyolves the p��allel retreat of slopes
1nodest storm conditions, experience ex�ensive .. resulting from �e�thering (King's hy1Jothesis,
overland flow. Figure 2.24c). .. . . .
...... • • • f • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
Deserts -187
 .,,,,.,= .ao;u a

Playas are often found at tl1e lowest point

of tl1e pedi1nent. They are shallow, ephemeral,
saline lakes forrned after rainstorms. As the rai11
water rapidly evaporates, flat layers of either clay,
silt or salt are left. Where the dried-out surface
co11sists of clay, large desiccation cracks, up to
5 111 deep, are formed. W11en the surface is
salt-covered, it produces the 'flattest landfor1n
on land'. Rogers Lake, in tl1e Mojave Desert,
California, has been used for spacecraft landings,
wl1ile the Bon11eville saltflats in Utah have been
tl1e location for land-speed record atte111pts.

Figure 7.21
.........................................................
Pediment at foot of
highlands, Wadi Rum, Jordan

Wadis: flash floods.

----·-----�-·�-
Camping in a wadi is something that experienced
Figure 7.22
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. > • • •
desert travellers avoid. It is possible to be swept
A wadi near away by a flash flood which occurs virtually
Qumran, Israel
without warning - there may have been no rain at
your location, and perhaps nothing more ominous
than a distant rumble of thunder. Indeed, the
first warning may be the roar of an approaching
wall of water. One minute the bed of the wadi is
dry, baked hard under the sun and littered with
weathered debris from the previous flood or from
the steep valley sides (Figure 7.22), and the next
minute it is a raging torrent.

The energy of the flood enables large boulders

to be moved by traction, and enormous amounts
of coarse material to be taken into suspension
- some witnesses have claimed it is more like a
mudflow. Friction from the roughness of the bed,
the large amounts of sediment and the high rates of
evaporation soon cause a reduction in the stream's
velocity. Deposition then occurs, choking the
·.
channel, followed by braiding as the water seeks
discharge rainfall Note the absence of base flow new outlets. Within hours, the floor of the wadi is
(cumecs) (mm)
dry again (Figure 7.23).
100 100 Figure 7.23
high peak discharge .................................................
Typical storm hydrograph The rapid runoff does not replenish groundwater
80 for a flash flood in a wadi supplies, and without the groundwater contribution
steep
75 . to base flow, characteristic of humid climates, rivers
r1s1ng
,
steep falling limb
limb cease to flow. At the mouth of the wadi, where
60
the water can spread out and energy is dissipated,
50
material is deposited to form an alluvial fan or cone
40 (Figure 7.24). If several wadis cut through a highland
close to each other, their semi-circular fans may
25
20 merge to form a bahada (bajada), which is an almost

river has dried up continuous deposit of sand and gravel.

0,....1___.L,:;,.__.____,l_____-L._______J_-!!,.._____J________JL--_____J
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time (hours)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•

188 Deserts
,'
 wadis: steep-sided valleys
with ephemeral strearns

pronounce
possibly hi

Figure 7.24 Occasio11ally, isolated, flat-tOJ?ped ren111ants to in.crease. Fluvial domains are those where
........ . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .... .......
Pediments and playas of for111er l1igl1lands, l<nown as mesas, rise sl1eer water processes are domi11ant or, as evidence
fro111 tl1e pedime11t. Some 1nesas, in Arizo11a, i11creasi11gly suggests, have bee11 do.mina11t in
l1ave su1111nits large enot1gh. to l1ave been used the past. Vegetation, which stabilises material,
as village sites by tl1e Hopi I11dians. Buttes are increases as rainfall i11creases or where coastal fog
s111aller ,,ersio11s of 111esas. 1�11e 111ost spectact1lar and dew are a regular occt1.rrence.
mesas a11d bt1ttes lie in Mo11t1me11t Valley Navajo Evidence aJso suggests that wind and w·ater
Tribal Park i11 Arizona (Figure 7 .25). can interact i11 arid e11,,iron1ne11ts and that land­
forms prodticed by each do co-exist witl1in the
Relationship between wind and water sa1ne locality. However, the balance between
So1ne desert areas are domi11ated by wind, otl1ers their relative i1nportance has often altered,
by wat. er. Areas where win.ct appears to be the mainly due to cli1natic change either over
do1nina11t geo111orpl1ological agent are know11 as le11gthy periods of ti111e (e.g. the 1.8 000 years
aeolian domains. The effecti\1eness of tl1e wind since t.he time of maxin1L1111 glaciation) or dl:Jri.ng
increases where, and when., amounts of rainfall shorter flt1ctL1ations (e.g. si11ce the n1id-1960s in
decrease. As ra.infall decreases, so too does a11y tl1e Sahel). ,L\t present, a11d especially in Africa,
•

vegetation cover. 1"h.is allows tl1e wind to tra.11s­ tl1e decrease in rainfall in the semi-arid desert
port 1naterial unhindered, and rates of erosion fringes 111eans tl1at tl1e role of water is probably
(abrasion and deflation) a11d de1Josition (dunes) declining, while tl1at of tl1e wind is increasi11g.

Figure 7.25
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... .
Mesas and buttes,
Monument National
Park, Arizona, USA

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
 ·, . '

'

'.

Climatic change frequent, relatively sl1ort-lived plt1vials, the last

Tl1ere have already been references to pluvials occurring about 9000 years ago. Evidence for a
withi11 tl1e Sal1ara Desert (page 181). Prior to tl1e once-wetter Sal1ara is give11 in. FigL1re 7.27.
Quater11ary era, tl1ese 111ay l1ave occurred \,vl1en . erodotus, a l1istoria11 living 111 A11cient
H
the African Plate lay furtl1er to the soutl1 a11cl Greece described t11e Garamantes civilisation
tl1e Sal1ara \i\1 as i11 a latitt1de equivalent to that . wl1ich flourished in the Ahaggar Mot1ntains 3000
9£ the present-day savannas. In the Qt1aternary years ago. Tl1is people, wl10 recorded their exploits
in. cave_pai11tings at Tassili des Ajjers, ]1unted
•
era, the adva11ce of the ice.sheets rest1lted i11 a
shift in··windbelts whicl1 caused cl1anges in J?Te­ elepl1ants, giraffes, rhinos a11d a11telope. Twenty
cipitation patter11s, ten11Jeratures a11d evapora­ ce11turies ago, North Africa was tl1e 'granary of tl1e
tion rates. At tl1e time of n1aximum glaciation Ro1nan Empire'. Wadis are too large and deep and
(18 000 years ago), desert· conditio11s a1Jpear to alluvial co11.es too widespread to l1ave been formed
Figure 7.26
......." ................................
have been 111ore extensive tl1an they are today by today's occasio11al storms, wl1ile sheet floods
Extent of sand dunes (Figt1re 7.26). Since tl1.en, as ·st1ggested by radio­ are too infrequent to have moved so much
in Africa carbon dati11g (1Jage 248), there l1ave been n1. aterial over pedi111ents. Radiati11g from tl1e
Ahaggar a11cl Tibesti 1Yfou11tains, aerial photo­
a 18 000 years ago b today
I
grapl1s and satellite imagery have revealed many
areas of sand dunes
L dry valleys wl1ich once 1nL1st have held permanent
rivers (compare Figure 6.44). Lakes were also once
111t1ch larger a11d deeper. Arot1nd Lake C11ad, shore­
lines 50 m above the present level are visible, and
···---· - researcl1 suggests that lake levels might once have
..
been over 100 m l1igl1er. (Lake Bonneville i11 tl1e
�
• •
USA is only one-tentl1 of its former 1naximt1m size
a11d, lil<e Lake Cha.ct, is drying up rapidly.) Small
crocodiles fou11d in the Tibesti 111t1st have bee11
Equator Equator trapped in the sligl1tly wetter uplands as the-desert
advanced. Also, pollen analysis has shown that
6

' oak and cedar forests abounded in tl1e same region

10 000 years ago. Groundwater in the Nubian
:----------rr---- .
----- ------------ ---·- sandsto11e has been dated, by radio-isotope
! n1etl1ods, to be over 25 000 years old, and may
·,
have accun1t1lated at about the same tin1e as fossil
laterite soils (page 321) .
•
I
-------- One of the granaries J Figure 7.27
�----- • _ ,--v') I . ...................................... .

approximate northern limit of Sahara today --

.... -- -- .
-· - ­ - ­
of Ancient Rome.
Fossil laterite soils and fossil
water 25 000 years old.
Evidence of pluvials
in the Sahara
s M ou ntains
Atla
Egyptian Desert
Fossil ergs, possibly ---1--------� '
formed by water as Ahaggar Mountains Tassili des Ajjers

.\
well as by wind. Relict radial drainage. Tibesti Mountains Southern Egypt and
j
northern Sudan
approximate seuthern limit of ......._ Pollen from oaks /
Ancient Garamantes and cedars.
Sahara today er civi!isation of pastorallsts � Sand, shown by Columbus space
Small crocodiles
who left cave paintings. shuttle to be 5 m deep, covering
•
found.

-------------
•
numerous river channels cut in
-·n) underlying bedrock.
• -- - �
-----S=>L.Chad
'' �

Once 300 000 km 2 in area, \

120 m deeper than today \
and large enough to flow \
\
- southwards into the sea,.
\
Drought since 1974 has dried up headwaters now virtually dried up.
\
of the R.Volta .Lake Volta, an artificial lake Lake terraces '---, Early 20th-century
created in the 1960s, is decreasing in size. SO m high. forests and farmland
0 600km •
now desert .
I I

. ......... .......... .... . .- ... ...... ........ .. .. . ." ... .. ... ..... . ..........................
.... ...........................,,........................................................
1·90 Deserts

•
 '
In the mid- l 970s, desertification, not global
.

Goudie says that 'tl,e question has been Those places perceived to be at greatest
warming, was perceived as the world's asked whetl1er this process is caused by risk from desertification are shown in
.
major envirorimerital issue. Since then temporary droL1ght periods of high magni­ Figure 7.28. In 2005 the UN claimed that
the nature, extent, causes and effects of tude, is due to longer-term climatic change desertification directly affected over 250
desertification have become shrouded in towards aridity, is caused by man-induced million people and threatened another
controversy. Taken literally, desertification climatic change, or is tl1e result of human 1 billion living in at-risk countries. It
means 'the making of a desert� More help­ action through man's degradation of the is generally agreed that the desert is
fully, it has been defined as 'tl,e turning of biological environments in arid zones. Most encroaching into se·n1i-arid, desert
the la,,d, often tl,rougl, physical processes people now believe that it is produced by margins, especially in the Sahel - a broad
a,,d l,uman misma,,agement, into desert'. a combination of increasi,,g human and belt of land on the southern side of the
Even so, although the term has been in use animal populations, which cause the effects Sahara (2-·4 in Figure 7.28).
for over half a century, few can agree on of drought years to become progressively Some of the main interrelationships
exactly what it rneans. The diversity of defi­ more severe so that the vegetation is between the believed causes of desertifica-
nitions - there are over 100 - is due largely placed under increasing stress: tion are shown in Figure 7.29.
to uncertainty over its causes.

Percentage of v��- 't v· � � l·

Worst areas population at risk i ./�� 'or 1 �
1 Ethiopia 18 ,----
•
2 Sudan 23
3 Chad 30
4 Niger 42 =--� �

5 Somalia 26 � �"'"��'-t)
"
Level of risk
very severe

D
� ·-
severe Equator

-- 0- ��-------------- �----�------------------
Sahel

•
I moderate
countries •
slight Tropic of
---- Capricorn
------------------ - ' --
-- - - --- - • ---- --
,.,1 Figure 7 .28
. . . . ' .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....
•
.. . ..

5000 km
'Q
Areas at risk from
0
desertification

Figure 7.29
. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . ................. .
. .
I less rainfall (total amounts and rivers and water decrease
z
Causes of desertifi­ reliability), increased drought holes dry up in protective
• cation in the Sahel (frequency and intensity)
vegetation
0
vegetation
climatic change dies cover -
global warming: higher •
less rainfall

.I
temperatures, increased evaporation,
reduced condensation <(
. soil exposed
,
to wind and , u
in some areas, livestock numbers
overgrazing: soil
depleted of nutrients,
vegetation -
increase in animals ...........---' cannot
increased by 40 per cent in wetter land stripped of its LL
(above carrying re.-establish ..__,.....__,
(pluvial) years preceding mid-1960s protective grass cover
capacity, page 378) itself -
(Figure 7.30)

l
increase in
farmers forced to change traditional overcultivation: evaporation
methods of land use as more land reduced soil fertility, from soil
needed for food crops (grass ploughed up) soil left exposed UJ
(Figure 7.30) vegetation
2 immigrants removed
including increased
refugees from increased demand for wood for deforestation risk of soil
civil wars cooking, he {page 543)
· ating, building erosion
and droughts
 ,

7-,:: �ase St��y- Desertification: fact or fiction?

Figure 7.30
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Desertification and
a overgrazing
b overcultivation

a
v·

lr1 1975, Hugh Lamprey, a bush pilot at the 1992 Rio Earth SL1mmit). Since then extent and effects of salinisation (page 273
and environmentalist, clain1ed that, scie11tific studies using satellite imagery and Figure 16.53) appear to have increased.
since l1is previous study 17 years earlier, ar1d r-nore detailed fieldwork (Figure 7.31) Tl1e semi-arid lands are a fragile envi­
the desert in tl1e Sudan had advanced have thrown considerable doubt on tl1e ronment whose boundaries cl1ange due
southwards by 90-100 km. In 1982 a11d causes, effects ar1d extent of desertification. to variations in rainfall and land use. It is
at the !,eight of one of Africa's worst-ever Today, certai11 early statistics regarding its often difficult to separate natural caLrses
recorded droughts, UNEP (United Natio11s advance have proven to be unreliable. It from l1uman ones and short-term fluctua­
Environmental Programme) claimed tl1at is believed tl1at overgrazing is no longer tions from long-term trends (Figure 7.32).
the Sal1ara was advancing southwards by co11sidered so importar1t, fuelwood has The effects of global warming are as yet
6-10 km a year and that, globally, 21 million not become exhausted as previously pre­ an unknown factor, although compL1ter
l1ectares of or1ce-productive soil were dicted, while famir1e and drougl1t are more models suggest that the climate will get
being reduced eacl1 year to zero produc­ likely to result from poverty, poor farming even drier.
Figure 7.32
tivity, that 850 rnillion people were being techniques, civil unrest and war than from ... .. . . . . ." . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ......
affected, and 35 per cent of the world's natL1ral caL1ses (page 503). In contrast, the a Desert retreat or
b desert advance?
surface was at risk (figures quoted by UNEP
a.
Tl1e soutl1em Sahara Dese1t is ir1 retreat, maki11g farnling agc:ti11 vj able i1 1 {Jarts
of tile
Figure 7.31 Sal1 el. S,1tellite in1ages take11 tl1is surnmer sho\.v tl1at sa11d. dL111es are retreating tlie
. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . whole
Scientific evaluation 6000 km across tl1e S,:1l1el region belween MaL1ri tanja to Eritrea. Nor cloes it app
ear to
in the mid-1990s be ,1 short-te1111 tre11cl - a11alysts clai1n it l1as bee11 l1ap1Je11ing un11oticed since the
n1id-l980s. In JJa11s of Burkina Faso, dev,1stated by the clroL1ghts of the 1980s,
soine of:
iversi ty of LL111d , i11 the land scape is no\.v sl1ov.1i11g gree11, \.Vith 111ore trees for firewood and 1nore
Researcl1ers at tl1e Ui 1 . grassla,,d
surv ys ai1 e anun e d for livestock. Far111ers also clai,11 tl1eir ) ields of sorgl1t1111 and 1 11ille t h ave 11e arly
out fiel d
�
1
e
S wede n, cai1·i ed d
attei 1Jp t to cloL1bled, tl1ot1gh this 111ay partly be cltie_ to improved farn1
Sud, li1 in a.11 i1 1g metl1ocls [FigLire 10.40].
satellite pictL1res of
findi gs. 111 a r epo11
conf1n11 La111pr ey's n
_ . J.
1ey t d no aJ Adapted from New Scientist, 2002
J
}Jublisl1ed ii1 the inid-199? s _ � \� � �
t a

cu l t1,,a t1on 111111t , no n1aJ ? t

S 11'fts in t l1e ,1ortl1 en1 .
··1
on, no m aJ01
· · c h ano aes 111 b
sand d u11e tr ansfo1111au
er beyo 11d tl1e d r � 1nat1 . � bttt OL1r 2 lst-�e 1 1tL1ry civilisation is being sq eezed between advancing de
vegetat ion cov b
·.
e lt of
� sert a,icl rising
varia b e rainf all . A seas, leav111g less land to SL1pp�1t a gro\v111g l1L1111ai1 popul,ltio11. This
short-ter11 1 effects of
l
_ is i.llustrcttecl by the
1prey said fon1 1e d tl1e l1eavy Ios�es of land to ad:ancr ng deserts in Nigeria and CJ1ina, t11e
sa11d d unes iliat La1 1
n no
.
sig _ _ 111 ost poptiloLis
Saha ra ha show n
cot�11 u-1es 1� Afnca a11cl Asia respectively. Nigeri,:1 is losing 3500 ktn2
advanci11g fro11 t of tl1e
d
a year, whereas
e 1962 , 11or was t l1ere any China, ,vl11ch lost 011 average 1500 km 2 a yeai· between 1950 a 11· d ·
of 1no,,e111ent sinc _
arot1i1 d . . . . J 975 , Jias b-een l os1· 11g
eseit gro wu1g 36 00 la1. 12 a year s1_11ce 2000. Satellite 11nages have sl1 own t wo dese
evide11ce of patches of d
1 0
rts in Inner
s o r v il la ge s - a p l1 e 11 o m e 1
�
o Mongolia an d Gru1su provi11ces expanding ancl merging, as
w e l l s , w a te rl 1o le are t\vo laroer 011es to th
e re s u lt o f o v e rg raz .11 10 ,vest i.�. Xinjia�g province To tl1e east the Gobi .Desert has adva11c
freqL1ent 1 y c1a1m . ed to be ili _ : ed t;\Vithi,1 250 k�
la c e s 6 5 ] . T l1 e re p rt � ndecl of Be1Ju1g. Chinese sc1ent1sts repo1t that son1e 24 000 villages in
by l1erds of cattle [P �
h 1g
the 11 orth and west of
e d fo r re c o r .in g s o f a l1 ·tl1� �ou11t y have been abandoned or par tly clepopulated as tliey
r
by stressi11g the 11e
d
were over. n111 by
dnft1ng sand.
scietltific stm1dard.

Adapted from Earth Policy Institute, 2006

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

192 Deserts
 Go:udie, A.S. (2001) T/1e Nat1,1re oftfze Desertificatio11: UN Conve11tion. to Combat Desertification:
Enviro11mer1t, 'Wiley Blackwell. �
www.fao.org/desertification/defat1lt. www.u11.. org/ecosocdev/geninf. o/sustdev/
Goudie, A.S. (2007) 'Dust storms1 asp?lang=en desert.htm
in Geography Revieiv Vol 21 No 1 Desert processes and landfor1ns: UN Environment Programme Global
(September). www.t1xl.eiu.edu/-cfjps/1300/desert.l1tmJ Deserts Outlook:
Goudie, A.S. a11d Watso:n,. A. (1990) Desert l1tt-p://geoweb.ta1nu.edu/courses/ ww w.u.nep.org/Geo/gdot1tlook/
Geon,zorphology, Macn1illan. geol lOl/gross1nan/Deserts.htn11
Cooke, R. U ., Warre11, A. ancl Goudie, A.S. Unitarian Service Com1nittee of Canada:
(1993) Dese1t Geo111orphology, Routledge. www.usc-ca11ad.a.org/

•
Activities
e e e e e e e e • e e e e • e e • e• e e e O e e e e O e e e e O e e e e e e e e e e • e • e e O O e •e e • e e• e e e e e e e e e e e e e e •e e e O e e e e e e e e

1 a Describe the characteristics that define a hot desert 2 a Describe and name an example of a wadi. (4 marks)
climate. (4 marks) b i Sometimes a 'flash flood' rushes through a wadi.
b Study Figure 7.2 (page 179) and describe the location Explain what a flash flood is. (3 marks)
of the world's deserts. (4 marks)
ii Why is there little or no warning that a flash flood is
c Explain two causes of a desert climate. (4 marks) about to happen? (3 marks)
d Write a paragraph to explain to someone why the typical iii Why do rivers stop flowing very soon after a flood in a
view of a desert as a 'sea of sand' is often not true.(4 marks) desert area? (3 marks)
e What is 'exfoliation' weathering? (4 marks) c In the area where a wadi opens onto lowland there is
f Explain one other denudation process that operates often an alluvial fan. Describe an alluvial fan and explain
in hot desert areas. (5 marks) how it is formed. (6 marks)
d Describe a playa and explain how playas are formed.
(6marks)

Exam practice: basic structured questions

••• o •••• • •••• • •••••••• • ••••• o • •• o o o e e e e o e e o o ••• • • ••• e • •••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••

3 a Describe how wind transports material in a desert 4 a On a sketch or copy of Figure 7.25 page 189, add labels to
environment. (6 marks) show: caprock; free face; bare rock; rectilinear slope; loose
b Why is wind transportation a more important method of scree; gently sloping plain. (6 marks)
movement in deserts than in wet environments? (3 marks) b Explain why the loose material you can see in the
c Choose one type of sand dune. photograph has not been moved away. (5 marks)
i Draw an annotated diagram to show its main features. c i In the Sahara Desert in North Africa there is
evidence that the climate has not always been like
ii Explain how the dune has been formed. (8 marks) this. Choose one piece of evidence to show that
d Choose one desert landform created by wind erosion . the climate has changed, state it and explain how it
i Describe its shape and size. shows climate change. (7 marks)
ii Explain the processes that have formed it. (8 marks) ii Choose one piece of evidence to suggest that the
climate of North Africa is changing now. State it and
explain how it shows climate is changing. (7 marks)

Exam practice: structured question and essays

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••
J
5 a Why do arid conditions occur in continental areas in the tropics? 6 'Semi-arid lands are fragile environments:
(10marks) Discuss this statement with reference to semi-arid areas that
b Making good use of examples, describe two ways in which you have studied. (25 marks)
plants adapt to drought conditions in desert areas. (8 marks)
7 Using Figures 7.3, 7.4 and 7.5 (page 180), describe and account
c Explain the term'water balance'used to identify the extent of
for the range of surface conditions found in desert areas.
tropical desert climates. (7marks)
(25 marks)
. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . ... . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . . . . . . . ' . . . .. . . . . . .. . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Deserts 193 '
 ·---------------. --- -

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00
0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0

'At fi1·st sight it 11'lay a.ppear t/1.at ,·ock t)ipe is tJ1e dorr1ina11.t producing its ow11 characteristic scenery. Land­
forms are greatly inflt1enced by a rock type's vt1l­
i11.fluence Ofl 1'1'lost IandscaJJes . . . As geo11101·1JJ1ologists, we nerability to weatl1ering, its permeability and its
a1·e mo,·e co1'1ce1·ned 1;yit·J1 th.e_ ways i11 wl1icl1 the cha1·acte1·is­ structu.re.
tics of 1·ocks ·1·espo11cl to tJ1e· processes of e,·osion arzcl weat/1- To sl1ow l1ow these three factors affect dif-
e,·ing tha11 with- the detailed sti1dy of ,�ocks tJ,1emse/11es.' ferent rocl<s and to explain their resulta11t
R. Collard, The Pl1ysical Geography of Landscape, 1988 landforms a11d. potential economic use, five
rock tYJ?eS have been selected as exemplars.
Previot1s chaJ?ters l1ave de1no11strated l1ow Carbo11iferot1s limestone, cl1alk and sandstone
landsca1)es at both local a11d global scales have (sedi111entar·y rocl<s), and granite and basalt (botl1
developed from a combination of processes. Plate ig11eot1s) l1ave been chosen because, argt1ably,
tectonics, weathering a11d the actio11 of 111oving these produce some of the most distinctive types
water, ice a11d wind botl1 create and destroy land­ of landfor111 a11d scenery.
. '
for1ns. Yet tl1ese processes,_ l-1owever i1nporta11t they
are at present or l1ave been in tl1e J)ast, are insuf­ Lithology and geomorphology
ficient to explai11 tl1e 1nany different and dramatic
changes of sce11ery which can occur withi11 short Vulnerability to weathering
· distances, especially in tl1e British Isles. Mecha11ical weathering in Britain occt1rs in.ore
Litl1ology refers to tl1e physical cl1aracter­ readily in rocl<s that are jointed. Water can
Figure 8.1 ·
····••·•·•••············•··•··•·••·•·••·•·•• istics of a rock. As eacl1 individual rock type pe11etrate eitl1er down the .ioints or along tl1e
Beddin·g planes with has different characteristics, so it is capable of bedding planes (Figure 8.1) of Carboniferous
joints and angle of dip . .
li111estone, or i11to cracl<s resulting from pressure
a massively bedded Carboniferous limestone release or contraction on cooling within granite
vertical joints a.t right:-angles horizontal bedding planes separating different
and basalt (page 41 and Figure 1.31). Subsequent
to the bedding planes layers/strata in a sedimentary rock and freezing and thawing along these lines of weak­
indicating different phases of deposition ness caLtses frost shattering (page 40).
I
'"' - - - Chemical weatl1ering is a major iI1flt1ence
'·
� ..
'/
�

1,.
i11 li1nestone and granite la.ndfo1·ms. Li1nestone,
..- ' - ·� - ,,
i,.
�
-
• composed 1nostly of calcium carbonate, is slowly
II
.-
-
- -- - dissolved by tl1e carbonic acid in rainwater, i.e. the
• •
'" � ., Ii
' .
·-
•• . 11
,l - - - '
process of carbonation (page 43). Granite consists
- ·- -. - -..
, ..
I/= ...-- .' • . ·'
�
. of quartz, feldspar and 1nica. It is susceptible to
•
. ·-- - �
-- -J
- - �·- - - . - - . .�
- -- - - - --
) '•
hydration, where water is incorporated into tl1e
, rock structure cat1sing it to swell and crumble
b thinly bedded chalk •
• (page 42), and to l1ydrolysis, when the feldspar
the angle of dip is the difference between the actual
inclination of the rock and the horizontal
•
is cl1emically ch.anged into clay (pages 42-43) .
.. horizontal
-------------------------. ------------ Qt1artz, in co1nparison with other minerals, is one
°
10 dip joints still _at right- of the least pro11e to chemical weatheri11g.
·, angles to bedding Mottershead has empl1asised that 'the
7
. ..
!l"
�
-
,t.-, r
v planes m�cha11fcal resista11ce of rocks depends on the
.. -
�
-•:.,·-.. ' ,,,
•.'
. . II stre11gth of the individt:1al component min­
'�:.:
. .;.;,-;,
�
. "
;:k ·. :,,:�,... ,... gently dipping erals and the bo11ds between them, a:nd that
•
f
i
_,._.:-...
. ' • bedding_planes cl1e1�ical resista11ce depe11ds on the individt1al
.
. ' .

• - -,
f
' cl1emical resistances of-tl1e con1pone11t minerals.
� Mechanical streI)gth· decre.ases if just one of these '
' '
' component minerals becomes chemically altered.'
..................... • • • • • • • f • •
• • e • • • • � • • • • • • i f • • • • • f e • • • f • f t • f f • f • • • f t f f 4 j f f f • f f f t t t t f f f t • • f f t • f • t f f f t f f t f f t t f f f f t � f f f t f • f � f f t f f t i t t t I f f t f t t f • • 0 0 • 0 ............ ' .......... .
1·94 Rock types an€i landforms
 ----- ------- - -- - -

Permeability li111estone, and usu.ally lowest in tl1ose that

are fine-grained, such as clay ancl granite. (It
Permeability is the rate at which water 1nay be
is possible to have fi11e-grainecl sandsto11e
stored witl1in a rocl< or is able to pass tl1rough it.
an.ct coarse-grai11ed gra11ite.) Infiltration
Per111eability ca.11 be dividecl i11to two types.
1 P1·i1nary permeability 01· porosity Tl1is capacity is the 1naxin1t1m ra.te at which water
depe11ds 011 tl1e textL1re of the rock a11d the percolates i11to the grou11d. T11e i11filtration
size, shape and arra11ge1nent of its 1nineral _ capacity of sands is esti1nated to average
200 111111/l1r, whereas in clay it is only 5 mm/
particles. The areas between tl1e particles
11r. Pore spaces are larger where the grains are
are called po1·e spaces a11d tl1eir size and.
rou11ded rather tha11 angular a11d compacted
••
alig11me11t determine l1ow mucl1 water ca11.
(Figt1re 8.2). l)orosity ca11 be given as an index
be absorbed by tl1e rocl<. Porosity is usually
value based trpon the percentage of the total
greatest in rocks tl1at are coarse-grained, _
sucl1 as gravels, sa11ds, sandstone and oolitic volume of tl1e rock wh.ich is taken up by pore
space,· e.g. clay 20 per cent, gravel 50 per cent.
Figure 8.2
....., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . , . . . ..... . a large, rounded grains When all the _por·e spaces are filled with water,
Pore spaces and the rocl< is said to be saturated. Tl1e water table
infiltration capacity large grains marks the upper limit of saturation (Figure
of sand
8.9). Permeable rocks which store water are
large pore spaces called aqt1ifers.
allow rapid water 2 Secondary pe1·meabili ty or pervio11sness
movement
This occ11rs i11 rocks that have joi11ts and fis­
sures alopg whi�h_ water ca11. flow. The most
perviot1s rocks are those where the joints l1ave
been widened by solutio11, e.g. Carbo11iferous
limestone, or by cooling, e.g. basalt. A rock
. 1nay be pervious because of its structure,
though \t\1ater may not be able to pass tl1rot1gl1
the rock 1nass itself. w h - ere rocks are porous
'
or pervious, water rapidly passes downwards
b small, rounded grains
to become ground\vater, leaving the st1rface
although there are more pore spaces, they are much dry and witl10L1t eviclent drainage - chalk and
smaller: water clings to grains (surface tension)
li111estone regions have few Sltrface strean1s.
preventing the passage of moisture (Figure 1O.12)
Impern1eable rocks, e.g. granite, neitl1er
absorb water nor allow it to pass throt1gl1 them.
Tl1ese rocks therefore l1ave a higher drainage
d.ensity (page 67)-.

Structure
Resistance to erosion depends on whether the
rock is massive and stratified, folded or faulted.
Usually the more massive the rock a11d the fewer
its joints and bedding planes, the more resistant
it is to weathering and erosion. Conversely, t11e
softer, more jointed a11d less compact the. rock,
the more vul11erable it is to denudation processes.
c crystals in Usually, more resistant rocks remaii1 as upland
granite
areas (granite), while those that are less resistant
these fit together form lowlands (clay).
more closely than
However, there are exceptions. Chalk, which
rounded grains,
limiting the is relatively
: soft and may be well-joi11ted, forins
amount of water rolling hills becat1se it allows water to pa.ss
held and inhibiting througl1 it and so fluvial activity is limited.
the movement of
moisture
��rboniferous or Mountain limestone, having
101nts and bedding planes, produces :jagged l,arst
scenery because althot1gl1 it is perviot1s it has a
very low po1·osity.

• • • • ••• • • • ••••• • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • ••• • ...... . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... •·..................

� • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• •• • • • ••• • • • • •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • •

•
Rock types and landforms 195
•
 . t'inc·tJ·v
· e o f th e Ii 1n e st o n e lan .
d -
Tl1e 1nost ct1s
Limestone for1ns are fou. 11d· 1·n C a r b o n if e ro u s
.
li m e s ton e
Li111esto11e is a rock consisting of a.t least 80 per and chalk.
cent calciu1n carbo11ate. 111 Britai11, most lime­
stone was formed during fot1r geological periods, Carboniferous li m e s t o n e
each of whicl1 experienced different co11ditions. p s it s o w n p a rt ic u la r ty p e o f
Th.is I·ock develo
Tl1e followi11g list begi11s witl1 the oldest rocks. .· a r1·1 y b e c a tt se o f tl 1r e e c 1 1a ra c ter -
scenery pr11n . k. beds separa . t d.
Use a11 atlas to find th.eir locatio11. isti cs . Fi rs t, it is fo u n d in th ic �
Carboniferot1s limesto11e This is hard, grey, n ta l b ec ld in g p la 11 es a n d 1 � h
by al111ost l1orizo �
crystalli11e at1d well-jointed. It contai11s many an gl es (F ig u re 8 . ). Se co 11 d , it s
i joi11ts at right- � �
fossils, inclus ing corals, crinoids and brachio­ . us . o t p o r· o tt s , m ea 11 1n g th at w a . t er ca n
perv1o . b u t. n · .n .1 1n .
pods. Tl1ese i11dicate tl1at tl1e rock was for111ed pass al on g tl 1e be dd in g p l n es an d d o w � ts
� . c lc1u1n
011 tl1e bed of a war111, clear sea and adds to the
bt1t n.ot tl1rougl1 the ro c.k itself. T h 1�d, �
evidence tl1at tl1e British Isles 011ce lay in war1ner at e is so lt1 bl e. C ar bo 11 ic ac id 11 1 ra in. w at er
carbon
latitudes. Carbo11iferous limestone has developed
together with l1umic acid fro?'1111oorland plants,
its ow11 unique la11dscape, known as l<a1·st, whicl1
dissolve the limeston.e and widen any weaknesses
in Britain is seen n1ost clearly in tl1e Peak District
in th.e rock, i.e. the bedding pla11es and joints..
and Yorkshire Dales National Parks.
Acid rain also speeds Ltp carbonation and solution
. Mag11esian lu;nestone Tl1is is disti11ctive
(page 43). As there is 1ninimum surface dra�nage
because it contains a l1igl1er proportio11 of mag­
and little breakdown of bedrock to form soil, tl1e
nesium carbonate. In Br.itaiJ1, it extends i11 a belt
vegetatio11 cover te11ds to be thi11 or absent. In
from tl1e m.outh of tl1e River Tyne to Nottingl1am.
winter, this allO\i\7 S frost sl1atteri11g to produce
In tl1e Alps, it is known as dolo1nite.
scree at the foot of steep cliffs.
· Jurassic (oolitic) limestone This for1ns a
It is possible to classify Carbo11iferous lime­
narrow ba11d extending southwards fron1 tl1e stone landfor111s into four types:
Nortl1 Yorksh . ire Moors to tl1e Dorset coast. Its· 1 St1rface featu1·es cat1sed by solution
scenery is similar to that typical of chalk. Limestone paven1ents are flat areas of
Cretaceous cl1alk . This is a pure, soft, well-
exposed rock. Tl1ey are flat because they rep­
jointed limesto11e. Stretching fro1n l:;lamborougl1
resent the base of a dissolved bedding plane,
Head in Yorkshire (Figure 6.19), it forms the
and exposed because the surface soil may l1ave
escarp111ent of the Lincol11 Wolds, the East
Figure8.3
been removed by glacial activity and 11ever
················-· · - · ....................... Angli_an Heights a11d the Nortl1 and South
replaced. Where joints reach the surface, tl1ey
A stream disappearing Dow11s, before ending up as the 'Wl1ite Cliffs'
may be widened by the acid rainwater
down a swallow at Dover and at Beachy Head, tl1e Needles and
hole near Hunt (carbonation, page 43) to leave deep gashes
Swanage. Cretaceot1s chalk is asst1med to be the
Pot, Pen-y-Ghent, called grikes. Some grikes at Malha1n in nortl1-
Yorkshire Dales
remains of small 111arine organis111s which lived
west Yorkshire are 0.5 1n wide and up to 2 1n
National Park in clear, shallow seas.
deep. Between the grikes are flat-topped yet
dissected blocks referred to as clints (l:;igure
2.8). 111 time, tl1e grikes widen and the clints
are weatl1ered down until a lower bedding
plane is exposed and the process of solution­
carbonation is repeated.
2 Drainage featu.res Rivers whicl1 have their
source on sur. roundiI1g i1npermeable rocks,
such as the shales and grits of nor·t·hern
E11gland, may disappear down swallow
holes or si11ks as soon as they reac. h the lin1e­
stone (Figure 8.3). Tl1e streams flow ttnder-
ground finding a patl1way· down enlarged
. jo i11t s, fo rm ing potholes, and along bedding
planes .. Wl1ere solution is more active,
underg1:ound caves may form. While most
caves develop above the water table (vadose
. caves, Figure 8.8); some may form beneatl1 it
(phreatic caves).
,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . ...

'
 Figure 8.5
.. . .. . . . .. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . .. .... , . . . . ..
The Watlowes dry valley
above Malham Cove

during periglacial times wl1en per111afrost

acted as an impermeable layer. When the
rivers were able to revert to their s11bterra.nean
passages, tl1e surface valleys were left dry
(l:;-igure 8.5). Ma11y dry valley sides are steep
a11d gorge-like, e.g. Cheddar Gorge. If tl).e area
above a11 individual cave collapses, a small
st1rface depression called a doline is formed.
Shal<eholes are smaller doline-like features
fot1nd in the northern Pe11nines where glacial
Figure8.4 Corrosion often widens tl1e caverns u11til material has subsided into u11derground cavi­
. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The resurgence at the foot parts of tl1e roof collapse, providi11g tl1e river ties (Figure 8.8). In the former Y11goslavia,
of Mal ham Cove, Yorkshire with angt1lar material ideal for corrasion. where tl1e term 'karst' originated, h11ge
Dales I-leavy rainfall very quickly infiltrates dow11- depressions called poljes may have formed
wards, so caverns and li11king passages 1nay in a similar way. Poljes may be tip to 400 km 2
beco1.11e \l\'ater-filled within 1nin11tes. The i11 area. In the tropics, the landscape 1nay be
rest1lta11.t tt1rb11lent floV\1 can transport large composed of either cone-shaped l1ills and
stones a11d tl1e floodwater may prove fatal to polygonal depressions known as 'cockpit
cav·ers and potholers. Rivers n1ake tl1eir way cou11try' (e.g. Ja111aica) or tall isolated 'toV\,ers'
downwards, often leaving caverns abandoned rising from wide plains (e.g. near Gt1ilin,
as the water finds a lower level, u11til they Chi11a - Places 26).
reacl1 u11derlying i1npermeable rock. A resur­ 4 Undergrou11d depositio11al featt1res
ge11ce occurs where tl1e river reaJJpears on th.e Groundwater may become saturated with
surface, often at the ju11ctio11 of per111eable calci11m bicarbo11ate, whicl1 is for1ned by the
and i111permeable rocks (Figure 8.4). cl1emical reaction between carbonic acid in
Figure8.6 3 Surface features resulting f1·01n u11der­ rainwater and calciu1n carbonate in the rock.
... ........ .................. ........ ...
grou11d drainage Steep-sided valleys are However, whe11 this 'h.ard' water reache·s a
Stalactites, stalag­
mites and pillars, likely to l1ave been for1ned as rivers flowed cave, n1uch of the carbon dioxide bubbles out
Carlsbad Caverns, over th� surface of the limestone, probably of sol11tion back i11to the air - i.e. the process
New Mexico, USA of c.arbo11ation i11 reverse. Aided by the loss of
some ,.
1noistt1re b : y evaporation, calcium car-
bohate (calcite) crystals �r� subsequently pre-
cipitated. Water dripping from the ceiling of
the cave initially forms pendant soda straws
which, over a very long period of time, may
grow into icicle-shaped stalactites (Figt1re
8.6). Experiments in Yorkshire caves st1ggest
that stalactites grow at about 7 .5 mm per yea·r.
As water drips onto the floo�, ft1rther deposits
of calcium carbonate form the more rounded,
cone-shaped. stalagmites whicl1 may, in time,
join the stalactites ..to give pillars.

..
•
• • • ••••• • •• ••• • ••• • • • • • •• • •• • • • • • • • • • • • . • .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
Rock types and landforms 197
 Li valley, south China: karst scenery

r The limestones that outcrop near Guilin have formed

a unique karst landscape. The massively bedded,
crystalline rock, which in places is 300 m thick, has
'
been slowly pushed upwards from its seabed origin
by the same tectonic movements that formed the
Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau far to the west. The
heavy summer monsoon rain, sometimes exceeding
2000 mm, has led to rapid fluvial erosion by such
rivers as the Li Jiang (Li River). The availability of water
together with the high sub-tropical temperatures
(Guilin is at 25 ° N} encourage highly active chemical
weathering (solution-carbonation, page 43).

The result has been the formation of a landscape

which for centuries has inspired Chinese artists and,
recently, has attracted growing numbers of tourists. To
either side of the river are natural domes and towers,
Figure 8.7 some of which rise almost vertically 150 m from
The karst towers of Limestone covers some 300 000 km2 of Cl1ina - an surrounding paddy fields (Figure 8.7), giving the valley
Guilin, south China area larger than that of the UK. Its scenery is seen its gorge-like profile. Caves, visible on the sides of the
at its most spectacular in the Three Gorges section towers, were formed by underground tributaries to
of the Yangtze River and where it forms the karst the Li Jiang when the main river was flowing at levels
• • towers in the Guilin region of Guangxi Province. considerably higher than those of today.

Figure 8.8
.......................... , ................ ,., ... .
Characteristic features of
Carboniferous limestone dolines and/or shakeholes
(karst) scenery
• :i
.
limestone cliff (scar)
• • ••
, .'
•

...
' . . �
I
••
'.-,.;.
" 'I
I

swallow hole (sink)

. '
pervious (permeable)
Carboniferous
limestone

abanttoned
cavern

• • • • ••••••• • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

198 Rock types and landforms

•

..
•
.,
 ,. .._._*�--- --·-..
.....,_

I
escar pment or cuesta
I
�,��� d�
i p_ s_ o
l �p_e� ��� 1��-s_c_arp
� s_ _lo�pe_ ���--� c_la�y_va_ e_l �-
,

cereals sheep rounded crest l ine

mixed farming
road
-1
coombe dep osi t
on clay

W wet-weather water table

N norma l water tab le
porous chalk
o spring
•
o wet-weather sp ring
Figure 8.9
..................... '. ... . . .. . . . .. . . . . Economic value of Carboniferous limestone as field bot1ndaries. The scenery attracts walkers
Scarp and vale Hu1nan settle1nent on tl1is type of rock is t1st1ally and school p�rties, while u11derground features
scenery: an idealised limited and dispersed (page 397) due to li111ited lt1re cavers, potholers and speleologists (scie11-
section through a 11.atural resot1rces, especially the lack of water and tists wl10 stttdy caves).
chalk escarpment in
south-east England good soil. Villages sucl1 as Castleto11 (Derbysl1.ire)
a11d. Malha1n (Yorksl1ire) l1ave grow11 u1J near to a
resurge11ce.
Chalk •

Li111esto11e is often quarried as a raw 1nate.rial Ch.alk, in contra.st to Carboniferous li1nestone

for tl1e ce111e11t and steel indt1stries or as orna- scenery, consists of gently rolling hills with
1ne11tal stone, but tl1e resulta11t scars have led rounded crest lines. Typically, cl1alk l1as steep,
to considerable controversy (Case Study 8). Tl1e rather than gorge-like, dry valleys and is rarely
co11flict is between the economic advantages of exposed on the st1rface (Figure 8.9).
extracti11g a valuable raw 1naterial and providing Tl1e 111ost distinctive featt1re of chalk is prob­
local jobs, verst1s tl1e visual eyesore, noise, dust a.bly tl1e escarpment, or cuesta, e.g. the Nort.h
and extra traffic resulting from tl1e operations, Downs and South Down · s (Figures 8.10 a11d 14.4).
e.g. the Hope valley, Derbyshire. Here t11e cl1alk, a pure for111 of limesto11e, was
Far111i11.g is hindered by the dry, thin, poorly . gently tilted by the earth movements associated
developed soils for, althot1gh most t1pla11d lime­ · wit11 the collision of the African and Eurasian
stone areas of Britain receive high rainfall totals, Plates. Subsequent erosio11 has left a steep scarp
w·ater soon flows t1ndergrou11d. Tl1e rock does slope and a ge11tle dip slope. In sot1tl1�east
not readily weather into soil-for1ning particles, England, clay vales are f6t1.nd a.t the foot of the
sucl1 as cla.y or sand, bt1t is dissolved and the escarpment (Figure 3.Slb). . .

residue is tl1en leacl1ed (page 261). 011 harcl lime­ Althot1gh chalk - like Carboniferot1s limesto11e
sto11es, rendzina soils n1ay develop (page 274): - l1as little surface drainage, apa1t from rivers •

Figure 8.1 O Tl1ese soils are unst1itable for ploughing and their like the Test and Itchen, its starface is covered in
........ ... ' ............................
'
11t1merous dry valleys (Figure 8.11). Given tl1at
South Downs cove1·ing of short, coarse, spri11gy grasses favours
chalk escarpment, ,only sheep grazing. In the absence of hedges chalk can absorb and allow rainwater to percolate·
Poynings, Sussex and trees, drysto11e walls were co1nmonly built tl1rot1gl1 it, l1ow cot1ld these valleys have formecl?
• '·,

..
Figure 8.11
. . ... . .. . . . .. . . . . ......................................
A dry valley in chalk: Devil's
Dyke, South Downs, Sussex

•
 - --- - -------�-- - - -- ----�- .

GoLtdie lists 16 different l1yJJOtl1eses that Economic value of chalk

l1ave bee11 put forward regardi11g tl1e origins rl,he 111ain com111ercial use of c]1alk is i11 the pro-
of dry valleys. Tl1ese l1e has grouped j11to dt1ction of ce111ent, bt1t tl1ere are objectio11s on
tl1ree categories: environm.ental grou11ds to both qt1arries and
.
1 Unifo1·111ita1·ia11 Tl1ese l1ypotheses asst1.me the processing works. Settlement te11ds t� be in
_
tl1at there have bee11 no 1najor cl1a11ges i11 tl1e form. of nucleated villages strung out 111 lines
climate or sea-level and that '11ormal' - along the foot of an escarpme11t, originally to
i.e. flL1vial - processes of erosio11 have oper­ tal,e advantage of the asst1red water supply fro111
ated without i11terruption. A typical sce11ario the springs (Figures 8.9, 8.10 and 14.4). Water­
wot1ld be that the clrai11age syste1n d eveloped stori11g chalk aquifers have long bee11 used as a
on in1permeable rock overlyi11g the cl1alk, natural, u11derground reser voir by i11habita.nts of
a11d subseqt1ently became superi1n1Josed London. Despite rece11t i11creases in demand for
ttpon it (page 85). this artesian water, tl1e water table u. nder London
2 Ma1·ine Tl1ese hypotl1eses are related to has actually risen in recent decades.
relati,,e cha11ges in sea-level or base level Cl1alk weathers into a t]1in, dry, calcareous
(,page 81). 011e, wl1icl1 has a measure of soil with a l1igh pH. Until this century, the
st1pport, suggests that when sea-levels rose spr i11gy turf of tl1e Dow11s was mainly used
eustatically at the e11.d of tl1e last ice age (page to graze sheep and to tr ain race l1orses. Horse
123), wa.ter tables a nd springs would also racing is still i1nportant locally, as at Epso1n
have risen. Later, whe11 tl1e base level fell, a11d Newn1arket, bt1t much of tl1e land has been
so too did the water talJle and spring line, ploughed a11d converted to tl1e growi ng of
causi n g valleys to beco1ne dry. wl1eat and barley. In places, the chalk is covered
3 Palaeoclimatic Tl1is groL1p of l1ypotl1eses, by a residual deposit of clay-with-flints wl1ic]1
based 011. climatic changes during a11d since may have been an insolL1ble co1npo11ent of
the ice age, is tl1e 111ost widely accepted. the chalk or may have been left fI:01n a. former
One hy1Jotl1esis claims tl1at u11der perigla­ overlying rock. rfl1is soil is less porous a11d more
cial co11ditions any vvater i11 tl1e pore spaces acidic tl1an tl1e calcareou.s soil a11d seve r al st1cl1
would l1ave been f rozen, causi11g the chalk to areas are covered by beech trees - or were, before
bel1ave as an i111permeable rock (page 135). the violent storm of October 1987 (Places 29,
As temperatt1r es were low, most precipitation page 232). Flint has been ttsed as a building·
wot1ld fall as s11ow. Any meltwater would material a nd was tl1e major sot1rce for Stone Age
l1ave to flow over tl1e surface, forrning valleys tools a11d weapo ns.
tha.t are 11ow relict landforms (Figure 8.11).
An alternative l1y1Jothesis stems from occasions
wl1en places receive excessive amot1nts of rainfall Figure8.12
......................... ..... , ....... ' ...
and streams tempor�rily reappear i11 dry valleys. Bedding planes in Old
Climatologists have shown tl1at tl1ere have been Red Sandstone, Old
times since tl1e ice age wl1e n rainfall was consid­ Man of Hoy, Orkney
erably greater than it is today. Figt1re 8.9 shows
the normal water table with its associated spring
line. If tl1ere is a wetter than average winter,
or longer period, when moish1re loss th1·ough
•
evaporation is at its mi nimum, tl1en the level
of permanent satt1ration will rise. Notice that
the wet-weather water table causes a rise in the
spri11g line and so seasonal rivers, or bournes,
will flow in the normally dry valleys. Remember
also that there will be a considerable lag time
(Figure 3.5 and page 61) between the peak rain-
fall and the tim.e when the bournes will begin to
flow (throughflow rather than surface runoff on
chalk). The springs are the source of obsequent
streams (page 84).
The presence of coombe deposits, resulting
from solifluction (pages 47 and 135), also links
chalk landforms with periglacial conditions.

• • • • •• • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • ••••• • • • • • ••••• •••••••• •• •••••••••• •• • •• • • • • • •• •• •••• • ••••••••• • • • • • •••

200 Rock types and landforms

ft ::fr , •• ..,. ·-·"•> •-+, ,.-.,,. tc,e>n= ,c "!lo•e&, �·-----------_._-�------------�---------�--�-��---------- - - -
-�- _ __
_ ___

Figure 8.13
·············-··· ............................ .........
Geological periods of various
Sandstone British sandstones

ti eol� l i c �J,liJ!
,.,. ····"-'"�.·�·�4

' r t� J 1- � · . : · T
.-,.,..........,..

- c:
:q-

: · ··
.... .

" - :· .
��·-v "I.-
- .- ,_ · · ·
. ·, -.\· • · ._..,. · •· - .,

Examples: · ·· ·· ·· \�
";•)'",'f'··-�....... ..
.•

Sa.r1dsto11e is the n1ost co1n1no11 rocl< i11 Britai11.

tepoch·. - · - ... _ ·
.. _ location in the UK
. �

•.... .
Typeofsandstone
It is a secli111e11tary rock coin posed mainly of . ' .

grai11s of qt1artz, a11d occasionally feldspar an.ct Post-Eocene See Figure 1.1
'
even 111ica, wl1icl1 have lJeen co111pactecl by pres­ Eocene London and Hampshire
sure and ce111e11ted by 111inerals SL1cl1 as calcite basins
and silica. Tl1is 1nakes it a more col1erent a11d Cretaceous Greensand The Weald (south­
resista11t, bLtt less porotts, rock tl1an sa11ds. Tl1e east England)
sands, before co.111paction, 1nay l1ave bee11 depos­ Jurassic
ited i11 eitl1er a shallow seas, b estuaries a11d
deltas, or c l1ot deserts. Tl1e presence of bedding Triassic Bunter and Keuper English Midlands,
sandstone Cheshire
pla11es (l�igt1re 8.12) i11dicates tl1e layi11g dow11 � -· - '
of st1ccessive l�yers of sedi1ne11t. Sandstone can Permian New Red Sandstone Exe and Eden valleys,
vary in coloL1r fro111 dark brown or red tl1rougl1 to •
south Arran
yellO\·V, grey and white (Figure 6.52), depe11ding Carboniferous Millstone Grit Southern Pennines
on tl1e degree of oxida.tion or h.ydratio11 (page
Devonian Old Red Sandstone South-west England,
42). Like limesto.11e (page 196), sa11dstone has South Wales, Hereford­
for111ed in several geological periods (Figure shire, central and north­
8.13), of whicl1 perl1aps tl1e 111ost significant east Scotland
11ave bee11 tl1e following: Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian
o 1,he Devo1tia11, or Old Red Sandsto11e -
(Fig11re 1.1), whe11 sand was deposited in Pre-Cambrian Torridon Wester Ross, Scotland
a sl1allow sea wl1icl1 covered present-day
n1ore resistant, weathers to form uplands that
soutl1-west England, South Wales a11d
l1ave largely been left as 1noorland. Millstone G1·it
Herefordsl1ire. These deposits, which were •

areas provided grindstones for Sheffield's ct1tlery

often massively bedded, were contorted and
indtistry in tl1e past, and today these areas are
·uplifted ·by st1bseque11t earth 111ovements.
popular for walki11g, rock-climbing, grouse moors
Landforms, indicative of an often resistant
and reservoirs.
rock, vary from spectacular coastal cliffs to
the plateau-like Ex1noor, the north-facing
scarp slope of tl1e Brecon Beaco11s and tl1e Granite '

flatter lowlands of Herefordshire.

Gra11ite was formed wl1e11 111agma was intruded
n The Ca1·boniferot1s period, during part of
into
- the Eartl1's crtist. Initially, as on Dartmoor
which Millstone G1·it was for111ed tinder river
and in 11orthern Arran, tl1e magi11a created deep-
delta co·nditions. This is a darker, coarser a11d
seated, dome-sl1aped batholitl1s (page 29). Since
more resistant rock interbedded with sl1ales.
then the rock has been exposed by variot1s proc­
In the soutl1ern Penni11es it can form either a
esses of weathering and erosion. Having been
plateau (Kinder Scout) or steep escarp1nents
formed at a depth and u11der presst1re, the rate
(Stanage Edge).
of cooling was slow and tl1is enabled large crys­
• The Permian, or New Red Sandstone, wl1e11
tals of q_uartz, mica and feldsp�r to form. As tl1e
sand was deposited tinder l1ot desert con­
granite contint1ed to cool, it contracted a11d a
ditions, often in shallow .water (i.e. when
series of cracks were created vertically a11d hori­
) � Britain lay in tl1e latitude of tl1e prese11t-day zontally, at irregular intervals. These cracks may
Sal1ara). The rock is red, du.e to oxidation,
have been furtl1er enlarged, millions of years
and, being less resistant tl1an the Old Red
later, by presst1re release as overlyi11g rocks were
Sandstone, te11ds to for1n valleys (Exe and
removed (Figure 8.14).
Eden) or low-lying hills (Englisl1 Midlands).
The coarse-grained crystals render the rock
Economic value of sandstone non-porous bt1t, although n1any texts ql1ote
Sandstone is tl1e most co1nmo11 building 1naterial granite as an example of a11 impermeable rock,
in Britain. I11 the past·it was often used as stone water ca.n find its way alo11g tl1e ma11y cracks
for castles and cathedrals and, later, converted 1naking some a.reas per111eable. Despite this,
into bricl< for housing. Mu.cl1 of ·the New .Red n1ost granite areas ust1ally have a higl1 clrainage
Sandsto11e has weathered into a warm, red, light den�ity a11d, as · tl1ey occt1r in upla11d pa.r ts of
and easily worked soil of l1igh agricultural value, Britain wl1ich have a l1igl1 rainfall, the. y a1·e ofte11
i11 co11trast to the Old Red Sandstone whicl1, being covered by ma.rshy terrain.

· · · · · · · · · . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.

Rock types and landforms 201

•

•
 Althougl1 a l1ard rocl<, granite is susceptible 11ot affected by cl1e111ical weatl1ering, remains as
to botl1 pl1ysical a11d che111icaJ weatl1ering. Tl1e loose crystals (Figure 2. 7).
joi11ts, wl1ich can l1old water, are widened by T11e 1nost distinctive gra11ite landform i11 tem-
frost sl1atteri11g (1Jage 40), wl1ile tl1e differe11t perate countries is the tor (Figt1re 8.14) and, in
rates of ex1Jansio11 and cooling of tl1e variotis tro_pica1 regions, the inselberg (Figures 2.3 a11d
111i11erals witl1in tl1e rock cause gra11ular disin­ 7.6). Tl1ere are two major theories concerning
tegratio11 (1Jage 41). Tl1e feldspar and, to a lesser their for1natio1.1, based 011 physical and che1nical
exte11t, 111ica can be cl1a11ged che1nically by weathering respectively. Both, l1owever, st1ggest
hydrolysis (page 42). This mea11s tl1at calcitim, the re111oval of n1aterial by solifluctio11 and.
1Jotassit1m, sodit1m, mag11esit1111 and, if the pJ-I is l1ence lead to tl1e opinio11 that tors and insel­
less tha11 5.0, iron and alu111init1m, are released bergs are relict features.
from the che111ical structt1re. Where tl1e feldspar The first hypothesis suggests that blocks of
is cl1a11ged near to th.e surface it forn1s a wl1itish exJJosed granite were broken up, st1baerially, by
clay called kaolinite. Where the cha11ge occurs frost shattering during periglacial tim.es. The
Figure 8.14
..................... , ................. .
at a greater deptl1 (perha1Js due to l1ydrothermal weatl1ered material was then 111oved dow11hill
Hound Tor, Dartmoor action), it produces l<aolin. Quartz, "''l1icl1 is by solifluction to leave the more resistant rock
----- - upstanding on hill su1nmits a11d valley sides.
The second, proposed by D.L. Linton, s·ug­
gests tl1at joints i11 the gra.nite were widened by
sub-st1rface chemical weatheri.11g. (Figure 8.15).
I-le suggested that deep weatl1ering occt1rred
during tl1e warm Pliocene period (Figt1re 1.1)
wl1en rainwater penetrated tl1e still-unexposed
granite. As the joints wide11ed, rot1ghly rectan­
gular blocks or core-stones were formed. The
weathered rock is beljeved to l1ave been removed
by soliflt1ctio11 during periglacial ti111es to leave
ot1tcrops of granite tors, separatecl by sl1allow
depressions. The spacing of tl1e joints is believed
to be critical in tor formatio11: large, resista11t
core-stones have been left where joints were
spaced far apart; where they were closely packed
and weatheri11g was more active, clay-filled
depressions l1ave developed. The rounded natu.re
of the core-sto11es (Figt1re 8.15), especially in
tropical regio11s, is caused by spl1eroidal weatl1-
eri11g , a for1n of exfoliatio11 (page 41).
'
Figure 8.15
.............. , ............... . 1 Pliocene 2 Pleistocene '3 Present day
'
The formation overlying rocks
- --- original
- - - land surface
� - - ·- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - ----------------
of tors (after D.L.
overlying rocks slowly overlying rocks all removed
Linton) new land surface removed by solifluction,
most rapid weathering where ..
joints are close
tor:
granite
rectangular rounded
tor blocks of granite
Joints joihts w.idened by core-stone s
formed 1-1-+ deep chemical ..: - -- depression filled
by cooling
i-+---1
weathering
�-
r---'v'..-;:.;.....�.. with kaolinite
�

'

-
-
- ........ ·-
• • ..
I -

I • I

more JoJots created as slower wealbetlng where

rock c:ontlnuesto co.ol Joints are widely spac:ed:
close vdde and contract; nearer tfie sp.hecotqal weatbettn·g
joints Jofhts s�rface, Joints also gs:odq�e$ r�c;tang�lar
created by pressure �lg.cki'.Wtth rounded
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "' . release eclg�
202 •
J- w #-Jr ))tt:r• •..---.-- � ---

Economic value of granite hexago11al, colttmnar joi11ting. Basalt can be

As a raw material, granite ca11 be tised for b11ildi11g extruded fro111 either f. iss11res or a central vent
pt1rposes; Aberdeen, for example, is known as 'tl1e (page 25). When extruded from fissures, the
gra11ite city'. I<aoli11, or china clay, is used in the lava ofte11 covers large areas of land - l1ence
n1anufacture of pottery. Peat, whicl1 overlies large the term flood basalts - to procl11ce flat plateaus
areas of gra11ite bedrock, is an acidic soil wl1ich s11ch as tl1e Decca11 Platea11 in India and tl1e
is often severely gleyed (page 275) and saturated Dral,ensbergs in Sot1th Africa. St1ccessive erup­
with water, forming blanket bogs. The resultant tions often build upwards to give, sometimes
heather-covered moorla11d is often u11suitable aided by later erosio11, stepped hillsides beneath
for far1ni11g but provides ideal terrain for gro11se, flat, tabular summits (e.g. tl1e Drakensbergs,
a11d for ar1ny traini11g. With so 1nuch stirface Lanzarote and Antrim). Wl1e11 extruded from a
water and heavy rainfall, granite areas provide central vent, the viscous lava produces gently
ideal sites for reservoirs. Tors, such as Hou11d Tor slopi11g sl1ield volcanoes (Figt1re l .22b). Shield
011 Dart111oor (Fig·t1re 8.14), 111ay become tourist volcanoes can reach co11siderable heights -
attractions, but gra11ite enviro11ments te11d to be Mauna Loa (Hawaii) rises over 9000 1n from the
i11hospitable for settlement. Pacific seabed .making it, fro1n base to sum111it,
the highest mountain on Earth.

Basalt Economic value of basalt

Basaltic landforms cari sometimes be monoto­
Unlike granite, basalt formed 011 t11e Ea1th's s11rface, nous, such as places covered in flood basalts, and
usually at co11structive IJlate 1nargins. The basic sometimes scenic and spectacular, as the Gia11t's
lava, on ex1?os11re to the air, cooled a11d solidified Causeway, the Hawaiian volcanoes and the
very rapidly. The rapid cooling produced small, Igua�u Falls in Brazil (Places 11, page 76). Basaltic
fine-grained crystals a11d large cooling cracks whicl1, lava can weatl1er relatively q11ickly into a deep,
at IJlaces like t.l1e Gia11t's Causeway in Northern fertile soil as on tl1e Deccan in I11dia and in the
Ireland (Figu.r e 1.27) and Fi11gal's Cave on the Isle coffee-growing region of soutl1-east Brazil. It can
of Staffa, are characterised by perfectly sh.aped also be used for road foundatio11s .
•

Figure8.16
................................................ ..
Location of Dehra Dun
]he 1960·5 N

As India's economy grew, there was

-
Dehra Dun, the main town in the Dun Valley
with a population exceeding 400 000, is sit­ increasing conflict between develop­
Cliin.
uated in the foothills of the Himalayas some ·ment and the environment. The extraction Dun
2oo·km north of Delhi (Figure 8.16). Until of rocks and minerals was necessary to Valley
the 1960s, the rich soil of the valley allowed provide the new manufacturing industries Dehra Dun•
farmers to produce high-quality basmati with raw materials and to provide people
rice, and the lush green forest surrounding with jobs, but mining and quarrying can
the town,had been used sustainably by be very damaging to the environment and
to fragile eco.systems. The limestone that
local people for centuries. That changed in
the 1960s when several large quarries were was quarried in the Dun Valley was either
Delhi
•
New
Nepa
alJowed to open up in the valley without crushed and used in India's steel ind.ustry Delhi
any regard for either the inhabitants of the or used for road building; concrete and
area or the environment. whitewash. ,

India
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
.
� . . . . . . . . . ... .. . . . . .
0 '' 200km
 Quarrying in northern India

Figure 8. 17 Figure 8.18

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ················ ... . .. ...... ... .. . . . . . .
Air pollution resulting Conservation methods include
from quarrying in India working on flat terraces to stop
boulders and waste material sliding
downhill, and replanting areas
where quarrying has finished

hills re-appeared at the surface petition to the Supreme Court which led,
The effects (page 197). The increase in surface in 1988, to all the quarries (with one excep­
• As new quarries developed, many rurioff due to quarrying and tion) being closed down. By the end of the
of the trees growing on the hillsides deforestation caused the water table 20tl1 century, trees planted by school
were removed. Steep hillsides and to fall by 5 m in seven years. This meant children and local people l1ad begun to
deforestation in an area with a that Dehra Dun often received water mature into forest, although farmers still
monsoon climate (page 239) meant for only a few hours a day. Without found much of their soil unusable.
that when the heavy summer rains enough water to irrigate their fields,
local farmers were unable to provide
fell, the soil was seriously eroded.
enough food for their families.
Should the one quarry
Surface runoff led to the fertile soils
being covered in debris and caused
• The blasting of rock created noise remain open?
and air pollution and caused nearby
landslides, especially where unstable The Supreme Court allowed one quarry
buildings to vibrate. to operate until its lease ran out. This was
quarry waste had been dumped.
• The trucks and lorries - many old and
Deforestation also meant there was less partly because the quarry provided hun­
badly maintained - that transported
fuelwood for people living· in nearby dreds of jobs for local people, altl1ough they
the limestone down the steep, narrow
villages. were poorly paid, and partly because the
• roads caused the road surface to break
Material carried downhill often ended up quarry owners attempted to implement
up, released poisonous fumes and
ii:i rivers, wl1ere it not only polluted water conservation techniques, such as working
created more dust (Figure 8.17).
supplies but also blocked the river with on flat terraces to stop boulders and waste
• The kilns that processed the limestone
boulders.and waste. Before quarrying material sliding downhill (Figure 8.18) and
also added to the air pollution.
began, one bridge had an arch nearly replanting areas where quarrying had
20 m above the river, but after quarrying finished. The argument now appears to be
it was reduced to less than 5 m. Local protests between the wealthy conservation group
• Before quarrying, settle!llents in who want to protect and restore the Dun
the area had an all-year supply of In the 1980s, many local people grouped Valley and the poorer workers who, without
clean water obtained from springs together to form the 'Friends of Dun� The the quarry and with few alternative jobs
and resurgences formed when group, led mainly by wealthy and influential available, would have no income if it closed.
t
underground rivers in the limestone business and retired people, submi ted a

Goudie, A.S. (2001) The Natt,tre of the � Michigan Karst Conservancy Group: Pretoria Portland Cement Co. Ltd:
Environ111ent, WileyBlackwell. www.caves.org/cons�rvancy /mkc/ www.ppc.co.za
michigan_karst_conservancy. htm

'
...
•

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
204: Rock types and landforms
 ••
I Activities
• • • • • • • • o • • • o • • • • • • • • • • o • • • • • • • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • o • • • e • • • ·• • •
.
1 a Describe the characteristics of each of the following rock types d A stream flows from the edge of the map at 893661 to
in terms of cl1emical composition, rock structure and origin: 894657. South of this point is a dry valley. Suggest why this
Carboniferous limestone; chalk; granite; basalt. (7 2 marks) dry valley is here. (6marks)
b Choose one of the rock types in a and draw an annotated e Farming in this area has been described as 'marginal; it could
diagram to identify the charac teristic landscape features not exist without subsidies:
associated with it. (9marks) Suggest why the physical geography makes farming so
c For each of the rock types identified in a, suggest one reason difficult. (5 marks)
why it may be of value as a resource for human use. (4 marks)
3 a Making good use of annotated diagrams, describe the
2 Study the OS map extract of the area around Malham in surface features of a chalk cuesta. (6marks)
Figure 8.19. b Describe and explain the location of the water table within
a i How high above sea-level is the minor road at an area of chalk hills. (6marks)
GR 907649? (7 mark) c Describe and suggest reasons for the location of settlements
ii What is the feature at GR 906655? (1 mark) close to the foot of a chalk cuesta. (4 marks) •

b Identify and give grid references for two pieces of evidence that d Suggest two reasons why some ·- chalk downs have prehistoric
·
large parts of this area have limestone rock outcropping at the carved figures on them. (4 marks)
surface. e Chalk escarpments may have'hangers'(areas of beech
Justify each of your choices. (6marks) woodland on the brow of the scarp). Suggest why these . .

c Explain, using one or more diagrams, why there are large areas woodlands are found here. (5 marks)
of bare flat rock in the area shown on the map extract.
(6marks)

Exam practice: structured questions

e O O O e O e e O e e O O e O e e O O e O O e O O O e ee O e e e O O e O e e O ee O e O e O e O e O O O O • • • 0 0 0 • • 0 0 0 • • 0 • • e O • e O e •e e • e O e • 0

4 Study the OS map extract of the area around Mal ham in c This area is both a tourist area and a working farming
Figure 8.19. area. Identify one way these two land uses are in conflict
a Identify and locate two pieces of evidence to suggest and explain the reasons for this conflict. (8 marks)
that this area is limestone rock. For each explain how the 5 a i Explain how areas of granite rock, such as Dartmoor,
evidence shows it to be limestone. (7 0 marks)
were formed. (6 marks)
b Why is there so much settlement and other ancient ii Describe the processes of weathering in granite.
remains visible in an area such as this? (7 marks) (6marks)
90 91 92 b 'Granite tors form as a
result of the nature and
structure of the rock
and the nature of the
weathering processes:
Describe a typical g·ranite
tor and explain its
formation. (7 3 marks)

Exam practice: essay

•••••••••••••••••••••• •

6 Should the quarry in the Dun

65 valley be allowed to remain
.open?
Present the arguments for
two groups that think the
quarry should continue and
for two groups that think it
should be closed.
Then present a conclusion
taking the arguments
of both sides into
-- 64 consideration. (25 marks)
64
91 92

Rock types ·and landforms 205

 •

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ® 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • • e e 8 e O

TJ1.e1·e is really no si,ch tJ,zi11g as bad 1,11eczt/1.er1 Ol'If); diffe1·e11t

1
(Figure 9._l); moving outwards from the Earth's
tyJJes ofgood \Nel1tl1e1·. 1 surface:
John Ruskin, Quote from Lord Ave bury 1 T1·oposphere Temperah1res in the tropo­
. spl1ere decrease by 6.4 ° C with every 1000 m.
v\fJ1en two Englisl1n1e11 1neet1 tJ,1ei1· fi,1·st talk is of
1
increase in altitude (environ1nental lapse rate,
tl1e weatl1e1·. 1 page 216). Tl1is is because tl1e Earth's surface
Samuel Johnson, The Idler is warmed by incoming solar radiation which
in turn heats the air next to it by conduction,
convection and radiation. Pressu.re falls as
Tl1e science of meteorology is the study of at1nos­ the effect of gravity decreases, although wind
pl1eric phenomena; it includes the study of both _speeds usually increase with height. The layer
weatl1er and climate. The distii1ctib11 between is unstable and contains most of the atmos-
climate and weather is one of scale. Weather pl1ere's water vapour, cloud, dust and pollu­
refers to tl1e state of the atmosphere at a local tion. The t1·opopause, wl1ich forms the upper
level, usually on a. short timescale of minutes to li111it to tl1e Earth's cli1nate and weather, is
moritl1s. It e1npl1asises aspects of the atmosphere marked by an isothermal layer where temper­
tl1at affect hun1an activity� such as sunshine, atures remain constant despite any increase
cloud, wind, rainfall, hu111idity and temperature. in l1eight.
Climate is concerned with tp.e long-term be_hav­ 2 Stratosphere The stratospl1ere is charac-
iot1r of tl1e atmosphere in a specific area. Cli1natic . terised by a steady increase in temperature
characteristics are represented by data on tem­ (te111perah1re inversion, page 217) cat1sed by a
perature, pressure, wind, precipitation, humidity, concentration of ozone (03) (Places 27, page
etc. whicl1 are used to calculate daily, monthly 209). This gas absorbs inco111ing ultra-violet
- anq· yearly averages (Framework 8, page ·24?) and (UV) radiation from tl1e sun. Winds are light
to build. t1p global patterns (Chapter 12). · . in the lower parts, but increase vyith heigl1t;
pressure continues to fall and the air is dry.
Structure and composition of The stratosphere, like the two layers above
the atmosphere it, acts as a protective shield agai11st meteor­
ites wl1ich usually burn out as tl1ey enter the
.
�he atmosphere is an envelope of transparent, Earth's gravitational field. The stratopat1se is
odourless gases held to the Earth by gravitational . another isother1nal layer where temperatures
attraction. While the furthest limit of the atmos­ do not change with i11creasing height.
phere is said by international conventiori to be at 3 Mesosphere Temperatt1res 'fall rapidly as
1000 km· , most of the atmosphere, and therefore there is no water vapour, cloud, dust or ozone
our climate and weather, is concentrated within to absorb incoming radiation. Tl1is layer
16 km of the Earth's surface at the Equator and experiences the atmosphere's lowest temper­
°
8 km at the . poles. Fifty per cent of a·tmospheric att1res (-90 C) and strongest winds (nearly
mass is within 5.6 km of sea-level and 99 per cent 3000 km/hr). The mesopause, like the tropo­
is within 40 km. Atmospheric pressure decreases pause and stratopause, shows no change in
rapidly with heig-ht but, as recordings made by temperature.
radiosondes, weather balloons and more recently 4 Thermosphere Temperatures rise rapidly
°
weather satellites have shown, temperature with height, perl1aps to reach 1500 C. This
cl1anges are more co1nplex. Changes in tem­
J
is due to an increasing proportion of atomic
perature mean tha·t the atmosphere can be con­ oxygen i11 the atmosphere which, like ozone,
veniently divided into four distinctive laye.rs · absorbs incoming ultra-violet radiation.

.......................................................................... , ......... .......................................................... ., ..................................

206 Weather and climate
------- - - � - - ---- ----��-- -------�--·-����------���-- --� -. '"" -a:: '"��· -�>- ,_..,,,..,. .. br,-H--�-=---- -�__,.��---------------
'

atmos- - ..
Energy in the atmosphere
pheric height constant rise (to 1500°(?)
Y' Tl1e su.n is the Earth's prime source of energy. The
pressure (km)
,, ,,
,,. Earth ·receives energy as iI1coming sl1ort-wave
/
(mb)
0.001
100
,, ,, ,, .,, thermo-
sphere solar radiation (also referred to as i11solation). It
90 is tl1is energy that controls our planet's climate
0.01 80 meso- and weather a11d whicl1, when converted by pl10-
pause
tosyntl1esis in gree11 plants, supJ?Orts all forms of
70
meso- life. Tl1e a111ot1nt of inco111in.g radiation received
0.1 sphere
60 by the Earth is determined by fot1r astronomical
factors (Figure 9 .3): tl1e solar consta11t, the dis­
1 50 strato­
pause tance from the su11, tl1e altitude of the su11 in
.,,,, ,,.
/
10 40 tl1e sky, and the le11gtl1 of night a11d day. Figt1re
30
.,,,, ..,..,.
i----.....,._.----......,..,..-L__,.._,...,...,..,....,_...,,_-i maximum
strato­ 9 .3 is theoretical i11 tl1at it assumes there is no
30 ,. sphere
I ozone atmosp11ere around the Ea1th. In reality, mt1ch
100- 20 I tropo­ insolation is absorbed, reflected and scattered as it
pause
500 10 Mount Everest tropo­ passes tl1rot1gl1 the atrnosp11ere (Figure 9.4).
sea
level
�
-:� -�
sphere Absorption of inco1ni11g radiatio11 is 1nai11ly by
1013
-100-90 -80 -70 -60 -50-40 -30-20-10 0 10 20 30 ozone, water vapot1r, carbon dioxide and particles
temperature (0() of ice a11d dust. It occurs i11, and is li.1nited to, tl1e
infra-red pa1t of the spectrum. Clouds and, to a
Atmospheric gases lesser exte.nt, the Earth's surface reflect consider­
changes in able an1ounts of radiation back into space. Tl1e
temperature The various gases wl1ich combine to for1n the
with height atmosphere are listed in. Figt1re 9.2. Of these, ratio between incoming radiation and the a1nount
nitrogen and oxyge11 toget11er 1nake up 99 per cent reflected, e.xpressed as a perce11tage, is known as
-• fall the albedo. The albedo varies with cloud type from
by volu1ne. Of the otl1ers, water vapour (lower
_._____ constant at111ospl1ere), ozone (03) (trpper atmospl1ere) and 30-40 per cent in tltin clouds, to 50-70 per cent in
-.-.- rise carbon dioxide (C02) have a11 i111porta11ce far thicker stratt1s and 90 per cent i11 cumulo-11imbt1s
(when only 10 per cent reaches the atmosphere
beyond their seen1i11gly small amounts. It is the
Figure 9.1 depletion of 03 (Places 27) and tl1e i11crease i11 below cloud level). Albedos also vary over dif­
C02 (Case Study 9B) wl1ich are causing concern fere11t la11d surfaces, from less tha11 lO 1Jer ce11t over
The vertical structure of
the atmosphere to scientists. Figure9.2
•••. •. • , , , . . . . . . ., , . . . ··-· , , . . . . . .. . . . . . . . , . , • . ••t• • • . • • •• . . • • • - . • . , .

• The composition of the atmosphere

Permanent gases: nitrogen 78.09 Needed for plant growth.

. .
oxygen 20.95 Mainly passive Produced by photosynthesis;
reduced by deforestation.
,__ . , •

Variable gases: water vapour 0.20-4.0 Source of cloud formation and precipitation, reflects/absorbs incoming Essential for life on Earth.
long-wave radiation. Keeps global temperatures constant. Provides Can be stored as ice/snow.
majority of natural 'greenhous� effect�
carbon dioxide 0.03 Aosorbs long-wave.radiation from Earth and so contributes to Used by plants for photosynthesis;
'greenhouse effect� Its increase due to human activity is a major increased by burning fossil fuels
- ·- cause of global warming. and by deforestation.
ozone 0.00006 Absorbs-incoming short-wave ultra-violet radiation. Reduced/destroyed by
chlorofluorocarbons
. (CFCs) . •

pollutants trace Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, methane. Absorb long-wave radiation, From industry, power stations
cause acid rain and contribute to the greenhouse effect. and car exhausts.
l

Inert gases: argon 0.93

- '

helium, neon, krypton trace

....... '
Non-gaseous: dust trace Absorbs/reflects incoming radiation. Volcanic dust,
Forms condensation nuclei necessary for cloud formation. meteoritic dust,
•

soil erosion by wind.

I .

Nate: the figures refer to.dry air an·d so the variable amo unt of water vapour is not usually taken into consideration .
- -
. .
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
.
Weather and climate 207
 Sun
1 Prime source of energy on Earth and, throLrgh photosyntl1esis, of life.
' 2 Affects climate: atmospheric motion (winds), ocean currents, type
and amount of precipitation, temperatures.

0
l.ncoming, sho.rt-wave (solar) radiation.The amount of
insoration received by the Ear:th depends upon:

the solar constant �istance from the sun altitude of the sun in the sky length of day and night
Th'i:s varies according The eccentric orbit of the Each radiation bundle has twice the area to Due to the Earth being tilted at 23� 0
there ,

to sunspot activity Earth around the sun heat up at 60° N than at the Equator, therefore are several months with no insolation
but is relatively (Figure 4.6) can cause a temperatures are lower nearer the poles. Also, poleward of 661 ° N or 5. Between· 2� 0 and '
constant, affects 6 per cent difference in at the Equator, less heat is absorbed/reflected 66� 0 N and· S, there is one radiation •

long-term climate sola·r constant. because there is less atmosphere for the maximum and one minimum. Between
rather than short radiation to pass through. 23� 0 N artd 231� 0 5, there are two radiation
term weather. maxima and two minima.
sun
insolation Earth's radiation
bundles of solar
insolation \max / max

Earth's '
orbit •
min
• ---._ atmosphere
sunrise sunset
•
sunrise sunset

'

Figure 9.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. �... .. . . .
ocea11s and d�rk soil, to 15 per ce11t over con.iferot1s radiation reaches tl1e Eartl1's sL1rface directly, with
a furtl1er 21 per cent arriving at groL1nd-level as ·.
'

Incoming radiation forest and urba11 areas, 25 per cen.t over grassla·nds
received by the Earth ancl deciduous forest, 40 per cent over ligl1t-col­ diffuse radiatio11 (Figure 9.4). Incoming radiation
(assuming that there oured dese1ts a11d 85 per cent : over reflecti11g fresl1 is converted into heat e11ergy wl1en it reacl1es the
is no atmosphere) snow. Wl1ere deforestation ar1d overgraziI1g occ11r, Earth's s11rface. As the ground war111s, it radiates
tl1e albedo i11creases. Tltis reduces the possibility of. energy back into tl1e at111ospl1ere \,vl1ere 94 per
, clot1d for111ation and precipitation and i11creases the cent is absorbed (only 6 per cent is lost to space),
.
ri:sk of desertification (Case Stt1dy 7). Scattering 111ainly by water vapour a11d carbon dioxide -.the
�

occurs wh.e11 i11coming radiatio11 is di,,erted by par- greenho11se effect (Case Study 9B). Without tl1e
ticles of dust, as fro1n volcanoes a11d dese1ts, or by natural greenl1ouse effect, wl1ich traps so much of. ,

molecules of gas. It takes place in all directions and the 0L1tgoing radiation, world temperatL1res would
°
so111e of t11e radiatio11 will reacl1 tl1e Earth's
. st1rface be 33 C lower tha11 they are at present and life on
as diff-i1se radiation. ••
Earth would be impossible. (D11ring th . e ice age,
°
As a result of absorption, reflection and scat- it was only 4 C cooler.) This outgoing (terrestrial)
teri11g, only aboL1t 24 .per ce11t of incoming radiation is long-wave or infra-red radiation.

Figure 9.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....
The solar energy •
1ncom1ng
•
Note;these figures are variable
cascade radiation depending upon thickness of
(100%) cloud cover, water vapour content,
•
•
amount of dust, etc.
I

'
small amount absorbed
in stratosphere (1 %)
,
I
/ . clouds absorb small amounts (30/o)
anq reflect larger amounts (230/o)
1.____
scattering: 21 % reaches Earth as
diffuse radiation, remainder
Scattered back into Space by cloud •
and dust reflection •
small amounts (4°A>) reflected back
r _J
I
240/o absorbed by the atm,osphe.re

into space from the Earth's surface 24% of incoming radiation directly
reaches the Earth's surfac.e
Earth's surface
45% of incoming radiation reaches Earth's surfa�e:
direct (24%) + diffuse (21%) radiation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <. . . . . . . . . . . . •••••.••••••
208 Weather and climate '
'
 ..

r-----------<-.,._,_:-----·--��-----�-......-----
'The atmosphere: ozone

The major concentration of ozone is in the stratospl1ere, the Montreal Protocol was signed by which the more
•
25-30 km above sea-level (Figure 9.1). Ozone acts as a industrialised countries agreed to set much lower
shield protecting the Earth from the damaging effects limits for CFC production, and subsequently to reduce
of ultra-violet (UV) radiation from tl1e sun. An increase this to zero. The agreement came so quickly, and CFC
• in UV radiation means an increase i11 sunburn and skin production dropped so rapidly, that the Montreal
cancer (fair skin is at greater risk than dark skin), snow­ Protocol l1as been held up as a 'model' international
blindness, cataracts and eye damage, ageing and skin environmental agreement.
wrinkling in humans, as well as l1aving a major impact
' Initially, ozone depletion continued. The first Arctic
on Antarctic organisms.
'l1ole'was observed in 1989 following tl1e coldest-
A depletion in ozone above the Antarctic was first ever recorded January in that region. The'hole' over
•
observed, by cl1ance, by the British Antarctic Survey Antarctica continued to grow each year until 2003, by
in 1977, and the first 'hole'was described In a scientific which time it had reacl1ed its maximum extent and was
paper published in 1985. The term 'hole' is misleading as affecting populated parts of Chile and New Zealand.
· it means a depletion in ozone of over 50 per cent (not a Since tl1en, mainly due to most of the harmful CFCs
100 per cent loss). Eacl1 Antarctic spring (September to having been replaced by gases less toxic to ozone
November) the temperature falls so low that it causes (though still greenhouse gases), there have been
ozone to be destroyed in a chemical reaction with encouraging signs of ozone ·replacement and hopes are
chlorine. At the time there were two main sources of high that ozone concentrations will return to normal by
chlorine: the middle or latter part of this century- a rare success
story for international environment management.
• the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from
aerosols suc11-as hairsprays, deodorants, refrigerator In contrast, vehicle exhaust systems generate
coolants and manufacturing processes that dangerous quantities of ozone close to the Earth's
-
produced foam packaging (a long-term effect) surface, especially during calm summer anticyclonic
• from major volcanic eruptions, e.g. Mount conditions (page 234). Under extreme conditions, '
Pinatubo (Case Study 1- a short-term effect). nitrogen oxide from exhausts reacts with VOCs
(volatile organic compounds) in sunlight to create a •
· The '1985 paper was followed by a spate of experiments
petrochemical smog. This can cause serious damage to
aimed at trying to estab.lish the causes and probable
the health of people (especially those with asthma) and
effects of ozon� depletion. Within two years-
animals.
a remarkably short time for international action-
.. '
__,.......,. -i.,....? --.... �--,,
-�--·�---·-.·,__

A Radiation balance
• The heat budget
Net gain •

Since tl1e Eartl1 is neither warrning up nor

at Earth's surface
•
125
.,,,.,. -�--·- ......
'
cooling down, there 1nust be a balance between
�11corni11g i11sqlation and ot1tgoing terrestrial
100
/
//
', , =
�- .
radiation. Figure 9 .5 sl1ows that:
75 ,' C Combined -
I radiation balance ', o there.is a 11et gain in radiation everywhere on
1
"'E tt 50 1 {A+B) ', the Earth's surface (ct1rve A) except in polar ..
�· I
I . \ ·.
\ ... �..... l
.
latitudes which have higl1 albedo st1rfaces
"c:' 25 I \ �
·- o there is a net loss in radiation t11rougl1out the
net raaiqtiQJJ loss net· radiation gain net radiatio·n loss
:a O
C?
. ..... ' . at1nosphere (ct1rve B)
�o · o
)

..... . 80 /' 60 40 20 40 60 ' 80

, tJ after balanci11g the inco111ing an.ct ot1tgoing
• � -25 // degrees from Equato r ', '
Q)
radiation, there is a net sur1)lus between 35 ° 5
� -so
O'I
//
°
' and 40 N (the difference in latitt1de is due to
B Radiation balance
�

-75 in atmosphere the large1· land masses of the northern. herni­

- -- ---
-100 ·---- -- -- -----� \-
·--.. --- - -- ....... ---- . .. .. - .. ........ •
sphere) and a net deficit to tl1e poleward sides
of those latitudes (curve C) ..-/ .-
-125 This means that there is a pe:.;itive.-heat balance
Net loss· I
South Pole
I withi11 tl1e tropics and a negative l1eat balance
North Pole .Eq.uator
· both at high lati_tudes (polar regions) a11d high
altitudes. Two major transfers of heat, tl1erefore,
'
Figure9.5 · take place to prevent tropical areas from over-
.

. .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . ......
•
'• '

The heat budget heati11g (Fig:i1re 9.6).

..... • .
•
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .• • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • •• • • .. • • .. • • •
.I.
• • • • .. • • • . t • • • , . ................... ............. t • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· · ·
..
·· · · · ·-· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· ·
�
/
I

I
Weather and climate 209
..
•
•
 - --
- - - --
- - - �--------�--

1 I-Iorizontal l1eat transfe1·s Heat is tra11sferred Long-term factors

away from tl1e tropics, tl111s preventi11g tl1e These are relatively constant at a given point.
Equator from beco111ing i11creasingly l1otter and o Heigl1t above sea-level rfl1e at1nosphere is
tl1e poles increasingly colder. Winds (air 111ove­ 11ot warmed directly by the su11, bu.t by heat
ments i11clt1di11g jet strea1ns, page 227; l1t1rri­ radiated from tl1e Earth's surface and distrib­
canes, page 235; an .cl depressio11s, page 230) are Ltted by condL1ction and convection. As tl1e
respo11sible for 80 per cent of this l1eat transfer, l1eight of 1nou11tai11s i!1creases, they prese nt
and ocean currents for 20 per cent (page 211). _
a decreasi11g area of la11d s11rface from which
2 Vertical l1eat n·ansfers Heat is also tran.sferred to heat the st1rroL1nding air. In addition, as
vertically, tl1us preventing t .he Eartl1's surface ' tl1e density or press·ure of the air decreases, so
from getti:I1g hotter a11d the atmospl1ere colder. too cloes its ability to hold heat (Figure 9 .1).
Tl1is is achieved thro11gh radiatio11, co11dt1c­ This is because the 111olecules in the air which
tion, co11vection a11d the transfer of latent receive and retain heat become fewer and
l1eat. Late11t l1eat is t .he a1nount of l1eat energy more widely s_paced as height i11creases.
needed to cl1a.nge the state of a substa11ce a Altitt1de of the sun As tl1e angle of the sun
without affecting its ten1peratt1re. Wl1en ice in the sky decreases, tl1e land area heated by a
cl1a11ges i11to water or water i11to vapour, heat is given ray ancl tl1e deptl1 of at1nospl1ere tl1rough
tal,e11 up to help with the processes of melting wl1ich that ray has to pass both increa�e.
and evaporation. This abso1·ption of he. at rest1lts Consequently, the a1nount of i11solation Jost
i11 tl1e cooling of the atmosph.ere. Wl1en the tl1rough absorption, scatteri:I1g and re.flectio11
process is reversed- i.e. vapour conde11ses into also increases. Places in lower latitudes tl1erefore
water or wa.ter freezes i11to ice- l1eat energy is l1ave 11igher temperatures tha11 tl1ose in higher
released and tl1e atI11ospl1ere is war1n.ed. latitudes.
Variations i11 tl1e racliation balance ocet1r a.t a CJ La11d a11d sea Land a11d sea d.iffer in tl1eir
nu111ber of s1Jatial a_nd te111poral scales. Regio11al ability to absorb, transfer and radiate l1eat
differences may be dt1e to the u11e. ve_n distribu­ energy. Tl1e sea is more tran.sparent than tl1e
tion of la11d and sea, altitt1de, a11d the dµection of la11d, and is capable of absorbing heat dowi1
p1:evaiJing wi11ds. Local variations 1nay result from to a deptl1 of 10 metres. It can then tra11sfer
aspect and a1nounts of clot1d cover. Seasonal and tl1is heat to greater deptl1s throug11 tl1e move-
cliurnal variations are related to the altitude of the - 1nents of waves and currents. "fhe sea also has a
SU11 and the length of nigl1t and day. greater specific heat capacity tl1a11 that of land.
Specific heat capacity is tl1e a1not1nt of energy
Global factors affecting insolation reqtiired to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a.
Factors that influence the amount of insolation substa11ce by 1 °C, ex1Jressed i11 ldlojoL1les per
received at a11y point, and therefore its radiation kg per c. Expressed in kilocalories, the specific
0

bala11ce a11d l1eat bL1dget, vary considerably over heat capacity of water is 1.0, tl1at of land is 0.5
ti1ne and s1Jace. a11d tl1at of sand 0.2.

Figure 9.6
,,._........._..------------ ·--- ----·------···--·., -=-
· ---�-----�----------,.,�----.---��-
. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
Heat transfers in the
atmosphere
ne. t radiation •

loss
•

horizontal transfer; winds Uet streamsl,-hurr-icanes

and oepressions, ocean cur.rents

net radiation vertical tr,ansfe-r: radiation --:�... atmosphere net radiation

surplus convection loss
con·ducti.on
•
,
latent heat
horizontal tran·sfer
•

net radia.tion
lo. ss1
• •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • f' l
•

210
 Figure 9.7 ;I

, ................................ , ....... .
Mean annual ranges in
0
global temperature ( ()

.,-0
.-...x::.__ 35 _..:::::==:::::--
30 __--:;
,.
,o 5

.,\ �
Equator
�
''•....
°
' •"
-20 "'

-40° s 5--

>
60 °
80 °
100 °
120 °
,�o o 180 ° · 160 ° 140 ° 120° 100 ° 8 60 ° 40 °
0
o'�
..J.---_,.,-1 o ,
-i----_ I I I I I I I I

Tl1is means that water requires twice as 111ucl1 The main ocean CLtrrents follow circular routes
energy as soil and five tin1es more tl1an sand to -clockwise in tl1e northern l1e111isphere, a11ti­
raise an eq11ivale11t 111ass to tl1e same tempera­ clockwise in the souther11 hemisphere.
tu.re. Dtrring st1m1ner, t11erefore, the sea l1eats Figure 9.10 shows tl1e difference betwee11 the
up 1nore slowly tl1an the land. In winter, the mean January temperature of a place and the mean
reverse is the case and la11d surfaces lose heat Jan11ary te1nperatures of other places with the saine
energy more rapidly tl1an water. Tl1e ocea11s act latitude; this difference is known as a tempe1·ature
as efficient'thermal reservoirs'. This explains anon1aly. (The term'temperature anomaly' is 11sed
wl1y coastal environments have a s111aller specifically to describe temperatt1re differences from
annual range of temperature than locations at a mean. It should 11ot be confu.sed with the 1nore
the centres of continents (Figure 9.7). ge11eral defulition of' anomaly' whicl1 refers to
a Prevailing winds Tl1e temperature of the something that does not fit into a ge11eral patten1.)
wind is deter1nined by its area of origin and For exainple, Stornoway (Figure-9.10) has a 1nean
° °
by tl1e cl1aracteristics of the surface over January temperature of 4 C, whic� is 20 C higher
wl1icl1 it subsequently blows (FigL1re 9.8). than tl1e average for other locations lying a.t S8°N.
A wind blowing fro111 the sea tends to be Such anomalies rest1lt primarily fro1n tl1e uneven
warmer i11 winter and cooler in summer tl1an heating and coolir1g rates of la11.d and sea and are
a corresponding wind coming fron1 the land. i11tensified by the horizontal transfer of energy by
a Oceai1 currents Tl1ese are a major component ocean currents and prevailing winds. Remember
in the process of horizontal transfer of l1eat that the sun appears overhead iI1 the sout. hem hemi­
energy. Warm ct1rrehts carry wa.ter polewards sp11ere at this time of year Oanuary) and isothe1ms
•
and raise the air'temperature of the maritime have been redt1ced to sea-level-i.e. temperatures
• enviro1unents where they flow. Cold ct1rrents are adj11sted to eliminate some of tl1e effects of relief,
carry water towards
. tl1e Equator and so lower thus emphasising the influence of prevailing winds,
the temperatures of coastal areas (Figure 9.9). ocean cturents ai1_d continentality.
•
Figure9.8 •
. ······•········ ····•····•··· ........... Season SEA West coast LAND East coast SEA Season
Simplified diagram
showing the effect
of prevailing winds Winter Warm COl!D cool wind Winter
on land and sea •

temperatures
•
I
Cool cool wind WARM warm wind Cool Summer
Summer

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • i • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • : • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • �• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
' • • • • • • • • • • • � • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Weather and climate:

. · · 211
--------------- --�
Kurile

Figure 9.9
. . .....
... '. . .. . . . .............. . ' .. ... .
Major ocean currents

current
warn, current
-t> (raises coastal (
u
Mozambique
temperatures) •
1 ..
cold current Humboldt (Peruvian) West
Australian
-i>- (lowers coastal

------1>
temperatures)

' •"

Figure 9.10 S = Stornoway

······ ·-·· · � ······ .. ·•· -�.,, .. ········-·········
N = North-east Siberia
Temperature ano1nalies for '�
..
January (after D.C. Money)

Sho,-t-term factors In the northern he111isphere, north-facing

a Seasonal cl1a11ges At the spring and auh1mn slopes, being in shadow for n1ost or all of the
equi11oxes (21 March a11d 22 Septen1ber) year, are cooler tl1an those facing south. The
wl1en the sun is directly o,rer the Equator, steeper the soutl1-facing slope, the-higher the
insolatio11 is distribt1ted equally betwee11 angle of the st1n's 1·ays to it and therefore tl1e
botl1. hemispheres. At the summer and winter higl1er will be the temperatt1re. North- a11d
solstices (21 June an� 22 December) whe11, sot1th-facing slopes are referred to, respec­
due to the Earth's tilt, the st1n is overhead tively, as the adret and ubac.
at the tropics,. the he111ispl1ere experiencing a <;:loud cover Tl1e presence of cloud reduces
'st1mmer' will receive maximum insolation. botl1 incoming and 011tgoing radiatio11. The
Length of day a11d night Insolation is 011ly tl1icker the cloud, the greater the an1ot1nt of
received during daylight hours and reaches · · absorption, reflection and. scattering of insola­
its peak at noon. '"fhere are 110 seasonal vari- ·
• •
tion, and
_ of
.
terrestrial ra� iati �n. Clot1ds may
. ations at the Equator, \i\There day and night reduce daytime temperatures;··but they also
• • •
-- . _ ...... are of eqL1al leng�l1 througl1out the year. In • act as an i11s11lati11g blanket to retain heat at
extre1ne contrast, polar areas receive.no insola- night. This means that tropical deserts, wl1ere
tion during part of the winter wl1e11 there is skies· are clear, are warmer dur·ing the day and.
•

. co11tinuot1s darkness, buJ may receive up to 24 cooler at night than l1umid equator. ial regions
hours of insolation during 'part of the summer with a greater cloud cover. The world's grea.test
when the sun never sinks below the horizon diurnal ra11ges of temperature are therefore
('tl1e lands of the 1nidnight sun') . fou11d in tropical deserts.
•
•
• Urbanisation This alters the albedo
Local influe,nc.es on insolation 0 • A (page 207) and crea.tes urban 'hea.t islands'
(page 242).
• Aspect l-Ii]lsides alter tl1e angle at which
the sun's rays hit the ground (Places 28).

. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
•
• • • • • • •
• . • • • • • • •• • •• • • •••• • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••••••••••••••••• ... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
21,2 Weather an,d climate
..
';
 - -- . -
'

Atmospheric moisture polar latitt1des or vertically into the a.tmos­

ph.ere to balance tl1e heat budget (Figure 9.5).
Water is a liquid co1npou11d wl1ich is co11verted Despite tl1is need for water, its existe11ce i11
by l1eat i11to va1Jour (gas) a11d by cold into a a form readily available to pla11ts, an.imals a:nd
solid. (ice). Tl1e presence of wa.ter serves three hL1mans is limited. It l1as been estimated that
esse11tial pt1rposes: 97 .2 per cent of the world's water is i11 tl1e oceans
1 It 1naintai11s life o·n Eartl1: flora, i11 the form and seas; in this form, it is only useful to plants
of natural vegetatio11 (biomes) and crops; tolerant of saline conditions (halo1Jhytes,
a11d fau.na, i.e. all living creatL1res, includi11g page 291) and to the populatio11s of a few wealtl1y
ht1mans. countries tl1at ca.11 afford desalinisation plants
2 Water in the atmos1?l1ere, 1nainly as a gas, (the Gulf oil states). •
absorbs, reflects and scatters insolation to Approxi1uately 2.1 per cent of water i11 the
1<.eep our pla11et at a habitable temperature l1ydrospl1ere is held in storage as polar ice a11d.
(Figure 9.4). s11ow. Only 0. 7 per cent is fresl1 water found
3 Atn1ospheric
. moistt1re is of vital significance eitl1er in lakes and rivers (0.1 per cent), as soil
as a 111eans of tra11sferri11g surJJlus energy 1noisture and grot111dwater (0.6 per cent), or in
fro111 tro:pical areas eitl1er horizontally to the at1nosphere (0.001 per ce11t).
4 -···- ------�-�---- ·--·--··-----·�··--·-·------------����--.
An alpine valley: aspect

Many alpine valleys in Switzerland and Austria have usually provide the best sites for settlement. In
an east-west orientation whici, means that their contrast, north-facing ubac slopes are snow-covered
valley sides face either nortl1 or south. South-facing for a much longer period, they are less suited to
adret slopes are much war111er and drier than those farming, the tree-line is lower, and they tend to be
facing north (Figure 9.11). The south-facing slopes left forested. However, on the valley floors, as severe
,
have more plant species, a higher tree-line, and frosts are likely to occur during times of temperature
a greater land use with alpine pastures at higher inversion (page 217), sensitive plants and crops do
altitudes and fruit and l1ay lower down; also, they not flourish. •
•

l1eigl1t of sun
on 21 June

height of sun
on 21 December

hay
2500 .-.
' fruit and
•
; ' "'--cereals
:· ·bar:e. ro , cik • •

2000 su-r.:fa. ��s with.: .

2000

-E 1500 1500 ::,-

-·
rt)

-3
..._..
...... ::,-
..c rt

-
,_
O'l

..c 1000 1000

•
500 500
Figure 9.11
. . . . .
. . . . . .. . . . . . . .4 . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .
. . . . . . .

The effect of aspect in ,

,.
an east-west oriented
,
alpine valley in the ..
northern hemisphere •

• • • • • • ••• • • •• • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. .... . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' .................... ..

Wea.ther and climate 2·13
 · -- conden. sation gives various
horizontal transfer of -- --l.. �_ /..
··. ,) typ es of pr ec ipitation (rain,
· il, frost, dew, fog)
-
water vapour by winds ..:. --J/f,
. sn ow , ha
·.!, /·'"'
-,,�": ' . � v
�
,.,.,.
__ .....- .. , I 1 /f �-
·
, ->
Figure 9.12
........... , .......... , ........,, ................... vertical transfer of water vapour · :I ;y as ice and snow
i :�t&);,.,
·I

vertiGa,I �je� of I
The hydrological cycle . · ,,;1, 1,,.�.,.
moisture as prec1p1tat10 1,'. ��. �
(compare with Figure 3.1) , t�
,__,.,._ _ .. ,.... � -2"'

Storage
in I a kes ,....
� � within the system
_....
..;..;....;.
transpiration from plants, evaporation from
rivers (land) and seas (oceans) �,.......,.. �

oceans \ , land

horizontal transfer of water by rivers,

surface runoff, throughflow and
groundwater (see Figure 3.1)

of rain. There must therefore be a constant recy­

At any given ti1ne, the at1nos1Jhere only holds, cling of water betwee11. tl1e oceans, at1nospl1ere
on a,,erage, sufficient moisture to give every and lancl (Figure 9. 13). This recycling is achieved
place on the Eartl12.5 c1n (abot1t 10 days' supply) tl1r. ough the hydrological cycle (Figure 9.12).
Figure 9.13
. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .... . . . . . . .. ' ..
The world's water evaporation precipitation
transfer of water vapour (84 per cent of (74 per cent
balance
•

evaporation precipitation 10 per cent (balance of total evaporation) of total

(16 per cent (26 per cent precipitation/evaporation
A
precipitation)
of total of total over oceans)
evaporation) precipitation)

runoff
•

land 1 b per cent (balance o f

::::;� .::..�::.:--::�==--::=--:-����
�
precigitation/evaporation over land) -==
- =====oceans
��-��_J--
•
,J
Humidity air measured in grams per CLLbic metre (g/m 3 ).
Specifichumd i ti y is si1nilar but is expressed
I-It1midity is a measure of the water vapour
content in tl1e atmosphere.Absolt1te humd i t
i y in grains of water per kilogram of air (g/kg).
is the mass of water vapour in a given volume of Hu111idity depends upon the temperature of the
air .At any given ten1perature, there is a limit to
Figure 9.14
...... ,, ......... ,...... , .. - ········· ...
40 - .... -- r .. ··----·· ..,. --·-·---··-- ·r
:
---· · ·- ·-1·· ·-··-· ·- ·1 the amount of moistt1re that the air can hold.
Air temperatures and t' •I When this limit is reached, the air is said to be
1
.i:
absolute humidity for
I

''
I l I t
sa urated.Cold a.ir can l1old only relatively
saturated air
1 , '' '

i small quantities of vapour before becoming

saturated but this amou11t increases rapidly
i l I 1 I as temperan1res rise.'(Figure 9 .14).,.fhis means
!
I that the amount of precipitation obtained from
II
�
� l ;i
§_ 20 j ·
·---t----i---·-- : ·- --�
I
� I I warm air is generally greater than that from
---·- i cold air. Relative humidity(RI-I)is the amount
� : i ! 17.121 l of water vapou.r in tl1e ai1· at a given tempera­ -
1
[. f
1

:!
': I ture expressed as a percentage of the maximum
I
'

i l amount of vapot1r that the air could hold. at that

I 9 ,4 ! I--�·...-·--·i
- 10 .. -.. -----· 1' -- ..
:
.. .. ..
,--- ·1 --.....
I .·-- -... ·--· ....... . -"·------1I
t temperatt1re. If the RH is 100 per cent, tl1e air is
! ; sattrrated. If it lies betwee11 80 and 99 per cent,
f :
I • . '
l

I
I i ! tl1e air is said to be 'moist' and the weather is
Q.5
2.1 1 1 ; humid or clammy.When the RH drops to 50 per
I
cent, tl1e air is 'dry' - figures as low a.s 1 O per ce11t
-20 -10 0 +10 +20 +30 have been recorded over hot deserts.
air temperature 0(
- '

.. . .. . . .. .... .. . ... . .. . . .
. ..... .. .. .. . . . . ... ................... ..... .... .
. . ... . . ...... .. . . .. . . .... . ... . . . ..... ...............
. ................... . ...... .
. .... .................
. . .. -

214 Weather and climate •

 -- -
- --
- -
---

If 1111satL1rated air is cooled a11d at111ospl1eric by co11dL1ction. If tl1e air is moist, some
pressure re111ai11s co11stant, a critical te1n1Jerature vapot1r will condense to forn1 radiation fog,
will be reacl1e, d when tl1e air IJecomes satt1rated dew, or - if the te1nperature is below freezing
(i.e. RI-I= 100 per ce11t). This is k11ow11 as the dew point - hoar frost (page 221).
point. A11y fL11iher cooling will result i11 the con­ 2 Advection cooling Tl1is results fro111 warin,
de11satio11 of excess va1?011r, eitl1er into \i\,a_ter drop­ 1noist air 111oving over a cooler land or sea
lets wl1ere condensation ,n11clei are present, or iI1to surface. Advection fogs i11 Califor11ia a11d
ice crystals if tl1e air te111perature is below 0° c. 1"his tl1e Ataca1na Desert (Places 24, page 180 and
is show11 in the followi11g \i\,orked example. page 122) are for1ned when warJ11 air fro111 the
°
1 The early morning air te1111Jerature was 10 C. la11d drifts over cold offshore ocea11 curre11.ts
Althougl1 tl1e air could l1ave held 100 L1nits of (Figure 9.9).
wa.ter at tl1.at te111perature, at tbe ti1ne of the As both radiatio11 a11d advectio11 i11volv ·e l1ori­
reading it 11eld onJy 90. This 111ea11t. that tl1e zontal rather than vertical moveme11.ts of air, tl1e
RI-I was 90 per cent. amot1nt of conde11sation created is li1nited.
2 Duri11g the day, tl1e air te1n1Jerature rose to 3 Orographic and f1·ontal 11plift War111, moist
12° C. As the air warmed it becan1e capable air is forced to rise either as it crosses a mo11n­
of l1olcling 111ore wa.ter vapour, 111) to 120 tain barrier (orog,�aphic asce.nt, page 220) or
units. Owi11g to evaporatio11, tl1e reading wl1e11 it 1neets a colder, de11ser mass of air at a
reacl1ed a 111aximL1m of 108 L111its wl1icl1 fro11t (page 229).
mea11t tl1at tl1e RI-I re111ai11ed at 90 per cent 4 Convective or adiabatic cooling This is
- i.e. (108 + 120) x 100. when air is warmed dL1ring the daytime and
3 In tl1e early evening, the ternperatLLre fell rises i11 pockets as thermals (Figure 9.15). As
to 10° C a.t which point, as stated above, it tl1e air expands, it uses e11ergy and so loses
could hold only 100 u11its. 1--Iowever, the air a.t l1eat a11d the te1nperature drops. Beca11se air
tl1at ti111e contai11ed 108 11nits so, as t11e tem­ is cooled by the reductio11 of pressure with
perature fell, dew point was reached heigl1t rather tl1an by a loss of heat to the
a11d the 8 excess units of water were lost surrounding air, it is said to be adiabatically
tl1rot1gh conde.nsation. cooled (see lapse rates, page 216).
As both orographic and adiabatic cooling involve
Condensation ve.rtical movements of air, they are more effective
"'
1 his is tl1e p1·ocess by wl1icl1 water vapour i11 mecl1anis111s of co11densation.
the at1nosphere is cha11ged i11to a liqL1id or, if Co11densatio11 does 11ot occt1r readily in
the te1nperat11re is below 0° C, a solid. It 11st1ally clean air. I11deed, if air is absolt1tely pure, it can
results from air bei11g cooled u11til it is saturated. be cooled below its dew poi11t to become super­
Cool. ing may be acl1ieved by: saturated with an RH in excess of 100 per ce11t.
1 Radiation (co11tact) cooling '"fhis typically Laboratory tests have shown that clean, satu­
occurs on calm, clear evenings. The grou11d rated air can 'be cooled to -40° C before condensa­
loses l1eat rapidly tl1rough terrestrial radiation tion or, i11 this case, s11blimation. Sublimation
Figure9.15
···· ·�· ..... .. .. ..... -� ······· ········
,.,
and the air i11 conta.ct with it is then cooled is wl1en vapour condenses directly into ice crys­
Convective cooling tals without passing throt1gh the liquid state.
Ho\i\1ever, air is r. arely p11re and usually contains
large n11mbers of condensation 11uclei. These
energy used in expansion microscopic partic_les, referred to as l1ygroscopic
l0 ° C causes a loss ofheatand 11uclei becat1se they attract water, include vol­
a drop in temperature
canic dust (heavy rain always accompa11ies
volcanic eruptions); dust from windblown soil;
smoke and st1lpht1ric acid originati11g from urban
air expands and rises as a and industrial areas; and salt from sea spray.
warm bubble of less Hygroscopic nt1clei are most nt1merous over
'
dense air cities, where there may be up to 1 million per
cm3 , and least common over oceans (only
parcel of air next to ground 10 per cm 3 ). Where large concentrations are
heated by conduction
found, coride11sation can occur with an RH
as low as 7 5 per ce11t - as in the smogs of Los
Angeles (Figure 9.25 and Case Study ISA) .
•

. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . .
Weather and climate 215
 •

Figure 9.16
a environmental lapse rates (ELR) b adiabatic lapse rates (ALR)
• • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . .4 • ' • • • ..

Examples of lapse rates

shown in temperature 1000 -------------- 1000.-­ ---------LR, e.g.
ELR in a SW airstream air cools less rapidly at SA
-height diagrams in summer is 4° C per S°C per 1000m due to release
(tephigrams) 1000m of latent heat (note that the
800 800 DALR if dew
/
graph appears to get steeper)
I
- I -E point temperature
had not been reached
-E I
-
•
600 ELR in a NW airstream I 600 and latent heat had not
been released I
in sumn1er is 5° C per I
p� �t
+-' +-'
�

·-
0) 1000m I
£
·-
O'l -d�; l �;c�;s·i� �h i � - - - - - �;n·d��;a·t�n-,;;ei
400 I � 400 example at 500m, rely ase of
I latent heat, base of Cfuds
�

I I
I I DALR temperature
200 I 200
I I I decreases at
I constant rate of
I ground I
I 9.8° ( per 1000m
, temperature
01--�_i__�---1.��..L_--1.....-1...���-=::::� OL_�_l_�__J___J�L_�__l,_�---1��
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
temperature (C) 0
temperature (C) 0

Lapse rates condensation. rfl1e SAJ_, R may be as low as 4 C °

The envi.J.·on1ne11tal lapse rate (ELR) is tl1e per 1000 m a11d as l1igh as 9° C per 1000 m. It
decrease in temperature t1st1ally expected with averages about 5.4° C per 1000 m (i.e. approxi-
°
a11 i11crease in h.eigl1t through the troposphere 111ately O.S C per 100 m). Sl1ould temperatures
°
(Figt1re 9.1) ..The ELR is approximately 6.S °C per fall below 0 c, then the air will cool at the
1000 m, bL1t varies according to local air co11di­ freezing adiabatic lapse rate (FALR). Tl1is is
tions. It may vary due to several factors: l1eight - the same as the DALR as very little moisture is
ELR is lower nearer grottnd-level; time - it is lower present a.t low t�1nperatt1res.
i11 winter or duri11g a rainy seaso11; over differe11t
surfaces - it is lower over co11tinental areas; a11d Air stability and instability
between diff. erent air masses (Figt1re 9.16a).
"' Parcels of warm air which rise throt1gh the lower
1 he adiabatic lapse rate . (ALR) describes
wl1at haJ?pens wl1en a. parcel of air rises a11d the atmosphere cool adiabatically. The rate and
decrease in presst1re is accompanied by an associ­ 1nai11te11ance of any vertical tiplift depend on the
ated increase in volt1me and a decrease in tem­ temperature-density bala11ce between the rising
perature (Figure 9.15). Conversely, descending parcel and the st1rrounding air. In a simplified
air will be subject to an increase in pressure form, this balan.ce is tl1e relationship between
causing a rise in temperature. In either case, the environme11t. al lapse rate and the dry and
there is negligible mixing with tl1e surrounding saturated adiabatic lapse rates.
air. There are two adiabatic lapse rates:
1 If the upward 1novement of air does not lead Stability
to condensation, the energy t1sed by expan­ The state of stability is when a rising pa1·cel of
sion will cause the tem1Jerature of the parcel unsaturated air cools 1nore rapidly than the air
of air to fall at the dry adiabatic lapse rate surrounding it. rfhis is shown diagrammatically
(DALR on Figure 9.16b). The DALR, which· whe11 the ELR lies to the rigl1t of the DALR, as
°
is the rate at wl1icl1 an unsah1rated parcel of in Figure 9.17. In this example the ELR is 6 C
air .cools as it rises or war.ms. as it descends, per 1000 m and the DALR is 9.8 ° C per 1000 m.
°
remains con.stant at 9.8 C per 1000 m (i.e. By the time the rising air has reached 1000 m,
° °
approximately 1 C per 100 m). it has cooled to 10.2 C which leaves it colder
2 When the upward movement is SLtfficiently and denser than tl1e surrot1nding air which has
prolonged to enable the air to cool to its dew only cooled to 14° C. If there is nothing to force
point temperature, condensation occt1rs and the parcel of air to rise, e.g. 1nountains or fronts,
the loss 'in ten1perature witl1 height is then it will sink. back to its starting point. The air is
partly compensated by the release of latent described as stable because dew point may not
heat (Figure 9.16b and page 210). Saturated have been reacl1ed and the only clouds whicl1
air, wllicl1 t.herefore cools at a slower rate than might l1ave developed would be shallow, flat­
unsa.tu· rated air, loses heat at the saturated topped cttmulus which do not .Prod·t1ce precipita­
adiaba.tic lapse rate,(SALR). Tl1e SALR can tion (Figure 9.20). Stabiltty is often linked witl1
vary because the warmer the air tl1e more anticyclones (page 234), when any convection
moisture it can hold, a.nd so the great. er the currents are supp1·essed by sinking ai1· to give d1·y,
a1nou·nt of latent heat released followi11g sunny co11ditions.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 4 • • • • • • ' • • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .
•

216 Weather and climate

•
 . . ·-·--- ---

Figure 9.18
............ .......... ·············.
"

Instability and cloud

development
,
10.2 ° c
10.2 ° c 14.0 ° c 9.0 ° ( 12.6° (
100.0---------- ·-.,---,
· ---- 1000--------- -------
uplifted air is therefore •
cumulo-nimbus
3.8° ( cooler than the .,,,...!: •. cloud
at 1000 m, the uplifted
800 surrounding air at 800 air is now 1 .2 ° ( warmer -SALRis5 ° C
1000 m and so it sinks · per 1000 m
-E ....-.
than the surrounding
air and so it will continue
-..... 600
ELRin this example
E
...
._.. 600 to rise
· . ·:·
,·/ •
·d ew po1nt
_
.s::::.
is6° C per 1000 m .s::::. ELRin this example ------- -----------------------�------�-----
� � �

·-0) ·- (a hot summer day) ---,. if dew point is reached (e.g. at500 m),
..c 400 400
Cl) °
°
Cl)
.s::::. °
is 11 ( per 1000 m the temperature will be 15.1 ( and
• DALR9.8 ( the air will then cool at the SALR
per iOOO m
200 200 DALRconstant at
9.8° ( per1000 m

0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
temperature 0(() temperature 0(()

Figure9.17
0 9 0 •• 0 . . . 0 0 • 0 • 0• • 0 • 0 R O O O . 0 0 0 • 0. 0 0 . 0 #
Instability It will now continue to rise freely, even if the
Stability: changes t1pliftin.g 111echan.is1n is removecl, as it is now i11
Conditions of instability arise i11 Britai11 on hot
in lapse rates and an unstable state. Instability is conditional upon
air temperature
days. Localised heating of tl1e groun.d warms tl1e
the air being forced to rise in the first place, and
with height adjace11t a.ir by co11.duction, creating a l1igher lapse
rate. The resulta11t parcel of rising u11saturated air later beco1ning saturated so that condensation
cools less rapidly than tl1e surrou.11di11g air. In this occurs. The associated weatl1er is usually fine in
case, as show11 in Figt1re 9.18, the ELR lies to tl1e areas a.t altitudes belo·w condensation level, but
left of tl1e DALR. The risi11g air remains warmer cloudy and showery in those above.
a11d ligl1ter tl1a11 tl1e surrot1nding air. Should it
be sufficient!)' 1noist and if dew point is reached,
Temperature inversions
the11 the upward 1noveme11t may be accelerated As tl1e lapse rate exercises have shown, the tem.p­
to produce toweri11g cumulu:5 or CL11nt1lo-ni111bus erature of tl1e air usually decreases with altitude,
type clot1d (Figure 9 .20). Thu11derstorms are lik.ely but tl1ere are certain co11ditions when tl1e reverse
(Figtire 9.21) a11d the saturated air, following tl1e occurs. Temperattrre inversio11S, where warmer
release of late11t heat, will cool at the SALR. air overlies colder air, may occur at th.ree levels
. in the atmosphere. Figure 9.1 showed that te1n­
Conditi_onal instability peratures increase with altitude in both the strato­
sphere a11d. tl1e thermosphere. I11versions can also
rfhis type of instability occurs when the ELR is
occur near grot1i1d-level and l1igh in the tropo­
lower tha11 tl1e DALR but higher than tl1e SALR.
sphere. I-Iigh-level inversions are found. in depres­
In Britain, it is the 1nost common of tl1e three
sions where warm air overrides cold air at the
co11ditions. The risi11g air is stable i11 its lower
wa.r111 front or is u11derct1t by colder air at the cold
la.ye1·s and, being cooler than the surrounding ,
front (page 229). Low-level, or ground, inversions
air, would nor1nally sink back aga.in. However,
usually occur u11der anticyclonic conditions (page
if the mechanism which initially triggered the
t1plift ren1ains, then the a.ir will be cooled to its 234 and Figure 9 .24) when there is a rapid loss of
heat fro111 the grot1nd dt1e to radiatio11 at n.ight,
dew point. Beyond this poi11t, cooling takes place
or wl1en warm air is advected over a cold surface.
at t'he slower SALR and tl1e parcel may become
Under these conditions, fog and frost (page 221
warme� tl1an tl1.e sur1·oundi11g air (Figure 9 .19).
a11d Figure 9 .23) may form in valleys and hollows.
Figure9.19
................ . . .. . .. . . .. . . . ... . . .. .......
1200
'

Conditional instability
•
°
uplifted air12.6 Cat 1000 m
(warmer than surrounding air
1000 ----------------------- and so continues to rise) · unstable air
surrounding air
12 ° ( at 1000 m -- SALRS° C per 1000 m
.
- 800
==- air becomes unstable
at approx. 750 m
4.J
600'
·- dew point (cloud base)
-· · ·----·----------------------�-----------------
uplifted air 15.1 ° Cat500 m ELR8° Cper
400 1000 m·1n this stable air
example
DALRconstant at 9.8° (
200 per1000 m (cooler than
surrounding air but forced
. .. . . . . . to rise)
t • • t • • e I • • , t t • t • ' • I
O .__�������--L---=-��----1...�::.,_;_=---___J��=---���--
-S 0 5 10 15 20
temperature 0(()
• •
..
� I
.

Group Height r�-;:::

l
== = = =· =· = = === = = = = = =-======·== = ==;--"�-� ·-� -
- � -
-��- · ·-·
·. ------*- �·-- · �������-.........
· ·--=�-·-·--· --=--�--�--���-1
l Cirrus (i �� �� ysta ls) Ci
(km)
13
10 Cumulo-nimbus Cb
- - "'-,
(water droplets and ice crystals)

(anvil)

Detached, wispy, delicate white clouds.

May have feathery filaments, known as
'mares' tails', indicating strong upper·
atmosphere winds.
(No precipitation) • An extreme vertical extension of the
• • cumulus. It may develop an 'anvil' at its
•. head (ice crystals) and may become
black at its base.
(Heavy showers; thunderstorms; hail)
High.
2 Cirrocumulus (ice crystals) Cc 3 Cirrostratus Cs
clouds (ice crystals)(+ halo)
r

• -
n
0
s::
Q.
Thin layers of small, globular masses with A thin, milky layer appearing like a veil. VI
a rippled appearance (also known as The sun or moon may shine through it
'mackerel sky'). with a halo effect.
-·
�
�
':I"
(No precipitation) (No precipitation) <
11)
' . �
�
n
-·
------7 -
QI
•

-·
':I"
11)
I.C
':I"
�

Q.

4 Altocumulus Ac 5 Altostratus As 9 Cumulus (water droplets) Cu -

11)
0
(water droplets and some ice crystals) (water droplets and some ice crystals) "C
3
11)
:I
�

'

Middle
clouds
White-grey cloud usually resembling
waves or lumps, separated by patches A greyish, uniform sheet of clouds, Detached, white cloud with a
of blue sky. The sun or moon may be largely featureless. A 'watery' sun may pronounced flat base and sharp outlines;
surrounded by a corona. just be visible. grows vertically and may resemble a
(Very occasional, small amounts of (Very occasional, small amounts of cauliflower.
precipitation) precipitation) (Very scattered showers)

6 Stratus St 7 Nimbostratus Ns 8 Stratocumulus Sc

------2 (water droplets)
----
(water droplets) (water droplets)

Low.
clouds

A thick, dark grey-black cloud,

Ground-level "-----1 usually uniform but may have
A persistent, grey, uniform sheet detached, darker patches A grey-white, patchy cloud
of cloud. beneath it. appearing in long rows or in rolls. Figure 9.20
(Occasional showers) ....... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
' '

(Drizzle) (Continuous rain/snow)

21·8 Cloud types
 Clouds falls to the gro11nd, flakes 111elt into raindrops.
Cloti.ds forin w11en air cools Experi111ents to prod11ce rai11fall artificially by
to dew point and
vap. ottr condenses into water droplets a11d/or ice clot1d-seeding are based upo11 this process.
c1·ystals. Tl1ere are 1nany differe Tl1e Bergero11-Findeisen theory is supported
11t types of clot1d, •

bu t they are often difficult to dist 'by evidence fro111 temperate latitucles wl1ere
inguish as their
f? rm consta11tly cl1anges. The gen rainclouds 11sually extend vertically above . the
eral classifica­
tion of clot1ds was proposed by Lu'k Ho freezi11g level. Radar and high-flying aircraft
e ward i11
1803. Iiis was a descriptive classificati , ba have reported s11.ow at 11.igh altitudes wb.en it is
on sed on
cloud shape and height (Figt1re 9.20). I-le t1sed four rain.ing at sea-level. I-Iowever, as clouds rarely
Latin words: cirrus (a lock of curly l1air); c11mul11s_. reach freezing 1Joint in the tropics, the forma­
(a heap or pile); st1·att1s (a layer); and 11i111bus tio11 of ice crystals is t1nlil<ely in those latitudes.
(rai11-beari11g). I-Ie also compiled co111posite naines. 2 Tl1e collisio·n and coalescence process was
usi11g tl1ese fot1r terms, sucl1 as c11mulo-nimbus; suggested by Lo11gmuir. 'Warm' clouds (i.e.
cirrostratus; and added tl1e prefix 'alto-' for those containing no ice crystals), as found in
1niddle-level clouds. tl1e tropics, co11tain nt1mero11s water droplets
of differi11g sizes. Different-sized droplets are
swept t1pwards
. at different velocities and,
Precipitation iq doing so, collide with other drOJJlets. It
Condensation prod11ces minL1te water droplets, is tho11gl1t th.at the larger the droplet, tl1e
less tl1an 0.05 1111n in dia1neter, 01·, if the dew greater the chance of �ollisio11 a11d st1bsequent
point te1nperature is below freezi11g, ice crystals. coalescence witl1 s1naller droplets. Whe11. coa­
Tl1e droplets are so tiny and weigl1 so little that lescing droplets reach a radius of 3 mm, their •

tl1ey are kept buoyant by the rising air cur.rents 1notio11 causes them to disin�egrate to form a
wl1icl1 created tl1e1n. So altho11gl1 co11densation fresl1 supply of droplets. The thicker tl1e cloud
for1ns clo11ds, clouds do not necessarily prod11ce (c111nulo-ni1nbus), t�e greater the time the
precipitation. As risi11g air curre11ts are often droplets have in which to grow and the faster
they will fa.II, t1s11ally as thundery showers.
stron.g, there has to be a process within the clouds
Latest opinions su.ggest that these two theories 1nay
which enables the s111all water droplets a11d/or ice
complement each other, but that a n1ajor process
crystals to become sufficiently large to overco111e
of raindrop enlargement has yet to be understood.
tl1e u1Jlifti11g 1nechanis1n and fall to the ground.
There are curre11tly two 111ain theories that
attempt to explain tl1e rapid growth of water
Types of precipitation
droplets: .Although the definition of precipitatio11 includes
1 Tl1e ice crystal 1nechanis111 is often referred sleet, l1ail, dew, hoar frost� fog and rin1e, 011ly
to as the Bergeron-Findeisen n1ecl1anism. It rain and snow provide significant totals in the
appears tl1at when the te1nperature of air is hydrological cycle.
°
between -5 C and -25 C, supercooled water
°
Rainfall
droplets and ice crystals exist together. St1per- There are three main types of rainfall, distin­
cooling tal<es place when water remains il1 gL1isl1ed by the 1nechanisms which cause the
the at1nosphere after tem1Jeratures have fallen
•

initial uplift of tl1e air. Eacl1 m.ecl1a11is1n rarely

below 0 c - ust1ally due to a lack of conden­
°
ope1·ates in isolation.
sation nt1clei. Ice crystals are in a 1ninority 1 Co11ve1·ge11t and cyclo11ic (frontal) rainfall
- because the freezing nuclei necessary for tl1eir results from tl1e meeting of two air streams in
· formation a1·e less abunda11t than condensati: o11 areas of low pressure. Within the tropics, the
nt1clei. Tl1e relative hu1nidity of air is ten times trade ,,vinds, blowing towards the E. quator, meet
greater above an ice surface tl1an over water. at the inter-tropical convergence zone or I fCZ '"

This me. ans that tl1e water d.roplets evaporate (page 226). The air is forced to rise and, in con­
and tl1e resultant vapour condenses (s11bli­ jt1nction witl1 convection ct1.rre11ts, produces
m�tes) ba ck on to th e ic e crys ta ls w l1ic l1 th e11 tl1e heavy afternoon tht1nderstor111s associ-
grow in to l1e xa go 11a l-s ha pe d sn ow fla ke s. ,_f l1 e ated with t11e equatorial climate (page 316). In
flakes g r
. ow in si ze - ei th er as a re su lt of fu rt h er te1nperate latitudes, depressions fo11n at tl1e
condensatio n o r b y fu sio n as th ei r n u m er o t1 s boundary of. two a:ir masses. At tl1e associated
o ck 0 11 co ll is io n w it h o th er tl al <e s. fro11ts, warm, moist, less dense air is forced to
edges interl . .
in cr ea se in n u m b er as ic e sp lu 1t er s rise over colder, denser air, giving periods of
They also
a n d fo r· m n e w n u cl ei . If th e ai r te m ­ prolonged and· sometimes intense rainfall. Tl1is
b:real< off
ri se s ab o v e fr ee zi n g p o in t as th e sn o w is often augme11ted by orograpl1ic precipitation.
pe1·atu1·e
• •• •• ·· ·· ·· · · ··· · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · • • • • • • • • • • • • .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . " ....... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .·. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Weather and climate 219
---- -- - - - r--=-
. . ·�

uppet air has a negative(--) charge

anvn� ice ccystals forming
+
+
ice crystals l1ave a positive(+) charge + �- r--
+
c;:jrrus clo\,ld
movement of upperair
+ + + + +
-25 °(
+ + + formation of ice crystals:water droplets turn into hail
+.
swept upwards many times
by convection currents
chimney of warm air maintained
by·release of latent heat
+-' updraught
6
·- 0° ( downdraught ______ _
- ... -
0,
•
__ - - - - - ... - 0 freezing level(release of latent heat)
----- - 0(
cool downdraught: -
heat absorbed water droplets swept upwards in convecti<>n
- falling hail currents(30 m per sec)
has a negative
(-) charge uplift of warm, moist air

2s:c ----
• condensation level and cloud base
--
.;
(release of latent heat)
� �< --
hail 'l ,1/111,�� local overheating: equatorial areas daily,
heavy rain south-east Britain in summer
, . 0 �- - ..
ground has a positive(+) charge

Figure 9.21 2 Orograpl1ic or relief rainfall resL1lts when i.e. hail, become large e11ough, they fall
...................... , ............... ,.

Convectional rainfall: near-saturated, war1n maritime air is forced in a downdrat1gl1t. The a.ir through whicl1
the development of a to rise wl1ere confronted by a coastal mot1n­ th.ey fall remains cool as heat is absorbed by
thunderstorm tain barrier. Mountains reduce the water­ evaporatio11. The downdrat1ght reduces the
holdi11g capacity of rising air by enforced war1n air st1pply to tl1e 'chimney' and there­
•
cooli11g a11d can increase tl1e a1nou11ts of fore limits the lifespan of the storm. Such
• cyclo11ic rainfall by retarding the speed of
•
storms are usually accompanied by tht1nder
. depressio11 1novement. Mot1ntai11s also te11d ai1d ligl1t11ing. I-low storms develop immense
to cause air streams to co11verge and fun11el a.mounts of electric charge is still 11ot fully
throL1gh valleys. Rainfall totals i11crease understood. One theory suggests that as rain­
where mot1ntai11s are parallel to the coast, drops are carried t1pwards into colder regions,
as is the Canadian Coast Range, and wl1ere they freeze on the ot1tside. Tl1.is ice-shell
winds have crossed war1n offshore ocean cur­ compresses the water inside it until tl1e shell
re11ts, as they do before reacl1ing tl1e Britisl1 bursts and the water freezes into positively­
Isles. As a.ir descends on the leeward side of a charged ice crystals while the heavier shell
mountain range, it becomes co1npressed and fragments, which are negatively charged.,
war1ned a.nd condensation ceases, crea.ting a fall towards the cloud base induci11g a posi­
. rai11shadow effect where little rai11 falls. tive c11arge on the Earth's surface (Figure
3 Convectional rainfall occt1rs when tl1e t:� 9.21). Lightning is the visible discharge of
•

ground surface is locally overheated and· electricity between clouds or between clouds
the adjace11t air, heated by condt1ction, and t11e grot1nd. Tl1under is the sound of the
·· · pressure wave created by the l1eating of air
expands and rises. During its ascent, tl1e air.
mass remains warmer than the sur1·oundi11g alo11g a ligl1tning flash. Convtction is one
· environmental ai1· and it is likely to become process by whicl1 sttrplus neat· a11d energy
unstable (page 217) witl1 towering cumulo­ from the Earth's surface are transferred verti­
nimbus clouds for1ning. Tl1ese unstable cally to the atmosphere in order to maintain
conditions, possibly augmented by fro11tal the heat balance (Figure 9.6).
or orographic uplift, force the air to rise in Tl1und.erstorms a.ssociated with the so-called
a 'chimney' (Figure 9.21). The updraught is Spanish plt1me can affect sot1thern England
mai11tained by energy released as latent heat . several ti111es during a hot, sultry su1n1ner. They
at both conde11.sation and freezing levels. The occur when very hot air over the Sierra Nevad.a
cloud summit is cl1aracterised by ice crystals mo11ntains (so11th.ern Spain) moves no1·thwards
in an anvil sl1ape, the top of tl1e cloud being over the Bay of Biscay where it draws in cooler,
flattened by upper-air mo·vements. When moist air. Sl1ould tl1e res11ltant storm reach
the ice crystals an . d frozen water droplets, Britain, it can ca11se flasl1 flooding, landslips
'
and electricity blacko11ts.
. ... . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .... .. . . . . .............. . . . . ... . .. . ... .... . ... ...... ... ... .. ... ...... ...... .... . ......... . .. . .... .... ... ... .. . ...... . .. . .. . .. .'.. . ... . ..... ..
•
• • • • • • • • •

220 Weather and climate

 ... --·---�--�---��-·-· -�-----�---"---�---,�"-'--.......-----�--__,.,--'"""""--=-----------
._.,....,_,
..... ,._, -"' --: ·--,2 � A \-w); ,..._,_ z:;;r-r:- =>->?Y..rtc; •--.d .o:nm:':rrt*m ..
-(--',,tc_, @-<

Western Britain Scotland

This area receives relatively Cold air from Arctic (Am) is warmed
little snow, but in a depression on crossing the sea and picks up
(Pm air): there may be some moisture. Still cold, it is forced to rise­
snow in advance of the warm I
(orographically) over the Scottis.h
front (giving way to rain); or I
Highlands, resulting in very heavy
there may be some snow after snowfalls. This situation often occurs

'J
1 1 January 1987
the cold front (if rain gives after a low pressure area has passed
, way to snow). to the north of Scotland and polar air
I • is drawn southwards.
'
N· Eastern Britain

f
Sources of air �- This area gets its heaviest
:J !)
(Figure 9.40) ��
•\ snowfalls when cold air
from the continent (Pc)
Am = Arctic Maritime '---:--? "' crosses the North Sea.
Pc= Polar Continental (- Warmed slightly, it picks
Pm = Polar Maritime "� up some moisture which
is later deposited on
coastal areas, e.g. in
��

Mild SW winds and the

��_// ,J January 1987, parts of
Kent and East Anglia were
influence of Nortl1 cut off for several days.
Atlantic Drift
limit snowfall. J�.....J�
4· 0 200 km

Figure 9.22
. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . ....
.. .. .

Causes of uneven
. ...•..
Snow, sleet, glazed frost and hail cold for snow'. Figure 9 .22 shows the typical con­
snowfall patterns Snow for111s ttn.de.r si1nilar conditions to rain clitions under which snow might fall in Britain.
across Britain (Bergeron-Findeisen process) except tl1at as Sleet is a 1nixture of ice and snow for1ned
dew poi11t te1nperatL1res are u11der 0 C, th.en the
° when the upper air temperature is below
vapot1r condenses clirectly into a solid (sublima­ freezing, allowi11g s11owflakes to for1n, and the
tion, page 215). Ice crystals will for1n if hygro­ lower air temperature is around 2 to 4 °C, which
scopic or freezing 11t1clei are present and these allows tl1eir partial melting.
1nay aggregate to give s11owflakes. As warm air Glazed frost is tl1e reverse of sleet a11d occurs
h.olds more moisture tl1an cold, snowfalls are when water droplets form in the upper air but
l1eaviest wl1e11 tl1e air te1nperatt1re is just below turn to ice on con.tact with a freezing surface.
freezing. As temperatures drop, it beco1nes too 1 When glazed frost forms on roads, it is known
as 1 black ice'.
Hail is 1nade up of froze11 rai11drops whicl1
exceed 5 nun 111 diameter. It t1sually forms in
cumulo-nimbt1s clouds, resulti11g fro1n tl1e uplift
of air by convection· currents, or at a cold front.
It is 111ore co.n1mon il1 areas with warm sum1ners
where there is st1fficient heat to trigger the uplift of
air, and less commo11. in colder climates. I-Iail fre­
quently proves a serious cli1natic l1azard i11 cereal­
growing area.s such as the A1nerican Prairies .
Dew, hoar frost, fog and rime
Dew, l1oar frost and radiation fog all form under
calm, clear, anticyclonic conditions when tl1ere
is rapid terrestrial radiation at night. Dew point is
reached as the air cools by concluction a11d 1nois­
ture in the air, or transpired from pla11ts, con­
Figure 9.23 denses. If dew point is above freezing, dew will
. ............... .............................. less-warm air
Temperature inversion: 300 ' form; if it is below freezing, hoar frost develops.
radiation fog in a valley, warmer air Frost may also be frozen_ dew. Dew and hoar frost
Iceland 11sually occur within 1 m of gro11nd-level.
If tl1e lower air is relatively warm, 111oist a11d
- 200
contains hygroscopic nuclei, and if the ground
cool� rapidly, radiatio11 fog may form. Wl1ere
·- visibility is more than 1 km it is mist, if less than
Figure 9.24 100 1 km, fog. In order for radiation fog to develop, a
-·-············•· ........................ ,.... ELR gentle wind is needed to stir the cold a.ir adjacent
cold air
A low-level temperature to tl1e ground so that cooling affects a greater
• •
1nvers1on
•• • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • •
o���---�--.-��..--��_J.�....-�� ...............................................................................
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 Weather and climate 221
te1nperature 0(()
 Figure 9.25
. . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .

Formation of radiation
fog and smog

metres..... ��- a---,A�n t �cyc_ l �n-eb�ui_l ds

_ �u-p�-:-�-.-,-,�-==- b- �R-ad_i_ati o_n_fo g--,---=---,---,---,-i-- -,---,---::---'--=Sm--,-o_g�--=-�-:------e-:�
.--- i_ _ o _ _ _ _
300 - � --,-

sunshine too weak and wind

calm, clear anticyclonic insufficient to disperse fog; warmer, warm, less dense, clear air
conditions l ess dense air acts as a blanket

stratus c l oud forms where

smoke from industry, power cold and warm air meet smoke, sulphur dioxide, car
stations, traffic and houses fumes, etc. combine with fog
cold air cannot rise above to fofm smog trapped by
rising air is cooled, becomes the ceiling of warm, less blanket of warm air
cooler than the surrounding air dense air air in contact with cold
radiation fog surface cools further,
(stab l e) and so it sinks
form s next to
•
increasing the thickness
ground and rivers

:r of the fog
,
. 1
'
I ,I
=

=..
AA
, __ ______
O -=:=:=::::=-= =;= =l = = = =�- �·: -= - = �- =;= __:_:·-::-::-:.::--:=-=-=--i===--..
I
......l
_
_ _ _
_ __
�; �;_ -• '--� _ ----·
_
r -·-· _
--,-��_L��� - - _ � - - � � � _ � - �� - �--,-�
·-·™'c. 1 ��
11 {'}/,'}
= ,�- _ _ _ _ _ fu
ae_ g1 __

� - - - extrem ely cold l and s u rtace

1

c ld and s rf ce, ra id
_t:
land sur ce even colder
radiation at night
'

Acid rain
This is a11 umbrella term. for tl1e prese11ce in rain­
fall of a series of IJollutants whicl1 are produced
1nainly by the burning of fossil fuels. Coal-fired
power stations, heavy i11.dustry and vehicle
exhat1sts emit st1lphur dioxide a11d nitrogen
oxides. These are carried by prevaili11g winds
across seas a11d 11ational frontiers to be de1Josited
either directly 0.11.to the Ea1ih's surface as dry depo­
sition or to be converted into acids (sulphuric and
nitric acid) wl1ich fall to the ground i.11 rai11 as wet
deposition. Clean raiJ1water has a .PH value of 5 .6,
which is slightly acidic due to tl1e natt1ral presence
.
of carbonic acid (dissolved car ban dioxide). 1oday,
rainfall over most of 1101ih-west Europe has a pH
of about 5, the lowest ever recorded bei11g 2.2 (the
same as lemon jt1ice).
The effects of acid rain include tl1e i11crease
Figure 9.26 thickness of air. Radiation fogs usually occur in in water acidity whicl1 cat1sed the deaths of fisl1
.... ,. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .....................
·· .
Rime frost, North valleys, are densest aroL1nd sunrise, and consist ·. and plant life, 1nainly in Scandinavia11 rivers and
Carolina, USA of droplets whicl1 are st1ffictently small to remain lakes, and the poll11tio11 of fresl1 wa.ter supplies.
,
bt1oyant in tl1e air. Fog is lil<ely to tl1icke11 if l:;orests can be destroyed as importa11t soil nt1tri­
temperatt1re i11version tal<es· place (Figures 9.23 ents (calcit1m a11d potassiu111) are wasl1ed away
and 9.24), i .e. when cold st1rface air is trapped by. a.nd replaced by manganese a11d alumi11.iu1n, botl1
: overlying warmer, less dense air. It is under st1cl1 of which are l1ar1nful to root growth. In tin1e trees
conditio11s, in urban and i11dustrial a.reas, that shed their needles (coniferot1s) and leaves (decid­
s1noke and other pollutants released into tl1e air· t1ous) and become less resistant to drought, frost
are retained as smog (Figt1res 9.25 and 15.55). and disease.
Advection fog for1ns wl1en war1n air passes However, between 1980 and 2000 emissions
over or 1neets witl1 cold. air to give rapid cooling. of sulpl1ur dioxide were reduced by nearly 60 per
In the coastal Atacama Dese1t (Places 24, page · cent in Western Et1rope and by about 30 per cent
,. 180), sufficient droplets fall to the grot1nd · as in North A1nerica (altl1ot1gh in Cl1ina and Sot1th­
'fog-drip' to enable some vegetation growth. east Asia tl1ey nearly doubled, albeit fro1n a low
Ri1ne (Figt1re 9.26). occurs when supercooled base). Although the problem of acid rai11 still
droplets of water, often in the form of fog, come exists, it is becoming less prominent, especially
into contact witl1, a11d freeze 011, solid objects in Western Europe wh.ere rivers and lakes are
such as telegraph poles. a11d trees. -. begi·nning· to recover.
•
'

. , ........ ' ...................... . . . . . .. . . ... .... . ........ . . ..... .. . . ......................................... ...............................................................

222 Weather and climate
 D under 250 mm
D mainly summer,
250-499mm

most vulnerable
to drought

D 500-999mm
winter maximum
Tropic of Cancer ,
·----- - - -- -- -----

D summer
500-999mm Equator r,
I \:_\•
�---... (Ju• �-��.J'l

----------------------------r·------"'---------------
maximum
:��-
� ,.

D evenly
over 1000 mm
distributed
Tropic of Capricorn --- - - _ [)_ ,, ------- - - - - - - � � - -·� ;_ - _·: _ - --.

D over 1000 mm
summer rain
(n1onsoon)

Figure9.27
......................................... World precipitation: distribution and the overhead sun, the presence of mountain ra11ges
World precipitation: reliability or ocean currents, the monsoon, and continen­
mean annual totals tality (distance from the sea).
Geographers are interested in describing dis­
and seasonal
distribution tribt1tions and in identifyi11g a11d accounting More rece11tly, geograpl1ers have become
for a11y resulta11t IJatterns. Where precipitation increasingly concer11ed witl1 shorter-term· vari­
is co11cerned, geograpl1ers 11ave, in the past, ations. ln many parts of the world, economic
concentrated on lo11g-ter1n distribt1tions which develo1Jment and lifestyles are 1nore closely
show either mean a.n11ual a111ounts or seasonal linked to the dt1ratio11, intensity and reliability
variatio11s. Long-term fluctuations vary �011sid­ of rainfall tha11 to annual amounts. Precipitation
erably across the globe but, .nevertheless, a 1nap is more valuable when it falls dL1ring the growing
sl1ovving world precipitatio11 does sl1ow identifi­ season (Canadia11 Prairies) a11d less effective if·
able patterns (Figure 9.27). it occurs when evapotra11spiration rates are at
Equatorial areas l1ave high annt1al rainfall their highest (Sahel countries). In the same way,
totals due to the contint1ous uplift of air rest1lting lengthy episodes of steady rainfall as experienced
from tl1e convergence of the trade winds and in Britain provide a more beneficial water st1pply
stro11g convectional curre.nts (page 226). The tl1an storms of a short and intensive duration
presence of the ITCZ ensures that rain falls which occt1r in tropical semi-a.rid cli1nates. This
throughout the year. Fu1·ther away from the is because moisture penetrates the soil more
Equator, rainfall totals decrease and the length gradually and the risks of soil erosio11, flooding
of tl1e dry season increases. These tropical areas, and wa.ter shortages are reduced.
especially those inland, experience convectional Of ut1nost importance is the reliability of
rai11fall in summer, when the ��n is overhead, rainfall. There appears to be a strong positive cor­
followed by a dry winter. Latitudes adjacent to relation (Framework 19, page 612) between rain­
the tropics receive 1nini111al amounts as they cor­ fall totals and rainfall reliability- i.e. as rainfall
respond to areas of high pressure caused by st1b­ totals increase, so too does rainfall reliability. In
sid�.ng, and therefore warming, air (Figure 7.2). Britai11 and the Amazon Basin, rainfall is reliable
To tl1e poleward side of this arid zone, rainfall with relatively little variation in annt1al totals
qua11tities increase again and. the length of tl1e from year to year (Figure 9.28).
dry season decreases. These tem . perate latitudes Elsewhere, especially in monsoo11 or tropical
receive large amounts of rainfall, spread evenly con t. i11ental climates, there is a pronounced
tl1roughout the year, due to cyclonic conditions wet and dry season. Conseqttently, if tl1e rains
and local orographic effects. Towards the polar fail 011e year, the result can be disastrous for
areas, wl1ere cold air. desce11ds to give stable condi­ crops, and possibly also for animals and people.
tions, precipitation totals decrease and rain gives The most vulnerable areas, st1ch as 11orth-east
way to snow. Between 30� and 40° nortl1 and south Bra.zil and tl1e Sah�l countries, lie near to d.esert
(i11 the west of continents) the Mediterranea11. . margins (Figure 9.. 28). Here, wl1ere even a s111a.ll
climate is characterised by winter rai11 and sul).1mer variation of 10 per cent below the mean can be
drought. This general latitudinal zo11ing of rainfall critical, n1any places often experience a. variation
is interrupted. locally by the appa1·ent movement of in excess of 30 per cent.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • � • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ! • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • � • • •
•

Weather and climate 223

 Figure 9.28
- ...................-............ .
World rainfall
reliability .,
•

..

Tropic of Cancer - t..:t - -

-1 �.,.; . - - - - - - - - - - - - - , . . ._ - - _�- - - - - - - - - - - -�l _ -
) -,- - - - - - - - - :;,-. �- - - � - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
� p �
-� ,.r1't"'-� �
Percentage departure Equator �
/ Q /I
-
--=-�������-----.f-�---,�=--���� t-�---t--r'������:L.;.,.-.f-=- 9. ������
from the mean .,--�� ·�
c�- ""' ' •
( ' ,_-,:,,
D over30
�

./ ' ••
Tropic of Capricorn r'l /' '<.J\
---------------------------
D 21-30
- - (,l _ :!, _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _, - - -· - - � - - - � - - - - - - - - -
(1

D 11-20
• 1O and under

Atmospheric motion Average pressure at sea-level is 1013 mb. However,

the isobar pattern is usu.ally 1nore i111portant i11
T11e movement of air in. tl1e atmospl1eric system terms of explaining tl1e weather than the actt1a1
. may be vertical (i.e. rising or subsiding) or 11ori- figures. The closer together the isobars, the greater
zontal; in tl1e latter case it is commonly kI1own as the difference in pressure - the p1·essure gradient
wind. WiI1ds rest1lt from differences in air pres­ - an.ct the stronger the wiI1d. Wind is nature's way
st1re which in tt1rn 111ay be caused by differences of balancing ot1t differences in presst1re as well as
in temperature and the force exerted by gravity, ten1perature and hu111idity.
as pressure decreases rapidly with height (Figure Figure 9 .29 shows the two basic p1·essure
9 .1). An increase in temperature causes air to heat, syste111s whicl1. affect the British Isles. 111 addi-
expand, become less dense and rise, creating an tion to tl1e differe11ces in pressure, wind speed
.. area of low presst1re below. Conversely, a drop in and wind directio11, tl1e diagrams also sl1ow that
temperature produces an area of high pressure. winds blow neither directly �t right-angles to the
Differences in pressure are sl1own on maps by isobars along the pressure gradie11t, nor parallel to
isobars, which are li11es joini11g places of equal tl1e1n. ,.fl1is is due to the effects of the Coriolis force
Figure 9.29 pressure.
: To draw isobars, pressure readings are and of friction, wl1ich are additional to the forces
. . . .. . . .... ... . ... . . . . . . . . ............... .
,

The two basic normally reduced to represent pressure at sea­ exerted b·y the pressure gradient a11d gravity.
pressure systems level. Pressure is meast1red in 1nillibars (mb) a11d
'
affecting Britain it is usual for isobars to be drawn at 4 1nb i11tervals. The Coriolis force
a low pressure b high pressure If tl1e Earth did 11ot rotate and was co1nposed
wind direction
entirely of eitl1er land or water, tl1ere wot1ld be
one large convection cell in each l1emisphere
_ would be parallel to
(Fig1.1re 9 .30). SL1rface winds
pressure gradie11ts and. wottld blow directly from
high . to low presst1re areas. In reality� the Eartl1
992 higfi does rotate and the distribution of land a.nd sea
996 1024
1000 is uneven. Conseqt1ently, 1nore tl1an one cell
1004 is created (Figu1�es 9 .34 and 9 .35) as rising air,
war111ed at the Equator, loses heat to space- there
----, 020---­ is less cloud cover to retain it- and as it travels
winds blow towards the centre (rising as gentle out-blowing wjnds; descending further from its sot1rce of heat. A ft1rtl1er conse­
the.y do so) at an angle slightly across the air flows in a clockwise direction quence is that moving air appears to be deflected
isobars and in an anticlockwise direction; to the tight i11 the northern hemisphere and to
winds are usually strong due to the steep
pressure gradient tl1e left in the southern hemisphere. Tl1is is a
resttlt of the Coriolis force.
................................................................................. , ..................................................................... ............. ......... ..
224 Weather and climate
'
•
 cold air descends, POLE
creating high pressure
POLE an astronaut in a space shuttle, the path would look

/!\)
straight). This helps to explain why the prevailing
winds blowing from the tropical high pressure zone
approach Britain from the south-west rather than
warm air
rises, from the south. In theory, if the Coriolis force acted
'--��-EQUATOR,--�� creating convect,ion alone, the resultant wind would blow in a circle.
cell in each

�\ f:!
low Winds in the upper troposphere, unaffected
pressure hemisphere
by friction with the Earth's surface, show that
there is a balance between the forces exerted by
the pressure gradient and the Coriolis deflection.
POLE The result is the geostrophic wind which blows
cold air descends, parallel to isobars (Figure 9.32). The existence of
creating high pressure POLE the geostrophic wind was recognised io 185 7 by a
Dutchman, Buys Ballot, whose law states that 'if
Figure9.30 Imagine that Person A stands in the centre of you stand, in the northern hemisphere, with your
Air movement on a a large rotating disc and throws a baJJ to Person B, back to the wind, low pressure is always to your left
rotation-free Earth standing on the edge of that moving disc. As Person and high pressure to your right'.
A watches, the ball appears to take a curved path Friction, caused by the Earth's surface, upsets
away from Person B - due to the fact that, while the the balance between the pressme gradient and the
ball is in transit, Person B has been moved to a new Coriolis force by reducing the effect of the latter.
position by the rotation of the disc (Figure 9.31). As the pressure gradient becomes relatively more
Similarly, the Earth's rotation through 360° eve1y important when friction is reduced with altitude,
24 hours means that a wind blowing in a northerly the wind blows across isobars towards the low pres­
Figure9.31
direction in the northern hemisphere appears to sure (Figure 9.29). Deviation from the geostrophic
The Coriolis force have been diverted to the right on a curved trajec­ wind is less pronounced over water because its
in the northern surface is smoother than that of land.
hemisphere tory by 15 ° of longitude for every hour (though to
Person B's Person B's position Figure9.32
position when ball is thrown The geostrophic
when ball • 1012 mb 1008 1004 1000 wind and the
reaches /! ball 'appears' to effect of friction
e1ge
0.
�\ curve to the right
1 the press�re gradient: winds
at right-angles to isobars (in the northern
\ and to miss Person B hemisphere)
d ISC �

Person A throws
from centre of disc High Low
pressure pressure
direction""

t� ""'
of rotation 4 friction reduces Coriolis
of disc force: wind blows at
low pressure a gentle angle across

T
south wlnd,expected to 3 the geostrophic wind, the isobars and towards
blow from 'high' to 'low' / a balance between ,h, low
1 \
sub-tropical
1 and 2: blows
hig_ti pressure zone parallel to isobars
I I
Earth (disc) r'otates from westKo east

A hierarchy of atmospheric motion Although defining four levels, he stressed that there
were important interrelationships between each
An appreciation of the movement of air is funda­ (Figure 9.33).
mental to an understanding of the workings of
the atmosphere and its effects on our weather and Characteristic
climate. The extent to which atmospheric motion Scale horizontal size (km) Systems
influences local weather and dimate depends on 1 Planetary 5000-10000 Rossby waves, ITCZ
winds at a variety of scales and their interaction in
a hierarchy of patterns. One such hierarchy, which 2 Synoptic(maao) 1000-5000 Monsoons, hurricanes,
depressions, anticyclones
ls useful in studying the influence of atmospheric
motion, was suggested by B.W. Atkinson in 1988. 3 Meso-scale 10-1000 Land and sea breezes,
mountain and valley winds,
fdhn, thunderstorms
Figure9.33
A hierarchy ofatmosphere motion 4 Small (micro) 0.1-10 Smoke plumes, urban
········· ······················ ··············· ··· · ···· · ······ turbulence
systems (after Atkinson, 1988)
 Planetary scale: by Hadley (1735), The discovery of three cells
was made by Ferrel (1856) and refined by Rossby
atmospheric circulation (1941). Despite many modern advances using
It has already been shown that there is a surplus radiosonde readings, satellite imagery and com­
of energy at the Equator and a deficit in the outer p1..1ter modelling, this tricellular model still forms
atmosphere and nearer to the poles (Figure 9.6). the basis of our understanding of the general cir­
figure9.34 Therefore, theoretically, surplus energy should be culation of the atmosphere.
transferred to areas with a deficiency by means of
Tricellular model
showing atmospheric a single convective cell (figure 9.30). This would The tricel lular model
circulatio n in the be the case for a non-rotating Earth, a concept The meeting of the trade winds in the equatorial
northern hemisphere first advanced by Halley (1686) and expanded region forms the inter-tropical convergence
zone, or ITCZ. The trade winds, which pick up
latent heat as they cross warm, tropical oceans,
PF JS polar front Jet stream are forced to rise by violent convection cur­
STJS sub-tropical Jet stream rents. The unstable, warrn, moist air is rapidly
cold air sinks giving ITCZ inter-tropical convergence zone
high pressure and cooled adiabatically to produce the towering
dry.stable cumulo-nimbus clouds, frequent afternoon
conditions
warm air from tropics meets
t
7-lOkm
cold air from polar areas:
instability; depressions
thunderstorms and low pressure characteristic
of the equatorial climate (page 316). It is these
J weak strong upward currents that form the 'power­
N.Pole Polar cell warm air house of the general global circulation' and
rises
high pressure which turn latent heat first into sensible heat
at poles: divergence PFJS descending air warms by and later into patential energy. At ground-level,
convergence and Ferrel cell compression, giving the ITCZ experiences only very gentle, variable
uplift create an area of cloudless. stable
low pressure: depressions conditions winds known as the doldrums .
horizontal movement cold air sinks As rising air cools to the temperature of the
by warm, south-westerly surrounding environmenta l air, uplift ceases and
winds STJS upper air cools
divergence and as it moves it begins to move away from the Equator. Further
subsidence create an northwards ara
area,of high pressure cooling, increasing density, and diversion by the
therefore sinl<s
Hadley cell Coriolis force cause the air to slow down and
horizontal transfer to subside, forming the descending limb of the
by trade winds Hadley cell (Figures 9.34 and 9.35). Jn looking
air cools to at the northern hemisphere {the southern is its
temperature of
warm surrounding ain mirror image), it can be seen that the air subsides
air rises instability; at about 30°N of the Equator to create the sub­
convectional rain
tropical high pressure belt with its clear skies and
dry, stable conditions (Figure 9.36). On reaching
the Earth's surface, the cell is completed as some
of the air is returned to the Equator as the north­
east trade winds.

15
-
---- - --- ----------- ----
tropical tropopause
polar front
o?2�us;- -
.d-\ati\lJdeu
- ... - cumulo­
e:!. ,o
.?
t'('\�-_.- -

i _ --�:""" ) i
nause
. nimbus
QI o\afuo?�i:. -- IL clouds (mirror image
in S'Outhern
Hadley cell hemisphere)
Ferrel cell
5
II
II
II
Figure9.35 ,..... ....___ •
���o,--+������� r-�������-,-�������-.��������� �II
Tricellularmodel t o show North Pole 60° N 30° N Equator Latitude
atmospheric c irculat io n in high low high low Pressure
the northernhemisphere easterlies warm south-westerlies north-east trades Global winds
and within the tropopause
. . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ... .... . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .... . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... . . ....... . . . . . .. ... ......... . . . . . . . . . ....... . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
226 Weather and climate
 The remaining air is diverted polewards, heat, it clescends to form another stable area of
forming the warm south-westerlies which collect high pressure. Air returning to the polar front
moisture when they cross sea areas. These warm does so as the cold easterlies.
Figure9.36
winds meet cold Arctic air at the polar front This overall pattern is affected by the apparent
Image taken by the (about 60°N) and are uplifted to form an area of
Meteosat geosynchro­ movement of the overhead sun to the north and
nous satellite. Notice low pressure and the rising limb of the Ferrel and south of the Equator. This movement causes the
the clouds resulting Polar cells (Figures 9.34 and 9.35). The resultant seasonal shift of the heat £quator, the ITCZ, the
from uplift at the ITCZ unstable conditions produce the heavy cyclonic equatorial low pressure zone and global wind and
(not a continuous belt), rainfall associated with mid-latitude depressions. rainfall belts. Any variation in the characteristics
the clear skies over the Depressions are another mechanism by which
Sahara, the polar front of the ITCZ- i.e. its location or width -can have
over the north Atlantic, surplus heal is transferred. While some of this drastic consequences for the surrounding cli­
and a depression over rising air eventually returns to the tropics, some mates, as seen in the Sahel droughts of the early
Britain travels towards the poles where, having lost its 1970s and most of the 1980s (Case Study 7).

..liMI.-"!��.
·.��
Rossby waves and jet streams four to six in summer and three in winter. These
Evidence of strong winds in the upper troposphere waves form a complete pattern around the globe
first came when First World War Zeppelins were (Figure 9.37b and c).
blown off-course, and several mter-war balloons Further investigation has shown that the
were observed travelling at speeds in excess of velocity of these upper westerlies is not inter­
200 km/hr. Pilots in the Second World War, flying nally uniform. Within them are narrow bands of
at heights above 8 km, found eastward flights extremely fast-moving air known as jet streams.
much faster and their return westward journeys Jet streams, which help in the rapid transfer of
much slower than expected, while north-south energy, can exceed speeds of 230 km/hr, which
flights tended to be blown off-course. The expla­ is sufficient to carry a balloon, or ash from a
nation was found to be the Rossby waves, which volcano, around Lhe Earth within a week or two
often follow a meandering path (Figure 9.37a), (Figure 9.39 and Case Study 1). Of five recognis­
distorting the upper-air westerlies. The number of able jet streams, two are particularly significant,
meanders, or waves, varies seasonally, with usually with a third having seasonal importance.
· · · ·· · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ... ---······ · · · · ·· ··· ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · · · ·
Weather and climate 227
 The polar front jct stream (PFJS, f.igure 9.34) the usual path of the PFJS over Britain is oblique­
varies between latitudes 40° and 60° in both i.e. towards the north-east - this accounts for our
hemispheres and forms the division between the frequent wet and windy weather. Occasionally,
Ferrel and Polar cells, Le. the boundary between this path may be temporarily altered by a station­
warm tropical and cold polar air. The Pf.JS varies ary or blocking anticyclone (Figures 9.38b
in extent, location and intensity and is mainly and 9.48) which may produce extremes of climate
responsible for giving fine or wet weather on the such as the hot, dry summers of 1976 and 1989 or
Earth's surface. Where, in the northern hemi­ the cold January of 1987.
sphere, the jet stream moves south (Figure 9.38a), The subtropical jet stream, or SlJS, occurs
it brings with it colcl air which descends in a clock­ about 25 ° to 30° from the Equator and forms the
wise direction to give dry, stable conditions associ­ boundary between the 1-Iadley and Ferrel cells
ated with areas of high pressure (anticyclones, (Figures 9.34 and 9.35). This meanders less than
page 234). When the now-warmed jet stream the PFJS, has lower wind velocities, but follows a
figure9.37 backs northwards, it takes with it warm air which similar west-east path.
Rossbywaves and jet rises in an anticlockwise direction to give the The easterly equatorial jet stream is more
streams (northern strong winds and heavy rainfall associated with seasonal, being associated with the summer
hemisphere) areas of low pressure (depressions, page 230). As monsoon of tile Indian subcontinent (page 239).
a Rossby waves NP North Pole b In winter viewed from above North Pole c in summer
(northern hemisphere} R ridge
T trough

Figure9.38 a the PFJS b the PFJS with blocking anticyclone

The polar front jet stream
(PFJS) (northern hemisphere) • path of Jet stream -....�_.,,...,..___ usual path
of jet stream

warm air from ........

� ridge tropics tak n ridge
northwards� (high pressure) a temporary area
(high pressure) � .....:.:=---1-- of high pressure
�.::....
cold air blocks the Jet
from polar .........____ � stream, causing it
areas carried � to divide so that
southwards trough depressions can
(low pressure) pass to the north
and south of
Britain
 Macro-scale: synoptic systems and stability. flor example, tropical air moving
n.orthwards is cooled and becomes more stable,
The concept of air masses is important because while polar air moving south becomes warmer
air masses help to categorise world climate types and increasingly unstable. Each air mass there­
(Chapter 12). In regions where one air mass is fore brings its own characteristic weather condi­
dominant all year, there is little seasonal var.ia­ tions to �he British Isles. The general conditions
tion in weather, for example at the tropics and expected with each air mass are given in
at the poles. Areas such as the British Isles, where Figure 9.41. However, it should be remembered
air masses constantly interchange, experience that each air mass is unique and depende.nt on:
much greater seasonal and diurnal variation in the climatic conditions in the source region at
their weather. the time of its development; the path which it
subsequently follows; the season in which it
Air masses and fronts: how they affect occurs; and, since it has a three-dimensional
the British Isles form, the vertical characteristics of tl1e atmos­
If air remains stationary in an area for several phere at the time.
days, it tends to assume the temperature and When two air masses meet, they do not mix
humidity properties of that area. Stationary air readily, due to differences in temperature and
is mainly found in the high pressure belts of the density. The point at whicl1 they meet i� called a
subtropics (the Azores and the Sahara) and in front, A wann front is found where warm air is
high latitudes (Siberia and northern Canada). advancing and being forced to override cold air. A
The areas in which homogeneous air masses cold front occurs when advancing cold air under­
develop are called source regions. Air masses can cuts a body of warm air. Tn both cases, the rising
be classified according to: air cools and usually produces clouds, easily seen
• the latitude in which they originate, which on satellite weather photographs (Figures 9.67
determines their temperature - Arctic (A), and 9.68); these clouds often generate precipita­
Polar (P), or Tropical (7) tion. Fronts may be several hundred kilometres
• the nature of the surface over which they wide and they extend at relatively gentle gradi­
develop, which affects their moisture content ents up into the atmosphere. The most notable
-maritime (111), or continental (c). type of front, the polar front, occurs when warm,
The five major air masses which affect the British moist, Tm air meets colder, drier, Pm air. ft is at the
Isles at various times of the year (Am, Pm, Pc, Tm polar front that depressions form. Depressions
and Tc) are derived by combining these charac­ are areas of low pressure. They form most readily
teristics of latitude and humidity (Figure 9.40). over the oceans in mid-latitudes, and track
When air masses move from their source region eastwards bringing cloud and rain to western
they are modified by the surface over which they margins of continents.
pass and this alters their temperature, humidity

;q \.
o
Figure9.40

�f
-,

�r
Air masses that affect
the British Isles .J
Arctic laritime(ir �
from tJ:fe Arctic O�n;
north r pe \ ( \.
l') .,. �
Am t� p
�
f
�

o·�
. _4.. � � Polar continental air
/
'-
. Q .111....Pm �
P
� from Siberian high

�
pressure area (winter);
Polar maritime air � easterly air type
from northern Canad;i �
and the Arctic Ocean;
north-westerly air type

t;p-
Tc �.....,
_ ...._____

Tropical maritime air

from t_h e Azores
} J
r Trqpicak6ntinental air from the
�
§Jla"n sub-tropical'high press.u_i;e
area; south or south-easterly air type
/

high pressure area;

south-westerly air type .{______J
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · - · · · · ·· · · · ·· · ·
Weather and climate 229
 Polar maritime (Pm) Very Arctic maritime (Am) Very cold conditions in
common air mass over Britain. wlnter;cold in spring; rare in summer. Slowly
Gives cool conditions heats up as It crosses the sea,plcking up some
throughout the year. Warms moisture and becoming unstable In Its lower
slightly as It crosses the layers. Snow In winter In Scotland; hall In spring.
Atlantic to become unstable often In heavy showers. Usually good visibility.
in its lower layers. Gives heavy Often lasts several days.Temperatures in London
showers as It crosses may be just above freezing point in winter and
highlands, separated by bright precipitation Is limited. Winds often strong In
intervals. Associated with the north.
f-'>--'-_,_.,_-..!..____.J cumuloform clouds.
Good visibility. Often strong winds and gales occur after the
passing of a cold front. northerly

I
I Polar continental (Pc) Gives very cold
I temperatures in winter (London below0° C).

..
I
I north· Begins stable, but warms slightly crossing
westerly the North Sea to become unstable In lower
layers and giving heavy snow In eastern
Britain (bright and
Pm and Tm meet along the polar front. clear on west coast).
Formation of depressions with warm and easterly Often lasts several
cold fronts which give heavy rain (frontal days if blocking
and orographic). anticyclone interrupts
prevailing westerlies.
• Wind chill factor is
lI high. If this air stream
occurs In summer,
II It brings warm
conditions and Is
I more stable.
I

Tropical maritime (Tm)

Acommon air mass over Britain.
Occurs during warm sector of a south·
depression. Very mild and wet In westerly
winter, with a thick cloud cover. Tropical continental (Tc) Only occurs
Often stratuscloud giving hill and In summer when sub-tropical high
coastal fog. Poor visibility. No frost. pressure moves north. Heatwave
Warm in summer, though not hot. conditions ( 1976, 1989).Very stable in
Lower air Is stable but If forced to lower layers (drought), though upper
riseover hills the upper layers can layers may become unstable with
become conditionally unstable to thunderstorms (convectional uplift).
give thundery showers. Winds usually moderate to fresh. Gentle winds, dusty haze. North-west
Scotland can be cloudy and wet.

Figure9.41 Depressions 1 The embryo depression begins as a small

Air masses and the The polar front theory was put forward by a wave on the polar front. It is here that warm,
British weather
group of Norwegian meteorologists in the early moist, tropical (Tm) air meets colder, drier,
1920s. Althougb some aspects have been refined polar (Pm) air (Figure 9.42). Recent studies
since the innovation of radiosonde readings and have shown the boundary between tbe two
satellite imagery, the basic model for the forma­ air masses to be a zone rather than the simple
tion of frontal depressions remains valid. The linear division claimed in early models. The
following account describes a 'typical' or 'model' convergence of the two air masses results in
depression (Framework 12, page 352). lt should the warmer, less dense air being forced to rise
be remembered, however, that individual depres­ in a spiral movement. This upward move­
sions may vary widely from this model. ment results in 'less' air at the Earth's surface,
Depressions follow a life-cycle in whkb thiee creating an area of below-average or low
main stages can be identified: embryo, maturity pressure. The developing depression, with its
and decay (Figures 9.42, 9.43 and 9.44). warm front (the leading edge of the tropical

colder, denser, polar air

,-,u th, w,...., ,,,

Figure9.42

Life-cycle of a
depression: Stage 1 -
'wave' on the
polar front

! warm, moist, lighter, tropical

air is forced upwards over the
colder air
embryo depression
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
230 Weather and climate
 air) and cold front (the leading edge of the and has a steeper gradient than the warm
polar air), usually moves in a north-easterly front (Figure 9.45).
direction under the influence of tl1e upper Progressive undercutting by cold air at the
westerlies, i.e. the polar front jet stream. rear of the warm sector gives a second episode
2 A mature depression is recognised by the of precipitation - altl1ough with a greater
increasing amplitude of the initial wave intensity and a shorter duration than at the
(Figure 9.43). Pressure continues to fall as more warm front. This band of meso-scale pre­
warm air, in the warm sector, is forced to rise. cipitation may be only 10-50 km in width.
As pressure falls and the pressure gradient Although the air behind the cold front is
steepens, the inward-blowing winds increase in colder than that in advance of the warm
strength. Due to the Coriolis force (page 224), front (having originated in and travelled
these anticlockwise-blowing winds come from through more northerly latitudes), it becomes
the south-west. As the relatively warm air of unstable, forming cumulo-nimbus clouds
the warm sector continues to rise along the and heavy showers. Winds often reach their
warm front, it eventually cools to dew point. maximum strength at the cold front and
Some of its vapour will condense to release change to a more north-westerly direction
large amounts of latent heat, and clouds will after its passage (Figure 9.45).
develop. Continued uplift a11d cooling will 3 The depression begins to decay when the cold
cause precipitation as the clouds become front catches up the warm front to form an
both thicker and lower. occlusion or occluded front (Figure 9.44). By
Satellite photographs have shown that there this stage, the Tm air will have been squeezed
is likely to be a band of 'meso-scale precipita­ upwards leaving no warm sector at ground-
tion' extending several hundred kilometres in 1evel. As the uplift of air is reduced, so too
length and up to 150 km in width along, and are (or will be) the amount of condensation,
just in front of, a warm front. As temperatures the release of latent heat and the amount
rise and the uplift of air decreases within the and pattern of precipitation - there may be
warm sector, there is less chance of precipi­ only one episode of rain. Cloud cover begins

(
tation and the low cloud may break to give to decrease, pressure rises and wind speeds
some sunshine. The cold front moves faster decrease as the colder air replaces the uplifted

( �.,.. .;.
r
air and 'infills' the depression.

( (
� ,ow ... �,;agto fill
low pressure usual path of
caused by rising depressions
warm air
occlusion: cold front has caught up
the warm front and all the warm air _ r:f �6
has been uplifted; no further decrease
in pressure; in-blowing winds begin to
'infill' the depression �
1000
�
strong winds in steep pressure
gradient decrease as depression
begins to fill; brighter, showery
weothe, \ '---. 1 °"4

warm sector: coid air

� cold air
',L:__ -----1012--- warm moist, tropical
cold air undercuts and air being 'squeezed'
forces the warm air to rise; upwards 1008
warm air
precipitation results from
the warm air being cooled
1016-------..J.....-

warm air rises over cold air and is

'trailing' cold front: further
./
________,
cooled to dew point, giving condensation, ""'-
> ---waves likely to develop, -----10'2�
clouds and precipitation
forming new depressions

Figure9.43 Figure9.44

Life-cycle of a depression: Stage 2 - maturity Life-cycle of a depression: Stage 3 - decay

· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · ·· ··· · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ···
Weather and climate 231
Figure9.4S
Weather associated
with the passing upper-air westerlies Qet stream): Ci
of a typical mid­ Cb depression moves north-eastwards
latitude depression
9000
warm sector
..
.c

\
Cl
] 6000
Ac

cold air
3000 undercutting

---
warm air Sc
Ns St

Cu
sea-level
read from right ro left (i.e. from 1 to 5)
- - I -ill
2. Passing of the warm front : 1. App!oach of depression 1
Pressure rise continues more sudden rise steady fall ceases steady fall
slowly
Wind direction NW veers from SW to NW SW veers from SSE to SW SSE
Wind s peed squally; speed slowly very strong to gale decreases (e.g. force 2-4) strong (e.g. force 5-6) slowly increases (e.g. force 1-3)
decreases (e.g. force force (e.g. force 6-8)
3-6)
Temperature cold (e.g. 3°Cl sudden deaease warm/mild (e.g.10'() sudden rise cool (e.g. 6°()
(e.g. winter)
Relative rapid fall high during steady and high high during precipitation slow rise
humidity precipitation
Cloud decreasing; in very thick and low or may clear; St, Sc, Ac low and thick Ns high and thin; in succession, Ci, Cs,
(Figure 9.20) succession, Cb and Cu towering Cb Ac.As

Precipitation heavy showers short period of heavy drizzle or stops raining continuous rainfall, steady none
rain or hail and quite heavy
Visibility very good; poor in poor often poor decreases rapidly good but beginning to decrease
showers

Places 29 Storms in southern England

South-east England: 'The Great Storm� 7 6 October 0030 hrs: Radio weather forecast:
16 October 1987 warning of severe gales.
This storm, the worst to affect south-east England 0130 hrs: Police and fire services alerted about
since 1703, developed so rapidly that its severity extreme winds.
was not predicted in advance weather forecasts.
0500 hrs: Winds reached 94 km/hr at Heathrow and
1 7 October: High winds and heavy r ain forecast for 100 km/hr on parts of the south coast.
the end of the week.
0800 hrs: Centre of depression reached the North
15 October1200 hrs: Depression expected to move Sea. Winds over southern England dropped to
along the English Channel with fresh to strong winds. 50-70 km/hr.

2130 hrs: TV weather forecast: strong winds 1200 hrs:'The Great Storm'was over.
gusting to 50 km/hr.

· · ·
········ · ·· ·· · ········· ················ ····· ···· ····· ······ ········· ··· ·· · ········ · · ············· · · ··· ··· · ··· ·· ···· · · · ····· · ······ · ··· · · · · ··· · ·· ·· ······ ··· ·· ······ ··· ·
232 Weather and climate
 \
- __.. predicted path
� actual path

figure9.46
1he Great Storm;
160ctober 1987

The storm began on 15 October as a small wave asleep, it left a trail of death and destruction. There
on a cold front in the Bay of Biscay, where the were 16 deaths; several houses collapsed and many
few weather ships give only limited information. others lost walls, windows and roofs; an estimated
It was caused by contact between very warm air 15 million trees were blown over, blocking railways
from Africa and cold air from the North Atlantic. and roads; one-third of the trees in Kew Gardens
It appeared to be a 'typical' depression until, at were destroyed; power lines were cut and, in some
about 1800 hrs on 15 October, it unexpectedly remote areas, not restored for several days; few
deepened giving a central pressure reading commuters managed to reach London the next
of 964 mb and creating an exceptionally day; a ferry was blown ashore at Folkestone; and
steep pressure gradient. The exact cause of this insurance claims set an all-time record.
is unknown but it was believed to result from a
Once every SO years, winds exceeding 100 km/hr
combination of an exceptionally strongjet stream
with gusts of over 165 km/hr can be expected north
(initiated on 13 October by air spiralling upwards
of a line from Cornwall to Durham, and even stronger
along the east coast of North America in Hurricane
winds, gusting to 185 km/hr, once in 20 years in
Floyd) and extreme warming over the Bay of Biscay
western and northern Scotland. The winds associated
(see hurricanes, page 235). Together, these could have
with the Great Storm were remarkable not so much
caused an excessive release of latent heat energy
for their strength as for their occurrence over south­
which North American meteorologists compare
east England. Here, the predicted return period can
with the effect of detonating a bomb. It was this
be measured in centuries rather than decades.
unpredicted deepening, combined with the change
of direction from the English Channel towards the
10 March 2008
Midlands, which caught experts by surprise.
Southern Britain experienced the worst storm for
The depression moved rapidly across southern over 20 years with winds of 1 SO km/hr recorded
England, clearing the country in six hours (Figure on the Isle of Wight and torrential rain falling over
9.46). Winds remained light in and around the Wales and southern England. Flights to and from
centre (Birmingham 13 km/hr), but the strong Heathrow were either cancelled or diverted and
pressure gradient on its southern flank resulted in there were delays at other London airports. Cross­
severe winds from Portland Bill (102 km/hr,gusting to Channel ferries to France and Ireland were also
141 km/hr) to Dover (115 km/hr, gusting to 167 km/hr). cancelled and over 10 000 homes in south-west
Although the storm passed within a few hours, and England lost their electricity.
luckily during the night when most people were

·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .. · · · · · · · · · · .. · · · .. · .. · · · · · · · .... · .. · .. · · · · · · · .. · · · · · · · ·............................ -���-�h·��·��·d· �i'i��-��· ....'ii3

 Anticyclones blow outwards and clockwise in the northern
hemisphere. Anticyclones may be 3000 km in
An anticyclone is a large mass of subsiding air
. diameter- much larger than depressions - and,
which pro<.1uces an area of high pressure on the
once estabUshed, can give several days or, under
Earth's surface (figure 9.47). The source of the
extreme conditions, several weeks, of settled
air is the upper atmosphere, where amounts or
weather. There are also differences, again unlike in
water vapour are limited. On its descent, tJ1c air
figure9.47 a depression, between the expected weather con­
warms at the DALR (page 216), so dry conditions
ditions in a summer and a winter anticyclone.
Anticyclone over result. Pressure gradients are gentle, resulting in
the British Isles weak winds or calms (Figure 9.29b). The winds Weather conditions over Britain
Summer Due to the absence of cloud, there
is intense insolalion which gives hot, sunny clays
(up lo 3o·c in southern England) and an absence
of rain. Rapid racliaUon at night, under clear
skies, can lead to temperature inversions and
the formation of dew and mist, although these
rapidly clear the following morning. Coastal
areas may experience advection fogs and land
and sea breezes, while highlands have mountain
and valley winds (pages 240-241 ). If the air has
its source over North Africa - that is, if it is a Tc
air mass (Figure 9.40)- then heatwave condi­
tions tend to result. Often, after several days of
increasing thermals, there is an increased risk of
thunderstorms and the so-called Spanish plume
(page 220).
Winter J\llhough the sinking air again gives
cloudless skies, there is little incoming radiation
during the clay due to the low angle of the sun.
At night, the absence of clouds means low tem­
peratures and the development of fog and frost.
These may take a long time to disperse the next
day in the weak sunshine. Polar continental (Pc)
air (Figure 9.40), with its source in central Asia
and a slow movement over the cold European
land mass, is cold, dry and stable until it reaches
the North Sea where its lower layers acquire some
warmth and moisture. This can cause heavy
snowfalls on the east coast (Figure 9.22).
Blocking anticyclones
These occur when cells of high pressure detach
themselves from the major high pressure areas
of the subtropics or poles (Figure 9.38b). Once
created, they last for several days and 'block'
eastward-moving depressions (Figure 9.48) to
create anomalous conditions such as extremes of
temperature, rainfall and sunshine- as in Britain
in the summer of 1995 and the winter of J 987.

____., tracks of frontal depressions Figure9.48

upper westerly flow with A blocking anticyclone over Scandinavia: the
frontal depressions
upper wes1erlies divide upwind or the block
- surface flow and flow around ii with their associated rain­
• positive temperature anomalies fall; there are positive 1emperature anomalies
G negative temperature anomalies within 1he southerly flow to the west of the
� block and negative anomalies to the east

.... · · · ······ · ········· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

234 Weather and climate
 Tropical cyclones al low levels, and can have a diameLer of up to
Tropical cyclones are systems of intense low pres­ 650 km. Unlike depressions, hurricanes occur
sure known locally as hurricanes, typhoons and when temperatures, pressure and humidity are
c �clones (Pigure 9.49). They are characterised by uniform over a wide area in the lower tropo­
wmds of extreme velocity and are accompanied sphere for a lengthy period, and anticyclonic
by torrential rainfall - two factors that can cause conditions exist in the upper troposphere. These
widespread damage and loss of life (Places 31, conditions are essential for the development,
page 238). As yet, there is still insufficient con­ near the Earth's surface, of intense low pressure
clusive evidence as to the process of their forma­ and strong winds. To enable the hurricane to
move, there must be a continuous source of heal
�ion, although knowledge has been considerably
improved recently due to airnight� through and to maintain the rising air currents. There must
over individual systems, and the use of weather also be a large supply of moisture to provide the
satellites. Tropical cyclones tend to develop: latent heat, released by condensation, to drive
• over warm tropical oceans, where sea the storm and to provide tl1e heavy rainfall. It
temperatures exceed 26° C and where there is estimated that in a single day a hurricane can
is a considerable depth of warm water release an amount of energy equivalent to that
released by 500 000 atomic bombs the size of the
• i11 autumn, when sea temperatures are at their
highest one dropped on Hiroshima in the Second World
• in the trade wind belt, where the surface War. Only when the storm has reached maturity
winds warm as they blow towards the Equator does the central eye develop. This is an area of
• between latitudes 5° and 20° north or south subsiding air, some 30-50 km in diameter, witl,
light winds, clear skies and anomalous high
of the Equator (nearer to the Equator the
temperatures (Figure 9.50). The descending air
Coriolis force is insufficient to enable the
increases instability by warming and exaggerates
feature to 'spin' - page 225).
the storm's intensity.
Once formed, they move westwards - often on
The hurricane rapidly declines once the
erratic, unpredictable courses- swinging pole­
source of heat is removed, i.e. when il moves
ward on reaching land, where their energy is
over colder water or a land surface; these increase
rapidly dissipated (Figure 9.49). They are another
friction.and cannot supply sufficient moisture.
mechanism by which surplus energy is trans­
The average lifespan of a tropical cyclone is
ferred away from the tropics (Figure 9.6).
7 to 14 days. The characteristic weather condi­
Hurricanes tions associated witb the passage ofa typical
Hurricanes are the tropical cyclones of the hurricane are shown diagrammatically in
Figure9.49 Atlantic. They form after the JTCZ has moved to Figure 9.50, and from space in Figure 9.51.
Global location and its most northerly extent enabling air to converge
mean frequency of
tropical cyclones

.. 9
mean number of tropical
cyclones per year
August -October
time of
occurrence
Hurricane local name D sea temperature over 27·c
f

.9
01

.,,..
�°( �
Trop�of<? ncer �--·�
� -� t�
----- •.....
9Hu irica�e s
13 Hurricanes
June - October
-
J .August -October

Equator
___ -------r-....:-----'-'-.::.:--------- ----
_ !•opic ofCapdc�r�. • _ •• _ • • . • • • • • • • • _ • • • • • - •r - .. · · · · ·

· · ·· ·· ···· ··························· ············ . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .

······ ······· ····· ····· ··· ············ ······ ···· · · ·· · Weather an.d climate 235
Figure9.SO
Weather associated
with the passage
of a hurricane or
14
tropical cyclone 14
,,,,q·

'
"'
"\('

i r
.s:.

r
Cl I
"iii
.s:.

I
t
0
approach pf hurricane 20-30km eye 20-30km end pf hurricane
30-50 km
:
Verti cal updraughts increasing updraughts increasing subsiding air spiral uplift updraughts decreasing
movement � ____....
Clouds few Cu Cu Cu and some Cb giant CB and Ci none giant Cb and Cl Cu and some Cb Cu small Cu
(Figure 9.20)
Precipitation none showers heavy showers torrential rain none torrential rain heavy showers showers none
250mm/day 250mm/day
Wind speed gentle fresh, gusty locally very hurricane force calm hurricane force locally very fresh gusty gentle
strong 160km/hr 160km/hr strong
Wind direction NNW NW WNW WNW calm SSE SSE SE ESE
Temperatures high(30°() still high(30"C) falling(26"C) low(24°C} high (32°c) low(24"C) rising(26°0 high 12s•c1 high(Jo0cJ
(plus examples)
Pressure average, steady, slowly falling, lili>ldtall low, rapid rise slowly rising, steady, average,
=
1012mb 1010mb 1006mb 960mb 1004mb 1010mb 1012mb
-
Tropical cyc lones are a major nat ural hazard
which often cause cons iderable loss of life and
Satellite image of Hurricane damage to property and crops (Places 31). There
Mitch, October 1998. The are four maJn causes of damage.
'eye'is very noticeable 1 lligh winds, which often exceed 160 km/hr
and, in extreme cases, 300 km/hr. Whole
villages may be des troyed in economically
less de veloped countries (of which there are
many in the tropical cyclone be lt), while even
reinforced buildings in the south-eas t USA
may be damaged. Countries whose e conomies
rely largely on the prod uction of a sing le crop
(bananas in Nicaragua) may suf fer serious
economic problems. Electricity and
cornmw"lications can also be severed.
2 Ocean s.torm (tidal) smges, resultin g fcom
the high winds and low press ure, may inun­
date coastal areas, many of which are densely
populated (Ban g ladesh, Places 19, page 148).
3 Flooding can be caused either by a stor m
(tidal ) surge or b y the torre ntial rain fall. In
1974, 800 000 people died in Honduras as
their flimsy l1omes were washed away.
4 Landslides can result from heavy rain fall
where buildin gs have been erected on steep,
unstab le s lopes (Hon g Kong, Figure 2.33).
··················· ············ ...... ·····························································-· ·················································· ········
236 Weather and climate
 Places 30 Hong Kong: typhoon warning, I May 1999
'The Number 8 signal may be raised today as
Typhoon Leo moves closer to Hong Kong. Its Figure9.53
approach forced the Hong Kong observatory to Passage ofTyphoon
hoist the strong wind signal Number 3 yesterday Leo, South China
afternoon [Figure 9.52) - the first time it had ever Sea, 1 May 1999
Typhoon signal
been raised in April [Figure 9.55). Leo intensified �e:e::=--, No.3 hoisted at
4.15 pm on 30April'
into a typhoon yesterday, with central wind \ ()9April
speeds of up to 130 km/hr. At midnight, it was
310 km south-south-east of Hong Kong, and '(8 April� ,c�{:.!:';,,i., =-...1._____:...-,,
was moving at about 8 km/hr [Figure 9.53). The
typhoon is expected to be closest to Hong Kong " '-......
'- Figure 9.54
early tomorrow morning, by which time weather
will deteriorate further and average rainfall could ' Weather chart for
exceed 500 mm [Figure 9.54). Hong Kong, 8 pm
on 30 April 1999

./ \ \
Figure9.52
Typhoon warning
system. Hong Kong

The Education Department has ordered

kindergartens, schools for the mentally and
physically handicapped, and nursing schools to
remain closed. The Home Affairs Department's 21 18 Wind:east to northeast force 6 to 7, becoming force 7 to 8 later.
Sunda : Overcast with fre uent hea rain.
temporary shelters will open if Signal 8 goes up. 22 20 Wind: east to southeast force 7 to 8.
People in need of shelter can make enquiries by Coastal waters
Figure9.SS Hong Kong adjacent waters: East to northeast force 7 to 8. up to force 10 later
calling the hotline: today in the south.Occasional heavy rain.Rough lo very rough seas becoming high.
Typhoon warning Source: South China Morning Post
signals. Hong Kong
- - · --..-
- ·,
Meaning of the signal What you should do
Specific advice is contained in weather broadcasts, but the
following general precautions can be taken
A tropical cyclone is centred within about 800 km of Hong Kong. Listen to weather broadcasts. Some preliminary precautions
Hong Kong is placed on a state of alert because the tropical cyclone are desirable and you should take the existence ofthe tropical
is a potential threat and may cause destructive winds later. cyclone into account in planning your activities.
Strong wind -
A Tropical depression
3 Strong wind expected or blowing, with a sustained speed of
41-62 km/hr and gusts that may exceed 110 kmfhr. The timing
Take all necessary precautions. Secure all loose objects, particu­
larly on balconies and rooftops. Secure hoardings, scaffolding and
of the hoisting of the signal is aimed to give about 12 hours' temporary structures. Clear gutters and drains. Take full precautions
advance warning of a strong wind in Victoria Harbour but the for the safety of boats. Ships in port normally leave for typhoon
warning period may be shorter for more exposed waters. anchorages or buoys. Ferry services may soon be affected by wind or
waves. Even at this stage heavy rain accompanied by violet squalls
may occur.
Gale or storm -
B Tropical storm
4-8 Gale or storm expected or blowing, with a sustained wind speed
of 63-117 kmfhr from the quarter indicated and gusts that may
Complete all precautions as soon as possible. It is extremely
dangerous to delay precautions until the hoisting of No.9 or
exceed 180 kmfhr. The timing of the replacement of the Strong No.10 signals as these are signals of great urgency. Windows
Wind Signal No.3 by the appropriate one of these four signals, is and doors should be bolted and shuttered. Stay indoors when
aimed to give about 12 hours' advance warning of a gale in Victoria the winds increase to avoid flying debris, but if you must go out,
Harbour, but the sustained wind speed may reach 63 km/hr keep well dear of overhead wires and hoardings. All schools and
within a shorter period over more exposed waters. Expected law courts close and ferries will probably stop running at short
changes in the direction of the wind will be indicated notice. The sea-level will probably be higher than normal, par­
by corresponding changes of these signals. ticularly in narrow inlets. If this happens near the time of normal
high tide then low-lying areas may have to be evacuated very
quickly. Heavy rain may cause flooding, rockfalls and mudslips.
Stay where you are if reasonably protected and away from
Increasing gale or storm -
C Severe tropical storm 9 Gale or storm expected to increase significantly in strength. This
signal will be hoisted when the sustained wind speed is expected exposed windows and doors.These signals imply that the
to increase and come within the range 88-117 km/hr during the centre of a severe tropical storm or a typhoon will come close
next few hours. to Hong Kong. If the eye passes over there will be a lull lasting
from a few minutes to some hours, but be prepared for a sudden
Hurricane­
D Typhoon
10 Hurricane-force winds expected or blowing, with a sustained wind
speed reaching upwards from 118 km/hr and with gusts that may
resumption of destructive winds from a different direction.
exceed 220 km/hr.
 ·-
Places 31
-
The West Indies and Myanmar: tropical storms

West Indies, September 2004 2 million people had been evacuated along a 675 km
stretch of the Gulf coast, 12 deaths were reported. This
The year 2004 experienced the 'mother of
might have been worse had Ivan veered westwards
hurricanes season'. Following hurricanes Charlie,
where parts of the Louisiana coast lie 3 m or more
which killed 16 people and caused damage in
below sea-level and are protected by huge levees.
Florida only once previously exceeded, and Frances,
Hurricane Ivan began its destructive course.
Myanmar, May 2008
Hurricane Ivan, deservedly nicknamed'the Terrible;
began its trail of destruction on Grenada on Bangladesh frequently experiences tropical cyclones
which move northwards, accompanied by winds
5 September-the first time the island had been
with speeds exceeding 200 km/hr, up the narrowing,
affected by a major hurricane since 1955. Reports put
the death toll at 34; water, electricity and air transport shallowing Bay of Bengal. These cyclones can create
were disrupted for several days, and two-thirds of storm surges of over 8 m that affect the flat delta
region of the Ganges-Brahmaputra (Places 19,
the island's 100 000 residents were made homeless
page 148). Improvements in coastal defences and
(Figure 9.56).
early warning systems have reduced considerably
After several days of warning, Ivan hit Jamaica on the amount of damage and the number of deaths
11 September. The laid-back approach of many from 200 000 after the 1970 storm to 140 000 in 1990,
Jamaicans contrasted strongly with the well-practised 135 000 in 1991, 40 000 in 1994 and 10 000 in 1999.
response of people in Florida. Many of those However, in 2008 tropical cyclone Nargis hit the still
Jamaicans who lived In shanty settlements refused to unprotected Irrawaddy delta lying to the south in
leave their flimsy, often makeshift homes, and only a Myanmar.
few-thousand of the half million ordered to evacuate
Little warning was given before Nargis, with wind
heeded the government's warning, many preferring
speeds of 200 km/hr, swept over the flat Irrawaddy
to protect what might be left of their possessions from
delta before affecting the former capital city of
post-hurrlcane looting. The resultant death toll was
Rangoon. Unllike other recent catastrophes such
put at 20. By the time Ivan ravaged the Cayman Islands
as the Indian Ocean tsunami (Places 4) and the
a day later, it had become a category 5 event- one of
China earthquake (Places 2) where the world was
only a handful of that intensity in the last 100 years.
immediately aware of the event, here, due to a lack
Winds reached 260 km/hr while torrential rain and
of contact with the military regime, it was two days
6 m waves caused extensive flooding but, fortunately,
before news began to leak out of Myanmar and
no deaths were reported. In Cuba, next in Ivan's
then only to admit to 350 deaths.
path, 2 million people were evacuated in advance of
what was considered the most violent hurricane for Later it became known that a tidal surge that
over 50 years but at almost the last minute it veered followed the cyclone created devastation of tsunami
sufficiently for the eye to pass just to the west of the proportions. Crops had been totally destroyed in the
island. Ivan, by now slightly reduced in strength. country's so-called rice bowl, as had coastal shrimp
Figure9.56 made landfall in the USA between Mobile (Alabama) farms and fishing boats. Huge areas were left without
The path of Hurricane and Pensacola (Florida) on 16 September. with wind fresh water, el: ectricity or transport. Although the
Ivan, September 2004 speeds of 21O km/hr and a tidal surge of 4 m. Although military junta made a rare appeal fo r help, outside

+
aid workers were not to be allowed into the country

)i,(I�
N and a week later many isolated areas had received
USA no internal relief of any kind. By this time it was
+- Ivan's path
(4) category announced that the death toll was 22 000 with a
y,6S<pt(4)
\
Mobile \
further 40 000 missing in a declared disaster zone
Flotld.l
of 24 million people. Reports talked of flood waters
GulfofMexico Cuba receding to leave rotting, bloated bodies, both
�IS)
Haiti Dominican human and animal, reminiscent of the 2004 post­
Mexico �./ Republic tsunami scenes. Indeed two weeks after Nargis hit
Cayman Is
llSop1(SJ'
I-/ the country and with overseas aid still being rejected,
the UN suggested that up to 200 000 Burmese had
_.-
' f ' Jamaica either died at the time. afterwards through a failure
"' 11Sepl(4}'
to provide relief, or were unaccounted for -a figure
Coribbean Seo Gren.ada close to that of the 2004 tsunami.
- 1'. �·<•)'
0 500 krn

238 Weather and climate

Figure9.57
hot = low pressure
The monsoon in the Indian b cold= high pressure
(rainshadow) (out-blowing winds from
subcontinent Himalayas dry source area)
Himalayas sub·troplcal
jet stream

punJI

Arabian
Sea Arabian
Sea
Bay of
Bengal
G)
Equator--<'" Equator�

Indian Ocean

The monsoon advent of monsoon storms allows the planting

The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic of rice (Places 67, page 481) Rainfall totals are
word for 'a season', but the term is more com­ accentuated as the air rises by
. both orographic
monly used in meteorology to denote a seasonal and convectional uplift and the 'wet' monsoon is
reversal of wind direction maintained by the release of substantial amounts
The major monsoon occurs. in south-east Asia of latent heat The average ctrrival date is 10 May
and results from three factors: .in Sri Lanka and 5 July at the Pakistan border-a
.
1 The extreme heating and cooling of large time-lapse of seven. weeks (Places 32)
land masses in relation to the smaller heat .
changes over adjacent sea areas (page 210)
The north-east or winter monsoon
During the northern winter, the overhead sun,
This in tum affects pressure and winds . the ITCZ and the subtropical jet stream ctll move
2 The no1thward movement of the lTCZ (page . southwards (Figure 9 57b) At the same lime,
226) during the northern hemisphere summer
central Asia experiences. intense
. cooling which
3 The uplift of the Himalayas which, some 6 .
allows a large high pressure system to develop
million years ago, became sufficiently high to
Airstreams that move outwards frorn this high.
interfere with the general circulation of the
pressure area are dry because their source area is
atmosphere (Places 5, page 20)
semi-desert They become even drier as they cross
. the Himalayas. and adiabatically wanner as they
The south-west or summer monsoon
As the overhead sun appears to move northwards descend to the lndo-Gangetic plain Bombay
to the Tropic of Cancer in June, it draws with receives less than 100 mm of rain during. these
it the convergence zone associated with the eight months The south-west monsoon usually
JTCZ (Figure 9 57a) The increase in insolation begins its retreat
. from the extreme north-west of
over northern .India,. Pakistan and central Asia India on 1 September and takes until 15 November,
means that heated air rises, creating a large area i e 11 weeks, to clear the southern tip
. The monsoon, whid1 in reality is much more
of low pressure Consequently, warm moist Em . .
(equatorial maritime)
. and Tm air, from over the complex than the model described above, affects
Indian Ocean, is drawn first northwards and the Lives of one-quarter of the world's population
then, because of the Coriolis force, is diverted Unfortunately, monsoon rainfall, especially in the.
north-eastwards (page 224) The air is humid, Indian subcontinent, is unreLiable (Figure 9 28) lf
unstable and conducive to rainfall
. Amounts of the rains fail, then drought and famine ensue: . 1987
.
precipitation are most substantial on. India's west was the ninth year in a decade when the monsoon
coast, where the air rises over the Western Ghats, failed in north-west India If, on the other hand,
and on the windward slope of the Himalayas: there is excessive rainfall then
. large areas of land
Bombay has 2000 mm and Cherrapunji experience extreme flooding (Bangladesh in 1987,
13 000 mm in four summer months The 1988 and 1998)
.
.

. .. .
········· ·· ···· ·············································· ........ ............ . .. ..........................................���·�,�·��·;nd·�i'i�a·�� .. . il�
 Places 32 Delhi: the monsoon climate
June citizens joining them in the belief that monsoon
'Rain brought welcome relief to the Indian capital rains help cure blisters and skin diseases caused by
yesterday, a day after 18 people collapsed and extreme heat. More thunderstorms are expected by
died on the streets in the blistering heat, pushing the weekend, which should mark the onset of the
the summer death toll in northern India to nearly summer monsoon:
350. Heavy showers cooled the furnace-like city,
reeling under a three-week heatwave that has kept July
daytime temperatures at an almost constant 45°( 'The July death toll from relentless monsoon rains
and which had, the previous day, experienced its across India and Pakistan rose to more than 590
hottest day in 50 years when the mercury soared as several waves of severe storms passed across the
to 42.6°C. It was the first pre-monsoon rain of the subcontinent. Many streets in Delhi are still under
season to lash Delhi, and children celebrated by water:
soaking themselves in the rain, with many elderly

Meso-scale: local winds of lowering coastal temperatures by 15 ° C and

can produce advection fogs such as the 'sea-fret'
Of the three meso-scale circulations described or 'haar' of eastern Britain.
here, two - land and sea breezes and mountain At night, when the sea retains heat longer
and valley winds - are caused by local tempera­ than the land, there is a reversal of the pressure
h1re differences; the third - the fohn - results gradient and therefore of wind direction (Figure
from pressure differences on either side of a 9.58b). The land breeze, the gentler of the two,
mountain range. begins just after sunset and dies away by sunrise.

The land and sea breeze The mountain and valley wind
This is an example, on a diurnal timescale, of a cir­ This wind is likely to blow in mountainous areas
culation system resulting from differential heating during times of calm, clear, settled weather.
and cooling between land surfaces and adjacent During the morning, valley sides are heated by
sea areas. The resultant pressure differences, the sun, especially if they are steep, south-facing
although small and localised, produce gentle (in the northern hemisphere) and lacking in
breezes which affect coastal areas during calm, vegetation cover. The air in contact with these
dear anticydonic conclitions. When the land slopes will heat, expand and rise (Figure 9.59a),
heats up rapidly each morning, lower pressure creating a pressure gradient. By 1400 hours, the
forms and a gentle breeze begins to blow from the time of maximum heating, a strong uphill or
sea to the land (Figure 9.58a). By early afternoon, anabatic wind blows up the valley and the valley
this breeze has strengthened sufficiently to bring sides - ideal conditions for hang-gllding! The air
a freshness which, in the tropics particularly, is becomes conditionally unstable (Figure 9.19),
much appreciated by tourists at the beach resorts. often producing cumulus cloud and, under very
Yet by sunset, the air and sea are both calm again. warm conditions, cumulo-nimbus with the pos­
Figure9.S8 Although the drculation cell rarely rises sibility of thunderstonns on the mountain ridges.
land and sea breezes above 500 m in height or reaches more than A compensatory sinking of air leaves the centre of
in Britain 20 km inland in Britain, the sea breeze is capable the valley cloud-free.

air drifts out to sea, air drifts over land, cools,

r
a day
� cools, becomes denser becomes denser and sinks
and sinks
r

cooling may
provide a 'cloud
curtain'
. ...,..
t low f descending air
creates an area
high
descending air sea retains heat longer
air in contact with land ls of higher pressure creates an area than land: relatively
of higher warm air rises to give an
pressure area of lower pressure
high
land heatectmore land cools more
rapldly than ua rapidly than sea
(lnsolatlon) (radiation)
 Figure9.59 a day (anabatic flow)
b night (katabatic flow)
Mountain and updraughts may produce
. .
descending air 2 under clear skies, cold
valley winds cloud on hills •• • • •• gives clear skies
,• • • •. dense air sinks under
gravity:can form fog and
3 w nds less strong If fros hollows in valley
valley sides face em erature inversion)
nor\h (less heating)

1 wind blows up-valley 1 wind blo_ws down-valley

During the clear evening, the valley loses condensation occurs at 1000 m, there will be a
heat through radiation. The surrounding air now release of latent heat and the rising air will cool
cools and becomes denser. It begins to drain, more slowly at the SALR of 0.5° C per 100 m. This
under gravity, down the valley sides and along means that when the air reaches 3000 m it will
the valley floor as a mountain wind or katabatic have a temperature of 0° C instead of the -10°C
wind (Figure 9.59b). This gives rise to a tempera­ had latent heat not been released. Having crossed
ture inversion (Figure 9.24) and, if the air is moist the Alps, the descending air is compressed
enough, in winter may create fog (Figure 9.23) or and warmed at the DALR so that, if the land
a frost hollow. Maximum wind speeds are gener­ drops suffidently, the air will reach sea-level at
ated just before dawn, normally the coldest time 30° C. This is 10°C warmer than when it left the
I of the day. Katabatic winds are usually gentle in Mediterranean. Temperatures may rise by 20°C
Britain, but are much stronger if they blow over within an hour and relative humidity can fall to
glaciers or permanently snow-covered slopes. In 10 per cent.
Antarctica, they may reach hurricane force. This wind, also known as the chinook on the
American Prairies, has considerable effects on
Thefohn human activity. In spring, when it is most likely
The fohn is a strong, warm and dry wind which to blow, it Jives up to its Native American name
blows periodically to the lee of a mountain of 'snow-eater' by melting snow and enabling
range. It occurs in the Alps when a depression wheat to be sown; and in Switzerland it clears the
passes to the north of the mountains and draws alpine pastures of snow. Conversely, its warmth
in warm, moist air from the Mediterranean. As can cause avalanches, forest fires and the prema­
the air rises (Figure 9.60), it cools at the DALR of ture budding of trees (Case Study 4a).
Figure9.60
l °C per 100 m (page 216). If, as in Figure 9.60,
The fiihn

a thefohn b temperature-height graphfor fohn conditions

3000 3000
descending air warms
at the DALR, reaches
sea-level at 30° C

2000 air with a 2000

:g
temperature
of 20°( is g
.cCl forced to

2·
rise to .iii
·a:;
cross the
1000
1000

Ja1°C e
�hf
Fm·t
O-l-������� ������
0 -10 0 10 20 30
temperature (° C)
 Microdi mates • the mean winter temperature is 16 to 2°C
higher (rural areas are even colder when
Microclimatology is the study of climate over snow-covered as this increases their albedo)
a small area. Tt includes changes resulting from • the mean summer temperature may be
the construction of large urban centres as well as 5° C higher
those existing naturally between different L7pes • the mean annual temperature is higher
of land surface, e.g. forests and lakes. by between 0.6 °C in Chicago and l.3 °C
in London compared with that of the
Urban climates surrounding area.
Large cities and conurbations experience cli­ Note how, in Figure 9.61, temperatures not only
matic conditions that differ from those of the decrease towards London's boundary but aJ�o
surrounding countryside. They generate more beside the Thames and Lea rivers. The urban
dust and condensation nuclei than natural heat island explains why large cities have less
environments; they create heat; they alter the snow, fewer frosts, earlier budding and flowering
chemical composition and the moisture content of plants ancl a greater need, in summer, for air·
of the air above them; and they affect both Lhe conditioning than neighbouring rural areas.
albedo and the flow of air. Urban areas therefore
Sunlight
have distinctive climates.
Despite having higher mean temperatures, cities
Temperature receive less sunshine and more cloud than their
Although tower blocks cast more shadow, normal rural counterparts. Dust and other particles may
building materials tend to be non-reflective and absorb and reflect as much as SO per cent of i nso­
so absorb heat during the daytime. Dark-coloured lalion in winter, when the sun is low in the sky
roofs, concrete or brick walls and tarmac roads all and has to pass through more atmosphere, and
have a high thermal capacity which means that S per cent in summer. High-rise buildings also
they are capable of storing heat during the day block out light (Figure 9.62).
and releasing it slowly during the night. Further
Wind
heal is obtained from car fumes, factories, power Wind velocity is reduced by buildings which
stations, central heating and people themselves. create friction and act as windbreaks. Urban
The term urban heat island acknowledges that, mean annual velocities may be up to 30 per cent
under calm conditions, temperatures are highest lower than in rural areas and periods of calm
in the more built-up city centre and decrease may be 10-20 per cent more frequent. ln con·
towards the suburbs and open countryside trast, high-rise buUdings, such as the skyscrapers
(Figure 9.61). In urban areas: of New York and Hong Kong (Figure 9.62), form
• daytime temperatures are, on average, 'canyonslthrough which wind may be chan­
0.6°C higher nelled. These winds may be strong enough to
• night-time temperatures may be 3 ° or 4°C cause tall buildings to sway and pedestrians to
higher as dust and cloud act like a blanket to be blown over and troubled by dust and litter.
reduce radiation and buildings give out heat The heat island effect may cause local thermals
like storage radiators and reduce the wind chill factor. lt also tends to
generate considerable small-scale turbulence and
eddies. ln 19th-century Britain, the most sought·
after houses were usually on the western and
south-western sides of cities, to be up-wind of
industrial smoke and pollution (Mann's model,
pages 422-423).
Relative humidity
Relative humidity is up to 6 per cent lower in
urban areas where the warmer air can hold more
moisture and where the lack of vegetation and
water surface limits evapotranspiration.
isotherms ( ° C)
limit of then
built-up area Figure9.61
0 5 km An urban heat Island: minimum temperatures
L__J
over London, 14 May 1959 (ofter Chandler)
· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .
······· · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
242 Weather and climate
 Thick fog is continuing to cause travel chaos among
those looking forward to spending Christmas abroad.
Cloud Over the last few days. thousands or passengers have
Urban areas appear to receive cxpc1ienced severe delays or cancellations of tlights
thicker and up lo 10 per cent at numerous UK airport!,.
more frequent cloud cover than Yesterday 350 flights, 40 per cent of lhc total,
ru ra I areas. This may resuIt from were cancelled from Heathrow alone and, wilh fog
set to remain today. British Ai1ways has already
convection currents generated by
decided to cancel all domestic flights to and from
the higher temperatures ancl the lhai airpo11. TI1e problem with fog is Lhm it means,
presence of a larger number of for safety reasons, !he distance between aircraft on
condensation nuclei. approach to nmways has to be doubled, thus
Precipitation reducing the number of landings.
22 o�c:�mbu 2()()6
The mean annua l precipitati on
total and the number of days Figure9.63
with less than Smm of rainfall Fog causes Christmas chaos
are both between Sand ISper Atmospheric composition
cent greater in major urban areas. There may be three to seven times more dust par­
Reasons for this are the same ticles over a city than in rural areas. Large quanti­
as for cloud formation. Strong ties of gaseous and solicl impurities are emitted
into urban skies by the burning of fossil fuels, by
thermals increase the likelihood
of thunder by 25 per cent and industrial processes and from car exhausts. Urban
areas may have up to 200 times more sulphur
the occurrence of hail by up t o
dioxide and 10 times more nit rogen oxide (the
400 per cent. The higher urban
major components of acid rain) than rural areas,
temperatures may turn the snow
as well as 10 times more hydrocarbons and twice
of rural areas into sleet and limit,
as much carbon dioxide. These pollutants tend
by up Lo 15 per cent, the number
Lo increase cloud cover and precipitation, cause
of days with snow lying on the
smog (Figure 9.25), give higher temperatures ancl
ground. On the other hand, the
reduce sunlight.
frequency, length and intensity of
fog, especially under anticyclonic Forest and lake microc/imates
conditions, is much greater - Different land surfaces produce distinctive local
there may up to 100 per cenL climates. Figure 9.64 summarises and compares
more in winter and 25 per cent some of the characteristics of microclimates
more in summer, caused by the found in forests and around lakes. As with urban
concentration of condensation climates, research and further information are
nuclei (Figure 9.63). still needed to confirm some of the statements.
Figure9.62
Narrow streets with
high-rise buildings Microclimate
are more likely to feature Forest (coniferous and deciduous) Water surface (lake, river)
develop micro­
Incoming radiation Much incoming radiation is absorbed and trapped. Less insolation absorbed and trapped.
climates than those Albedo may be over 60%, I.e. higher than over seas/oceans
that are wider and and albedo Albedo for coniferous forest is 15%; deciduous 25% in
summer and 35% in winter; and desert scrub 40%. (page 207). Higher on calm days.
have lower buildings;
New York City Temperature Small diurnal range due to blanket effect of canopy. Smalldiurnal range because water has a higher specific
Forest floor is protected from direct sunlight. heat capacity.
Some heat lost by evapotranspiration. Cooler summers and milder winters.
Lakesides have a longer growing season .
Relative humidity Higher during daytime and in summer, especially in Very high, especially in summer when evaporation rates
deciduous forest. are also high.
Amount of evapotranspiration depends on length of day,
leaf surface area, wind speed, etc.
Precipitation Heavy rain can be caused by high evapotranspiration rates, Air is humid.
e.g. in tropical rainforests. If forced to rise, air can be unstable and produce cloud
On average, 30-35% of rain is intercepted: more in and rain.
deciduous woodland in summer than in winter. Amounts may not be great due to fewer condensation nuclei.
Fogs form in calm weather.
Figure9.64 Wind speed and Trees reduce wind speeds, especially at ground level. Wind may be strong due to reduced friction.
(They are often planted as windbreaks.) Large lakes (e.g. L. Victoria) can create land and sea breezes
Microclimates of forests direction (page 240).
Trees can produce eddies.
and water surfaces
.. .. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · ···· · ··· · · · · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · ·
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ···· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·Weather and climate 243
 Weather maps and forecasting 3 At the highest level, the Meteorological
Office produces maps showing finite detail,
in Britain e.g. amounts of various types of cloud at low,
A weather map or synoptic chart shows the medium and high levels, dew point tempera­
weather for a particular area at one specific time tures, ba romehic tendency (i.e. trends of
(Figures 9.67 and 9.68). It is the result of the col­ pressure change), etc.
lection and collation of a considerable amount The role of the weather forecaster is to try to deter­
of data at numerous weather stations, i.e. from a mine the speed and direction of movement of
number of sample points (Framework 6, page 159). various air masses and any associated fronts, and to
These data are then refined, usually as quickly as try to predict the type of weather these movements
possible and now using computers, and are plotted will bring. Forecasters now make considerable use
using internationally accepted weather symbols. A of satellite images (Figures 9.67 and 9.68). Satellite
selection of these symbols is shown in Figure 9.65. images are photos taken by weather satellites as
Weather maps are produced for different purposes they continually orbit the Earth. These photos,
and at various scales. whjch are reJayed back to Earth, are invaluable
1 The daily weather map, as seen on television in the prediction of short-term weather trends.
or iJ1 a national newspaper, aims to give a Although forecasting is increasingly assisted by
dear, but highly simplified, impression of the information from satellites, radar and computers,
weather. which show upper air as well as surface air condi­
2 At a higher level, a synoptic map shows tions in a three-dimensional model, the complexity
selected meteorological characteristics for and unpredictability of the atmosphere can still
Figure9.65
specific weather stations. The station model catch the forecaster by surprise (Places 29, page
Weather symbols for in Figure 9.66 shows six elements: tempera­ 232). Part of this problem is related to the fact that
doud, precipitation, ture, pressure, cloud cover, present weather meteorological information is a sample (Framework
wind sp eed,
temperature, (e.g. type of precipitation), wind direction 6, page 159) rather than a total picture of the
pressure and wind and wind speed. atmosphere, and so there is always a risk of the
direction anomaly becoming the reality.

Cloud Weather (present) Wind speed Temperature

Symbol Cloud amount (oktas) Symbol Wearher Symbol Speed (knots) Force 3
Q 3·celsius

0 0 mist
0 calm 0

(])
'• "()
1 or less fog 1-2 Pressure

'
� 2 drizzle Pressure is shown by
3-7 2
isobars and is
3 rain and drizzle
� measured in

0 4 • rain � 8-12 3 millibars

Et 5
*• rain and snow � 13-17 4 ---1012--­

� 6 * snow
For each additional half-feather add mean sea-level pressure
•
5 knots or add an extra force up to

•0
0 L = centre of an area of
*
7 "v rain shower
48-52 11 low pressure
8 "v snow shower
H = centreof an area of
hail shower Wind direction
sky obscured � high pressure

0
Indicates a north-westerly
missing or doubtful data � thunderstorm
wind direction

Figure9.66
Model Example
A weather station
model andan example temperature ('C} pressure (in millibars, 92
last 2 figures only}
present weather
temperature re
pressure 992 mb
cloud cover 7 oktas
wind direction present weather drizzle
(variable location)
wind direction SW
wind speed 1 3-17 knots
or force 4

................ .... ......... ...................................................... ...................................................... ........ ....... ............. ......

244 Weather and climate
Figure9.67
Synoptic chart and Figure 9.43). Figure 9.68 shows the same depres­
satellite image. sion 24 hours later, by which time it hacl passecl
17 September 1983
over the British Isles (compare r:igure 9.44).

..... ·········· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ...... . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · ··

Figure9.68 Weather and climate 245
Synoptic chart and satellite
image, 18 September 1983
 ,--.- - ------,,--.-,,;.. ----- �
Framework 8
':",

Measures of dispersion
Throughout this chapter on weather and climate, These techniques are included here because
mean climatic figures have been quoted. To build meteorological data both require and benefit from
up these pictures of global, regional and local their use, but they may be applied to most branches
climate patterns, statistics have been obtained by of geography where there is a danger that the mean,
averaging readings, usually for temperature and taken alone, may be misleading (the problems of
precipitation, over a 30-year timescale. However, overgeneralisation are discussed in Framework 11,
these averages themselves are often not as page 347). Again, it must be stressed that use of a
significant as the range or the degree to which they quantitative technique does not guarantee objective
vary from, or are dispersed about, the mean. interpretatio,n of data: great care must be taken to
ensure that an appropriate method of manipulating
For example, two tropical weather stations may
the data is chosen.
have equal annual rainfall totals when measured
over 30 years. Station A may lie on the Equator and It has already been seen how it is possible, given
experience reliable rainfall with little variation from a data set, to calculate the mean and the median
one year to the next. Station B may experience a (Framework 5, page 112). However, neither statistic
monsoon climate where in some years the rains may gives any idea of the spread, or range, of that data.
fail entirely while in others they cause flooding. As the example above of two tropical weather
stations shows, mean values on their own give
The measure of dispersion from the mean can
only part of the full picture. The spread of the data
be obtained by using any one of three
around the mean should also be considered.
statistical techniques:
• the range
Figure9.69 Range
• the interquartile range, or
The interquartile This very simple method involves calculating the
range • the standard deviation. difference between the highest and lowest values

�·�%.f\1
of the sample population, e.g. the annual range in
1a -3 ° temperature for London is 14°C (July 18°(, January
4°(). The range emphasises the extreme values and
Temperatures 0 C
Rank (ranked)
�13 ignores the distribution of the remainder.
10
oD -'Ill
•( 10
b'{4 -9._;' Interquartile range
10 The interquartile range consists of the middle 50 per
-1 cent of the values in a distribution, 25 per cent each
J��� ;\
<-c.,.6 � 7
side of the median (middle value). This calculation is
£
/
3
a
�·
5 6 upper quartile useful because it shows how closely the values are
0 grouped around the median (Figure 9.69). It is easy to

.
-•7 5
""""" �
calculate; it is unaffected by extreme values; and it is
a useful way of comparing sets of similar data.
-10 4
,...........,.
10 �.,.,, The example in Figure 9.69 gives temperatures for
� 19 weather stations in the British Isles at 0600 on
10 median (middle quartile) 14 January 1979. These temperatures have been
10-v 50 per cent of ranked in the table.
values fall into
the interquartile
range
0

-1
15 -2 lower quartile
-3
-3
-9
-13
-�--��-�-----····················· ··········--·········································
246 Weather and climate
 The upper quartile (UQ) is obtained usin
by g where: cr = standard deviation
the formula:
UQ = (n: 1) 19 1 =
x = each value in the data set
i.e. ( : ) 5
x = mean of all values in the data set, and

This means that the UQ is the fifth figure from the n = numbef of values in the data set.
top of the ranking order, i.e. 6°(. The lower quartile Let us suppose that the minimum temperatures
(lQ) is found by using a slightly different formula: for 10 weather stations in Britain on a winter's day
were, in °C, 5, 8, 3, 2, 7, 9, 8, 2, 2 and 4. The standard
: ) x 3 = 1s
LQ = (n : 1) x 3 i.e. 19 1
{ deviation of this data set is worked out in Figure 9.70,
proceeding as f ollows:
This shows the LQ to be the 15th figure in the
ranking order, i.e. -2° C. You will notice that the 1 Find the mean {x).
middle quartile is the same as the median. The 2 Subtract the mean from each value in the set:
interquartile range is the difference between the x-x.
upper and lower quartiles, i.e. 6° C - -2°( = 8°C. 3 Calculate the square of each value in 2, to
Another measure of dispersion, the quartile remove any minus signs: (x -x)2 •
deviation, is obtained by dividing the interquartile 4 Add together all the values obtained in 3:
range by two, i.e. 8°( + 2 = 4°( L(X-x}2.
The smaller the interquartile range, or quartile 5 Divide the sum of the values in 4 by n:
deviation, the greater the grouping around the t(x-x)2
median and the smaller the dispersion or spread. n

6 Take the square root of the value obtained in 5

Standard deviation
to obtain the standard deviation:
This is the most commonly used method of
r.(x x)2
measuring dispersion and although it may involve
lengthy calculations it can be used with the
V �

arithmetic mean and it removes extreme values. The resulting standard deviation of cr = 2.65 is
The formula for the standard deviation is: a low value, indicating that the data are closely
grouped around the mean.
Figure9.70 V r.(x-x}2
(J =
n
Finding the standard
deviation

Minimum temperatures for 10 weather stations in Britain on a winter's day

The mean of 5, 8, 3, 2, 7, 9, 8, 2, 2, 4:
Temperature at each station (x} x - ii (x - ii}2
x= 50 = 5 Weather station
10 5 5-5 = 0 0

2 8 8-5=3 9
3 3-5=-2 4
4 2 2-5=-3 9
5 7 7-S= 2 4
6 9 9-5 =4 16
7 8 8-5=3 9
8 2 2-5=-3 9
9 2 2-5=-3 9

10 4 4-5=-1 1
CJ=�
I,(x-x)1=70

standard deviation= 2.65

· ·· · ·· · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
, . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · · ·· · .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weather and climate 247
 Climatic change stops in winter. Each year's growth is shown
by a single .ring. However, when the year is
Climates have changed and still are constantly warm and wet, the ring will be larger because
changing at all scales, from local to global, and the tree grows more quickly than when the
over varying timespans, both long-term and year is cold ancl dry. Tree-rings therefore
short-term (Case Studies 9A and 98). However, reflect climatic changes. Recent work in
there have been surges of d1ange over time Europe bas shown that tree growth is greatest
which meteorologists and earth scientists are under intense cydonic activity and is more
continually trying to clarify and explain. a response to moisture than to temperature.
Tree-ring timescales are being established by
Evidence of past climatic changes using the remains of oak trees, some nearly
• Rocks are found today which were formed 10 000 years old, found in river terraces in
under climatic conditions and in environ­ south-central Europe. Bristlecone pines, still
ments that no longer exist (Figure 1.1). In alive after 5000 years, give a very accurate
Britain, for example, coal was formed under measure in California (page 294).
hot, wet tropical conditions; sandstones were a Chemical methods include the study of
laid down during arid times; various lime­ oxygen and carbon isotopes. An isotope is one
stones accumulated on the floors of warm of two or more forms of an element which
seas; and glacial deposits were left behind by differ from each other in atomic weight (i.e.
retreating ice sheets. they have the same number of protons in the
• Fossil landscapes exist, produced by certain nucleus, but a different number of neutrons).
geomorphological processes which no Longer For example, two isotopes in oxygen are 0-16
operate. Examples include glacially eroded and 0-18. The 0-16 isotope, whkh is slightly
highlands in north and west Britain (Chapter lighter, vaporises more readily; whereas 0-18,
4), granite tors on Darhnoor (page 202) and be.ing heavier, condenses more easily. During
wadis formed during wetter periods (pluvials) warm, dry periods, the evaporation of 0-16
in deserts (Places 25, page 188). will leave water enriched with 0-18 which,
• Evidence exists of changes in sea-level {both if it freezes into polar ice, will be preserved as
isostatic as on Arran - Places 23, page 166) a later record (Places 14, page 104). Colder,
and eustatic (as at present in the Maldives - wetter periods will be indicated by ice with a
page 169) and changes in lake levels (Sahara, higher level of 0-16. The most accurate form of
Figure 7.27). dating is !based on C-14, a radioactive isotope of
• Vegetation belts have shifted through some carbon. Carbon is taken in by plants during the
10° of latitude, e.g. changes in the Sahara carbon cycle (Figure 11.25). Carbon-14 decays
Desert (Figure 7.27). radioactively at a known rate and can be com­
• Pollen analysis shows which plants were pared with C-12, which does not decay. Using
dominant at a given time. Each plant species C-12 and C-14 from a dead plant, scientists can
has a distinctively-shaped pollen grain. lf determine the date of death to a standard error
these grains land in an oxygen-free enviion­ of± 5 per cent. This method can accurately date
ment, such as a peat bog, they resist decay. organic matter up to SO 000 years old.
Although pollen can be transported consider­ • Historical records of climatic change include:
able distances by the wind and by wildlife, it - cave paintings of elephants in central Sahara
is assumed that grains trapped in peat form a (Figure 7.27) and giraffes in Jordan (Figure
representative sample of tne vegetation that 7.7)
was growing in the surrounding area at a - vines growing successfully in southern
given time; also, that this vegetation was a England between AD 1000 and 1300
response to the climatic conditions prevailing - graves fot.human burial in Greenland
at that time. Vertical sections made through which were dug to a depth of 2 m in the
peat show changes in poJlen (i.e. vegetation), 13th century, but only 1 m in the 14th
and these changes can be used as evidence century, and could not be dug at all in the
of climatic change (the vegetation-climatic 15tl1 century due to the extension of perma­
timescale in Figures 11.18 and 11.19). frost - in contrast to its retreat in the 2000s
• Dendrochronology, or tree-ring dating, is (Case Study 5)
the technique of obtaining a core from a tree­ - fairs he1d on the frozen River Thames in
trunk and using it to determine the age of the Tudor times
tree. Tree growth is rapid in spring, slower - the measurement of recent advances and
by the autumn and, in temperate latitudes, retreats of alpine glaciers and polar sea-ice.
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ···· · · ·· · ···· · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · · ······ ···· · · · · · ··· · · · · ·· · · · · · · · ·· ···· · ···· · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ····· · · · · · ·· ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · ·
· · ·
248 Weather and climate
 Causes of climatic change (Case Study 1) and Krakatoa (Figure 1.29 and
Sever �! su?gestions have been advanced to try to Places 35, page 289) or after a series of vol­
explam climatic change over different timescales canic eruptions. This is due to the increase in
(Figure 4.2) and epochs (Figure 1.1). Most clima­ dust particles in the lower atmosphere which
tologists now accept that each of the causes of cli­ will absorb and scatter more of the incoming
matic c�ange described below has a role to play in radiation (Figure 9.4). Evidence suggests that
.
explammg change in the past, whether over Jong these major eruptions may temporarily offset
or short periods of time. the greenhouse effect. Precipitation also
1 Variations in solar energy Although it was ini­ increases due to the greater number of
tially believed that solar energy output did not hygroscopic nuclei (dust particles) in the
vary over time (hence the term 'solar constant' atmosphere (page 215).
in Figure 9.3), increasing evidence suggests that 6 Plate tectonics Plate movements have Jed
sunspot activity, whicl1 occurs in cycles, may to redistributions of land masses and to
significantly affect our climate- times of high long-term effects on dimate. These effects
annual temperatures on Earth appear to corre­ may result from a land mass 'drifting' into
spond to periods of maxi.mum sunspot activity. different latitudes (British Isles, page 22);
2 Astronomical relationships between the sun or from the seabed being pushed upwards
and the Earth There is increasing evidence to form high fold mountains (page 19).
supporting Milankovitch's cycles of change The presence of fold mountains can lead to
in the Earth's orbit, tilt and wobble (Figure a colder climate (a suggested cause of the
4.6), which would account for changes in the Quaternary ice age, page 103) and can act as a
amounts of solar radiation reaching the Earth's barrier to atmospheric circulation - the Asian
surface. This evidence is mainly from cores that monsoon was established by the creation of
have been drilled through undisturbed ocean­ the Tibetan Plateau (page 239).
floor sediment which has accumulated over 7 Composition of the atmosphere Gases in
thousands of years (compare Places 14, page the atmosphere can be increased and altered
104). following volcanic eruptions. At present there
3 Changes in oceanic circulation Changes is increasing concern at the build-up of C02
in oceanic circulation affect the exd1ange of and other greenhouse gases in the atmos­
heat between the oceans and the atmosphere. phere (Case Study 9B), together with the use
This can have both long-term effects on world of aerosols and the release of CFCs (Places 27,
climate (where currents at the onset of the page 209), which are blamed for the deple­
Quaternary ice age flowed in opposite direc­ tion of ozone in the upper atmosphere.
tions to those at the end of the ice age) and
short-term effects (El Nino, Case Study 9A). The Climatic change in Britain
latest theory compares the North Atlantic Drift Britain's climate has undergone changes in the
with a conveyor belt that brings water to north­ longest term (page 22 and Figure 1.1); during and
west Europe. Should this conveyor belt be since the onset of the Quaternary (Figure 4.2);
closed down, possibly by a huge influx of fresh and in the more recent short term (Figure 11.18).
water into the sea, then the climate will become Following the 'little ice age' (which lasted from
dramatically colder. about AD 1540 to 1700), temperatures generally·:
4 Meteorites A major extinction event, whid1 increased to reach a peak in about 1940. After
included the dinosaurs, took place about 65 that time, there was a tendency for summers to
million years ago. This event was believed to become cooler and wetter, springs to be later,·
have been caused by one or more meteors col­ autumns milder and winters more unpredict­
liding with the Earth. This seems to have caused able. However, since the onset of the 1980s there
a reduction in incoming radiation, a depletion appears to have been a considerable warming,
of the ozone layer and a lowering of global tem­ with eight of the ten wannest years on record
peratures. being in tl)e last decade. This, together with the
s Volcanic activity It has been accepted for apparent increase in variations from the norm
some time that volcanic activity has influ­ for Britain's expected autumn, winter, spring
enced climate in the past, and continues to do and even, since 2005, summer weather, tends
so. World temperatures are lowered after any to add further evidence to tl1e concept of global
large single eruption, e.g. Mount Pinatubo warming (Case Study 9B).

. . . . . . . .
' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . .. . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � . .. . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .Weather
. .
and climate 249
 60 cm higher than in Panama and
A Short-term change: eastern Pacific Ocean (off the coast of
Colombia
South America) and falls over the western
El Nino and La Nina Pacific Ocean (towards Indonesia and the
• allow water, flowing westward as the
equatorial current, to remain near
The oceans, as we have seen, have a consid· Philippines). The descending air over the
to the ocean surface where it can
erable heat storage capacity which makes eastern Pacific gives the clear, dry condi­
gradually hear. This gives the western
them a major influence on world climates. If tions that create the Atacama Desert in Peru
Pacific the world's highest ocean
ocean temperatures change, this will have a (Figure 7.2 and Places 24, page 180), while °
temperature, usually above 28 C. In
considerable effect upon weather patterns the warm, moist ascending air over the
contrast, as warm water is pushed away
In adjacent land masses. Interactions bet· western Pacific gives that region its heavy
from South America, it is replaced by an
ween the ocean and the atmosphere have convectional rainfall (page 226). This move·
upwelling of colder, nutrient-rich water.
become, recently, a major scientific study. ment of air creates a circulation cell, named
This colder water lowers temperatures,
The most important and interesting after Walker who first described it, in which
somet1mes to below 20°C, but does
example of the ocean-atmosphere inter· the upper air moves from west to east, and
provide a plentiful supply of plankton
relationship is provided by the El Nino and the surface air from east to west as the trade
which forms the basis of Peru's fishing
La Nina events which occur periodically in winds (Figure 9.71 ). The trade winds:
• push surface water westwards so that industry.
the Pacific Ocean. Under normal atmos· Figure9.71
pheric conditions. pressure rises over the sea-level in the Philippines is normally
The Walker
circulation cell

a atmospheric·circulation

�I'-"'� �-�
.. high-altitude flow
n�mg, arm, �oist air descending, warming air gives
gives ;eavy ram fall JTCZ dry conditions

.t ,____ __ ____
\ )
JV
�00

-- , :1 yv-i
i,�f�--
�6'�
',

�.;- r;,� ;;,;;,;;;;;;;; �,d,) _'_--_ _ �',, ,

r
''""'·· w
high pressure
low pressure
upwelling of cold,
� • :,,,, °'"'" nutrient-rich water:
;;:, �c=, ideal for fish
rising air
I I
' descending air
120° E 1so0 120° w 60° w
b section through the Pacific Ocean ' dry, offshore
winds
' ocean currents

\
dry

h,a«y "'""" '--

.....___________ trade winds

very warm .,..,-.----equatorial current

28° (
warm
26° C
cooler
24·c ----..� equatorial undercurrent

· ........ · ...... · · .... · · ..

······ ····· ······· · · · · · · ··· · ····· ········· · · · ····· ·· · · ·· · · · · · · · · ······ ········· ····· · · · ·· · · · ······ · ·· ·· · ············ ·· ···· ····· ········ · · ·····
250 Weather and climat e
 Short-term and long-term climatic changes

El Nino southwards and causes the trade winds to • surface water temperatures in
An El Niiio event, scientifically referred to weaken in strength, or, sometimes. even to excess of 28°C extend much further
as an El Niiio Southern Oscillation (ENSO), be reversed in their direction. The descend­ eastwards and the upwelling of cold
occurs periodically- on average every three ing air, now over South-east Asia, gives that water off South America is reduced,
to four years. It is called'EI Nino: which means region much drier conditions than it usually allowing sea temperatures to rise by
'little child'in Spanish. because, in those experiences and, on extreme occasions, even up to 6°C. The warmer water in the
years that it does occur, it appears just after causing drought. In contrast the air over the eastern Pacific lacks oxygen, nutrients
Christmas. An El Niiio event usually lasts for eastern Pacific is now rising, giving much and, therefore, plankton and so has an
12-18 months. wetter conditions in places, like Peru, that adverse effect on Peru's fishing industry.
In contrast to normal conditions normally experience desert conditions. The NASA-Mir astronauts were able, during the
(Figure 9.71) there is a reversal, in the equat­ change In the direction of the trade winds record-breaking 1997-98 El Nii\o, to obseNe,
orial Pacific region, in pressure, precipitation means that: photograph and document the global
and, often, winds and ocean currents • surface water tends to be pushed impacts of the event These, together with
(Figure 9.72). Pressure rises over the western eastwards so that sea-level In South­ ground observations and recordings, are
Pacific and falls over the eastern Pacific. east Asia falls, while it rises in tropical summarised in Figure 9.73.
This allows the ITCZ (Figure 9.34) to migrate South America
Figure9.72
An El Nino event

high pressure

low pressure
'-_ rising air

' descending air

I I I ' ocean currents
120° E ,so• 12o·w 60° w
b section through the Pacific Ocean

\
wind can blow in
trade winds fail or reverse direction
reverse direction
equatorial current weakens --- very warm ---....�
or even reverses direction 2s•c warm
South
lndol\Ula 26°C cooler America
24° C

the drier conditions in South-east Asia and • there were extremely cold winters in
Evidence collected during the El Nliio
the wetter conditions in South America: central North America, and stormy
events of 1982-83 (at the time the biggest
• severe droughts were experienced conditions with floods in California
ever recorded). 1986 and 1992-93, increas­
in the Sahel (Case Study 7) and • exceptionally wet. mild and windy
ingly suggested that the ENSO had a major
southern Africa as well as across the winters were experienced in Britain and
effect on places far beyond the Pacific
Indian subcontinenr north-west Europe.
margins as well as on those bordering the
ocean itself In its low latitudes. Apart from

··· · · · · · · · · · · · ·.. · · · · · ·· · · .. -- · · · · · · · · · ·-· .... · · · · · .. · .. · · ·· · --· ·· · · · · ·· · .. · -- · ·· · · · · · · ·..·· .. · · ·- .. · · ·· · · · · ·.. · · · · ·· · ·· · ·· · · · · · ���-�h·��· ��-d· �i"i��-��- ·..··is·�-
 Short-term and long-term climatic changes

The 1997-98 event: the biggest yet experienced

Early 1997 Evidence of a rapid rise in sea temperatures in the eastern Pacific.
July El Nino conditions incense.
September Over 24 million km2 of warm water (size of North and Central America)
extended from the International Dateline to South America.
1998 April Evidence of El Nino weakening.
June NASA satellite surveillance showed a significant drop in sea temperatures
in the eastern Pacific.
Autumn Signs of a La Nina event (page 253).
Figure9.73
The effects of the
1997-98 El Nino event

a�rf.J
GJ�
acJ>��
��i
"� v ( .,
'
i;sW USA
&,
(?
��
n I lce-p ,cJ<
extremeIy mlld• and B�ish di ot eveloti
oluml5ia �
winter, very
� little �
snow In Rockies

w11,ter st<�rms
}Callforni� )f� '- . Y.,,
and nood1ng
Th
Oty\) C . ee
----------- - - •.•..----· ex' �--�-- ���
� i;!t i�"-'l e.temQ ___,,.,
a
-
record smog levels :@. •i:C:>
suppressed
result ing from fires
ln rural areas canal closed to
big ships due to
Pacific Ocean lack of water
parts over 6° C warmer than
usual - highest sea
te�d forest fires
cause severe smoke
. ..� ... ___ J'w� 9y� r.s_ev_ l!t<U
countries
.... .:"..
Lake Eyre dries
up, record cotton
harves
"q
tl �

PERU For each of 12 days in early March, Peru received the KENYA Parts or Kenya received over 1000 mm of rainfall during six
equivalent of six months of normal rain. Over several months, nash months (up to SO times more than the average) at a time normally
flooding caused 292 deaths, injured more than 16 000 people, considered to be the'dry season'. Roads and the mainline railway
left 400 missing, destroyed 13 200 houses. wrecked 250 000 km of were swept away, the latter causing the derailment of the Nairobi­
roads, swept away bridges, damaged crops and schools and dis· Mombasa train. Later, more than 500 people died of malaria as the
rupted the lives of up to half a million Peruvians. receding noodwaters created ideal mosquito-spawning pools.

A mild El Nino episode: 2006-07 El Nino. However, the rise was slight, sug­ on global weather patterns. It declined within
In September 2006, NASA's Jason altimetric gesting that the event might be short-lived six months without ending the drought in the
satellite detected a rise in the sea -level of the and, being far less intense than the 1997-98 south-west of the USA.
Pacific Ocean which indicated the return of El Nino episode, unlikely to have a great effect

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. ... .. . . . . . . . .. . . ... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
252 Weather and climate
 Short-term and long-term climatic changes

La Nina In a La Nina event, in contrast to normal • push large amounts of water

Just as El Nino was ending in June 1998, conditions in the Pacific Ocean (Figure westwards, giving a higher than
forecasters were predicting - based on an 9.71 ). the low pressure over the western normal sea-level in Indonesia and
8°C fall in sea temperatures in the eastern Pacific becomes even lower and the high the Philippines
Pacific in May- the arrival that winter of a pressure over the eastern Pacific even • increase the equatorial under­
La Nina event. La Nina, or'little girl'. has higher (Figure 9.74). This means that rainfall current and significantly enhance
climatic conditions that are the reverse of increases over South-east Asia (was rhe the upwelling of cold water off the
those of El Nino. However, although when La Nina event of 1988 responsible for the Peruvian coast.
La Nina does appear it is just before or just severe flooding at that time in Bangla­ Scientists suggest that La Nina can be
after El Nino, its occurrence has been less desh?), there are drought conditions In linked with increased hurricane activity in
frequent (the last was between June 1988 South America and, due to the increased the Caribbean (Places 31) and that it can
and February 1989) and, consequently, it difference in pressure between the two interrupt the jet stream over Britain to give
is less easy to predict its possible effects places, the trade winds strengthen. The stormier (Places 29), wetter (Case Study 3()
because there is less evidence. stronger trade winds: and cooler conditions.
Figure9.74
A la Nina event

very low pressure

.......
very high pressure
drier

\
heavier
stronger than normal
rainfall than
trade winds
average

very warm 28° ( stronger equatorial

26°c current South
warm ° America
Indonesia 24 (
cooler
cool
stronger equatorial undercurrent

s•c drop in ocean

surface temperature
over 5000 km stretch

Figure9.75
Possible effects ofa la Nina
event on world weather

A La Nina episode: 2007-08 welcomed by the parched south-west of By then, it had caused torrential rain in
The Jason altimetric satellite noted, in the USA. This La Nina episode. the strongest Australia, breaking a long crop-ruining
February 2007, a transition from the warm for several years, lasted for over 12 months drought, and had given central China an
El Nino to the cool La Nina, a change not until it began to weaken in April 2008. exceptionally cold, snow-covered winter.

· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · - · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · - · · · · ·
···· · · · · · · · · ·········4••······ · ············ ···· ···440000••••······· ................ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Weather and climate 253
9 Case Study Short-term and long-term climatic changes

B Long-term change: global warming - Figure9.76

an update Average global temperatures, 1880-2007

2005 and 2007: the warmest two years on record ·c

Scientists claimed it was clear that temperatures around the world were 15.0 ..--------------------i
continuing their upward climb. The global average for these years was 14.8-t----------- -·--
14.76°( in 2005 and 14.73°( in 2007 - the two warmest since reliable 14.6-t-----
instrumental records began 126 years earlier and, according to palaeo­
14.4 -
climatologists using evidence from ancient tree-rings (page 248). prob­
ably the highest in over 1200 years. Records collected by NASA GISS 14.2
also showed that eight of the ten warmest years have been in the last 14.0

--+-
decade and that 2007 was the 31st consecutive year when the global
mean surface temperature exceeded the long-term average (Rgure
9.76). More alarmingly, whereas the global mean rose by only 0.23°( In 13.8'( = long-term
13.4 ---·--·------- -----
the 100 years between 1880 and 1979, in the 27 years since then it has average 1860-1997

increased by 0.62°C. Although the main reason for the rise in global tem­
perature (Figure 9.76) is the longer-term effect of the continued release
of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere (Figures 9.77 and 9.78). there is 1940 1960 1980 2000
increasing evidence suggesting that temperatures increase more rapidly year
during an El Nino rather than in a La Nina episode
Figure9.77 390�---- - ----- ------,
-
(Case Study 9A).
Atmospheric concentration of
370
Figure9.78 carbon dioxide, 1000-2007
The major greenhouse gases
350
Gas Sources ( and . )
330
water vapour evaporation from the ocean, evapotranspiration from land
carbon dioxide burning of fossil fuels (power houses, industry, transport), .E 310
burning rainforests, respiration
methane decaying vegetation (peat and in swamps), farming E 290 ---
(fermenting animal dung and rice-growing), sewage
disposal and landfill sites 270 ----·----··--··-
nitrous oxide vehicle exhausts, fertiliser, nylon manufacture,
power stations 250+---�-----.- --..----,-- ----.�
CFCs refrigerators, aerosol sprays, solvents and foams 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
year

b the greenhouse effect

less heat escapes Figure9.79
into space
The radiation
most outgoing long-wave
balance and the
radiation (infrared) is
greenhouse effect
radiated back Into space
Increase in greenhouse gases
natural greenhouse gases due to human activity;;--....,

some outgoing radiation is

absorbed by, or trapped
beneath, the greenhouse gases

as more heat is trapped

and retained, so the
s and animals = C02 taken in by trees Earth's atmosphere
02 used by humans and animals becomes warmer (global
warming)

short-wave radiation Is transformed into.long-wave radiation

(heat) on contact with the Earth's1'tirlace
 Short-term and long-term climatic changes Case St1-!'�Yl 9

The Earth is warmed during the day by By adding these gases to the atmos­ predicted increase in summer temperatures
incoming, short-wave radiation (insola­ phere, we are increasing its ability to trap of over 3°C, heat waves will become a more
tion ) from the sun and cooled at night by heat (Figure 9.79).Most scientists now regular occurrence and there will be many
out-going, longer-wave, infra-red radiation accept that the greenhouse effect is more days when thermometers exceed
(page 207 ). As, over a lengthy period of causing global warming.World tempera· 25 °(. Changes in the weather will be greater
time, the Earth is neither warming up nor tures have risen by0.9°C in the last 100 in the south-east than in the north-west.
co9ling down, there must be a balance years. Latest predictions suggest that they However, some computer predictions are
between incoming and outgoing radia­ are likely to increase by between 1 ·c and suggesting thatBritain's climate could, over
tion (page 209). While incoming radiation 6°C by the year 2100. Some of the predicted a long period of time, get colder. This could
is able to pass through the atmosphere global effects of this climate change are happen if the release of fresh water from
(which is 99 per cent nitrogen and oxygen, shown in Figure 9.8 l. Greenland's melting ice-cap pushed the
Figure 9.2), some of the outgoing radia­ North Atlantic Drift further south so that it no
tion is trapped by a blanket of trace gases. Britain's weather forecast longer affected all, or certainly parts, ofBritain.
Because they trap heat as in a greenhouse, for the 2080s
these are referred to as greenhouse gases Effects of climate change in
(Figure 9.79).Without these natural green­ The latest government report predicts. in
general. an increasingly grim forecast for the UK
house gases, the Earth's average tempera­
the next 70 years. Heavy winter rains, up to DEFRA's claims. based on the predicted
ture would be 33 °( lower than it is today
30 per cent in excess of today, will lead to forecast of milder, wetter, stormier winters
- far too cold for life in any form. (During
more frequent fiooding, as was seen In the and warmer. drier summers. are summa­
the last ice age, temperatures were only 4°C
English Midlands in 2007 (Case Study 3C) rised in Figure 9.80. Its two main concerns
lower.) Water vapour provides the ma jority
and destructive gales will be more frequent are:
of the natural greenhouse effect, with
and severe.With a predicted rise in sea-level • the potential effects of changing
lesser contributions from carbon dioxide,
of between 2 and 10 cm, storm surges and rainfall patterns on hydrology and
methane, nitrous oxide and ozone
higher tides will threaten coastal areas (Case ecosystems
During the last 150 years there has been,
Study 6). However. the chances of extremely • rising sea-levels and more frequent
with the exception of water vapour which
cold winters, and the risk of fog and heavy storms in coastal areas where there is
remains a constant In the system, a rise In
snowfalls, will decrease. Days with more a large proportion ofBritain's popul­
greenhouse gas concentrations (Figure 9.78).
than 25 mm of rain, at present an extreme ation, its manufacturing industry,
This has been due largely to the increase
event, could occur three or four times a year. energy production, mineral extraction,
in world population and a corresponding valued natural environments and
Summers will be drier with a decrease in rain
growth in human activity, especially agri­
of up to 30 per cent in the south-east where recreational amenities.
cultural and industrial activities.
drought will become more common.With a

Soils Higher temperatures could reduce water-holding capacities and Increase soil moisture deficits, affecting the types of crops and trees. Less
organic matter due to drier summers (less produced) and wetter winters (more lost).
Flora/fauna Higher temperatures and increased water deficit could mean loss of s�veral n� tive sp �cies.Warmer climate would allow plants to grow
further north and at higher altitudes. Earlier flowering plants and arrival of migrant birds.

Agriculture Grasses helped by longer growing season (extra 15 days) but cereals hit by drier summers.Increase in number of pests.Maize and vines in the
south.Need for irrigation in summer.

Forestry Certain trees able to grow at higher altitudes.New species could be introduced from warmer climates.Threats from fires, diseases and pests.

Coastal regions Rise in sea-level plus increase In frequency/number of gales and frequency/height of storm surges would mea.n more flood�ng, esp�cially
around estuaries, and increased erosion.Major impact on housing, industry, farming, energy, transport and wildlife, including marine eco­
systems.

Water resources Water resources would benefit from wetter winters, but hotter, drier summers would Increase demands/pressures.Need for irrigation
in summer in south-ea st.More fre quent river flooding.
Space heating demand would fall in winter but need for air-conditioning would rise in summer.Probable overall fall in demand.Many power
Energy
stations are in threatened coastal areas.

Manufacturing/construction Problem for coastal industries.Fewer days lost in construction due to less snow/frost.
Many types of transport are sensitive to extreme weather conditions.Benefit of less snow, ice and perhaps fog.Loss due to more frequent and
Transport
severe storms and flooding, including flash floods.

Recreation/tourism
Tourism would benefit from longer, warmer, drier summers. but Insufficient snow for skiing in Scotland.
Source; DEFRA

����·h��-�·�d·�·,;����·····�·�·�·
Figure9.80

;�!��; ���:��climate ... .................................... ............................................................

i
N Figure9.81 Global increase in droughts, floods and storms
UI
0\
Some predicted effects of global warming

� Greenland­ =-.; -.,..

=s" --..._.�-
melting ice sheet
.....
(I)
,.., <;,,__
..... V'I

. ......
a., Alaska­ ':I"
:, �> \v-' 0
a. melting glaciers Canada -loss of�ea Ice " ,..
j"
JI ·- /:"',
Siberia -permafrost thawing,
.......:..··

... f�
�r ...
!:!.. � ,;� .
threatens polar bears northern extension of coniferous forest I

Britain - more storms ID

Ol
Canada - too warm
Netherland� - flooding by sea
� for salmon and trout /-..
Prairies -sharp fall
-�<'
?.'
.J Alps -glaciers melting 3
in crop yields .,,,-- ............... ,,- Japan - earlier Al
::s
-
SW USA - drought Mediterr.anean - drought Tibet­ � flowering plants
California -wildfires and wildfires
� Q.
permafrost
Mexico - lizards Florida 0

......
thawing
threatened with
extinction &-'
. ..
coastal flooding
Bangladesh -
China -threat to broad-leaf forests :::,
\Q
I
West Indies -more flooding by sea

--
ID
""'destructive hurricanes
-..,:1";,v
Sahel -higher crop yields
3
!lo
-
I..
Maldives­

...�·
� ..._ Congo - possible
loss of rainforest submerged by the sea Pacific islands - 3
Al
Brazil - possible loss
Peru -failure of of Amazon rainforest
anchovy fishing J\ I'\
a ':I"
Al
� Southern Africa - loss of ::s
unique natural vegetation Australia - bleaching kills coral \Q
ID
VI

(
Oceans -increased carbon South Africa -earlier arrival
dioxide is turning sea more of migratory birds
acidic and affecting marine life
\
{
t--. Southern Ocean - decline in krill stocks

;\ "---
.....�
Antarctica -decline in penguins,
melting ice sheets
,,-
'--'--..

=��;
.... ������������������
Teinperatureln 2080s {predicted annual mean) Precipitation In 2080s (predicted average precip,ta1ion change)

vv��;
Wt:
- --

.. ���}!
.aS"tl wetter than now
d rier than now

...���---������......������ -
,,.. flooding by rising

-
sea-level
1, .,.. 9f1'W (1' 90'( IIO" ...,�
- -----�
� -
L 1 J f 6
iN
·l -l -1 �j �! O� Q.lS OJ 1 l
annual mean temperature change 'C average precipitation change (mm per day)
Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (2003) � Center for Ocean-Atmospheric US Environmental Protection Agency,
Atmospllere, Weather a11d Climate, Prediction Studies, resources: global w arming:
Routledge. h ttp;//coaps.fsu.edu/llb/elninol in ks/ www.epa.govIcIimatechange/i ndex.
Bentley, M. (2005) 'Antarctic ozone bole' themes html
Geography Review Vol 1 8 No 3 Uanuary)'. Earth Space Research Group, lndia.n US Environmental Protection Agency,
Burt, T. (2005) 'Rain in the hills', monsoons: glossary of climate change terms:
Geography Review Vol 18 No 4 (March). www.icess.ucsb.edu/esrg/!OMZ/StartZ_ http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/
Digby, B. (2005) 'El Nlno Part 1' !OM.html globalwarming.nsf/content/glossary.html
Geography Review Vol 19 No 2' Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA, El US Environmental Protection Agency,
(November). Nino: ozone science:
www.jpl.nasa.gov/earth/ocean_motion/ www.epa.gov/ozone/strathome.html
Digby, 13. (2006) 'F.I Nino Part 2' Geography
Review Vol 19 No 3 Uanuary).
el_nino_index.cfm US NationaJ Oceanographic and
UK Climate Impacts Programme: Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Goudie, A.S. (2001) The Nature of the
www.ukcip.org.uk/index.php Climate Prediction Center:
E1111iro11me11t, WileyBlackwell.
UK MeteroJogical Office (Met Office): www.cpc.noaa.gov/
Ho.Iden, J. (2008) J11trod11ctio11 to Physical
www.metoffice .gov.uk/ US NOAA, El. Niii.o I La Niiia:
Geography m1rl the E1111ironme11t, Prentice
UK Met Office weather charts; www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/analysis_
Hall.
www.meto.gov.uk/education/data/ monitoring/ensostuff/
Middleton, N. 'Acid shock', Geograpily
charts.html www.elnino.noaa.gov/
Review Vol 18 No 4 (March).
Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS), US NOAA, hurricanes:
O'Hara, G., Sweeney,]. and O'Hare, G. global warming: http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/
(1986) The At111ospheric System, Oliver & http:/ /ucsusa.org/warming/Lndex. html
Boyd. US NOAA, research:
Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS), www.cdc.noaa.gov/ENSO
Smithson, P., Addison, K. and Atkinson, ozone depletio11:
K. (2008) F1111damentals ofPhysical www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/
Geog aphy, Routledge.
r
science_and_impacts/science/
fag-about-ozone-depletion-and.html

Activities
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
a What is the'atmosphere'of the Earth? (3marks) b Use Places 29 (page 232) to answer the following questions:
What was the weather forecast on 11-15 October 1987?
b What is the difference between 'weather'and'climate'? (3marks)
(4marks)
ii Describe the meteorological conditions over the
c Describe the'solar cascade of energy'to the Earth. (4marks) Western Approaches and Bay ofBiscay at 6.00 pm
on 15 October. (3marks)
d What is the importance of i carbon dioxide and ii clouds iii Describe the track of the storm overthe next
in the energy balance of the Earth? (4marks) 12 hours. (4marks)
iv What happened to the weather over southern England
e Ozone in the troposphere is a danger to health. Why is there during this 12-hour period? (4 marks)
concern that ozone in the stratosphere is being depleted?
(Smarks) v Describe three effects of the storm on people. (3 marks)

f What measures can be taken to restrict the potential c Explain two reasons whymeteorologists failed to forecast
damage due to ozone depletion? (5marks) the very strong winds of 15 October. (4 marks)

2 a How does a meteorologist get information to forecast

the weather? (4marks)

· · ·· · · · · · · · · ·· ···
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weather and climate 257
 . ,:�·:.:..�
... -
Exam practice: basic structured questions
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•••••••••••••••••• 0 ••••••••••••••••••
••••••••••••

3 a Explain how each of the following factors affects the winds that c Why does fog often form over a coastal area in the
crqss them: autumn? (6 marks)
a large body of water (e.g, a sea) (4marks) d Explain the formation of smog over an urban area. (8 marks)
ii a mountain range, (6 marks)
5 a Describe the causes of the ITCZ. (5marks)
b On a field course in Switzerland a geography student noted:
'On the north-facing side of the valley the forests came close b What weather conditions are associated with the ITCZ?
to the valley floor while the settlement huddled at the foot (10marks)
of the south-facing slope and here there were ploughed c Why does the ITCZ. move with the seasons? (10 marks)
fields. There were forests but they started higher up the
slope.' 6 Study Figure 9.82 and answer the following questions.
Suggest the cause of these differences in land use. (6marks) a What is the name of the pressure system shown? (2 marks)
c A January weather forecast for the UK stated:'Although it will b What is the weather like at place A (Doncaster)? (4 marks)
be cool today, temperatures will stay above freezing tonight c What is the red line with half circles on it? (5 marks)
because of the cloud cover'. d Locate the warmes! and the coolest place in the British
Explain the effect of cloud on temperature. (4marks) Isles. (2 marks)
d Why is it warmer in summer than in winter? (5 marks) e i Over the next 12 hours the pressure system moves so
that it is in the North Sea.
4 a i What is 'stratus' cloud? (2marks)
Give a weather forecast for place A (Doncaster) over
ii What is 'cumulo-nimbus' cloud? (2marks) this period. (6marks)
b Making good use of diagrams, explain why rain falls when ii Why would you expect this to happen? (6marks)
an onshore wind blows over an upland area. (7 marks)

Exam practice: structured questions

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
7 a Study Figures 9.82 and 9.83. Describe the changes in the c Choose either stability or instability. Describe and
weather being experienced at Limerick (place C) over explain the weather conditions normally associated
this 24-hour period. (8 marks) with that atmosphefic condition. (6 marks)
b Explain what has happened to the frontal system over
this period of time. (8 marks) 9 a i l)sing an annotated diagram only, illustrate the
variation of temperature and pressure with altitude
c Describe, and explain the causes of, the types and in the atmosphere. (6marks)
distribution of the precipitation shown in Figure 9.83.
(9marks) ii Explain the variations in temperature with altitude
in the atmosphere. (6marks)
8 a Describe three mechanisms that are likely to trigger upward b Study Figure 9.5 {page 209). Making good use of
movement of a parcel of air from sea level. (6marks) the data, explain why there is a general trend of
b Study Figure 9.84. movement of heat energy from the Equator to the
poles. (6 marks)
What is meant by the term 'ELR'? (4 marks)
ii Describe how heat is transferred from the tropics
ii Identify the height of the base of clouds. (1 mark)
towards the poles. (7 marks)
iii Explain why this height is the cloud base. (4 marks)
iv Identify the air stream(s) (A, B, C) that would have 1 o a Describe and expl.ain what happens to incoming solar
cloud cover. State why this is so. (2 marks)
radiation {insolatiion) once it reaches the edge of the
Earth's atmosphere. (10 marks)
v At what height would condensation in a cloud be
in the form of ice? (2 marks) b Explain the importance of each of the following in
relation to heat energy in the atmosphere:
5000 i latitude
Figure9.84
-- ELRs - 600
ii altitude
4000 ElRs and ALRs -- DALR
iii land and sea. (JO marks)
--SALR 700
c The greatest amount of insolation is experienced close to
.5 theEquator. Why does this area not become increasingly
800 hot? (5 marks)

11 a Suggest one way you could test the hypothesis that the
900 temperatures in an urban area are different from those in
the surrounding countryside. Describe the method you
OL-� �_.1.���..L.��.....1�-=�IIIL��--'����1000 would use to collect and record the data to carry out the
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 proposed test. (7 marks)
temperature("Q

. ······ ................. ········· ... . ········ ·············· ······························· ............... ················ ······
258 Weather and climate
Figure9.82 Figure9.83
Weather map for 1200 hrs, Weather map for 1200 hrs,
12 January 1984 13 January 1984

b Explain two reasons why temperatures in urban areas b a mature depression with its centre over the Central
may be higher than those in surrounding rural areas. Valley of Scotland in summer
(10marks) c a depression centred over Paris and an anticyclone to the
c Suggest two ways in which planning policies can north of Scotland in January.
reduce the problems caused by microclimatic features Choose two of the situations a-c and, in both cases,
of urban areas. (8 marks) describe how weather conditions would vary in two
contrasting locations in the British Isles.
12 a Explain the difference between absolute humidity and
relative humidity. (8 marks) Explain these variations. (12 + 73 marks)
b Making good use of diagrams, show how condensation 14 a Study Figure 9.49 (page 235). Describe the major
occurs as air rises through the atmosphere. (1 Omarks) distribution of tropical storms as shown on the map.
c Explain the cause of low-level clouds (mist) as shown in (6marks)
Figure 9.23 (page 221). (7marks) b Choose any one type of tropical storm. Describe and
explain the sequence of weather associated with the
13 The following are meteorological conditions that develop a passage of the storm. (10marks)
range of weather conditions over the British Isles:
c Explain how people respond to the hazard posed by
a an anticyclone centred over the English Midlands in tropical storms. In your answer refer to countries at
winter different stages of economic development. (9 marks)

Exam practice: essays

•• •• •• •••••••• ••••• •••• •••••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••• •• • •••••••••• ••••••••••••••
15 'The polar front jet stream is one of the most important 17 'There is now overwhelming scientific evidence that
influences on the climate of the British Isles! human activity is causing major changes to the global
Discuss this statement. (25marks) climate:
Is this statement true? Justify your answer. (25 marks)
16 The passage of a depression over the British Isles leads to
predictable changes in the weather over a period of time.
Describe and explain the sequence of weather experienced in
Liverpool over a 12-hour period as a mature depression passes
from west to east. (25 marks)

············································· ···· ········-············ ···················· ················································ ·······························

Weather and climate 2S9
 Soils
••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••• ••e•

'To many people who do not live 011 the land, soil appears Soil formation
to be a11 inert, 1111ifonn, dark-brown coloured, u11i11teresti11g
The firsl stage in the formation of soil is the
mate,ial in which pla1Zts happen to gro1.-v. 111 fact little could accumulation of a layer of loose, broken,
be fwtller from ti ,e tmth.' unconsolidated parent material known as rego­
Brian Knapp, Soil Processes, 1979 lith. Regolith may be derived from either the
in situ weathering of bedrock (i.e. the parent or
Soil forms the thin surface layer of the Earth's underlying rock) or from material that has been
crust. It can be defined as the unconsolidated transported from elsewhere and deposited, e.g.
mineral and organic material on the Earth's as alluvium, glacial drift, loess or volcanic ash.
surface, often characterised by horizons or layers The second stage, the formation of true soil
(Figure 10.5), that serves as a natural medium for or topsoil, results from the addition of water,
the growth of plants and therefore the support of gases (air), living organisms (biota) and decayed
animal life on land. It has been subjected to, and organic matter (humus).
shows the effects of, genetic and environmental Pedologists have identified five main
factors of: climate (including water and tempera­ factors involved ln soil formation (figure 10.1).
ture), macro- and micro-organisms, relief and the As all of these are closely Interconnected and
underlying parent rock (Figure 10.1). It develops interdependent, their relationship may be
over a period of time through the interaction of summarised as follows:
several physical, chemical, biological and mor­ soil= f (parent material+ climate+
phological properties and characteristics. topography+ organisms+ time)
Figure 10.1 where: f= function of.
The study of soil, its origins and characteris­
Factors affecling lhe tics (pedology) is a science in itself.
formation of soil Parent material
When a soil develops from an underlying rock,
its supply of minerals is largely dependent on
!
-
that rock. The minerals are susceptible to dif­

.--�----
permeability human influences
� ferent rates and processes of weathering- see the
mineral content
texture dimate
example of granite, Figure 10.2. Parent malcrial
nutrients contributes tto control of the depth, texture,
weathering
precipitation drainage (permeability) and quality (nutrienl
temperature content) of a soil and also influences its colour.
organic matter altitude
In mosl of Britain, parent material is the major
nutrient cycle/recycling aspect
mixing and aeration slope angle factor in determining the soil type, e.g. lime­
stone, granite or, most commonly, drift.

usually:
coarser texture
(primary good drainage
{
minerals) shalfower soil
1l
- fewer nutrients

usual!Y:
'· '1
·cays
• finer te�ture
(secoT1dc1ry poortd;alnage �.
left as {
rninerals) - deeper sbll
residues
rnore nutrients
,.,

. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . Figure 10.2

260 Soils The influence of a parent rock­

granite - on soil formation
 Climate an important local factor in mid-latitudes
Climate determines the type of soil at a global (page 212), with south-facing slopes in the
scale. The distribution of world soil types corre­ northern hemisphere being warmer and drier
sponds closely to patterns of climate and vegeta­ than those facing north. The angle of slope
tion. Climate affects the rate of weathering of the affects drainage and soil clepth. Greater mois­
parent rock, with the most rapid breakdown being ture flows and the increased effect of gravity on
in hot, hurnid environments. Climate also affects steeper slopes can accelerate mass movement
the amount of humus (organic material) in the ancl the risk of soil erosion. Soils on steep slopes
soil. The amount is a balance between the input are likely to be tbin, poorly developed and rela­
and output, the input and output being a func­ tively dry. The more gentle the slope, the slower
tion of the effects of temperature and moisture the rate of movement of water through the soil
on biological activity. One might expect tropical and the greater the likelihood of waterlogging
rainforest soils to have more humus than tundra and the formation of peat on plateau-like sur­
soils because of the greater mass of vegetation. faces at the top of the slope (Figure 10.3). There
However, it is possible for some tundra soils to is little risk of soil erosion but the increased rate
have more humus accumulation due to a lower of weathering, due to the extra water, and the
output, and some tropical rainforest soils to have receipt of material moved downslope, tencl to
less because of greater humus breakdown. produce deep soils at the foot of the slope. A
Rainfall totals and intensity are also impor­ catena is where soils are related to the topog­
tant. Where rainfall is heavy, the downward raphy of a hillside and is a sequence of soil
movement of water through the soil transports types down a slope. The catena (Figure 10.3) is
mineral salts (i.e. soluble minerals) with it, a described in more detail on page 276.
process known as leaching. Where rainfall is Organisms (biota)
light or where evapotranspiration exceeds pre-· Plants, micro-organisms such as bacteria and
cipitation, water and mineral salts may be drawn fungi, and animals all interact in the nutrient
upwards towards the surface by the process of cycle (page 300). Plants take up mineral nutri­
capillary action. ents from the soil and return them to it after
Temperatures determine the length of the they die. This recycling of plant nutrients
growing season and affect the supply of humus. (Figure 12.7) is achieved by the activity of
The speed of vegetation decay is fastest in hot, micro-organisms, which assist in nitrogen fiJrn­
wet climates as temperatures also influence tion {page 268) and the decomposition and
... (i) the activity and nmnber of soil organisms and decay of dead vegetation. At the same time,
(ii) the rate of evaporation, i.e. whether leaching macro-organisms, which include worms and ter­
or capillary action is dominant. mites, mix and aerate the soil. Human activity is
Topography (relief) increasingly affecting soil development through
As the height of the land increases, so too do the addition of fertiliser, the breaking up of hori­
amounts of precipitation, cloud cover and zons by ploughing, draining or irrigating land,
wind, while temperatures and the length of and by unwittingly accelerating or deliberately
the growing season both decrease. Aspect is controlling soil erosion.

Figure 10.3
flatter upland (plateau): shedding (degrading or
hill peat develops on eluviation) zone: sheds water A catena: the relationship
colder, waterlogged, (well drained), soil, organic between soil type and slope
acidic soils and mineral matter (not drawn to scale)
transfer (translocation) zone:
rapid movement of water. solls
soil and minerals giving a thinner,
depth less acidic, drier soil

receiving (accumulation or
illuviation) zone: receives
water, soil, organic and
mineral matter; valley peat
develops on waterlogged
or gleyed soil
 pore space containing air and/or water = 45% mineral matter+ organic matter
(can be 45% water,or 45% air, but is more + biota =55% in si/11 weat:hering consists of sands rather than
usually a proportion of each}
clays, and i111 hot, wet climates rather than in
colder and/or drier environments.
A mature, fully-developed soil consists of four
mineral matter components: mineral matter, organic matter
(weathered
including biota {page 268), water and air. The
parent rock)
relative proportions of these components in a
40%
'normal' soil, by volume, is given in Figure 10.4.

The soil profile

The soil profile is a vertical section through the
soil showing its different horizons (Figure 10.5).
It is a product of the balance between soil system
inputs and outputs (Figure 10.6) and the redistri­
bution of, and chemical changes in, the various
Figure10.4 Time soil constituents. Different soil profiles are
Relative pr o por tions, described in Chapter 12, but an idealised profile
Soils usually take a long time to form, perhaps up
by volume, of compo­ to 400 years for 10 mm and, under extreme con­ is given here to aid familiarisation with several
nent s in a'normal' soil new terms.
ditions, 1000 years for 1 mm. It can take 3000
(after Courtney and The three major soil horizons, which may be
Trudgill) to 12 000 years to produce a sufficient deplh of
subdivided, are referred lo by specific letters to
mature soil foe farming, although agriculture can
indicate their genetic origin.
be successful on newly deposited alluvium and
The upper layer, or A horizon, is where
volcanic ash. Newly forming soils tend to retain
biological activity and humus content are
many cl1aracteristics of the parent material from
at their maximum. It is also the zone that
which they ace derived. With lime, they acquire
is most affected by the leaching of soluble
new characteristics resulting from the addition
materials and by the downward movement
of organic matter, the activity of organisms,
or eluviation, of clay particles. Eluviation i;
and from leaching. Horizons, or layers (Figure
the washing out of material, i.e. the removal
10.5), reflect the balance between soil processes
of organic and mineral matter from the A
and the time that has been available for their
horizon (Figure 10.S).
development. ln northern Britain, upland soils
• Beneath this, the B horizon is the zone of
must be less than 10 000 years old, as that was
accumulation, or illuviation, where clays
the time of Lhe last glaciation, when any existing
and other materials removed from the A
soil cover was removed by ice. The t ime taken
horizon are redeposited. IUuviation is the
Figure 10.5 for a mature soil to develop depends primarily
process of inwashing, i.e. the redeposition of
An Idealised soil on parent material and climate. Soils develop
organic and mineral matter in the B horizon.
profile in Britain more rapidly where parent material derived from
The A and B horizons together make up the
true soil.
leaf liner
fermentation (decomposilion) layer (page 266) • The C horizon consists mai11ly of recently
� ayer weathered parenl malcrial (regolith) resting
sol! depth measured on the bedrock.
A from this point
horizon or A
Although this threefold division is useful and
} zoneof convenient, il is, as will be seen later, over­
- eluviatlon mixed mineral/organic layer simplified. Several examples show this:
(outwashing)
some organic material. as well as day
• Humus 1:1ay b: mixed throughout the depth
and calcium, removed by water, a of the soil, or 1t may form a distinct layer.
process known as t ranslocation Where humus is incorporated within the
soil to give a crumbly, black, nutrient-rich
8
layer it is known as mull (page 266). Where
humus is slow to decompose, as in cold, wet
] horizon or
zone of 8
upland areas, it produces a fibrous, acidic and
llluvlatlon
(inwashing) nutrient-deficient surface horizon known
as mor (page 266) (peat moorlands).
:§
weathered • The junctions of horizons may not always
parent c
} material
(in situ)
be clear.
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

BEDROCK R or D
(unaltered)
 • AJJ horizons need not always be present. These two processes release the stored nutrients,
• The depth or soil and of each horizon vary at allowing them to be returned to the soil ready
different sites. Local conditions produce soils for future use- the so-callecl nutrient (or humus)
with characteristic horizons differing from the cycle.
basic A, B, C pattern: for example, a waterloggecl
soil, having a shortage of oxygen, develops a
gleyed (G) horizon (page 275). Soil properties
The four major components of soil -water, air,
The soil system mineral and organic matter (Figure 10.4)-are all
closely interlinked. The resultant interrelationships
Figure 10.6 is a model showing the soil as an ol_)en produce a series of 'properties', ten of which are
system where materials and energy are gained and listed and described below.
lost at its boundaries. The system comprises inputs, I mineral (inorganic) matter
stores, outputs and recycling or feedback loops 2 texture
(Yramework 3, page 45). lnputs include: 3 structure
• water from the atmosphere or throughflow 4 organic matter (including humus)
from higher up the slope 5 moisture
• gases from the atmosphere and the respiration 6 air
of soil animals and plants 7 organisms (biota)
• mineral nutrients from weathered parent mate­ 8 nutrients
rial, which are needed as plant foocl 9 acidity (pH value)
• organic matter and nutrients from decaying 10 temperature.
plants and animals, and It is necessary to understand the workings of these
• solar energy and heat. properties to appreciate how a particular soil can
Outputs include: best be managed.
• water lost to the atmosphere through
evapotranspiration 1 Mineral (inorganic) matter
• nutrients lost through leaching and through­ As shown in Figure 10.2, soil minerals are
flow, and obtained mainly by the weathering of parent
• loss of soil particles tb rough soil creep rock. Weathering is the major process by which
and erosion. nutrients, essential for plant growth, are released.
Recycling Jlrimary minerals are minerals that were present
Plants, in order to live, take up nutrients from the in the original parent material and which remain
soil (page 268). Some of the nutrients may be stored unaltered from their original state. They are present
until: throughout the soil-forming process, mainly
Cil either the vegetation sheds its leaves (during the
because they are insoluble, e.g. quartz. Secondary
autumn in Britain), or minerals are produced by weathering reactions
• the plants die and, over time, decompose and are therefore produced within the soil. They
due to the activity of micro-organisms include oxides and hydroxides of primary minerals
(biota, page 268). (e.g. iron) which result from the exposure to ai_r and
water (page 40).
Figurel0.6 Mpot",spi,,tioo

lll
. j
inputs into the water gases solar
The'open'soil system soil system (air) energy

outputs from the

soil system

recycling

nutrients taken up
by plant roots

-
soil creep
and erosion

�
a sieving b field technique by 'feel' c sedimentation
lOOg of dispersed dried soil (easier
to gain a percentage figure)

clay
2.0 mm mesh stone
D sand: a gritty feel; when rubbed,
does not form a ball or leave
0.2 mm mesh coarse a film on finger
sand
0.02 mm mesh fine
sand
D silt: smooth, silky or soapy feel
slit

silt and
appa,at
electrical shaking
'---
clay
D clay: plastic and sticky when wet; fine sand

n f\
gives a polished surface when coarse
rubbed: rolls into a ball sand

Figure 10.7 2 Soil texture either of two laboratory measurements, both of

Measuring soil which are dependent upon particle size. The Soil
The term 'texture' refers to the degree of coarse­
texture (after Survey of England and Wales uses the British
Cour tney and ness or fineness of the mineral matter in tbe soil.
Standards classification, which gives the followirJg
Trudgill) It is determined by the proportion of sand, silt
diameter sizes:
and clay particles. Particles larger than sand are
grouped together and described as stones. In the Heading Description from case study
field, it is possible to decide whether a soil sample coarse sand between2.0 and 0.6mm
is mainly sand, silt or clay by its 'feel'. As shown
in Figure 10.7b, a sandy soil feels gritty and lacks medium sand between 0.6and 0.2 mm
cohesion; a silty soil has a smoother, soaplike feel fine sand between 0.2 and 0.06mm
as well as having some cohesion; and a clay soil is silt between 0.0 6and 0.002 mm
sticky and plastic when wet and, being very cohe­
sive, may be rolled into various shapes. clay less than 0.0 02 mm
This method gives a quick guide to the texture,
One method of measuring texture involves the
but it lacks Lhe precision needed to determine the
Figure 10.8 use of sieves with different meshes (Figure 10.7a).
proportion of partides in a given soi I with any
The sample must be dry and needs to be well­
The texture of accuracy. This precision may be obtained from
different soil types shaken. A mesh of 0.2 mm, for example, allows
fine sand, sUt and day particles to pass through
silt loam sandy loam it, while trapping the coarse sand. The weight of
particles remaining in each sieve is expressed as a
percentage of the total sample.
111 the second method, sedimentation
(Figure 10.?c), a weighed sample is placed in a
65%
beaker of water, thoroughly shaken and then
allowed to settle. According to Stoke's Law, 'the
settling rate of a particle is proportional to the
diameter of that partide'. Consequently, the larger,
coarser, sand grains settle quickly at the bottom of
loam the beaker and the finer, clay particles settle last,
closer to the surface (compare Figure 3.22). The Soil
Survey and Land Research Centre tends to use both
methods because sieving is less accurate in meas­
uring the finer material and sedimentation is less
accurate with coarser particles.
The results of sieving and sedimentation are
usually plotted either as a pie chart (Figure 10.8)
or as a triangular graph (Figure 10.9). As the
proportions of sand, snt and clay vary consider­
ably, it is traditional to have 12 texture categories
(Figure 10.9).
.....................................................................········ ················································································ ············
264 Soils
 I
contain limited amounts of organic matter. They
Soil texture analysis also need considerable amounts of fertiliser
(some boundaries may vary
in different books) because nutrient·s and organic matter are often
1 sand
leached out and not replaced.
2 loamy sand Silty soils also tend to lack mineral and
(read in this %silt
3 sandy loam direction) organic nutrients. The smaller pore size means
4 sandy clay loam (read in this that more moisture is retained than in sands but
S sandy clay direction)
6 loam heavy rain tends to 'seal' or cement the surface,
7 clay loam increasing the risk of sheetwash and erosion.
8 silt Clay soils tend to contain high levels of
9 siltloam nutrient and organic matter but tl1ey are difficult
1 O silty clay loam to plough and, after heavy rain and due to their
11 silty clay
12 clay small particle size (f.igure 8.2b) which helps to
retain water (page 267), are prone to waterlogging
and may become gleyed (pages 272 and 275).
Plant roots find difficulty in penetration. Clays
expand when wet, shrink when dry and take the
longest time to warm up.
The ideal soil for agriculture is a loam
100
60 so 40 0 (Figures 10.8 and 10.9). This has sufficient clay
%sand (read in this direction) (20 per cent) to hold moisture and retain nutri­
%clay %silt % sand ents; sufficient sand (40 per cent) to prevent water­
a 65 18 17 logging, to be well aerated and to be light enough
b 35 59 6 to work; and sufficient silt (40 per cent) to act as
27 17 56 an adhesive, holding the sand and clay together. A
loam is Likely to be least susceptible to erosion.
Figure10.9 The importance of texture
Soil texture analysis: As texture controls the size and spacing of soil
3 Soil structure
the use of a pores, it directly affects the soil water content, It is the aggregation of individual particles that
triangular graph water flow and extent of aeration. Clay soils tend gives the soil its structure. ln undisturbed soils,
to hold more water and are less well drained and these aggregates form different shapes known as
aerated than sandy soils (page 267). peds. It is the shape and alignment of the peels
Texture also controls the availability and which, combined with particle size/texture,
retention of nutrients within the soil. Nutrients determine the size and number of the pore spaces
stick to - i.e. are adsorbed onto - clay particles through which water, air, roots and soil organisms
and are less easily leached by infiltration or can pass. The size, shape, location and suggested
throughflow than in sandy soils (page 268). agricultural value of each of the six ped types are
Plant roots can penetrate coarser soils more given .in Figure 10.10. It sbould be noted, however,
easily than finer soils, and 'lighter' sandy soils that some soils may be structureless (e.g. sands),
are easier to plough for arable farming than some may have more than one ped structure
'heavier' clays. (Figure 10.11), and most are likely to have a dis­
Texture greatly influences soil structure. tinctive ped in each horizon. lt is accepted that
soils with a good crumb stnicture give the highest
How does texture affect farming? agricultural yield, are more resistant to erosion
The following comments are generalised as it and develop best under grasses-whith is why
must be remembered that soils vary enormously. fallow should be included in a farming crop rota­
Sandy soils, being well drained and aerated, tion. Sandy soils have the weakest structures as
are easy to cultivate and permit crop roots (e.g. they lack the clays, organic content and secretions
carrots) to penetrate. However, they are vulner­ of organisms needed to cause the individual par­
able to drought, mainly because, due to their rel­ ticles to aggregate. A crumb structure is ideal as it
atively large particle size (Figure 8.2a), they lack provides the optimum balance between air, water
the micropores that would retain moisture and nutrients.
(page 267) and partly because they usually

. . . . . .. . .. . . .. . - . .
. . . ...... .... .. . .. . .. ... .. .. . ... . . . . . . - - .... .. ..... . . . . . . ... . . . - . . . . . . . . .. ... . ...... - . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .... . .. .. . . - . - . . . . . . - � - . . . . . ........ ... .Soils 265
 small Individual particles similar to A horizon: loam soil; formed by action of soil
breadcrumbs; porous fauna (e.g. earthworms, mites and termites),
high content of fibrous roots (grasses) an'd for roots
excretion of micro-organisms
granular 1-S small individual particles; usually A horizon: clay soil; formation as for crumb fairly productive; problems
non-porous structure with drainage and aeration

platy 1-10 vertical axis much shorter than B horizon: silts and clays; formed by contraction the least productive; hinders
horizontal, like overlapping plates; by tree roots, especially when trees (e.g. Scots water and air movement;
restrict flow of water pine) sway In wind. Also due to ice lens, and restricts roots
compaction due to farm machinery
blocky 10-75 irregular shape with horizontal and Bhorizon: clay-loam soils; formation productive: usually well
vertical axes about equal; may be associated with wetting-drying drained and aerated
rounded or angular but closely and freeze-thaw processes
fitting

prismatic 20-100 vertical axis much larger than 8 and ( horizons: often limestones usually quite productive:
horizontal; angular caps and sides or clays; formation associated with wetting­ formed by wetting and drying;
to columns drying and freeze-thaw processes adequate water movement
and root development

columnar 20-100 vertical axis much larger than 8 and C horizons; alkaline soils; quite productive (if water
horizontal; rounded caps and sides formation associated with available)
to columns accumulation of sodium

Figure 10.10 4 Organic matter l Lor le(lf litter !<1yer: plant remains are still
Different soil visible.
Organic matter, which includes humus, is derived
structures 2 For fermentation (decomposition) layer:
mainly from decaying plants and animals, or from
decay, which biochemically involves yeast, is
the secretions of living organisms. FaUen leaves
most rapid, although some plant remains are
and decaying grasses and roots are the main
still visible.
source of organic matter. Soil organisms, such as
3 Hor humus layer: primarily organic in nature
bacteria and fungi., break down the organic matter
where, following decomposition, all recog­
and, depending on the nature of the soil-forming
Figure 10.11
nisable pEant and animal remains have been
processes (Figure 10.17), help develop up to three
broken down into a black, slimy, amorphous
Differences in peds distinct organic layers at the surface of the soil
organic material.
(ofrerCourtney profile (Figure 10.5):
andTrudgill) Wherever soil biological activity is low (due to
one or a combination of acidity, low tempera­
porous tures, wetness or the difficulty in decomposing
topsoil organic matter), soil organism activity is greatly
reduced or absent. As the litter layer cannot be
mixed into the soil, then organic horizons build
up to give the distinct L, F and H layers of a mor.
Where soil organisms are active, they will
readily mix the litter into the soil, dispersing it
30cm throughout the A horizon where it decomposes
into an A horizon rich in humus - the mull layer.
Where organic material and mineral matter do
prism�tic mix, mainly due to earthworm activity, the result
is the clay-humus complex (page 268). The
clay-humus complex is essential for a fertile soil
as it provides it with a high water- and nutrient­
holding capacity and, by binding particles
together, helps reduce the risk of erosion.
...... . . . . . . .. .. . ... . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . .. . . . · · · · ·· · · · ···· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · ···· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ···· · ·
266 Soils
 Humus gives the soil a black or dark-brown infiltration rates (page 59). Sands have fewer but
colour. The highest amounts are found in the much larger macropores which permit water to
chemozems, or black earths (page 327), of the pass through more quickly (a rapid infiltration
North American Prairies, Russian Steppes and rate), but have a low water retention capacity. A
Argentinean Pampas. fn tropical rainforests, heavy loam provides a more balanced supply of water, in
rainfall and high biological activity cause the rapid the micropores, and air, in the macropores.
decomposition of organic matter which releases TI1e presence of moisture in the soil does not
nutrients ready for their uptake ancl storage by necessarily mean that it is available for plant use.
plants (Figures 10.6 and 1 l.29c) or, if the forest is Plants growing iJ1 clays may still suffer from water
cleared, for leaching out of the system. In drier cli­ stress even though clay has a high water-holding
mates there may be insufficient vegetation to give capacity. Soil water can be classified according to
an adequate supply. the tension at which it is held. Following a heavy
stonn or a lengthy episode of rain or snowmelt,
5 Soil moisture all the pore spaces may be filled, with the result
Soil moisture is important because it affects the that the soil becomes saturated. When infiltration
upward and downward movement of water and ceases, water with a low surface tension drains away
nutrients. ft helps in the development of horizons; rapidly under graviLy. This is called gravitational
it supplies water for living plants and organisms; it or free water which is available to plants when the
provides a solvent for plant nutrients; it influences soil is wet, but unavailable when water has dJained
soil temperature; and it determines the incidence away. Once this excess water has drained away, the
of erosion. The amount of water in a soil at a given remaining moisture that the soil can hold is said to
time can be e>..1Jressed as: be its field capacity (Figures 3.3 and 10.12).
Moisture at field capacity is held either
W <>< R - (E + T + D)
as hygroscopic water or as capillary water.
(input) - (outputs)
Hygroscopic water is always present, unless the
where: W = water in the soil
soil becomes completely dry, but is unavailable for
"" = proportional to plant use. It is found as a thin film around the soil
R = rainfall/precipitation
particles to which it sticks due to the strength of its
T = transpiration·
surface tension. Capillary water is attracted to, and
E = evaporation
forms a film around, the hygroscopic water, but
D = drainage.
has a lower cohesive strength. It js capillary water
Drainage depends on the balance between the that is freely available to plant roots. However, this
w ater retention capacily (water storage in a soil) water can be lost to the soil by evapotranspiration.
and the in.filtration rate. This is controlled by When a plant loses more water tluough transpira­
porosity and penneability which in turn is con­ tion than it can take up through its roots.it is said to
trolled by the soil's texture and structure. It has suffer water stress and it begins to wilt. At wilting
already been shown how texture and strncture point, photosynthesis (page 295) is reduced but,
affect the size and distribution of pore spaces. Clays provided water can be obtained relatively soon or
have numerous small pores (micropores) which if the plant is adapted to drought conditions, this
figure 10.12 need not be fatal. Figure 10.12 shows the different
can retain water for long periods, giving it a high
Availability of soil water retention capacity, but which also restrict water-holding characte(istics of soil.
moisture for plant use
(highly magnified) field capacity

film of
(\/ hygroscopic

U water

pore spaces/ �
filled with air�

hygroscopic water capillary water gravitational water

-...iiiiiiii....,__.....iiiiiioiiiiiiiiiiiilli> saturated
drought
increasi�gly dry lncreasl�gly wet

increases _,..41i'!!!!"'"--...,-i--.......,..,;-a:c:t� t�e�ns�l�o�n !�:::::1--mlliiiiiiiil!"1 -----�..---- decreases

hygroscopic water capillary water available for plant gravitational water unavailable for
unavailable for plant roots; lost by evapotranspiratlon plant roots; lost by gravity
soil particle roots; always present
 6 Air Organisms ar e responsible for three important
Air fills the pore spaces left unoccupied by soil soil processes:
moisture. It is oxygen in the air that is essential • Decomposition: detritivores, such as earth­
for_ plant growth and living organisms. Compared worms, ants, termites, mites, woodlice and
with atmospheri.c air, air in the soil contains more slugs, begin this process by burying leaf
carbon dioxide, released by plants and soil biota, litter (detritus), which hastens its decay, and
eating some of it. Their faeces (wormcasts,
�nd more water vapour; but less oxygen, as this
1� consumed by bacteria. Biota need oxygen and etc.) increase the surface area of detritus upon
give o�f ca�bon dioxide by respiration and through which fungi ancl bacteria can act. Fungi and
the ox1datLOn of organic matter. These gases are bacteria secrete enzymes which break down
exchanged through the process of diffusion. tbe organic compounds in the detritus. This
releases nutrient ions essential for plant
7 Soil organisms (biota) growth (soil nutrients, Figure 10.13), into the
soil while some organic compounds rema�n
Soil organisms include bacteria, fungi and earth­
as humus.
worms. They are more active and plentiful in
• Fixation: by this process, bacteria can trans­
Figure10.13 warmer, well-drained and aerated soils than they
form nitrogen in the air into nitrate, which is
Nutrients needed are in colder, more acidic and less well-drained an essential nutrient for plant growth.
by plants and aerated soils. • Development of structure: fungi help to
c bind individual soil particles together to give
a crumb structure, while burrowing animals
H create passageways that help the circulation of
) Needed for basic cell construction. Obtained from air air and water and facilitate root penetration.
and water.

8 Soil nutrients
N Basis of plant proteins. Promotes rapid growth. Improves Nutrient is the term given to chemical elements
--------
p
quality and quantity ofleargrowth.
Encourages rapid seedling growth and early root formation.
found in the soil which are essential for plant
growth and 11:he maintenance of the fertility of
Helps in flowering and wilh seed formation. a soil (Figure 10.13). The two main sources of
S Especially important for rootcrops. nutrients are:
1 the weathering of minerals in the soil, and
K Helpswith production of proteins and in overcoming disease. 2 the release of nutrients on the decomposition
Strengthens stems and stalks. of organic matter and humus by soil organisms.
ca Reduces acidity. Helps with growth ofroots and new shoots. Nutrients can also be obtained through:
3 rainwater, and
Mg Used in photosynthesis, being a basic constituent ofchloro­ 4 the artificial application of fertiliser.
Nutrients occur in the soil solution as positi'vely
�-..................- phyll. Important for arable crops.
charged (+)_ions called cations and negatively
Na Helps to increase yields.
cha�ge� (·) ions known as anions. It is largely in
the ionic fonn that plants can utilise nutrients
Used in respiration, protein synthesis and enzyme
reactions. in the soil. Both clay and humus, which have
n�gative �harges, attract the positively charged
Reduces toxicity ofother elements in soil. Helps minerals m the soil solution, notably Ca2+ M g2+
enzyme reactions.
K+ and Na +. Th'is results .m the cations being
I I

Helps in fruit product1on. adsorbed (i.e. they become attached) to the

Needed in nitrogen fixation by activating enzymes. clay and humus particles. The process of cation
exchange allows cations to be moved between·
Important constituent of grasses. • soil particles of clay and/o.r humus and the·
soil solution
• plant roots and either the surface of the
soil particles or from the soil solution
(Figure 10.14).
Can increase yields ofsome crops.

Helps fruit trees and bushes.

�6s······s;;i�·······-················:····························..····················· ..·················································. ·······················

 plant W plant
rootlet(-) rootlet(-)
a b

Ca2 +
ca2+
Mg2+ Ca2+ ---
w

Mg2+
K+ clay particle (-) Mg2+

ca 21-

cations adsorbed on clay-humus

[ particle from weathering of parentl
rock and decay of organic matter
hydrogen ions
[released
from vegetation
l released hydrogen
[ cations increase soil J equal charge
acidity and weathering [of cations
of parent material exchanged
l nutrients
[absorbed by
plant root
l
As welJ as providing nutrients for plant roots, the although in upland Britain acidity increases as
cation exchange releases hydrogen which in turn
Figure 10.14
The process of the heavier rainfall leaches out elements such
cation exchange increases acidity in the soil (see below). Acidity as calcium faster than they can be replaced by
(ofter Courtney and accelerates weathering of parent rock, releasing weathering. Acid soils therefore tend to need con­
Trudgill) more minerals to replace those used by plants stant liming if they are to be farmed successfully.
or lost through leaching. The cation exchange A slightly acid soil is the optimum for farming
capacity (CEC) is a measure of the ability of a soil in Britain as this helps to release secondary min­
to retain cations for plant use. Soils with a low erals. However, if a soil becomes too acidic it
CEC, such as sands, are less able to keep essen­ releases iron and aluminium which, in excess,
tial plant nutrients than those with a high CEC, may become toxic and poisonous to plants and
like clays and lwmus; consequently they are less organisms. Increased acidity makes organic
fertile. matter more soluble ancl therefore vulnerable to
leaching; and it discourages Living organisms,
thus reducing the rate of breakdown of plant litter
and so is a factor in the formation of peat.
9 Acidity (pH)
As mentioned in the previous section, soil
contains positively charged hydrogen cations. In areas where there is a balance between pre­
Acidity or alkalinity is a measure of the degree cipitation and evapotranspiration, soils are often
of concentration of these cations. It is measured neutral, as in the American Prairies {page 327);
on tl1e pH scale (Figure 10.15), which is loga­ while in areas with a water deficiency, as in deserts
rithmic (compare the Richter scale, figure 1.3). (page 323), soils are more alkaline.
This means that a reading of 6 is 10 times more
acidic than a reading of 7 (which is neutral), and
Figure 10.1 s
The pH scale showing
1 O Soil temperature
soil acidity and 100 times more acidic than one of 8 (which is Incoming radiation can be absorbed, reflected
alkalinity alkaline). Most British soils axe slightly acidic, or scattered by the Earth's surface (Figure 9.4).
The topsoil, especially if vegeta­
increasingly alkaline tion cover is limited, heats up more
fncreasingly acid neutral
rapidly than the subsoil during
(logarithmic) the daytime and loses heat more
pH

rapidly at night. A 'warm', moist

soil will have greater biota activity,
8 12
ammonia caustic
7 11 13 14

distilled,
1 9 10
1
battery lei;non vinegar
3 4 s 6
I I I I I I I

soda
I I I I I t I I

acid juice water I giving a more rapid breakdown of

I

I organic matter; it will be more likely

2.2 lowest clean rain
to contain nutrients because the
I

I recorded acid rain (in equilibrium with atmosphericC02)

I
I
I

chemical weatheri11g of the parent

I

soils 1,Ught� acid< alkaline material will be faster; and seeds will
germinate more readily in it than in
a 'cold', dry soil.
dominant
cation Ca2+
element · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· ·· ···· ······· · ···· · ······ · · · · · · ·
Soils 269
Fe and Al released
 Places 33 The soil pit: soil study in the field
Begin by reading a book that describes in detail you will not be able to take all the readings due
how to dig a soil pit and how to describe and to problems such as lack of clarity between
explain the resultant profile (e.g. Courtney and boundaries, time and equipment; sometimes some
Trudgill, 1984, or O'Hare, 1988; see References at details will not be relevant to a particular enquiry.
end of chapter).
Make a detailed fieldsketch before replacing the
First, make sure you obtain permission to dig a pit. soil and turf. You may have to complete several
The site must be carefully chosen. You will need tasks in the laboratory bef ore writing up your
to find an undisturbed soil - so avoid digging description. You can gather information from a soil
near to hedges, trees, footpaths or on recently without needing to know how it formed or what
ploughed land. Ideally, make the surface of the pit type it is. Remember, it is unlikely that your answer
approximately 0.7 m2 , and the depth 1 m (unless will exactly fit a model profile. It may show the
you hit bedrock first). Carefully lay the turf and characteristics of a podsol (Figure 12.40) if you live
soil on plastic sheets. Clear one face of the pit, in a cooler. wetter and/or higher part of Britain; or of
preferably one facing south as this will get the a brown earth (Figure 12.34) if you live In a warmer,
maximum light, to get a 'clean' profile so that you drier and/or lower part of the country - but you
can complete your recording sheet. (The one in must not force your profile to fit a model.
Figure 10.16 is a very detailed example.) Sometimes

a soil site
Figurel0.16
Recorded by Date Locality Six-figure grid reference
Soil recording sheets
Parent rock Altitude Angle of slope Aspect Relief
(geological map) (estimated from (Abney level) (bearing or (uniform, concave or
Ordnance Survey map) compass point) convex slope, terrace)
Exposure Drainage Natural vegetation Previous few days' Other local details
(exposed, (shedding or receiving site, ortype offarming weather (remember your
sheltered) floodplain, terrace. boggy) (tree species, ground (warm, cold, wet, dry) labelled fieldsketch)
vegetation, crops.

II I
b soil profile animals)

.
. .. .
How to measure sharp, use percent· size of structure- loose, pH weigh time type. weigh, add dilute number,
read, from top abrupt, Munsell age clay, stones, less friable, paper or sample, taken estimate burn (10%) types
estimate of soil dear, colour silt or number crumb, firm, soil· evaporate for a percent· sample hydro-
and surface Indis- chart sand; of stones, etc. hard. testing water, beakerful age, (and chloric
measure tinct, 'feel'; shape of plastic, kit reweigh of water measure roots). acid;ifit
gradual, sieves; stones sticky, sample.or to depth reweigh effer·
irregular, sedimen- soft use a infiltrate sample, vesces,
smooth, tation moisture calculate sample is
broken meter percent· over1%
age carbonate
A

· · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · - · · · · · ·· · · · · · · - · · · · ·· · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · ···· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · ·· · · · ·--·
270 Soils
Figure10.17
Soil-forming processes

(I) Eluviation and (ii) Leaching (iii) Podsolisaiion

, illuviation (page 262)
(iv) Gleying (v) Calcification_ (vi) Salinlsation

... �
[Ih Weat�ring: parent CQCJi. - �J u..hyp �ylis (ii!. ,hy�ratjon (iii) oxidation
'
I (pages 42-43) (iv) reduction (v) solution I
.y.

Processes of soil formation with the cations of the iron and aluminium
to form organic-metal compounds known as
Numerous processes are involved in the formation chelates. Chelates are soluble and are readily
of soil and the creation of the profiles, structures transported downwards through the soil profile
and other features described above. Soil-forming - the process of cheluviation. The iron and alu­
processes depend on all the five factors described minium may be deposited in the lower profile as
on pages 260-262. Some of the more important they become less soluble in the slightly higher
processes are shown in Figure 10.17. pH levels found there (Figure 10.5).
1 Weathering 3 Organic sorting
As described on page 263 and in Figure 10.2, Several processes operate within the soil to re­
weathering leaves primary minerals as residues organise mineral and organic matter into horizons,
and produces secondary minerals as well as deter­ and to contribute to the aggregation of particles
mining the rates of release of nutrients and the and the formation of peds.
soil depth, texture .and drainage. In systems terms,
this means that minerals are released as inputs 4 Translocation of soil materials
into the soil system from the bedrock store and Translocation is the movement of soi.I compo­
transferred into the soil store (Figure 10.6). nents in any form (solution, suspension, or by
animals) or direction (downward, upward).
2 Humification and cheluviation It usually takes place in association with
Humification is the process by which organic soil moisture.
matter is decomposed to form humus (page 266) - In Britain, there is:
a task performed by soil organisms. Humification • usually a soil moisture budget surplus due to
is most active either in the H horizon of the soil an annual excess of precipitation over
profile (figure 10.5) where it can ;-esult in mull (pH evapotran:;piration (water balance - Figure 3.3)
5.5 to 6.5), or in the upper A horizon where it can • locally, an increase in soil moisture due to
produce mor (pH 3.5 to 4.5) (page 266). Moder poor drainage.
(pH 4.5 to 5.5) is transitional between the mor and The increase in soil moisture, resulting from
mull (page 262). these two factors, can lead to:
As organic matter decomposes, it releases • either the translocation processes of leaching
nutrients and organic acids. These acids, known and podsolisation, or
as chelating agents, attack clays and other min­ • gleying associated with areas of poor drainage.
erals, mainly in the A horizon, releasing iron and
aluminium. The chelating agents then combine

· · · · · · ·.. · .. · · · .. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .... · · · · · · ·...... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .. · ·.. · · · · .. · · .. · · · · .. · ...... · · · · .. · · .. · · · ·.. · · .. · ·...... · · · · · · s-�-ii�- · .. · ·;;:;·
 (iJ Eluviation and illuviation
See page 262. precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration
(ii) Leaching
L organic
Leaching is the removal of soluble material in }
�-'°"!"��� F horizons
solution. Where precipitation exceeds evapotran­
spiration and soil drainage is goocl, rainwater
- containing oxygen, carbonic acid and organic organic acids, W
acids, collectecl as it passes through the surface
vegetation - causes chemical weath<:!ring, the
i i
slow breakdown of clays A horizon
breakdown of clays and the dissolving of soluble removal of Ca, Mg, Na and K (eluviation)
salts (bases). Ca and Mg are eluviated from the A acidic
horizon, making it increasingly acid as tl1ey are
replaced by hydrogen ions, and are subsequently
! ! t
soluble mineral salts {bases) nutrients
illuviatecl to the underlying B horizon, or are
leached out of the system (Figure 10.18). i l i !
redeposition of clay (and B horizon
(iii) Podsolisation perhaps a little iron) , {illuviation)
Podsolisation is more common in cool cli- some loss of nutrients to the soil ', _
system by throughflow ---... Na,Ca. Mg,
_____
mates where precipitation is greatly in excess K
of evapotranspiration and where soils are well (lost to
parent material the system)
...._
drained or sandy. Podsolisation is also defined
as the removal of iron and aluminium oxides,
together with humus. As tbe surface vegetation Figurel0.18
is often coniferous forest, heathland or moors, The processes or leaching
rain percolating through it becomes progres­
sively more acidic and may reach a pH of 5.0
or less (Figure 10.15). This in turn dissolves an precipitation greatly exceeds evapotranspiration
increasing amount and number of bases (Ca, Mg,
Na and K), silica and, ultimately, the sesguiox­
ides of iron and aluminium (Figure 10.19). The �} organic
horizons
resultant podsol soil (Figure 12.40) therefore has H
two distinct horizons: the bleached A horizon,
drained of coloured minerals by leaching; and rapid breakdown of clays A horizon
the reddisb-brown B horizon wllere the ses­ leaching of bases: Ca, Mg, Na and K {eluviation)
quioxides have been illuviated. Often the iron pH under 5.0 releases Fe and Al
deposits form an iron pan which is a cbaracter­ white/grey acidic horizon
istic of a podsol.
(iv) Gleying
+ +
Ca Mg Na K Fe Al Si N
+ +
some deposition of organic material
This occurs when the output of water from
the soil system is restricted, giving anaerobic
redeposition in sequence of B horizon
or waterlogged conditions (page 275). This is (illuviatlon)
most likely to occur on gentle slopes, in depres­
Fe, Al, and clay ,
''
serious loss of bases to the ' .... - - ca Mg
�==-=;,;
sions where the underlying rock is impermeable,
soil system by throughflow • N; K '
where the water table is high enough to enter
(lost to
the soil profile (e.g. along river floodplains) or in the system)
areas With very heavy rainfall and poor drainage.
Under such conditions the pore spaces fill with Figure 10.19
stagnant water which becomes de-oxygenised.
The process of podsolisation
The ceddish-coloured oxidised iron, iron Ill (Fe 3+
or ferric iron), is chemically reduced to form
iron JI (Fe 2+ or ferrous iron) whkh is grey-blue in
colour. Occasionally, pockets of air re-oxygenise
the iron fl to give scatterings of red mottles Courtney and Trudgill (Hg-ure 10.20) have
(Figure 10.26). Although many British soils summarised the relationship between leaching,
show some evidence of gleying, the conditions podsolisation and gleying, and precipitation
develop most extensively on moorland plateaus. and drainage.
········································· ············································································ ···· ················-·-·············-···············
272 Soils
 Figure 10.20
good good
Soil-f orming processes
and thewater balance
(Figure 3.3) (after low input
Courtney and Trudgill) high input
good drainage good drainage leaching podsolisation

<II
OI
·e
ro
·e
c

low input high Input

poor drainage gleying peat growth
poor drainage

poor poor.______-'-'--'--���----�
low high low----- --------h igh
precipitation (water input) precipitation (water input)

(v) Calcification Zonal, azonal and intrazonal soils

Calcification is a process ty pical of low-rainfall
areas where precipitation is either equal to, Zonal soils
or slightly higher than, evapotranspiration. Zonal soils are mature soils. They result from the
Although there may be some leaching, it is insuf­ maximum effects of dinwte and Jiving matter
ficient to remove all the calcium which then (vegetation) upon parent rock in areas where there
accumulates,·i.n relatively small amounts, in are no extremes of weathering, relief or drainage
the B horizon (Figure 10.21; and chernozems, and wbere the landscape and climate have been
page 327). stable for a long time. Consequently, zonal soils
have had time to develop distinctive profiles and,
(vi) Salinisation usually, clear horizons. However, it is misleading
This occurs wben potential evapotranspiration to imply that all zonal soils have distinct horizons;
Is greater than precipitation in places where the brown earths (page 329), chernozems (page 327)
water table is near to the surface. It is therefore and prairie soils (page 328) have indistinct hori­
found locally in dry climates and is not a charac­ zons which merge tnto each other. A description
teristic of desert soils. As moisture is evaporated of the major zonal soils, and how their forma-
from the surface, salts are drawn upwards in tion can be linked to climate and vegetation, is
solution by capillary action. further evapora­ given in Chapter 12 and f.igure· 12.2. It should be
tion results in the deposition of salt as a hard stressed that this linkage is regarded by soil scien­
crust (figure 10.22). SaLinisation has become a tists as greatly outdated and a grossly simplified
critical problem in many irrigated areas, such as model - but it is still the one used in all the latest
California (Figure 16.53). AS, A-Level and Scottish Higher syllabuses that
Figure 10.21 Figure 10.22 examine soils!
The process or calcification The process of sallnisation
precipitation much less than Azonal soils
precipitation equal to or slightly potential evapotranspiration Azonal soils, i11 contrast to zonal soils, have a
greater than evapotranspiration rapid evaporation more recent origin and occur where soil-forming

! ! s crust
r
processes have had insufficient time to operate
fully. As a consequence, tJ1ese soils usually show
the characteristics of their origin (i.e. parent
lorganic acids. H+l some gains ofbases
material, which may have resulted from in situ
l l l
caplllary movement
weathering of parent rock or have been trans­
l l
very slight leaching lhigh waterl tablel
ported from elsewhere and deposited), do not
have well defined horizons, and are not associ­
ated with specific climatic-vegetational zones.
some
"'
,,
,,/ I
+ + I
slight accumolatlon
I
+ Azonal soils, in l3ritajn, i!lcludescree (weath­
capillary ..,. ering), alluvium (fluvial), till (glacial), sands
ac.tion:water ofca,Mg,Na,K and gravels (glacifluvial), sand dunes (aeolian
containing I I
Ca and Mg / I and marine), saltmarsh (marine), and volcanic
,/ 1 (tectonic) soils.
Ca.,,,.-
,,, I
I
Mg very slight loss of bases
Na
- .,.,/
Soils 273
K .... .- parent material
parent material
 rendzina with a thin rendzina
vegetation cover 1a
Calcimorphic
bare limestone
1 Reodzina The rendzina (Figure 10.24)

: � · . :: > ;, �, ·�
develops where softer limestones or chalk

-
valley sides
�
· · ·• -....._. ..,..\
..i.•.· _.....,,_.
are the parent material and where grasses

·�
terrarossa
(the English Downs) and beech woodland
. ·. :: .�;; ,4$ C1ji$
JJ. A (the Chilterns) form the surface vegetation.
. The grasses produce a leaf litter that is rich in
limestone parent rock
bases. This encourages consiclerable activity
by organisms which help with the rapid recy­

1 l.
terra rossa rend1ina
cling of nutrients. The A horizon therefore
A rich in Ca, thin,dark.
consists of a black/dark-brown mull humus.
enriched
high pH brown/black Due to the continual release of calcium
clays with
mull humus from tl1c parent rock and a lack of hydrogen
B E
. cations, the soil is alkaline with a pH of
"'E
iron oxide u -
' grey/yellow

jL
(illuviated)
between 7.0 and 8.0. The calcium-saturated
I

=! lower horizon,
blocks of clays, wi lh a crumb or blocky structure, tend
CaC03
grey/yellow to limit the movement of water and so there
CaC0 3
c CaC03 higher is relatively little leaching. Consequently
.
fragments
,.. . in drier areas
there is no B horizon. The underlying lime­
limestone • 1 • limestone stones, affected by chemical weathering,
parent rock leave very little insoluble residue and this,
... ..
parent rock
together with the permeable nature of the
bedrock, results in a thin soil with limited
moisture reserves.
Figure 10.23 lntrazonal soils 2 Terra rossa As its name suggests, terra rossa
Caldmorphic soils: terra lntrazonal soils reflect the dominance of a single (Figure 10.25) is a red-coloured soil (it has
rossa and rendzina been called a 'red rendzina'). It is found in
local factor, such as parent rock or extremes
of drainage. As they are not related to general areas of heavy, even if seasonal, rainfall where
climatic controls, they are not found in zones. the calcitin, carbonate parent rock is chemi­
They can be divided into three types: cally weathered (carbonation) and silicates
• Calcimorphic or calcareous soils develop are leached out of the soil to leave a residual
on a limestone parent rock (rendzina deposit rich in iron hydroxides. It usually
and terra rossa, Figure 10.23). occurs ln depressions within the limestone
• Hydromorphic soils are those having a and in Mediterranean areas where the vegeta­
constantly high water content (gleyed tion is garrigue (Figure 12.24).
soils and peat- Figures 10.26 and 10.27).
Figure 10.24 • Halomorphic soils have high levels of
A rendzina, Kent soluble salts which render them saline.

Figure 10.25

Terra rossa, Cuba

· · ··············· ············· ···································· ··························· .. ·········· ······ ·········· ..........
274 Soils
 Hydromorphic page 188) in which only salt-resistant plants
1 Gley soils Gleying occurs in saturated soils (halophytes, page 291) can grow.
when the pore spaces become filled with water
to the exclusion of air. The lack of oxygen leads
�- ��-Blffl"IJ?2l�·-;,�· x ...:;o:r.i\•
Figure 10.26 �
to anaerobic conditions (page 212) and the
Gleying: a hydromorphic soil i'
reduction (chemical weathering) of iron com­
pounds from a ferric-(Fe3+ ) to a ferrous (Fe z+ )
form. The resultant soil has a grey-blue colour
with scatterings of red mottles (Figure 10.26).
Because gleying is a result of poor drainage and
is almost independent of climate, it can occur
in any of the zonal soils. Pedologists often dif­
ferentiate between surface gleys, caused by
slow infiltration rates through the topsoil, and
groundwater gleys, resulting from a seasonal
rise in the water table or the presence of an
impermeable parent rock.
2 Peat Where a soil is waterlogged and the
climate is too cold and/or wet for organisms to
break down vegetation completely, layers of
peat accumulate (Figure 10.27). These condi·
tions mean that litter input (supply) is greater
than the rate of decomposition by organisms
whose activity rates are slowed down by the
low temperatures and the anaerobic condi·
tions. Peat is regarded as a soil in its own right
when the layer of poorly decomposed material
exceeds 40 cm in depth. Peat can be divided
according to its location and acidity. Blanket
peat is very acidic; it covers large areas of wet
upland plateaus in Britain (Kinder Scout in the
Peak District); and it is believed to have formed
5000 to 8000 years ago during the Atlantic
climatic phase (Figure 11.18). Raised bogs, also
composed of acidic peat, occur in lowlands
with a heavy rainfall. Here the peat accumu­
lates unti.J it builds up above the surrounding
countryside. Valley, or basin, peat may be
almost neutral or only slightly acidic if water
has drained off surrounding calcareous uplands
(the Somerset Levels and the Fens); otherwise,
it too will be acid (Rannoch Moor in Scotland).
Fen peat is a high-quality agricultural soil.
Ha/omorphic
Halomorphic soils contain high levels of soluble
salts and have developed through the process of
salinisation (page 273 and Figure 16.53). They are
most likely to occur in hot, dry climates where, in
the absence of leaching, mineral salts are brought
to the surface by capillary action and where the
parent rock or groundwater contains high levels
of carbonates, bicarbonates and sulphates, espe­
cially as salts of calcium and magnesium and Figure 10.27
some sodium chloride (common saJt). T_h e water, Peatin the Flow Country,
on reaching the surface, evaporates to leave a Sutherland, Scotland
thick crust (e.g. Bonneville saltflats in Utah,
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . · · · · · · · · · ·· ··· · ···· ··· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ········· . . . . .. .
Soils 275
 The soil catena where lhe ralio of erosion and deposition varies
between the different slope facets. Soils on lower
A catena (Latin for 'chain') is a sequence of soil
slopes tend to be deeper and wetter than those on
�yp�s down a slope where each soil type, or facet upper slopes, as well as being more enriched by a
is ?1fferent from, bul linked to, its adjacent facets
rnnge of leached materials. The thinnest and driest
�r1gur: 10.3). Catenas therefore illustrate the way
111 which soils can change down a slope where soils arc likely to be found on central parts of lhe
there are no marked changes in climate or parent slope. It takes a considerable period of time for
material. Each catena is an example of a smaU­ catenary relationships to become established and
scale, open system involving inputs, processes therefore the best catenas can be found in places
and outputs. The slope itself is in a delicate state with a stable environment, such as in parts of
of dynamic equilibrium (Figure 2.12) with the Africa, where there have been relatively few recent
soils and landforms being in a state of flux and changes in either the landscape or the climate.

Places 34 Arran: a soil catena

Figure 10.28 shows a catena based on fieldwork Notice, with reference to Figure 10.3, the location on
conducted on the Isle of Arran. The transect was the transect of the shedding (eluviation or input),
taken from a relatively flat. peat-covered upland area transfer (transiocation) and receiving (illuviation or
Figure10.28
above the glaciated Glen Rosa valley, down a steep output) zones, and the relationships between the
Readings taken valley side to the Rosa Water (parallel to, and south angles of slope and (i) soil depth, (ii) pH and
along a catena
in Glen Rosa of, the Garbh Allt tributary located on Figure 4.37). (iii) soil moisture.

depth of soil (not to scale)

350
shedding zone

300

250

.s 200

'iii
..c 150

100

50

900 1000

A 8 c D E F G H K
170 110 45 42 24 18 28 20 21 70 90

4.4 3.8 4.4 4.7 5.0 5.6 5.9 5.7 5.8 4.5 4.2

2.0 2.2 2.0 2.5 1.5 1.5 3.5 4.8

' '
-
•-- ----- - - - Input z o ne - - - - - - - - - ..:,..
I
- - - - - - - - - - tr a nsf er zo n e - - • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ..I:.. - - - - - -
- output zon e • ••••·-·-·
(includes heavy rainfall) ; (excludes the action of the river)
: •
I

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
276 Soils
 �
Fram w--... ework 9 Geographic Information Systems (GIS}
For centuries cartographers and • a GIS software package - this will contain
geographers have
been drawing and analysing map the tools for manipulating the map and the
s by hand but, with
recent technological developmen information
ts, this work is
Figure 10.29 Increasingly being carried out by com • the information itself-contained in a database, as
puters. Advances
in geomatics- the science of handlin photographs, text or any other kind of digital data.
Google Earth image g geographic
information - mean that huge amounts
of London, overlain of data can be The base map can be made up of a number of layers
with geographic combined with digital maps and compute
r graphics in showing geographical components such as height,
information Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
soils, settlement patterns or vegetation. These maps
come from many different sources including remote
sensing companies or mapping organisations such
as Britain's Ordnance Survey.
The GIS software is the link that enables data to
be positioned on the base map (Figure 10.30) and
contains tools to manipulate the base map, add
information layers and display the results. The data
added can be tailored to fit the end users of the
GIS. Public utilities such as electricity. gas and water
companies, for instance, can add information layers
showing the locations of their cables and manholes.
Data is not just limited to the surface but can
include features such as underground pipelines,
and computers can display the information as
a three-dimensional representation of reality.
Technicians can enter this virtual environment on
It is estimated that around 80 per cent of all their screens, walking underneath the streets of
digitally stored information has a spatial element our cities to analyse the problems that occur within
or is tied to a certain place. Powerful GIS software such complex networks (Figure 10.31 ).
packages enable geographers to view. analyse,
interpret, question and display this data in order
to reveal relationships, patterns and trends that
may otherwise be hidden.
Increasing numbers of businesses now use
GIS to make decisions about a wide range of
subjects. Examples include:
• where to site gas and electricity services
• the optimal place to build a wind farm
• the most efficient way to route emergency
vehicles
• how to protect and conserve sensitive
wetland areas.
In the home, through basic internet-based
packages such as Google Earth (Figure 10.29),
many people use GIS to learn about the world
and to plan their leisure time and holidays.
A computer-based GIS needs three main
components:
• a computerised map - used as a backdrop
ion; Figure10.30
on which to place all the other informat
l
this can be a conventional map, an aeria Linking laye11 through a Geographic
photograph or a satellite image Information System

........................................... · ·.. · · · ......· · · · · · .. · · · · ..· · · · · · · · · · .. ·.. · · .. · · · · · · · · · · ..· ·..· · .... · ·..· · · ·..· .. · · · · · .. ·..· · · · ·.. · · · · · · · · · ·s·�·ii�· · · · �·;;
 GIS in the real world
'The application of GIS is limited only by the
imagination of those who use it:
Dr Jack Dangermond, President of pioneering
GIS company ESRI
Across the globe, governments, local councils, the
military, private companies and individuals use GIS
daily to provide the services we take for granted.
Problems such as finding the best position for a
new power station or where to build a new cinema
or housing estate are all analysed using GIS. At an
individual level, self-employed businessmen can use Figure 10.31
home PC-based systems to improve their productivity. Underground water pipe network in
Farmers, for instance, log on to analyse information Ballerup, Denmark shown in ArcGIS
on weather patterns, soil type and economic trends in
order to determine the best time to plant crops. through GIS before spending huge sums of money on
big building projects. Governments and international
organisations, meanwhile, are using systems to model
GIS in the future the effects of climate change, sea-level rise, pollution
'Imagine looking down a street but instead of simply incidents and other environmental disasters.
seeing houses, shops and offices, your view has
For personal users, the Ordnance Survey is developing
added extras like travel news, tours and even games:
The Magic Window, a handheld device that will
Ordnance Survey website
superimpose geographic data on real-world images
As the capability of computers increases, software using a virtual 1 :1 scale map of Great Britain (Figure
developers are looking at ways in which GIS can 10.33). Developments in the sharing of data through
provide information in the future. Businesses are the internet will also influence the availability of
Figurf: 10.32
constantly on the lookout for more digital data. free GIS packages, bringing the easy-to-understand
How the emergency especially if it is available in real time, and many are analysis of geographic information to millions of
services and the homes around the world.
looking to run increasingly complex simulations
police use GIS

Emergency services
Avoiding delays when sending an ambulance on an emer­
gency call can be a matter of life or death. When opera­
tors take a phone call they ask for the location where
help is needed and input the information into a GIS. The
system quickly identifies the nearest available ambulance
(sometimes by receiving data from satellites), builds a
picture of expected traffic patterns based on the time of
day and analyses the data to determine the quickest route
the ambulance crew should take. Figure 10.33
The Magic Window

Mapping crime Further reference

Criminal analysts working for the police use GIS to DeMers, M. (2009) G/S for Dummies, John Wiley and
locate, track and analyse incidents and help the police Sons.
predict where and when crimes are likely to take place. Sommer, S. and Wade, T. (2006) A to z GJS: An
Illustrated Dictionary ofGeographic /11formatio11
Car thefts, for instance, often happen at night but are not
Systems, ESRI Press.
reported until the morning when the owners wake up.
By looking at patterns on their databases of abandoned � http://mapzone.ordnancesurvey.co. uk/mapzone/
giszone.html
cars, overlain with information on known offenders, the
www.gls.com/whatisgis/index.html
police are able to target resources and have had notable
successes in catching criminals . www.gis.rgs.org/whatisgis.html

. . · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ··· ··· ·· ·· ··········· ····················· · ············· ···· · ·· ·· .. ······ ·· ······ ·····

278
As we have seen (page 262), soil can takes
thousands of years to become sufficiently
deep and developed for economic use
UK soi] degr
adation
(exceptions include alluvium deposited
by rivers and ash ejected from volcanoes).
During that time, there is always some
Soil dc<><>radati. .
natural loss through leaching, mass move­ on rnvo/ ves b th
loss (erosion) an . � r�e physical
mem and erosion by either water or wind. d the rcducri • Climme ch an<>e
ofropso on u1 quali1y . "' suggesrs thar
' iJ· C urremly' 2 expcnen Britain will
Normally there is an equilibrium, however · 2 1111.1 lro
• n cc morc sea . sonal cxrr•c.:me
topsoil is. ero, ded an nually ton nes of weuer· ·�torm1er w . . s w,r/J
fragile. between the race at which soil forms in ihc UK and 1n1 crs and wanner
over 17 per ccnt , .
drrer summers (p
and that at which it is eroded or degraded. oJ ar.1bJc land sh age 255J Wer rer .'
ofero sion. Ocgr ow s signs wmrers
That natural balance is being disturbed by . can re
, adar1on may mean warer/ o :
or more of sever . sult fro m one . o<>g ed so,Js an d an
human mismanagement with increasing a/ /11c1or s· increase in ware,.
• Pliys1c · al dcg . erosion, wh ile dri
' io11 15. w/ ien
radar soi Is are more Ji kcJ Cr
frequency and with serious consequences. ·
soil ,eros,on Y l be susceptibl
results fro m the . win d ero ? e ro
Recent estimates suggest that 7 per ac11on of the win sion.
warer· 11 is. . a nmur d or • La
cent of the world's topsoil Is lost each year. aJ process, accele nd .
use c,in affccr ihc
by human ' 'act'JVJ!. y. Erosio rated so,J, for cx,11npJe
The World Resources Institute claims that n by wrnd is
wh en gras '· �. IS. removed to
Burkina Faso loses 35 tonnes of soil per
Jess widcsprc·i' d "
"" d Jcss frcquent and, wirhou•, ro ors · expose !he soil
erosion bY Wate than to bIll d H. togerhe
r but when fl does soil becomes• ull5t . r, rhc
hectare per year. Other comparable figures it is often more sev occ ur abJe.
ere E
are Ethiopia 42, Nepal 70, and the loess that 44 per• cent of. · srimare .
s suggest
plateau of North China 251 (Figure 10.35). arable lan' d is ar risk of
bein g eroded b p .
hy i
Soil removed during a single rain storm or • Chem,ca . ls ea � s,ca processes.
dust storm may never be replaced. The Soil rned by i1arer can
diffuse polJurro . ca use
Survey of England and Wales claims that n, wh ile biolog1.cal .
darion is wh en or . dcgra-
44 per cent of arable soils in the UK, an area galllc maucr, in th e
ofpJanr ren1a·rns · form
once considered not to be under threat, or or"a
" n1c manure. is
washed ou1 of th e
are now at risk (Figure 10.34). soil.

Soil degradation Figure 10.34

Degradation is the result of human failures Soil erosion in Britain
to understand and manage the soil. The
major cause of soil erosion is the removal channels or rills may be formed which. in once forested and were cleared by fire -
of the natural vegetation cover, leaving the time, may develop into large gulleys. making mainly natural due to lightning. but partly
ground exposed to the elements. The most the land useless for agriculture (Flgure l 0.35). by the local people (Case Study 128). The
serious of such removals is deforestation. Even where the soil is not actually washed burning of vegetation initially provides
In countries such as Ethiopia (Places 76, away, heavy rain may accelerate leaching nutrients for the soil, but once these have
page 520), the loss of trees, resulting from and remove nutrients and organic matter at been leached by the rain or utilised by
population growth and the extra need a rate faster than that at which they can be crops there is little replacement of nutri­
for farmland and fuelwood. means that replaced by the weathering of bedrock and ents. Where the grasslands have been
the heavy rains, when they do occur, are parent material and the decomposition of ploughed up for cereal cropping, the break­
no longer intercepted by the vegetation. vegetation (e.g. the Amazon Basin. Figure 12.7 down of soil structure (peds) has often led
Rainsplash (the direct Impact of rain­ and Places 66, page 480). The loss of trees ro their drying out and becoming easy prey
drops, Figure 2.12) loosens the topsoil also reduces the rate of transpiration and to wind erosion (Figure 10.34). Large quan­
and prepares it for removal by sheetwash therefore the amount of moisture in the air. tities of topsoll were blown away to create
(overland flow). Water flowing over the There are fears that large-scale deforestation the American Dust Bowl in the 1930s, while
surface has little time to infiltrate into the will turn areas at present under rainforest into a similar fate has more recently been ex·
soil or recharge the soil moisture store deserts. perienced by many of the Sahel countries.
(pages 59-oO). More topsoil rends to be Although the North American Prairies In Britain, the removal of hedges to create
carried away where there is little vegeta­ and the African savannas were grassland larger fields - easier for modern machinery
tion because there are neither plant roots when the European sertlers first arrived, it - has led to accelerated soil erosion by
nor organic matter to bind it together. Small is now believed that these areas too were wind (page 495).
. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. .... . . . . . . . .. . .
Soils 279
10 Case Study Soil erosion and soil management

Loess plateau Figure 10.35

of North China loess in China

This region, more than 2.5 time:. the

size of the UK. experiences the 111os1
rapid soil loss in the w orld. Du ring
and following the ice age.
Arctic wind:- lransponed large
amounts of loess and deposited
this fine, yellow material to a
depth of 200 m in the Huang
He ba in. Following the removal
of the subsequent vegetation
cover of u-ces and grasses 10
allow cereal farming (especially
under the directions of Chninnan
Mao), the un consolidated material
has been washed away by 1he heavy
summer monsoon rains, or blown
by yellow dust storms. a t the rate
of I cm per year. It is estimated
th at 1.6 bn tonnes or soi I reach by any river in the world, has of silt seules annually on the be breached, the river can
the Huang I le River during given the Huang He its nnme river's bed so that it now flows drown thousands of people
each annual summer flood. - i.e. the 'Yellow River". A IO 111 above its noodplai11. (over I million in the 1939
This material, the most carried further problem is that 6cm Should the large flood banks flood) and ruin all crop:,,.

Where lhere is a rap id p op ulation areas that were previously considered to be

Ploughing can have adverse effects on
growth, land that was previously allowed too marginal for crops. Monoculture - the
soils. Deep ploughing destroys the soil
a fallow resting period now has to be cuhr· cultivation of the same crop each year on
structure by breaking up peds (page 265)
vated each year (Figure 10.36) as are other the same piece of land - repeatedly uses
and burying organic material too deep
up the same soil nutrients.
for plant use. It also loosens the topsoil
for future wind and water erosion. The
weight of farm machinery can compact
Burkina Faso
As 1he si1.e of cmrle and goa1 herd, sedentary fanncrs who ar.: :iiready crop-', Thc!.e former� have long
the soil surface or produce platy peds. ha, grown, the already ,can1 dry struggling ro produce suflicicn1 been aware lhar rhrcc year�·
both of which reduce infiltration capacity scrub savanna vege1a1io11 on Lht: rood for their own incrcn,ing cropping had lo be followed by
sou1hem fringes of 1he Sahara ha, numbc�. Thi, diqup1ion of ;11 lea.,1 c1gh1 fallow year-. in order
and inhibit aeration of the soil. Ploughing
been 101ally removed over equilibrium fun her reduce, th!! for gm,� and !rec� 10 re-e�wbli�h
up- and down-hill creates furrows which increasingly large arcn�. A� lhc lund ,arrying capacily [page 378) 1hc1mclvcs anti organic 111:11ter 10
increase the rate of surface runoff and the S.ihara ·advances·. 1hc herder, - i.e. lhc number of people 1ha1 be replenished. The arri"al of 1hc
process of gullying. arc forced to move ,ou1hward� 1ht! ,oil and climate of an area hcrden. has brnugh1 a land
into 111ois1er cnvironmc111s where can pcr111anc111ly �uppor1 when shorragc rcsul1ing in crop, being
Overgrazing, especially on the African 1he land is plm11cd wi1h staple
they compclc for land with grown on 1he �amc plo1, e,cry
savannas, also accelerates soil erosion. yc:ir. ;md lhe
Many African tribes have long measured nu1ricnL-dclicien1
their wealth In terms of the numbers. rather �oil, 1ypical of mos1
of 1r�pic:1I A fnca. i�
than the quality, of their animal herds. As
ru11idly becoming
the human populations of these areas even less
continue to expand rapidly. so too do the produc1i,e. ·niis
numbers of herbivorous animals needed to ovcrcro pping. a
problem in many of
support them. This almost inevitably leads
lhc world's
to overgrazing and the reduction of grass subs islencc areas.
cover (Case Study 7). When new shoots use, up organic
appear after the rains, they are eaten imme· mancr and 01hcr
nu1rien1s, weakens
diately by cattle, sheep. goats and camels.
soil s1ruc1ure� and
The arrival of the rains causes erosion; the leave!> the surfoce
failure of the rains results in animal deaths. exposed and lhus
susccprible 10
accelerated erosion.
. . . • . . . . . . . • . . .. . . . • • . Figure 10.36
280 Soils Overgrazing: Burkina Faso ,.•••• l!!!!ll!lll!lll!!!!!!!ll!IJ!!l!!ll!!!IIJ!l!!!!ll!!!l!!!!!l!!!!!l!!!lll!!!!l!lll!!!ll!!llll!!!l!!!!l!ll!lllllll!l!!!!I)
 Soil erosion and soil management Ciise Study 10
The Soil Protection Review is cairied out by .
B11··tams, lrum
, . ers as part of
cross-comp rtance. It. involves idemi.fyino soil
"' issues • deci. d mg
.
on measures Figure 10.37 be returned to the soil as the vegetation
to manaoe
' 'o 'and protect soi·1s, and tJ1en reviewing the
. results. The 2006 review � Mitigation strategies dies and decomposes. When a crop is har­
concluded with the foUowino recommended optio .
. <> ns to protect the soil from for soil degradation vested there is less organic material left to
phys1ca
· 1 dec1-me and erosion:
• reducing mechanical operations on wet oro be recycled. As nutrients are taken out of the
. 0 un d
• pl antin g crops early in autumn to protect lhe soil soil system and not replaced, there will be
du1ino° the winter from
water erosion an increasing shortage of macro-nutrients,
• pl�ughing across slopes where it is safe to do particularly nitrogen, calcium. phosphorus
so (compru·e Figure I 0.38)
usmg lo"". gro�md-pressure set-ups on machinery and potassium. Where this occurs. and when
• shepl�erdmg livestock and rotating forage areas other nutrients are dissolved and leached
• plantmg and/or maintaining hedoes or shclte1· belts . . from the soil. fertiHser is essential if yields are
o . to reduce wind erosion
and measures to protect the soil's organic matter: to be maintained. Soils need to be managed
• leaving straw and other crop residues on the land after n carefully if they are to produce maximum
crop has been
harvested
agricultural yields and cause least environ­
• incli.iding grass in crop rotations
• ap�lying animal manure, compost and sewage sludge mental damage (Figure 10.37).
usmg reduced or shaUow cultivation lo maintain or increase 11ear-surfoce If the most serious cause of erosion is the
organic mmter. removal of vegetation cover, the best way to
Many fam1ers suggest that these options are often already adopted but need protect the soil is likely to be by the addition
better co-ordination together with continued targeted advice. information and of vegetation. Afforestation provides a long­
monitoring. term solution because, once the trees have
grown, their leaves intercept rainfall while
their roots help ro bind rhe soil together
In many pans of the world where Fertiliser and pesticides are not always and reduce surface runoff.The growing
livestock are kept and firewood is at a beneficial if applied repeatedly over long of ground-cover crops reduces rainsplash
premium. dung has to be used as a fuel periods. Chemical fertiliser does not add and surface runoff. and can protect newly
instead of belng applied to the land. In organic material and so fails to improve or ploughed land from exposure to climatic
parts of Ethiopia. the sale of dung - mixed maintain soil structure.There is considerable extremes. Marram grass anchors sand,
w1th straw and dried into 'cakes' - is often concern over the leaching of nitrate ferti- while gulleys can be seeded and planted
the only source of income for rural dwellers. liser into streams and underground water with brushwood. Certain crops and plants,
If this dung were to be applied to the fields, supplies. Where nitrates reach rivers they especially leguminous species such as
rather than sold to the towns. harvests enrich the water and encourage the rapid peas, beans, clover and gorse, are capable
could be increased by over 20 per cent. growth of algae and other aquatic plants of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil,
Water is essential for a productive soil. which use up oxygen, through the process thus improving its quality. Trees can also be
The early civilisations, which grew up in of eutrophication, to leave insufficient for · planted to act as windbreaks and shelter­
river valleys (Figure 14.1 ). relied on irriga­ plant life (Figure 16.50). The use of pesticides belts. This reduces the risk of wind erosion as
tion, as do many areas of the modern world. (including insecticides and fungicides) can well as providing habitats for wildlife.
Unfortunately. irrigation in a hot, dry climate increase yields by up to 100 per cent by killing Soil can also be managed by improving
tends to lead to salinisation, with dissolved off insect pests. However, their excessive and farming methods. Most arable areas benefit
salts being brought. by capillary action, into random use also kills vital soil organisms, from a rotation of crops. including grasses.
the root zone of agricultural trees and crops which means organic matter decomposes which improve soil structures and reduce
(Figure 16.53). Wells, sunk in dry climates. more slowly and the release of nutrients is the likelihood of soil-borne diseases which
use up reserves of groundwater which may retarded. Chemical pesticides are blamed for may develop under monoculture. Many
have taken many centuries to accumulate the decline in Britain's bee population. tropical soils need a recovery period of 5-15
and which cannot be replaced quickly (fossil years under shrub or forest for each 3-6
years under crops. In areas where slopes
water stores, page 190). The resultant low­ Soil management reach up to 12°. ploughing should follow
ering of the water table makes it harder for
Fertility refers to the ability of a soil to the contour� to prevent excessive erosion.
plant roots to obtain moisture.The sinking
provide for the unconstrained or optimum On even steeper slopes (Figures 10.41 and
of wells in sub-Saharan Africa, following the
growth of plants.The capacity to produce 16.29), terracing helps to slow down runoff.
drought of the early 1980s, has uninten­
high or low yields depends upon the nutrient giving water more rime to infiltrate and thus
tionally created difficulties. The presence
content, structure. texture, drainage, acidity reducing its erosive ability.
of an assured water supply has attracted
numerous migrants and their animals and and organic content of a particular soil as Strip cropping can involve either the
well as the relief. climate and farming tech­ planting of crops in strips along the con­
this has accelerated the destruction of
the remaining trees and exacerbated the niques. For ideal growth, plants must have tours or the intercropping of different crops
problems of overgrazing (Places 65, page access to nine macro-nutrients and nine in the same field. Both methods are illus­
479). Even well-intentioned aid projects may micro-nutrients (Figure 10.13). Under normal trated in Figure 10.38.The crops may differ in
therefore be environmentally damaging. recycling (Figure 10.6), these nutrients will height, time of harvest and use of nutrients.
· · ······ · ··· ···· ·· ··
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · - · · · · - · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · · ····· Soils 281
 Soil erosion and soil management

. mi·1k has inore healthy benefits

Where evapotranspiracion exceeds pre­ Organic ive rsity.
cipitation, dry farming can be adopted. This
milk co I b Prof ess or Car o . ··ri of Newcastle Un m l
Le tic
· k' ng nor a l
A study of organi� . , 1an '.d� : �� l �1 as oreatcr health benefits lhan,�;·,�� �x nts an d

��r;�\1
1 1
entails covering the soil with a mulch of ik . ida
11'lS shown that dnn k1 n !,; o 1 g i
. 1 �onnin ed 67 per cent more '. i
straw and/or weeds to reduce moisture loss
v d1
and limit erosion. In the Sahel countries. the n�i\k. The stu dy sho� .c ��� :. ��nt m�rc of a he,�lthy. r,'.ll Y,1;�1 �i:::.���im il ar
tha n o rd1n .u� can sh11 nk 1
drastic depopulation of cattle following the vilamins h test s hnve shown diabetes
conjug,11 ed lino\� 1 c a� 1 d""c1 A9) whic
cu t the nsk of '.1ea1.'. d'seas· e
droughts of the 1980s has given herders a w( l1.�c'1 has been sho wn lO O m�ga-3 which
level s of .vaccenic acid. 1 s was an ext i.1.. �9 � per cent of the f<1llY .1 ci.�1
chance to rescock with smaller (reducing
and obe s 11y.
were ·1ls o round a ,sense.•
.
if
overgrazing). betler·quality (giving more ha� a Iso b een .show•. n to.
cut tI11:'. •i· •sk or heart d
po nte{ l out the 1,eaIt h bcnelits even ·
st ck project m anager. m11k
. ut that organic
1
meat and milk) herds so that incomes do not Gillian Butler, the 1_1ve . � · l to or ,ani c milk. She po1nte,ct � bu . b ut
e
t h com� tc� oc :.� m k per unit of l ancl. an d '\ y
cons umers did not :;wi c
l
fall and the soils are given time to recover. o t 1 s il as much to
The addition of organic material helps is more exp ens i
,· v ,
e 10
.
1)ro duce. ,,s· y
.
O
com pou n d s you do not neecl lo uy
Jene11cial
to bind loose soil and so reduces ,cs vulner­ beC,lll!\C 1 • hio°hcr Ill all these, t
. . 'tis
Figure 10.39
ability to erosion (Figures 10.38 and l 0.39). net health benc1it�.
Organic farming in
0

Soil structure and texture may be improved. Washington State, USA

theoretically, by adding lime to acid soils,
which reduces their acidity and helps co
make them warmer; by adding humus,
clay or peat co sands. to give body and to
improve their water-holding capacity; and
figure 10.38 by adding sand to heavy clays. so improving
drainage and aeration and making them
lighter to work. In practice, sucli methods
are rarely used due to the expense involved.
Chemical (inorganic) fertilisers help to
replenish deflciem nutrients, especially
nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus.
However, their use is expensive, especially
to farmers in economically less developed
countries, and can cause environmental
damage. Many farmers in poo,er countries
cannot afford such fertilisers and have to
rely upon organic fertiliser. Animal dung and
straw left after the cereal harvest are mixed
together and spread over the ground.This
11T1proves soil structure and, as it decays,
returns nutrients to the soil. Where crop
rotations are practised, grasses add organic
matter. and legumes provide nitrogen.

Stone lines in This project. begun by Oxfom in 1979.

aimed 10 i111roducc water-harvesting
lechniqucs for tree plnnting. It mc1 with
filled w11h water. When the water level is
cqu:11 al boll, ends of 1he hose. 1hc bottom of
the stakes 111us1 be on the same contour. The
Burkina Faso resis1ance from loc:tl people who were
reluctunt 10 divcn land and labour from food
produc1ion. or lO risk dry-season water
lines can be made during the dry season
when labour is not needed for formino
Although 1hcy take up only I or 2 pe;�cnt of
needed for drinking. cropland. tl1cy can increase yields by over 50
Auention was therefore <livened 10 per cent. They also help to replenish falling
improving food production by using the water tables and can regenerate the barren.
tradilional local technique of placing lines of crus1cd earth because soil, organic ma11er
slones across slopes lO reduce runoff and seeds collect on the upslope side of 1hc
fFigures 10.40 and 16.64]. When aligned s1one lines and plants begin to grow again.
with the contours. these lines dammed Since 2000, Practical Action has been
rainfall, giving it time 10 inlihrate. financing 1he constniction of crescent-shuped
Unfonunatcly, most slopes were so gentle, terraces which. built of earth along the
under 2 °. that local l:.mnc1�� could not contours of the land, last longer and hold on
determine the contours. A device costing less to vital rninwmer more efficiently than
Figure 10.40 than £3 solved 1he problem. A calibrated 1radi1ional square dams. Crops grown here
1ransparen1 hose. 15 n, long, is fixed at each thrive in soil. rich in nutrients, that was
Stone lines in Burkina Faso end to the tops of �takes of equal lengths and previously washed uwny.
 Soil erosion and soil management Case Study 10

In Britain and North America, a growing

must be continually nushed through the In several Sahelian countries, people
number of farmers are turning to organic
system to prevent salinisation. In areas of use scones to build small dams which trap
farming for environmental reasons (Figure
heavy and/or seasonal rainfall , dams may be water for long enough for some co infiltrate
10.39 and page 497 and Case Study 168).
built lo control fioodlng and to store surplus into the ground; they also collect the soil
Many soils suffer from either a shortage
water. The drainage of waterlogged soils can carried away by surface runoff (Figures
or a surfeit of water. In irrigated areas. water be improved by adding field drains. 10.40 and 1664).

oil
.
. � conservation in northern Shaanxi (China)
According to h,storic records, the northern province
_ of Shaanxi was
�nee a reg1?n with plenty of water, fertile loess soil, lush grass and
hvestock. S,nce then, overcullivation and deforestation have
_ . led to
severe so,I �ros1on (Figure 10.35). This has in turn caused serious
_
desert1ficat1on !Case Study 7), creating drifting sand dunes which
_
have buried farmland a�d villages, while frequent droughts, noods
and dust-stor�s have hin �ered the development of the local farming
economy. Agriculture fell rnto a vicious circle: people, because of
.
their poverty, reclaimed land but the more land they reclaimed, the
poorer they became because this land was also subject to erosion.

Since the early 1980s, however, the central government has

encouraged and supported a comprehensive programme for erosion
control on the loess plateau. The two main aims have been to control
and stabilise drifting sand in northern Shaanxi and to transform the
soil throughout the province. This has involved the development of
irrigation projects, the terracing of hillsides [Figure 10.41 ], the
planting of trees as a shelter-forest network against the shifting sand loess soil deposited behind
check-dam made of
[Figure l 0.42) and the construction of check-dams (Figure 10.43). check-dam: immediately
usable for farming pulverised loess

Figure 10.42
outlet pipe to drain
The sheller-forest water away
network

Figure 10.43
A check-dam bed of former gulley

During the 1990s, the Loess Plateau Rehabilitation Project was set Each year more than 4 per cent of the eroded area is targeted for soil
up with the twin aims of increasing the Income of local farmers and water conservation project5.
and reducing sediment now into the Huang He. The project has
involved engaging the local farmers and government officials in The success of the Loess Project can be seen in the huge tracts of
planting more trees, bushes and grasses that were previously land chat are now nurturing young forests; the crops grown in newly
native to the region; creating terraces for agriculture; planting created fields along valley noors; the reduction in the amount of soil
orchards and vineyards; and constructing more sediment control washed into the Huang He or blown towards Beijing in dust-storms;
dams and irrigation networks. At first the farmers and officials the restoration of an ecosystem; and, within a decade. the quadru­
were sceptical about restoring so much land and leaving it for pling of the income of local people. The project has helped promote
nature, but the desperate poverty of the plateau region led them sustainable and productive agriculture and improved the standard of
to co-operate. living and quality of life of local people.

O'Hare, G. (1988) Soils, Vegetation (111d the Soil salinity and erosion control in
Bridges, E.M. (1997) World Soils,
Ecos)'stem, Oliver & Boyd. Alberta, Canada:
Cambridge University Press.
Trudgill, $. (1988) Soil a11d Vegetation www.agric.gov.ab.ca /a pp2 l/rtw /index.
Courtney, F.M. and Trudgill, S.T. (1984) jsp - use search option
The Soil: An lntrorl11ctio11 to Soil Study, Systems, Clarendon Press.
UN Convention to Combat
Hodder Arnold. � Department of Environment
(Malaysia), controlling soil erosion: Desertification:
Elljs, $. and Mellor, A. (1995) Soils a11d www.unced.int/main.php
Enviro11me11t, Routledge. www.jas.sains.my/doe/new/index.html
UN Food and Agriculture Organisation,
Knapp, 8. (1979) Soil Processes, Allen & Nature journal:
desertification:
Unwin. www.nat\lre.com/nature/
www.fao.org/clesertification/default.
asp?lang=eng

· ··· - · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · ··· · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · - · · · · · · ·· · · ·· ···· ·Soils

·····
283
 Questions & Activities

Activities
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••

1 a i What are the two main components of a soil? (2 marks) d Explain the processes by which a brown earth is formed.
ii Study Figure 10.1 (page 260) and describe how two of (6marks)
these factors affect the formation of a soil. (4 marks) e In what type of area would you expect to find a brown earth
iii Why does the water content of a soil vary from the top of within the British Isles? (3marks)
a slope to the bottom? (4 marks) f What effect is a farmer trying to achieve when ploughing a
b What is a 'soil horizon'? (4marks) brown earth? (5marks)

c Choose one soil that you have studied. 4 Choose one example of soil you have studied in the field.
Name the soil. a i Identify the aims and objectives of the study. (3marks)
ii Draw an annotated soil profile to show the main ii Describe the main features of the area where the
characteristics of the soil. (6marks) fieldwork was carried out. (3marks)
d Why do farmers plough their arable land? (5 marks) iii Explain how the fieldwork was planned before the trip
took place. (3marks)
2 a What can happen to water when it lands on the surface of a
soil? (4marks) b Describe the methods used to collect the data (your
response should include'what:'why;'where:'how'and
b What does it mean when 'precipitation exceeds 'how it was recorded'). (8marks)
evapotranspiration'? (4marks)
c i For one piece of analysis you have carried out, explain
ii What happens to the soil when leaching occurs? (5marks) how the data were sorted to prepare them for analysis.
c Name and describe a soil that results from the process of (4marks)
leaching. (4marks) ii How were results prepared for presentation after the
d Why would a farmer want to change soil acidity? (2 marks) fieldwork trip? (4marks)
ii What can a farmer do to change the pH of a soi1?(2marks)
5 a Identify and explain the five main factors affecting the
iii How does the activity you have described in ii change the formation of a soil. (70marks)
pH? (4marks)
b What is:
3 a What is a 'soil horizon'? (3marks) soil texture
b Draw an annotated diagram to show the main features of a ii soil structure 7 (8marks)
brown earth soil. (5marks) c For either soil structure or soil texture, describe how you
c What natural vegetation type and climatic type is associated would identify it in a soil. In your answer you should identify
with formation of a brown earth soil? (3 marks) equipment used and explain how to interpret the results.
(7morks)

Exam practice: basic structured questions

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
6 a Study Figure 10.9 on page 265. b Study soil profile B
Identify the constituents of soils a, b and c, and suggest a Describe the humus layer in soil Band explain how it has
name for each soil. (3 marks) been formed. (5 marks)
ii Plot the soil textures from Figure 10.44 onto a triangular ii Describe the texture of the A horizon in soil Band explain
graph. (5marks) how the texture affects farming. (5marks)
b Explain how soil texture and soil structure can influence c Explain why a farm on the Charnwood Forest would be
farming. (9morks) different from one on the Lincoln Edge. (5marks)
c Identify two ways in which a farmer can improve the fertility
of the soil. In your answer you should explain the effect of the Sample Clay(%) Silt(%) Sand(%)
activity on the farmer's output. (8marks)
d 61 26 13
7 Study Figures 10.45 and 10.46 which show four soils and their 7 60
e 33
locations.
a i Describe how the depths of soil vary across this area. 8 79 13
(4morks) 5 5 90
g Figure 10.44
ii Account for the differences that you observed in a i. 34 36 30
(6marks)
h Five soil samples

· · ·· ··· ·· ···· · · ··········· ··· ·

···· ·· ·· · ·· ·· · ··· ······ ··········· · ····· ·· ·· · · ·· · ·· ··· ·· ···· ·· ······ · ··· ···· ···· ····· · · ··· · ······················· · -· · ············· ··· ·····
284 Soils
 Lincoln Edge The floodplain of the
Average annual River Witham Figure 10.45
excess of
precipitation 290mm
130mm 200mm SO mm
Cross-section through
over evapotrans­
piratlon at each
parts of Leicestershire
of sltesA-D and Lincolnshire

300
metres
above 200
sea-level
100

0 10km

horizontal scale
D Glacial sands and gravels � Jurassic limestone

A-0 sites of soil profiles A-D

1111111 Tlll (boulder clay) ffllll Clays
(Figure 10.46) lfflilJ Pre-Cambrian cryscalline rocks

pH cm Profile B • pH cm Profile C pH cm Profile D pH

4.5 0 ark gre :br_own m_or/nfilll fiumus 5.0 0 -
brown mull humus ___ 6.4 0
black peat 6.1
4.7 light brown loam, weak crumb dark red-brown loam, with
5.1 6.8
--------------
structure occasional fragments of
25 25 limestone, fine crumb structure
25
red-brown sandy clay loam
light brown sandy loam, with some
stones, weak granular structure
4.8 with occasional fragments of 7.0 6.4
limestone. weakplaty structure
so red·brown sandy loam, containing so so
many stone5, weak granular 5.0
Pre-Cambrian crystalline parent --------------
structure Jurassic limestone parent rock

material 75 75 75 6.4

Figure 10.46 glacial sands and gravels

parent material
Profiles of soils at sites 100 100 100 light brown clay loam with
6.4
A-Don Figure 10.45 olive-grey mottles

12s 12s 12slmnmnm

N.8. Solid lines represent narrow boundaries between soil horizons and dotted lines represent merging bo ndarles,

Exam practice: structured questions and essay

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
8 a Using Figures 10.45 and 10.46, identify which of the soils are ii Explain why it is classified as azonal. (3 marks)
zonal, azonal and intrazonal. (4marks) b Why do geographers and others classify soils? (5 marks)
b Select either soil B or soil C. c Identify one scientific soil classification system you have
Describe the main characteristics of your chosen soil. studied. Making use of example soils, explain the basis on
(4marks) which the classification is made. (10 marks)
ii Account for the nature of the A horizon in your chosen soil.
11 a What is a 'soil catena'? (3 marks)
(6 marks)
b Explain how and why soil depth varies down the slope of a
c Soil Dis a peaty gley. Explain two aspects of this soil that
catena. (7marks)
make it difficult for a farmer to cultivate. (6marks)
c Peat can develop in both the upland and the lowland areas of
d Suggest two reasons why soil A is a very shallow soil.(Smarks) a soil catena.
9 a Why does soil move downhill? (5marks) Explain how this happens, making reference to the
of human activity on soils. differences in the nature of the peat in the two areas.
b Describe two unintended effects (15 marks)
(10marks)
ated
c Explain two ways in which farmers can combat acceler 12 With reference to countries at different stages of development,
soil erosion. {IOmarks) explain why farmers need to manage their soils more carefully
if farming is to be sustainable. (25marks)
draw an
10 a i Choose one azona l soil you have studied and
annot ated diagra m to show the charac teristi cs of the soil.
(lmarks)

· · · ·· ··· ··· · ······· ·····························································

··················································· ·················· ·· ··· ·········· · · · · Soils 285
 Biogeography
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

'Tile Earth�,; gree11 cover is a prerequisite for the rest of life. environment, i.e. when the natural vegetation has
Plants alo11e, tlirouglI the alc/1emy ofpliolosy11thesis, can reached a delicate but stable balance with the climate
and soi Is of an area (Chapter 12). Each successive
use s1111/igl,t e11er�')), 011d rn11vert it to the che111icnl energ)'
seral commlLl1ity usuaUy shows an increase in the
a11i111als need for survival.' number of species and the height of the plants, an
James Lovelock. The Gaia Arias of Planet Management, 1985 increase in carbon storage and enhanced biogeo­
Biogeography may be defined as the study of the chemical cycling and soiJ formation.
distribution of plants and animals over the Earth's Each individual sere is referred to by one or
surface. The biogeographer is interested in describ­ more of the Ilarger species within that community
ing and explaining meaningful patterns of plant - the so-called dominant species. The dominant
and animal distributions in a given area, either at a species may be the largest plant or tree in the
particular time or through a time-period. community which exerts the maximum influence
on the local environment or habitat, or the most
numerous species in the community. Ln parts of
Seres and climax vegetation the world where the climatic climax is forest- i.e.
A sere is a stage in a sequence of events by which areas with higher rainfall - the plant community
the vegetation of an area develops over a period tends to be structured in layers (Figures J 1.2 and
of time. The first plat'lts to colonise an area a11d 12..!.). It can take several thousand years to reach a
develop in it are called the pioneer community (or climatic �imax. Communities are, however, rela­
species). A prisere is the complete chain of succes­ tively ephemeral on timescales of millennia. When
sive seres beginning with a pioneer community and climatic change does occur, temperature and/or
ending with a climax vegetation (Figure 11.la). precipitation alterations often only affect individual
F.E. Clements suggested, in 1916, that for each cli­ species rather than d1anging the community as a
matic zone only one type of climax vegetation could whole. This concept, the 'individualistic concept of
Figure11.1 evolve. He referred to this as the climatic climax plant association', was originated by H.A. Gleason
vegetation, now known as the monoclimax in 1928. In recent years this has become widely
A s eral progression,
with possible concept. The clin1atic climax occurs when the veg­ accepted as a result of the analysis of pollen taken
interruptions etation is in harmony or equilibrium with the local from lake sediments and peats (page 294).

a the monoclimax concept b possible interruptions

pioneer community natural interruptions human interruptions

l
l
----------

l
seral stages (temporary tectonic activity,
conditions) which e.g. volcanic eruptions
prisere -- - -
develop over time
(plaotsucmsloo)

temporary cllmatlc e.g. defore,tation

changes, e.g. drought,
colder conditions
climatic climax plaglocllmax
(natural vegetation) (if permanent)
 a vegetation structured in layers b light intensity
height(m)
height (m)
40
dominant oak 40

30
30
canopy layer

0
20

10- subcanopy layer

10
herb and shrub layer
ground layer O-ir-------
0.1 1.0 10 100
roots occupy
different soil percentage of fuII
layers sunlight (log scale)

Figure 11.2 Tl1ere arc, however, very few parts of today's

Vegetation struct ure world with a climatic climax. This is partly because plagioclimax subclimax
and light intensity few physical environments remain stable suffi­ new inorganic (after deforestation,
ploughing, burning,
typical ofa temperate ciently long for the climax to be reached: most are (non-vegetated)
volcanic eruptions)
surface
deciduous woodland affected by tectonic or temporary climatic changes
4
(after O'Hare)
(an area becomes warmer, colder, wetter or drier).
More recently, however, instability has resulted
from sud1 human activities as deforestation, the
ploughing of grassland, and acid rain. Where
human activity has permanently arrested and
altered the natural succession and the ensuing veg­
etation is maintained through management, the
resultant community is said to be a plagioclJmax
(Figure 11. lb) - examples of which include 1 primary succession
heather moo.rlands in Britain, and the temperate 2 natural variations due to local conditions
grasslands (page 326). 3 retrogressive succession
While it is still accepted that climate exerts due to disturbance (natural or human)

a major influence upon vegetation, the linear 4 secondary succession

monoclimax concept has been replaced by.the

voiyclimax theory. This theory acknowledges
Figure 11.4 the importance not only of climate, but of several Figure 11.3
Primary successions (poly) local factors including drainage, parent rock, The polyclimax theory
relief, microclimate and source of plants. The poly­
non-vegetated surfaces
_..•---- (i.e. initially unsuitable ----1 climax theory, therefore, relates the climax vegeta­
T
land
for vegetation) T
water tion to a variety of factors. Figure 11.3 shows how

+ 1
+ + 1
+ the climax vegetation may result from a primary
or a secondary succession. A primary succession

• •
1 lithosere 2 psammosere 3 halosere 4 hydrosere

..
(rock) (sand) (salt water) (fresh water) occurs on a new or previously unvegetated land
surface, or in water. Figure 11.4 shows how the four
e.g. new volcanlc Island, e.g.sand e.g.sait
more commonly accepted non-vegetated environ­
ments in Britain develop until they all reach the

l !
marsh

..
emerging raised beach, dunes
retreat of a glacier
same climax vegetation: the oak woodland. A sec­
ondary succession is more likely to occur on land
increasing soil increasing decreasing decreasing
depth and stability and lnOuence inOuence on which the previous management has been dis­
nutrients humus of the sea of open water continued, e.g. abandoned farmland due to shifting
I several • I I cultivation in the tropical rainforest (Places 66,

..
stages
!seres) page 480). A subclimax occurs when the vegetation
is prevented from reaching its climax due to
mesophytic interruptions by local factors such as soils
(transitional: adapted to neither very dry conditions (xerophytlc) and human interference.
nor very wet conditions [hydrophytlc]), e.g. oak climax

· · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · ·· · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · ·· · ·
Biogeography 287
 Figure 11.5 pioneer community climax vegetation
Fieldsketch of a lithosere on .--,,, oak
a newly emerging larger trees
�
rocky coastline (raised _,,,,,,,,.- (birch, ash, ·
large shrubs, and pine ·.

l
beach), Arran blue-green
bacteria /small tr ee s ·• 1
ferns, bracken, (rowan and
small shr ubs. alder)
h' h herbs, grasses. _..JP' brambles
small nowering
er

lichens, � mosses ___.plants

-·�J- �=.=:____..._.��••ISl!mmm
��,;:r
ordinary liverworts , . : < .,. ,, " •
___ �i 9�� ___
bedrock

Four basic seres forming a primary dominants to fast-growing shrubs, which in Lurn
succession will be replaced by relatively fast-growing trees
(rowan). These will eventually face competition
1 Lithoseres from slower-growing trees (ash) and, finally, the
Areas of bare rock will initially be colonised by oak which forms the climax vegetation. It should
blue-green bacteria and single-celled photo­ be noted thal although each stage of the succes­
synthesisers that have no root system and can sion is marked by a new dominant, many of the
survive where there are few mineral nutrients. earlier species continue to grow there, although
Blue-green bacteria are autotrophs (page 296), some are shaded out.
photosynthesising and producing their own food Figure 11.5 shows an idealised primary succes­
source. Lichens and mosses also make up the sion across a newly emerging rocky coastline. It
pioneer com,nunity (Figure 11.5). These plants excludes the increasing number of species found
are capable of living in areas lacking soil, devoid at each stage of the seral succession. The species
of a permanent supply of water and experiencing are determined by local differences in rainfall,
extremes of temperature. Lichen and various temperature and sunlight, bedrock and soil type,
forms of weatl1ering help to break up the rock to aspect and relief. Lithoseres can develop on bare
form a veneer of soil in which more advanced rock exposed by a retreating glacier (page 294),
plant life can then grow. As these plants die, they on ash or lava following a volcanic eruption on
are converted by bacteria into humus which helps land (Krakatoa, Places 35) or forming a new island
in the development of increasingly richer soils and (Surtsey, Pilaces 3, page 16), or, as in Figure 11.5,
aids water retention. Seeds, mainly of grasses and on land emerging from the sea as a result of
herbs, then colonjse the area. As these plants are isostatic uplift following the melting of an
taller than the pioneer species, they will replace icecap (page 163).
Figure 11.6 the lichen and mosses as the dominants, although Over time, the area shown to have the pioneer
Primary succession on the lichens and mosses will still continue to grow community passes through several stages until
a lithosere on the Isle of in the community. As the plant succession evolves the climatic climax is reached - assuming that
Arran: lichens, mosses and over a period of time, the grasses will give way as the land continues to emerge from the sea, that
grasses on a rocky coastline

Primary sucmsion on the same lithosere

in Arran: bracken and deciduous woodland
behind the rocky coastline

· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . .. . . .. . . . . ... . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
288 Biogeography
 tl1ere is no significant change in the local climate, bog myrtle have entered the succession. Figure
and that there is no human interference. figures 11.7 was taken where the soil depth and amo.unt
11.6 and 11. 7 are photos showing two stages in of humus have increased and the water table is
the succession, taken on a raised beach on the lower, as indicated by the presence of bracken.
east coast of Arran. figure 11.6 shows lichen, To the right, but not clearly visible on the photo,
favouring a south-facing aspect on gently dipping reeds are growing in a hollow where the water
rocks, and mosses, growing in darker north-facing table is nearer to the surface. In the middle dis­
hollows. Beyond, where soil has begun to form tance are small deciduous trees with, behind
and where the water table is high, grasses and them, taller oaks indicating a climax vegetation.

Places 35 Krakatoa: a lithosere

In August 1883, a series of volcanic eruptions blown from surrounding islands by the wind, while
reduced the island of Krakatoa to one-third of its others drifted in from the sea or were carried by
previous size and left a layer of ash over 50 m deep. birds. However. on Krakatoa the plant succession,
Figure 11.8 No vegetation or animal life was left on the island as defined by F.E. Clements in 1916 (page 286),
or in the surrounding sea. Yet within three years was influenced by another variable: chance. For
Primary succession, (Figure 11.8), 26 species had reappeared and, in example, a piece of driftwood with a particular seed
Krakatoa: vegetation
distribution according 1933, 271 plant and 720 insect species, together type just happened to be washed ashore onto the
to height above sea­ with several reptiles, were recorded. The first new ash, whereas it could just as easily have missed
level, 1983 recolonisers arrived in three ways. Most were seeds the island altogether.

Krakatoa
800 --------------------------------------------------------· ferns, m osses. Cyrcondro
shrubs and orchids

600 --------------------------------------------------�J-�-
Neonoucleo trees _ •
-- -
· -- •
g 400
Neonouc/eo tr ees
---------- --- ---------• with fig and -----
-
E macarandra tree •
.iii

200

Climate Nore:Th e rainfo re st climax vegetation here

Temp eratures are hig h and c onstant.Most mo nt h s average 28 ° C, giving a ve r y d oes n ot contain as many species <1s the
l ow annual range. Rain is heav y, falling In convectional st orms most aftern o ons rainfor ests on surrounding islands.
th ro ugh ou t th e y ea r
800 �,� � � � �� � �� � � � ·-.-�- ---- - -r ........,,-- --- ,-------r------:-"""lrc'v,ro,ii/nisnri S:---r800
yrron ro s ruUOs,
ferns, mossesand orchids, mosses, ferns,
fernr, Cyrtandra
orc hids, Cyrcond ro small trees
shrubs. mosses and shrubs, w oo dland in
orc h ids
ravines
L-- --- -1=--- -- Increasing number 600
600 - -1 ofNeonoudeo trees
mixed woodland
sava1ma grassland,
g rass 3 m hig h -::r
g.... coarse g rassland
400
IC.
�
400
.2' rainfor est climax: 3
increasing number Neonauclea tre es Neonauclea with fig,
fems, shrubs,
of macarand ra and taking over from macarandra and
de�stJ!raSS. some
Neonaudea trees. macarandra and figs Term/no/la
ferns gr owing and macarandra and
figs 200
200 blu. e-green bacteria figs

beach plants, beach plants, �oconuts beach plants, coastal woodland Borrlngtonlo, beach
Banl�onio, Borrlngtor,io, tussock cllma,-c (types as 1918) plants, Casuarlna
Barrington/a tussoc gr ass grass. coconut 0
0
1883 1886 1908 1918 1933 1983
Year
........
Number of 0 26 115 132 271
plant spedes

················································· ····················································
Biogeography 289
 older dune ridges climax
(grey dunes)
main ridge large oak
marram grass on dune heath­ gorse, bracken,
yellow dunes some marram, ragwort, heather,
fore-dunes red fescue, sea pri ckly holly, small
sea couch grass, spurge, sand shrubs, buckthorn
marram grass sedge.small
herbs, heather
embryo dunes I.
(strand li ne): . �
lymegrass, " If.If\,
sea couch grass
... ------ - ··-· ·· · · --------- --------�-----·-·-·-······
small trees, p i ne, birch, · ·
•• • . . . • •• - - - - " likely"positiori of domed wat·e ·r "table - ....• dune 'slack' with hi gher water table, creep i ng wi llow, alder and dune
cotton grass, yellow Iris, reeds. rushes plantations (pi ne)

Figure 11.9 2 Psammoseres from the prevailing wind. Their greater humus
Transect across sand A psammosere succession develops on sand and is content, from the decomposition of earlier
dunes 10 show a best illustrated by taking a transect across coastal marram grass, enables the soil to hold more
psammosere, Morfa moisture. Although marram is still present, it
dunes _(Figure I 1.9). The first plants to colonise,
Harlech, north Wales
indeed to initiate dune formation, are usually faces increasing competition from small flow­
lyme grass, sea couch grass and marrarn grass. ering plants and herbs such as sea spurge (with
Sea couch grass grows on berms around the tidal succulent leaves to store water) and l1eather.
high-water mark and is often responsible for the The older ridges, further from the water, have
formation of embryo dunes (Pigure 6.31). On the botl1 more and taller species. Dune slacks may
yellow fore-dunes, which are arid, being above the fonn in hollows between the ridges if the water
highest of tides and experiencing rapid percola­ table reaches the surface. Plants such as creeping
tion by rainwater, marram grass becomes equally willow, yellow iris, reeds and rushes and shrubs
important. are indicators of a deeper and wetter soil. On the
The main dune ridge, which is extremely landward side of the dunes, perhaps 400 m from
arid and exposed to wind, is likely to be veg­ the beach, are small deciduous trees including
etated exclusively by marram grass. Marram has ash and hawthorn and, as the soil is sandy, pine
adapted to these harsh conditions by having plantations. f.urthest inland comes the oak
leaves that can fold to reduce surface area, climax. Figure 11.9 shows a psammosere based
which are shiny and which can be aligned to the on sand dunes at Marfa Harlech, north Wales.
wind direction: three factors capable of limiting Figures 11.10 and 6.32 show marram and lyme
Figure 11.10
evapotranspiration. Marram also has long roots grass forming the yellow fore-dunes, with gorse
Primary succession on a to tap underground water supplies and is able and heather on the greyer dunes behind.
psammosere: colonisation Figures 11.11 and 6.33 show vegetation on
of fore-dunes, Winterton, to grow upwards as fast as sand deposition can
cover it. Grey dunes, behind the main ridge, the inland ridges.
Norfolk (compare Figures
6.32 and 6.33) have lost their supply of sand and are sheltered

...
Primary succession on a psammosere:
vegetation on a grey dune ridge and on
a dune slack, Braunton Burrows, Devon
 rowan,
ash,
pioneer community on inter-tidal non- alder oak
mudflats sward zone halophytic
,--�������__,..._.:_������� r������--''-�������shrubs
blue-green bacteria, Salicornia SparrIna sea lavender. thrift
eel grass

3 High-water mark (spring tides)

-------· · ·-""", ... - --

2 High-water mark (ordinary tides)

Figure 11.12 3 Haloseres maximum of 4 hours' submergence in every 12

Transect showing In river estuaries, large amounts of silt are depos­ hours. Here the dominant species arc sea lavender,
a primary succes­ itecl by the ebbing tide and inflowing rivers. The sea aster and grasses, including the 'bowling green
sion in a halosere, rurf' of the Solway Firth. I lowever, although the
earliest plant colonisers are green algae and eel
Llanrhidian Marsh,
grass which can tolerate submergence by the vegetation here tends to form a thick mat, it is
Gower Peninsula,
south Wales tide for most of the 12-hour cycle and which not continuous. Hollows rnay remain where the
trap mud, causing it to accumulate. Two other seawater becomes trapped leaving, after evilpora­
colonisers are Snficumin and Spnrti11n which are lion, saltpans in which the s;ilinity is too great
halophytes - i.e. plants that can tolerate saline for plants (Figure 11.13). As the tide ebbs, water
conditions. They grow on the inter-tidal mudflats draining off the land may be concentrated into
(Figure 6.34), with a maximum of 4 hours' expo­ creeks (Figure 6.35). The upper sward zone is only
sure to the air in every 12 hours. Spnrti1111 has long covered by spring tides and here/1111rns ancl other
roots enabling it to trap more mud than the initial rushes grow. Further inland, non-halophytic
colonisers of algae and Snlicomin, and so, in most grasses ancl shrubs enter the succession, to be fol­
places, it has become the dominant vegetation. lowed by small trees and ultimately by the climax
The inter-tidal flats receive new sediment daily, oak vegetation. Figure 11.12 is a transect based on
Figure 11.13
are waterlogged to the exclusion of oxygen, and the saltmarshes on the north coast of the Gower
Primary succession in a Peninsula in south Wales. Figure 11.14 shows
halosere: a saltpan on the have a high pl I value.
The sward zone (page 158), in contrast, is several stages in the halosere succession.
Suffolk coast, covered only
by the highest of tides inhabited by plants that can only tolerate a

Primary succession in a halosere:

Blakeney Point, Norfolk

Biogeography 291
 oak woodland

Figure 11.1 S
Idealised primary succession in
small river with
a hydrosere
sediment

floating plants, algae

and mosses

:__ land plant�

Figure11.16 � marsh plants-----:

Primary succession in a
hydrosere at the head of a :_ water plant�
reservoir in Cumbria
4 Hydroseres
Lakes and ponds originate as clear water which
contains few plant nutrients. Any sediment
c:arried into the lake will enrich its water with
nutrients and begin to infill it. The earliest colo­
nisers will probably be algae and mosses whose
spores have been blown onto the water surface
by the wind. These grow to form vegetation rafts
which provide a habitat for bacteria and insects.
Next will be water-loving plants which may either
grow on the surface, e.g. water lilies and pond­
weed, or be totally submerged (Figure 11.15).
J3acteria recycle the nutrients from the pioneer
community, and marsh plants such as bulrushes,
sedges and reeds begin to encroach into the
lake. As these marsh plants grow outwards into
the lake and further sediment builds upwards at
the expense of the water, small shrubs and trees
will take root forming a marshy thicket. In time,
the lake is likely to contract in size, to become
deoxygenised by the decaying vegetation and
eventually to disappear and be replaced by the
oak climax vegetation. This primary succession is
shown in Figure 11.15. Figure 11.16 shows land
plants encroaching at the head of a reservoir,
while Figure 11.17 illustrates the water, marsh and
land plant succession .in and around a small lake.
Incidentally, it is not necessary to be an
expert botanist to recognise the plants named in
these primary successions; you just need a good
plant recognition book!

Figure11.17
Primary succession in
a small lake, Sussex
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·
 Secondary succession • a mudflow or landslide (Places 36)
� climatic climax occurs when there is stability • deforestation or afforestation
in transfers of material and energy in the eco­ • overgrazing by animals or the ploughing-up
system (page 295) between the plant cover and of grasslands
the physical environment. However, there are • burning grasslands, moorlands, forests
several factors that can arrest the plant and heaths
succession before it has achieved this dynamic • draining wetlands
equilibri1.1m, or which may alter tile climax • disease (e.g. Dutch elm), and
after it has been reached. These include: • changes in climate (page 286).

Places 36 Arran: secondary plant succession

The mudflow shown in Figure 2.16 occurred In Instead, by 1988, much of the flow had already
October 1981 and completely covered all the existing been recolonised. It could be seen that most of the
vegetation. Twelve months later it was estimated plants were found near the edges of the flow and
that 20 per cent of the flow had been recolonised, a were not randomly distributed, and there were
figure that had grown to 40 per cent in 1984 and 70 already several species including grasses, heather,
per cent in 1988. Had this been a primary succession, bog myrtle and mosses, some of which exceeded
lichens and mosses would have formed the pioneer SO cm in height.
community and they would probably have covered
These observations suggest a secondary
only a small area. The pioneer plants would probably
succession with plants from the surrounding climax
also have been randomly distributed and, even after
community having invaded the flow, mainly due to
seven years, the species would have been few in
the dispersal of their seeds by the wind.
number and small in height.

The effect of fire 4 Intensively grazed grasslands in semi-arid

The severity of a fire and its effect on the eco­ areas which have a lower biomass and a
system depend largely upon the climatic condi­ limited litter layer.
tions at the time. The fire is likely to be hottest 5 Deciduous woodlands which, despite the
in dry weather and, in the northern hemisphere, presence of a thick litter layer, are often slow
on sunny south-facing slopes where the vegeta­ to burn.
tion is driest. The spread of a fire is fastest when Following a fire, the blackened soil has a lower
the wind is strong and blowing uphill and where albedo and absorbs heat more readily and, without
there is a build-up of combustible material. The its protective vegetation cover, the soil is more vul­
extent of disruption also depends upon the type nerable to erosion. Ash initially increases consider­
and the state of the vegetation. The following is a ably the quantity of inorganic nutrients in the soJI
list of examples, in rank order of severity. and bacterial activity is accelerated. Any seedlings
1 Areas with a Mediterranean climate, where the left in the soil will grow rapidly as there is now
chaparral of California and the maquis/ garrigue plenty of light, no smothering layer of leaf litter,
of southern Europe are densest and tinder-dry plenty of nutrients, a warmer soil and, at first, less
in late summer after the seasonal drought. competition from other species. Heaths and moors
Since 2005, major bush fires, which are occur­ that have been fired are conspicuous by their
ring more often, have threatened Sydney in greener, more vigorous growth. A fire climax com­
Australia, Olympia (site of the first Olympics) munity, known as pyrophytic vegetation, contains
in Greece, parts of the south of France and, in plants with seeds which have a thick protective
California, Los Angeles (Case Study ISA). In coat and which may germinate because of the heat
early 2009, over 200 people lost their lives in of the fire. The community may have a high pro­
bushfires, in the Australian state of Victoria. portion of species that can sprout quickly after the
2 Coniferous forests where the leaf litter fire- plants that are protected by thick, insulating
burns readily. bark (cork oak in the chaparral (page 324) and
3 Ungrazed grasslands and, especially, the baobab in the savannas (Figure 12.14)), or which
savannas, which have a low biomass but a have underground tubers or rhizomes insulated by
thick Jitter layer (Figure 11.28). Biomass is . the soil. It has been suggested that the grasslands of
the total mass of living organisms present in the American Prairies and the African savannas are
a community at any given time, expressed in not climatic climax vegetation, but are the result
terms of oven-dry weight (mass) per unit area. of firing by indigenous Indian and African tribes
(Case Study 12).
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · ·
Biogeography 293
 Vegetation changes in the Holocene have the same pollen grain in terms of its shape
The Holocene is the most recent of the geological and pattern. Where pollen is blown by the wind
periods (Figures 1.1 and 11.l 8). The last glacial onto peat bogs, such as at Tregaron in west
advance in Britain ended about 18 000 years ago. Wales, the grains are trapped by the peat. As
Although the extreme south of England remained more peat accumulates over the years, the pollen
covered with hardy tundra plants, most of of successively later times indicates which were
northern Britain was left as bare rock the dominant and subdominant plants of the
or glacial till. Had "the climate gradually and period (Figures 11.18 and 11.19). As each plant
constantly ameliorated, a primary succession grows best within certain defined temperature
would have taken place, from south to north, and precipitation limits, it is possible to deter­
as previously described for a lithosere. It has been mine when the climate either improved (ameli­
established that there have been several major orated) or deteriorated. Dendrochronology
fluctuations in climate during those 18 000 years - dating by means of the annual growth-rings
figure 11.19 which have resulted in significant changes in the of trees- has shown that the bristlecone pine of
climax vegetation (Figure 11.18). California can be clatecl back some 5000 years,
Changes in the surface
of lowland England, There are several techniques that help to while European dendrochronology, based on bog
Wales and Scotland over determine vegetation change: pollen analysis, oaks in lreland and Germany, extends back some
the last 12 000 years dendrochronology, radio-carbon dating, and 10 000 years. Radio-carbon dating is based on
(ofterWilkinson) historical evidence (page 248). families of plants changing amounts of radioactivity in the atmos­
phere and in plants. Notice in
ice
Figure 11.18, which links
pioneer hazel climatic and vegetation
and other trees
changes, how forests increase
as the climate ameliorates,
and how heathland and peat
moors take over when the
climate deteriorates.

grasses, heaths, bog

Figure 11.18
roe!< and sand
Climatic and vegetation
12 000 BP
a
9500BP
b 7500 BP
c
5000 BP
__..;.;d__ -
2
W AO 'W
'We · present change in Britain since
pre-Boreal Boreal Atlantic sub-Boreal sub-Atlantic historical time the Holocene
(BP= Before Present)

Date BP Phase/period Climate Vegetation Cultures

pre-17000 final glaciation glacial none in northern Britain; tundra in none
southern England
17000-14000 . periglacial cold, 6°( in summer tundra Palaeolithic
°
14000-12 000 Allef0d warming slowly to 12 ( in summer tundra with hardy trees, e.g. willow and birch Palaeolithic
°
12 000-10 000 pre-Boreal glacial advance: colder, 4 C in summer Arctic/Alpine plants, tundra Mesolithic

10 000-8000 Boreal continental: winters colder and drier, forests: juniper first then pine and birch and Mesolithic
summers warmer than today finally oak, elm and lime
8000-5000 Atlantic maritime: warm summers, 20 °(; mild our 'optimum' climate and vegetation: oak, beginning of Neolithic; first
winters, 5 °C; wet alder, hazel, elm and lime (too cold for lime deforestation about 3500 BC
today); peat on moors
5 000-2500 sub-Boreal continental: warmer and drier elm and lime declined; birch flourished; peat Neolithic period, settled agriculture;
bogs dried out beginning of Bronze Age
2500-2000 sub-Atlantic maritime: cooler, stormy and wet peat bogs re-formed; decline in forests due settled agriculture
to climate and farming
2000-1000 historical times improvement: warmer and drier clearances for farming Roman occupation during early part

1000-450 decline: much cooler and wetter further clearances: little climax
vegetation left; medieval farming
450-300 'little ice age': colder than today

post-300- gradual improvement recently some afforestation: Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions
present coniferous trees
 Ecoiogy and ecosystems individltals of a pa1·ticular species in a l1abitat.
At1 (;cosystem depe11ds on two ba.
s ic processes:
The term ecology, which comes fron1 the Greek '
energy flows and n1aterial cycling. As the flow
word oikos n1eaning 'l1ome', refers to tl1e study
of e11e1:gy is only in one di1·ection and because it
of tl1e interrelationships between organisms ancl crosses t11e system boundaries, this aspect of the
tl1eir l1abitats. An organis1n's l101ne or l1abitat lies ecosystem bel1aves as an ope11 syste.m. Nt1trients,
i11 the biospl1e1·e, i.e. the surface zone of the Earth which are constantly 1·ecycled {01· future use, a.re
a11d its adja.ce11t atmosphere in which. all organic circulatecl in..a series of closed systen1s.
"' .
life exists. 1 11e scale of each home varies fro1n
s1nall 1nicro-ha'bitats, sucl1 as u11der a stone or a 1 ·energyflows·
leaf, to biomes, which i11clude tropical rainforests
"fl1e st1n -is tl1e p�in1ary source of energy for all
a11cl deserts (Figure 11.20). Ft1ndamental to the
Iivin.g things 011 Earth. As e11e1·gy is retained only
four ecological units listed in l�igure 11.20 is the
briefly i.11 the biospl1ere bef9re being returned to
co11cept of the environment. Tl1e enviro11n1e11t is
space, ecosysten1s have to rely t1pon a contin·L1al
a collective ter·m to include all the conditions in
sup1Jly� Tl1e s11n provides l1eat erze,gy which can11.o t
which an 01·ganis1n lives. It can be divicled i11to:
be ca1)tL1red by plants or animals but which
1 the physical, non-living or abiotic e11vi1·on-
war1ns Ltp the �ommunities and.their non-livi11�
1nent, which inclucles te1nperature, wate1·,
sL1rrot111di11gs. The sun is also a so11rce of ligh.t
light, l1L11nidity, wind, carbon dioxide, oxygen,
ene1-g;1 wl1icl1 ca11. b� captr1red by green JJla11ts
pl-I, rocks and nutrients i11 tl1e soil, a11d
and tra11sformed into chemical energy through
2 the living or biotic enviro111nen· : t, which the process of pl1otosynthesis. Without pl1.oto­
comp1·ises all orga11isms: 1Jla11ts, a.ni1nals,
synthesis, tl1ere would be no life on Eartl1. Ligl1t,
l1·un1a11s, l)acteria a11d fttngi.
chlorophyll, warmth, water and carbon dioxide
a.re reqt1ired for this process to operate. Carbo11
The ecosystem dioxide, which is absorbed through sto1nata
in the leaves of higher plants, reacts indirectly
An ecosyste01 : is a 11atural ttnit in whicl1 tl1e life­ with water taken up by the roots wl1e11 te1npera- -
cycles of plants, a11imals and other organis1ns
tures are suitably high, to forn1 carbohydrate.
are li11ked ·to each other and to the non-liv:ing.
The energy needed for this comes from s11nlight
constitue11ts of ·tl1e e11viron1ne11t to form a 11a.tural which is 'trapped' by chlorophyll. Oxygen is
system (Fra111ework 3, page 45). The communi� : a by­
prodt1ct of the IJrocess. The carbohydrate is tl1en
consists of all tl1e different species within a habitat available as food for the plant.
or ecosys·ten1. Tl1e population comprises all tl1e

Environment Ecological units Ecological

niche
micro-habitats small specific locations, e.g. under a leaf,
under a stone in a river
-

the conditions position of

under which habitats more specific locations with a particular plants,
plants and set of conditions and an appropriately adapted animals and
animals Ji.ve, community, e.g. freshwater pond, hedgerow other
e.g. light, organisms
temperature, in the food
water, soil, chain
zones units within biomes, e.g. three layers in the
gases rainforest: the surface, deep ocean and
inter-tidal zones of the sea

biomes large areas cutting across continents yet

each wi�h its own characteristit type of flora
and fauna, e.g., tundra, rainforest, desert

Figure 11.20
....... . .. ...... ......................... .... , ...... .
A hierarchical structure
of ecological units

. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .
· ······ ··· · ···· ·· ···· ········· · ·········· · ···· · ··· ···· .
B1ogeograp hy 29 5
 Food chains and trophic levels "'
1 11e first trophic level is occt1pied by the
A food cl1ain arises when energy, trapped i11 the JJroducers or autot1·ophs ('self-feeders') which
ca1:bon· co1npou11ds i11itially produced by plants include gree11 plants capable of producing their
through pl1otosy11thesis, is transferred through own food by pl1otosynthesis. All other levels a1·e
an ecosystem. Eacl1 link i.n the cl1ai11 feeds on occupied by co.nsttmers or heterotrop.l1s (' other­
a11d obtains energy from t .he one preceding it, feed.ers'). These include animals that obtain their
and in. turn is consu1ned by and provides energy e11ergy eithe1· by eating gree11 plan.ts directly or
fo.r the following link (Figure 11.21). by eating animals that have previously eaten
green pla11ts. The second tropl1ic level is wl1ere
Figure 11.21 herbivores, tl1e primary consumers, eat t]1e pro­
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . ... . .. . . . . . .
Three examples of ducers. The third trophic level is where smaller
food chains through grass worm blackbird hawk carnivores (meat-eaters) act as secondary con­
four trophic levels leaf caterpillar shrew badger su1ners feeding upon the herbivores. The fourth
phytoplankton zooplankton fish human trOJJl1ic level is occupied by tl1e larger carni­
vores, the tertiary consumers. Also known as
Tl1ere are usually, but not always, four links omnivores (or dive1·sivores), this group - whicl1
in the chain. Eacl1 link or stage is known as a inclt1des l1umans - ea.t both plants a11d animals
trophic or energy level (Figure 11.22). In order a11d so have two soltrces of food.. Figure 11.22
fo1· tl1e first link in the chain to develop, the non- shows tl1e main trophic or feeding levels in a
. liying environment has to receive both energy food chain. Detritivores, such as bacteria a11d
fron1 tl1e sun and the other factors (water, C0 2, fu11gi, are const1mers tl1at operate at all trophic
etc.) needed for photosynthesis. levels
•
Figure 11.22 •
. . ' . . . . . ......... . .. . . ... . . . . . . ......... .
Trophic levels TrophicJevel 1 Trophic level 2 Trophic level 3 Trophic level4
autotrophs herbivores carnivores omnivores
(self-nourishing) (primary consumers) (secondary consumers) (diversivores)
green plants consumers eating green meat-eaters consume carnivores eating
plants herbivores that have carnivores that have eaten

.......___>
consumed green plants herbivores which have
consumed green plants
Le·vel 1: energy has onl y Level 2: energy has been Level 3: energy transferred Level 4: energy has been
been transferred once, transferred twice, i.e. from three times, i.e. from sun to transferred four times
i.e. from sun to plants sun to plants and from plants, from plants to
plants to herbivores herbivores, and from
herbivores to carnivores

Figure 11.23
. . .. . . .. ..... ...... ...... .. .. .... .. , , . . . .
Energy flows in the A B c
ecosystem
input
producers consumers I decomposers
sun's energy --
• non�living autotrophs herbivores, bacteria
environment carnivores, and fungi
omnivores,
detritivores

x y. z
Outputs
G) A,B,C:loss of energy through heat @ X, Y;Z: loss of energy within stages
dt,Jring transfer between stages through respiration and excreta
--�IJIII• decomposition
-�___.._,.-�------� ------�--·�---����·- -·- - ...__

. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . f . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . • • • • • • • • • •
• . . . . . . . . . . # • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • •
# . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
• •

296 Biogeography
 However, no tra11sfer o·f energy is 100 pe1· the nu1nbers of grasses or algae per unit area.
cent efficient and, as Figure 11.23 sl1ows, energy Secondly, it cloes 11ot take into account tl1.e relative
is lost througl1 respiratio11, by tl1e decay of dead sizes of 01·ganlsms - a bacte1�ium would cot1nt the
organisms and in excreta withi11 eacl1 t1nit of same as a whale! A pyramid of biomass takes into
the food chai.n , and also as heat given off when account tl1e cliffere11ce in size betwee11 organisms,
energy is passed from one trophic level to .tl1e but cannot be used to compa1·e masses at differen·t
next. Conseqtte11tly, at each highe1· level, fewer tro1Jhic levels in the same ecosystem or at similar
orgar1is1ns can be SLlppo1·ted tl1an at the previous trophic leyels in different ecosyste1ns. rfl1is is
level, eve11. though thei1· individt1al size gener­ becatise biomass will have acctrmt1lated over dif­
ally inc1�eases. Sim1Jle food chai11s are rare; tl1e1·e fere11 t periods of time.
is usually a variety of plants and a11imals at ea.ch Humans are found at the e11d of a food chain
level formi11g a more complicated food web. a11d ht1man popt1latio11 is dependent upon the
"fhis ra11ge of species is necessar. y since a sole le11gth of tl1.e c:hai11 (a11d therefore the amount
species occtipying a IJarticula.r trophic level in of energy lost). In other worcls, in a shorter food
a si1nple food chain could be 'consu1ned' a11d chai11, less e11ergy will h . ave bee11 lost by the time
this would adversely affect the organisms i11 it reaches l1t1mans and so·the la11d can st1pport
the succeeding stages. a higher den.sity ·of popttlation. In a longer food
T:he progressive loss of e11ergy tl1rough the food cl1ain, more energy will have been lost by the
cl1ain. imposes a :natural limit on the total mass of ti1ne the food is constrmecl by l1t1ma11s, wl1ich
living n1atter (the biomass) and on the nu1nber means that· the carrying capacity (page 3 78) is
of organisms that can. exist at each level. It is con­ lower and fewer people can be supported by a
ve11ient t· o shovv tl1ese changes in tl1e form of a given area of la11d - as in western Et1rope, wl1ere
pyramid (Figure 11.24). A pyran1id of organis1n. most of the population are accustomed to a11in1al
numbers is of limited valt1e for compa1·ing ecosys­ prodtlcts as well as crops.
•
te1ns for two reasons. First, it is difficult to cot1.nt ..
Figure 11.24
. ... ........... .......... .......... . . . .
' ,

The trophic pyramid loss of energy • fewer organisms,

Level 1 tertiary fall in biomass
'
(omnivores) consumers

Level2 secondary
{car-nivores) consumers

detritivores
at every Level3 primary
stage (herbivores) consumers
-
Level4 producers
(plants) many organisms,
much biomass
number of organisms or amount of biomass
{i.e. the total dry mass)

2 Nutrient cycling organis1ns at each of these trophic levels die,

they decompose and nutrients are returned to
Cl1emicals 11eeded to produce organic ma.terial the system. Two of these cycles, the carbon and
are ci1·culated arou·nd the ecosystem and are nitrogen cycles, are illt1strated i11 Figures 11.25
continually recycled. Variot1s cl1emicals ca11. and 11.26. In each case, the most basic cycle is
be absorbed by plants either as gases from the given. (d.iagram a); followed by a 1nore detailed
at. mosphere or as soluble salts from tl1e soil. Eacl1 example, although still not in its entire com­
cycle consists, at its simplest, of plants taking plexity (diagram b).
tip che1nical nutrients which, once they have
been ttsed, are passed on to the herbivores and
then the ca1·nivores that feed ttpon tl1e1n. As

.... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 4 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·. · · · · ·...
• • •

Biogeography 297
 Figure 11.25
. . . . . . ...... ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
The carbon cycle (after M.B.V. Roberts)
, , '

a pool of C02
photosynthesis
b
in atmosphere -----
removes C0 2
respiration photosynthesis

I
respiration combustion
i

respiration and
combustion release
(02
\ t\ I

C0 into atmosphere
2 •
'

t decay
•
•

I
sea
Note: In recent years there has l�--death
been an increase in land
atm·ospheric C0 2, resulting
partly..from combustion of .fossil carbonification,
fuels in the atmosphere causing gradual production
a slight rise in temperature (the of fossil fu�ls
enhanced 'greenhouse effect1.
Thi, s cycle operates over land
and sea, and also involves
decay organisms +
weathering.

(._______,___�
, �

pool of nitrogen in volcani'c

passed into .eruption
herbivores atmosphere N2
(inpuv
artificial nitrogen
fixing
nitrogen returned as
nitrogen-fixing +
protein excretion
blue-green bacteria
ammonia (as excreta or nitrates built up by
following decay of organic plant roots into
'

nitrate protein
matter); bacteria convert
ammonia into nitrate
protein
�:� reduction
by plants
(decay of
dead
denftrifying
bacteria
!
death
tissues}
nitrogen::;fixing ammonia (NH 3) in ��--...
bacteria in soil soil and water
nitrates in soil shallow marine and' roots
sediment
+
..

Note: This-cycle can op _ erate. � N03 by nitrate bacteria �----�������- decomposing oa.cteria
over land,over sea, or in the loss1to deep
a1:mosphere. It includes sediments
pessible irip1,.1ts (voleanic (output}
eruptions} and outputs {loss -���=------ ammonia
,.__ N02 by nitrate bacteria
I

to deep-sea sedimentsJ. salts (NH 4)

•

•
•

t-·----��-�-...__..__..______,__. ' .__........�_-___... - ..

•

Figure 11.26
......... .... ..�·�·············· ..... .
Recent investigations, mainly in New Zealand later be released. back into the at1nosphere, either
, ,

The nitrogen cycle and tl1e Andes, have shown that nitrogen fron1 as water 01· as a gas, thro11gh volcanic erttptions.
(afterM.B.V. Roberts) seawater, or 1·eleased by plants and animals Once in the at1nospl1ere, the nitroge11 can return
as they die on the seabed1 can be cl1annelled to Earth and the sea in rainwater - so co1np1eting
. t1pward-s, together with magn1a, at subduction another nitrogen cycle .
(destructive) plate margin.s. The nitroge11 can

· · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ! · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

298 Biogeography
 Scientifte? en·quiry: llipothesis
Since the 1960s, geographers have felt an • The realisation that, despite great care, all
increasing need t0 adopt a more scientific approach human observers have their own, subject'ive,
to their studies. This stemmed fro.m a number of opinions which influence an assessment or
changes that were taking place in attitudes to the conclusion (i.e. scientific objectivity could not
study of geography and to science in a broader be guaranteed).
sense:
The scientific approach to geography involves a series
• The increasing scale and complexity of the of logical steps, already practised in the physical
subject's material and the data available. sciences, which enabled conclusions to be drawn
• The rapid development of theory, often using from precise and unbiased data (Framework 8,
Figure 11.27 computer modelling, from which predictions page 246). This approach is summarised in the flow
. ......... . .... ......... . ....... • . . ... ..

Hypothesis testing could be made. diagram (Figure 11.27).

During a sixth-form field week on the Isle of Arran,
Define the problem one day was set aside for hypothesis testing. This
involved seeking possible relationships between
several variables on Goatfell (Figure 11.37). The
hypotheses included:
Formulate a hypothesis '
• Vegetation density decreases as
altitude increases.
Decide which data are needed • Soil acidity increases as altitude increases.
to test the hypothesis
• Soil acidity increases as the angle of
slope increases.
• Soil moisture increases as the angle of
slope increases.
Primary (field) data (e.g. Secondary (published) data
questionnaires, soil pits) (e.g. maps, censuses) • Depth of soil increases as altitude decreases.
• Height of vegetation increases as
altitude decreases. ' •

• Number of species increases as

Design data collection procedures (including altitude increases.
sampling methods, if required)
• Soil temperature increases as
altitude decreases.
Data collection and rec.ording Data collection required the taking of readings·at
a minimum of 15 sites from sea-level to the top of
Goatfell. It is important that the selection of sites is
Data analysis (using statistical made without introducing bias (see Framework 6,
techniques to look for order, page 159).
patterns and relationships)
. Data analysis may include drawing a scattergraph
to investigate the possibility of any correlation
between the two variables; calc_ulating the strength •

Assess the results: draw·ing conclu�ions

of the relationship between the variables by
using the Spearman's rank correlation coefficient
(Framework 19, page 613); and then testing the
result to see how likely it is that the correlation
Hyp·othesis is accepted or Hypothesis is rejected
occurred by chance (page 614) .
It should then be possible to determine whether
Mov.e on to next Redefine· problem; formulate the original hypothesis is acceptable as an
problem for study a new hypothesis explanation of the data; or not. If it is rejected, then
• ' a· new hypothesis should be form\,Jlated.
•

. . . . . . ... . . ' . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• •

Bi'ogeo·graphy 2·99
 Figure 11.28
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ... ... . , . . . . . . . .. .
A model of the
rnineral nutrient
cycle (after input dissolved in rainfall
Gersmehl) (from atmosphere) biomass

fallout as
tissues die

litter uptake by plants

loss in rt1nof f release as litter

decomposes
soil

compartments loss by leaching

nutrient transfers
input weathered
from rock

Model of the mineral nutrient cycle weathe1·ing of parent rock. Tl1e layer of
This 1nodel, developed by P.F. Gers111ehl i11 197 6, needles is often thick, but their thick cuticles
atte1npts to show the differences between a11d tl1e low te1nperatu1·es discourage the
ecosystems in ter1ns of nutrients stored in, action of the decomposers (page 268). The
and transferred between, three co1npartments breakdown of litter into ht1mus is thus very
(Figure 11.28): slow. These factors account for the low fer­
•
'
1 Litter - the total amot1nt of organic matter,
,
tility potential of tl1e podsol soils of the taiga
inclt1din.g humus and leaf litter, in tl1e soil (pages 331-332).
(it is, therefore, more than just the L or 2 Steppes/prairies (Figure l l .29b) Soil is the
litter layer as shown in the soil profile in largest store of mine1·al nutrients in the te1n­
Figur·e 10.5). perate grasslands. The biomass store is sma.11
•
2 Biomass - the total 1nass of living organisms, due to the cli1nate, which provides inst1fficient
•
1nainly plant tissue, per unit area. 1noistt1re to support trees and ternperatures
3 Soil. low e11ough to redu.ce the growing season to
Figure 11.29 shows tl1e mineral nut1·ie11t cycles approximately six n1onths. Indeed, m11ch of
for th1·ee selected bio1nes: the coniferous forest tl1e biomass is found beneath the surface as rhi­
(taiga), the te1nperate grassla11d (prairies and zomes and roots. The grass dies back in winter
steppes), and the tropical rai11forest (selvas). a11d nu rients are reh1rned rapidly to the soil.
t

1 Taiga (Figure l l .29a) Litter is the largest store Tl1e soil retains 01ost of these nutrie11ts because
of mi11eral nutrie11ts in the taiga. Although the rainfall is insufficient for effective leaching
forest, the biomass is relatively low because and the cli1nate is conducive to both chemical
the coniferous trees form only one layer, 11.ave and physical weatl1ering which release furthe1·
little underg.rowth, contai11 a limited variety nt1trients from the parent rock. The presence of
of species, and have needle-like leaves. The bacteria also speeds up the return of nut1·ients
soil co11tains few nutrients becat1se, following from the litter to the soil. These fcl.ctors l1elp to
their loss throt1gh leaching and as surface account for the high fertility potential of the
runoff (after snowmelt when tl1e ground is black cher11ozem soils associa.ted witl1 tem­
still frozen), replacement is slow: the low perate grasslands (pages 327 and 340).
te111peratures restrict the rate of chernical
• • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • •
• • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . •
.. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . <! • • • • •

300 Biogeography
 a taiga (northern coniferous forest)
Figure 11.29
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ' .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . ..... ... ... . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .
,

Mineral nutrient cycles in three different B

environments (after Gersmehl)

B biomass L litter S soil L

•
compartments (circle size
proportional to amount
stored)

nutrient transfers (arrows

are proportional to
amount of flow)

b steppe and prairie (mid-latitude continental grassland) c selvas (tropical rainforest)

B
"

3 Selvas (Figure l 1.29c) Tl1e tropical rainfor- or surface n111off. The leaf litter content rapidly
ests l1ave, of all the 111ajor envirorunents, tl1e decomposes dtte to tl1e high temperatures and
higl1est rates of tra:11sfer - a11 annual ra.te ten heavy rainfall. Tl1e rainforests are characterised
times greater than that of tl1e taiga. The biomass by 'tight' biogeochen1ical cycling between the
is the largest store of mi11eral nt1trients in tl1e litter and tl1e top layers of the soil in whicl1
tropical 1·ainforests. High annual temperatures, most tropical species are rooted, and the
the he. avy, evenly distributed rainfall and. tl1e biomass. Tl1is 1neans that the soil compo11ent,
year-lo11g growing season all contribute to the and by proxy tl1e bedrock that is ust1ally found
tall, de11se and rapid growth of vegetation. The at some considerable depth (Figt1re 12.10), is
biomass is composed of several layers of plants only a small component in the nutrient cycle.
and cou11tless different species. The ma11y plant I11itially nutrients sucl1 as phosphorus may
•

roots talze tip vast amounts of nutrients. In increas� if the forest is bt1rnt, but deforestation
comparison, the litter store is limited, despite t1sually leads to a. rapid decline in soil fertility
tl1e contint1ous fall of leaves, because the hot,
•
(pages 317-318).
wet c imate provides the ideal environment for Figure 11.30 compares the storage and transfer of
l

bacterial action (both in 11umbers and type) and nt1trients in fo·L11· major bio1nes (i.e. ecosyste1ns 011
the decomposition of dead vegetatio11. In areas a large scale). Reme111ber
: that tl1ese figres
u
refer to
wl1ere the forest is cle�·ed, tl1e l1eavy rain soon 11atural cycles which, in reality, have often been
removes the nt1trients from the soil by leaching inter11-1pted or modified by human a.ctivity.

Figure 11.30 Nutrient storage Annual nutrient transfer

... . ,, .. ... ... . ... ...... . .. . .. .. ...... ..... ... .
Storage and transfer of Ecosystem type Stored in biomass Stored in litter Stored in soil Soil to biomass Biomass to litter Litter to soil
nutrients within selected
biomes Forest cycles A Equatorial rainforest 11 081 178 352' 2 028 1-540 4 480

- Coniferous forest
.-
3 350 2 100
--
142
-·,....... --�..... •
•
178
-- 145
..
86 -
Grassland cycles 8 Tropical savanna 978 300 502 319 312 266

�--
•

- -- 540 370 5 000 422 426 290

-
Temperate prairie/steppe
- - - - - ". _,__,,,., - -
All measurements in kg/ha

. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .

Biogeography 30,1
 .. -----���-,-���--"·��-�-- - �---
�· Places 37 Haller Park, Mombasa, Kenya: creating an ec os ys tem
•
• -·

Most of the eastern coast of Africa is protected by transnational cement company then appointed Dr
coral reefs (Places 80, page 526). Coral, whicl1 live Rene Haller to restore tl1e environment from what
in clear, warm, shallow tropical waters, are small he himself described as 'a lunar landscape filled
organisms that l1ave a calcareous skeleton. For with saline pools' (Figure 11.31).
centuries, coast-dwellers have hacked out blocks After trying 26 different types of tree, Dr Haller
of dead coral to build their houses and mosques. found the key to be the Casuarina tree (Figure
•
In 1954, the Bamburi Portland Cement Company 11.32). This pioneer tree grew by 3 m a year,
built a factory 10 km north of Mombasa, Kenya, flourished in the coral rubble, and was able to
to produce cement, and began the open-cast withstand both the high salinity and the high
•
extraction of coral. Cement was essential to Kenya, °
ground temperatures (up to 40 C). The const�nt
partly to help in the internal development of the fall of the needle-type leaves provided a habitat
country and partly as a vital export earner. By 1971, for red-legged millipedes which, together with the
over 25 million tonnes of coral had been quarried, Casuarina 's ability to 'fix' atmospheric nitrogen,
leaving a sterile wasteland covering 3.5 km2 • On helped with the formation of the first soil and
Figure 11.31 that land there were no plants, no wildlife, no soil:
• w• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • , • • •

provided the base for a new ecosystem. As the

The Bamburi Quarry it was a degraded ecosystem. The Swiss-owned soil began to develop, more trees were planted.
Over the next few years, indigenous herbs, grasses
and tree species, as well as beetles, spiders and
small animals, were introduced into the young
forest, each with its own function (niche) in the
developing ecosystem. The depth of the ponds
and lakes was increased until they reached the
groundwater table so that a freshwater habitat
was created for fish (initially the local tilapia
which are tolerant of saline water), crocodiles and
hippopotami. Hippopotami excrement stimulated
the growth of algae which oxygenated the water,
preventing eutrophication. After only 20 years, the
• •
- soil depth had reached 20 cm and the rainforest,
with over 220 tree species, had become sufficiently
•
restored to be home for over 180 recorded species
,,
•

_ '· ... �, ..._..; .. of bird. The ecosystem was completed with the
- - -
- "'
s.:,�, ..
........... �.,... --···-··'
.. ,...�·
'
"'
introduction of grazing animals (herbivores) such
as the buffalo, oryx, antelope and giraffe. The
re-creation of the rainforest (Figure 11.33) had been
' completed without the use of artificial fertiliser
and insecticides, as Dr Haller considered these to
be incompatible with his concept of a complex,
balanced ecosystem.
The project has not only been an environmental
success, it has also become a sustainable
commercial venture with income derived from, for
example, the sale of timber, bananas, vegetables,
crocodiles and honey. The main source of the
economy is the integrated aquaculture system
(Figure 11.34) with, at its centre, the tilapia fish
farm. The nutrients in the effluent water are used
as fertiliser in the adjacent fruit plantation and for
Figure 11.32 biogas to operate the pumps. From here, the water
is led through a rice field into settlement ponds,
where 'Nile cabbage' is grown for use in clearing
the fish ponds. A crocodile farm is attached to the

. .. . .. . .. .. ...... . ..... . • ... ....... . .. . . ........ .. ... ........ ... ...... ....... ......................... .............. ..
. .
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •. •. .
. ..... ..... . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

302 Biogeography
 Figure 11.33
. . . . ... . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . ...
The re-created rain­ water system, as crocodile waste, which is rich in only are they fed on surplus tilapia, but their eggs
forest ecosystem, phosphate and nitrogen, is a valuable fertiliser. The are eaten by monitor lizards that help to control the
Haller Park crocodiles are part of a planned food chain. Not snake population which in turn controls the rodent
population. Tourism has become a recent source
of income. Haller Park, the name of the restored
area, is open to school p�rties each morning and to
other visitors in the afternoon. In 1992 it received
over 100 000 visitors, making it one of the largest
attractions in the Mombasa area. In brief, the
once-barren quarry is now an ecologically and
economically sound enterprise (Figure 11.35).
Dr Haller also believes that his intensive
aquaculture and agroforestry techniques, geared
to maximum yield of food, fuel and income from
minimum land area and inputs, offer significant
hope for small-scale African farmers who may
be short of fertile land in a continent with an
explosive population growth and which is ravaged
by environmental and human-created disasters.
He suggests that these methods could easily be
adapted by Africans since tl1eir genesis lies in tribal
techniques taught to him by local farmers.

Figure 11.34
. . . . . ......... ' . . . . ... ..... . . . . . . . . . . .. ' .. . . . . . . .. Forest/bush l �_
The Haller Park integrated leaves I
T----.
aquaculture system .--1 Eland
�-=--
1 � Manure Biofilter I � Ferns Mangrove ]+ Conocarpus Duckweed I .i-•
Giraffe

I
-., Buffalo .ii--•
____.t.....__.... -----
I I
-i Waterbuck .�--l �===--:::J- Faecal settlement_.. Biagas-fertiliser -::-==== �I/" Banana
'-::--- �
Grass

•
l �

_. Hippopotamus, i­ •
�

algae, plankton Ni!e cabbage ,

•
Water plants

+
Energy

Fish
- )
i""'-.....-t--ump_ s_
I�
P
mp well 4 � Fresh
-< P u
Aeration I � • ,, water r
I
• •i----+
c
0

Crocodile
Figure 11.35
. . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . '.... ,:::;;;· -.- =::::,
unit ,-_\ PA RV-

•
Water plants
From the Bamburi Quarry
�

Nature Trail leaflet Crocodile

breeder - � Aeration

•
lake Nile cabbage
I
Crocodile, algae •

Biofi lter II Ricefi· eld Tilapia Prawn Catfish· ---------

·,

i=====�==:===..� ve·getables, fruits 1t·-=-====:!I

·----------------�
__ Food (fish __ water
REVENUE and algae) flow
Fish, prawns, crocodile,
rice, vegetables, tourism i=::1 Nutrients -- Revenue

• •
 Biomes rai11fall througl1out the year enables forests to
grow. Tl1ese may be tropical rainforests, where
A bio1ne is a large global ecosyste1n. Eacl1 bio111e tl1e pla11ts neecl a consta11t ancl heavy supply
gets its nan1e fro111 the do1ni11a11t type of veg­ of water, 01· co11iferous forests, where trees can
etation fot111d witl1i11 it (ten11Jerate grassla11d, grow due to the lower rates of evapot1:anspira­
co11iferous forest, etc.). Eacl1 contains cli1nax tion. Many other parts of the world receive
commtrnities of plants a11d a11.itnals ancl ca11 be season.al 1·ainfall. Rainfall is 1no1·e effective,
closel)' linked to zo11al soil tY]?es a11d animal com- as in places with a Mediterranean climate,
1nunities. Cli1nate 11as ust1ally been tl1e n1ajor when it falls in winter rather than in summer,
controlling factor in the location and distribt1tion as this coi11cides witl1 the time of year when
of bion1es, bt1t eco11omic development has trans­ evapotranspiratio.n rates are at th.ei1· lowest.
for1ned n1a11y of tl1ese nahrral systems. A bio1ne I-Iowever, as Mediterranean areas receive little
ca·n exte11d across a large pa1t of a conti11ent wl1ile st1.m1ner rainfall, trees and shrubs growi11g
its cl1aracteristics 1na·y be found in several conti­ tl1ere have to be xe1·opl1ytic (drought­
·nents (deserts and tropical rai11forests). Althot1gl1 resistant) in order to survive. Rain is less
son1e aL1thorities suggest that it is 'old-fashioned' effective whe11 it falls i11 the st1mn1er because
to link together cli1nate, vegetatio11 and soils in mt1ch of the moisttire is lost throL1gh st1rface
a 'natural 1·egion', tl1e co11cept is still useft1l and 1·u11.off and evapotranspiration. Effective
convenient as a framework of stt1dy a11d as a valid precipitation is i11st1fficie11t for trees, and so
hypotl1esis for i11vestigation. Fot1r 1nain factors savanna grasses grow in tropical latittides and
- cli1natic, topograJJhic, edapl1ic a11cl biotic - • prairie grasses in 111ore ten1perate areas. Places
• interrelate to prodt1ce a11d control eacl1 biome. where rainfall is Iin1ited throt1ghout tl1e year
1 Climatic factors l1ave either a desert biome, where ephem­
• Precipitation largely determi11es tl1e vegeta­ erals (plants witl1 very short life-cycles, Figt1re
tio11 type, e.g. forest, grassland or desert. The 12.19) dominate the vegetation, or a tund1·a
annual amot1n. t of ]Jrecipitation is ustially less biome, where precipitatio11 fa.lling as s11ow
i1nportant than its effectiveness for and tl1e low temperatures combine to dis­
plant growth - for exa1n1Jle: How long is any courage plant growtl1.
dry season? Does tl1e area receive steady, IJ Te1n1Je1·ature l1as a majo1· int1t1ence on the
be11eficial rain or sl1ort, l1eavy a11d destruc­ flora - i.e. wl1ether the forest is tro1Jical or
tive downpot1rs? Is rainfall co11centrated in co11iferot1s, or the grassland is te1nperate
sum1ner when evapotranspiration rates are (prairie) or tropical (sa.van11a). Where mean
°
Figure 11.36 higl1er? Is the rainfall reliable? Does most rain monthly ternperatures remain above 21 C for
. . . . . . . ................................... the year a.nd there is a continuous growing
Wind-distorted tree, fall during the growing seaso11? Is there suf­
ficient 1noish1re for photosynthesis? Heavy �nd rainy seaso11, broad-leaved evergreen
Mauritius •

trees te11d to domi11ate (tropical rainforests).

• Places where there is a resting period in tree
growth, eitl1er in hot cli111ates with a dry
seaso11 or cool clin1ates with a sl1ort growing
season, are more likely to l1ave coniferotis
trees as their dominant vegetation� Gr·asses,
which i11clude rr:iost cereals, need a minimt11n
°
.111ean monthly te111perature of 6 C in order
to grow. Many plants prefer te111pera.tt11·es
between 10° C, whicl1 is the 1ninimum for
°
effective photosynthesis, a11d 35 C. The
l1igl1er the temperature, the sooner wilting
point will be reached a11d tl1e greater the need
for water to co1nbat losses tl1rough evapo­
transpiration. Tl1e lower tl1e te1nperatu1·e, the
fewer the n11mber of soil organisms and tl1e
slower the breakdown of humus and recy­
cling of nutrie11ts needed for plant growth
(Figtire 12. 7).
•

. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . .

30·4 Biogeog·raphy
•
 •

Aspect: south-east
Latitude: 55° 38'N o Aspect (the di1·ection in wl1ich a slope faces)
l
Goatfell 874 m
affects sunJig 1t, temperatt1res and moisture.
South-faci11g slopes in the northern h.emi­
800 ---1--v,
mosses a n d As altitude increas.es tl,ere is a:
s1Jl1ere are more favot1rable to plant growth
lichens • decrease i n numb er of species tl1an those faci11g :north because they are
• decrease i n height of plants brighter, warmer a11d drier (l1laces 28,
700 �- ---=-
b il b erry,mosses • decrease i n de n sity of pla n ts
a n d liche n s • decrease i n growth rate of pla nts
page 213).
b ell heather, tussock a nd le n gth of growi n g seaso n 3 Edaphic (soil) factors
grass,cushio n pla nts , • decrease i n b iomass.
....____ ____ ______,__
li�l-lPn< and mosses
__j
In Britain, tl1ere is considerable local variation
Note: Based only on altitude:'otl,er
• -::. � l i11 vegetation d·L1e to differences in soil and unde1· ­
local factors which affect vegetation lyi11g parent rock, e.g. grass 011 chalk, conifers on
cotton grass have bee n excluded, e.g. geology,
drai nage,angle of slope, aspect,
sa11d, and clecid·uous trees 011. clay. Plant growth is
a n d sedges
. ,

depth of soil and soil acidity.

affectecl by soil textt1re, structure, acidity, organic
400
,

on steep slopes; b racke n

con.tent, deptl1, water and. oxyge11 content, and
·-
heather a n d Spl1agnum
nutrients (Chapter 10).
moss o n flatter areas
4 Biotic factors
small trees a n d shrubs, alder,
300J_��=��;=:.�-:-��
birch a nd mountai n ash; bog
Biotic factors include the ele1nent of competition:
my� �rt�le�,b�r�ack� e� �n----
JL_____ = =
between pla11ts for light , root space and wate1·,
• 200 �coniferous a11cl between ani1nals. Competition increases
pla ntation - 1 with density of vegetation. Nat11ral selection
1001------� :,�oak� �,as= h: ,� b�irc= h= �
--------
-- is an important biotic factor. 'I'l1e compositio11
deciduous woodla.n d 2 rhododendron s
of seral communities a11d the degree of reli-
•
i n three layers: 3 brambles,flowers, grass ance upon other pla11ts and anim.als eitl1er for
O -L------------------------" food (parasites) or energy (heterot rophs feeding
on autotrophs) are also biotic factors. Today,
e1 Light i11te11sity affects the process of phot o­
Figure 11.3 7
there are ve1·y few areas of climax vegetatio11 or
............... ....... . ...... . .... . . .. .............. biomes lef t iJ1 the world, as most have eitl1er
The effect of altitude on sy11tl1esis. Tropical ecosystems, 1�eceiving
been altered by human activity or even e11tirely
vegetation, Goatfell, Arran n1ost incoming radiation, l1ave higher e11ergy
replaced 'by hun1an-created environments. Tl1e
inpttts tl1a11 do ecosystems nearer to tl1e
landscape has been altered by subsid.ence from
poles. Where tl1e a1nou11t of light d.ecreases,
n1ining, urba11isation, the constructio11 of reser­
as on th.e floor of the tropical rainforests or
voirs ar1d roads, exhaustion of soils, deforesta­
witl1 i11creasing depth in the oceans, plant life
tion and affores ta tion, fires, the clearing of la11d
decreases. Quality of light also affects plant "'
for farming, and the effec ts of to11rism. l he
growth, e.g. the increase in ultra-violet ligh.t
ecological balance has been upset by the use of
on mountains reduces the nt1mber of species
fer t iliser and pesticides, the grazing of dornestic
found there.
animals, a11d acid rain.
II Winds increase tl1e 1·ate of evapotranspiration •
and the wind-chill factor. Trees are liable to
The spatial pattern of world biomes
'bend' if exposed to strong, prevaili11g winds
• Figt1re 11.38 shows tl1e distribution of tl1e wo1·ld's
(Figt1re 11.36).
major biomes. Wl1en looking at maps of b�o1nes
2 Topographic factors in an atlas (they 11sually come u11der the l1eading
a As altitude increases, there are fewer species; 'Vegetation'), remember that all vegetation 1naps
t hey grow less tall; and t l1ey provide a less are very generalised (Frarnework 11, page 347).
dense cover (Figures 11.37 and 16.4b). l�elief Vegetation maps do not show local variations,
• n1ay provide protection against heavy rain 'transition zo11es or, except in extreme cases, tl1e
(rainshadow) and wind. inflt1ence of relief. Nor is there any u.niversal con­
• S-lope angle influe11ces soil dep th, acidity sensus amo11g geographers and biogeographers
(pH) and d1·ainage. Steeper slopes ust1ally as to tl1e precise nt11nber of bion1es. Bradshaw
have thinner s. oils, are less waterlogged and has sug. gested 16 land bio1nes and 5 1narine;
less acidic than gen tler slopes (soil catena, Simmons describes 13 (11 land bio1nes plus
page 276). islan.ds and. seas); O'Iiare accepts 11; while Go11die
(in com1non witl1 1nost exami11a tion syllabt1ses)
restricts his list, as does this text, to 8 lan
. d biomes.

················ ······ ·· ·········· ··· ········ ···· ·· ·· ··· • • • • .. • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • !' • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • ••••• • • • • • . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
Biogeography 3:05
 Figure 11.38
... ..........•......... ····· ............ .

World biomes

D tundra

� taiga (coniferous forest)

D temperate deciduous forest Tropic of

Cancer
�------ ­
D temperate grassland .. o::> ..

D hardwood (Mediterranean)
chaparral and/or evergreen Equator

D desert
,.��
'
I.. -·····- �
tropical rainforest ------ ----- - - ----------
Tropic of Capricorn
_f}________ -'-----

D
./
savanna grassland

D other biomes (ice, mountains,

monsoon forest, semi-arid)

Tl1e eight 1najor bio1nes, as shown in the u11derstanding that it is climate that
Figure 11.38, can be determined using a variety exerts the 1najor influence and control over·
of criteria; two examples are discussed below and both vegetation and soils. The interactions
sum1narised in Figt1re 11.39. between climate, soils and vegetation are
1 Tl1e traditional method This links the described and explained in Chapter 12.
Figure 11.40 type and global distribution of vegetation 2 The modern metl1od This is based upon
.... ... . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . ... . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
·• ; ,

Net primary production (NPP) with that of the major world cli1natic types differentiating between relative rates of
of eight major biomes and zonal soils. This method was based 011 producing organic matter - i.e. the speed at
wl1ich vegetation grows. The rate at which
2500 organic 1natter is produced is known as the
2200
net primary production or NPP, expressed
-
� 2000 in grams of dry organic matter per squ.are
c: metre per year (g/m2/yr). As shown in Figure
·e:::, N'� 1soo
0
11.40, it is the tropical r·ainforests, with their
1200
...a. ......E
] large bio1nass resulting from constant h . igh
Ol
-� - 1000 900
800 temperatures, heavy r·ainfall and ·year-round
'
700
·-E
a. 500 t-:
..
�.
.. ,
• �\'t->"_,: ·
.'.. .. ...;,,..
-. -
.
600 growing seaso11, that produce on average the
c
greatest amount of organic matter annt1ally.
140 90
L.....J
!"'. ..:
The tundra (too cold) and the deserts (too
0
dry) produce the least. It may be noted that
the average NPP for arable land is 650, lakes
and rivers 400 and oceans 125.
•

• •

1 Traditional method 2 Modern method

(vegetation, climate and soils subjectively linked) (scientifically based on net primary production)
• Trop·ical 1 Rainforests High energy 1 Rainforests
2 Tropical grasslands 2 Deciduous forest
3 Deserts Average energy 3 Tropical grasslands
Warm temperate 4 Mediterranean 4 Coniferous forest
�==�·
Clool temperate 5 Deciduous ·forest 5 Mediterranean
·- •

Figure 11.39
•
6 Temperate grasslands 6 Temperate grasslands
··�··············· ....................... ...... . �

Low energy 7
,

Two methods of clarifying Cold 7 Coniferous forest Tundra

the major biomes (after 8 Tundra 8 Deserts
I. Simmonds)
...... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .
306 Biogeography
 Figure 11.41
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

South-western Australia
The situation before 2000 Agricultural clearing PR�SSU� ON THE FOREST Mining
Up to 500 m to allow
Western Australia is ten tin,es the size of the sheep rearing;
Bauxite, gold, tin and tantalite;
800 ha forest lost each year;
Western
UK, and about 2 per cent of the state was wheat grown on well-drained little rehabilitation.
soils to east of forest area; Australia
forested before white settlement began forest now half extent of 165
years ago. . Dieback
in 1829. The forested area stretches from •
.'\
Soil-borne fungal disease
Gingin, 75 km north of Perth, to Walpole, Settlement Phytophthora cinnamomi
N affects 14o/o of forests
400 km to the south (Figure 11.41). The Sn1all towns expanding;
D jarrah
spreading because of winter
most densely populated area of
logging and other human
Darling and Stirling ranges form the edge state outside Perth; i�
disturbance.
infrastructure damages forest.
of the Darling Plateau and consist mainly of
Prescribed burning
ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks. A Commercial logging
Frequent burns in spring reduce
280000 m3 p.a. sawn timber for
number of river valleys cut into the plateau building;
flora species and damage food
supply for breeding birds;
edge. These have broad, flat valley Aoors. timber for woodchips;
originally tised waste offcuts
(
SO km
jarrah forest not adapted to
short intervals between burns.
East of the plateau the old river valleys and damaged timber;
150000 tonnes jarrah sent to
(now largely dry) are very broad and flat. At Kemerton for charcoal in silicon
Pest Infestations
Jarrah leaf miner, gumleaf
the western edge of the scarp, the drainage manufacture;
clear felling now extensive; skeletoniser, affects 62000 ha;
has been rejuvenated and recaptured by greatest pressures in the south, 115°£ thinning forest canopy
(logging and spring burning)
but jarrah forest ecosystem
newer fast-flowing streams. under threat. stimulates young foliage,
attracts pests.
The Blackwood River is an exception.
Deforestation
It has maintained enough flow to con­ Leading to soil erosion, higher
Loss of habitat
Affects flora and fauna;
tinue erosion of its bed as the plateau was water table and salinisation.
rainfall decreases 26 species of plants and animals in
uplifted. Therefore it has an old meandering Quarrying !""-- Darling Plateau
jarrah forests lost or In need of
protection;
course within whicl1 is a new cross­ Limestone, sand, gravel. �/ '·, � . __
__,_ - - 5 fauna species extinct in karri
forests.
sectional V-shaped profile.
The climate of tl1is region is Since the coming of the white settlers
Mediterranean in type, with most rainfall in 1829, half the tall forest cover has been
in winter from May to October (700 mm); removed (nearly 2 million ha). Much of the
rainfall is highest (1100 mm) on the western early clearance was for agriculture, with
edge of the plateau and decreases rapidly pastures of clover and grasses for sheep
to the east. Temperatures are high in the and cattle replacing the 500-year-old trees.
°
summer (18-27 () and lower in the winter Although the timber provided a valuable
° secondary source of income for the farmers,
(7-15 (). Snow has been known to fall in
the Stirling Range! they were never able to sell it for themselves
These conditions allowed the develop­ at a commercial rate. Instead, the state sold
ment of high forests, unique to Western it for'royalty'to timber industry firms as the
Australia, of hardwood trees: varieties of commercial value of the tall forests was
eucalyptus known as karri, jarrah and marri. realised.
Jarrah forest is tl,e only tall forest in the world
to grow in a truly Mediterranean type.
The great karri trees, which grow to over
The situation in 2000
80 min height, are found in the south-west In 2000, the Western Australian govern­
where the soils have a higher moisture ment controlled 1260 ha of native trees in
content and are more fertile (Figure 11.17). so-called 'State Forests: The Department
The quality of tl1e forest deteriorates to the of Environment and Conservation (DEC)
east, with a variety of eucalypts reAecting claimed that there was 139 000 ha of'old
lower rainfall. The jarrah forest is more exten­ growth'forest left (unlogged virgin forest)
sive and has a very high species diversity and 1 120 000 ha of'regrowth'forest (areas
(Figure 11.42).The forests provide important that had been logged in the last 100 years).
wild-life habitats for birds and animals - over Despite opposition from conservation
SO species live in the hollows of the trees. groups, including the Western Australian

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. ..
. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
Biogeography 307
 The forests of south- w e s t A u s t r a li a
11 . Case. Study
que wild spe cies of
sts, with t h eir uni
of fore d the
s and flo ra, raise
l ma m ma ls, bird
. · smal wer e raised
tain ab ility. Fe ars
que stio n of sus
sen t rat e of defo resta­
at, at the the n pre
th have
wth ' f ore st wo uld
tion, all t h e 'o l d gro
pea red b y 2 03 0.
disap for
resp onsi bility
DEC no w h as tot al
T he areas
en era tio n of felle d
ogg ing and reg
the l
i nvites
ests (Fig ure 11.44 ). It
with in Stat e For
ffiREPLACABLE FORESTS TO BE many interim-listed forests, mainly to and h auli ng a nd t h en
CLEAR FELLED FOR WOODCIDPS tenders for cutting c hip­
procluce export woodchips. Some of the
saw m iller s and wood
selling t he logs to
. listed areas are already being tern Austr alian
Tl1e Australian 1-Ieritaoe Con1m·ISSIOll
The chief market for Wes
· o
(A.HC) officially includes 40 areas of
clear-felled, roaded and burnt \Vith the pers . million
c e 1976 ove r 15
:'A'� \VOrlcl-unique native forests on the
full knowledge of the A}JC and tl1e timber is Japan. Sin wood ­
n exp ort ed as
Federal government. nes of karr i have bee
tnle�1m list of tJ1e Registers of the ton
e por t of Su nbur y.
National Estate, the highest national In addition, there is supJ)OSed to be a c hip through t h
clear
111oratoriun1 on logging in alJ of rem oval is by
re�og�ition of tl1e ecological, aesthetic, The main meth od
sc1ent1ftc or cultural value of ,'tn ttrea. high-conservation value forests. No\v An area of land is
Once an area has been interin1-listcd, it is that at least so,nc of the best of W.A...'s felling (Figure 11.45). es.
refe rred to as coup
co1�si(lerecl to be on tl1e Register and rcn1aining native forests have been oiven divided into sections sts
m 60 l,a in karri fore
entitled to protection. The 1=ecleral official recognition, each of ;hese Coupes vary in size fro
jarra . l n clea r fellin g,
down to 1O ha in t he
agencies n1ust back up their h
i\tli11istcr for the environ,ncnt is legally
bouncl Lo {Jrevent logging in these areas sclf-congratulntions with action. coup e is f e lled and the
every tree in t h e
until an exan1ination J1as shovvn that t. M ost coup es are
:he only action they can reasonably take logg ed area is then burn
tl1ere are no 'prudent and feasible is to stop all roading and logging in WA's fore sts, areas not
in t h e'old growt h ' nativ e
alternative log sources·. heritage forests in1111ediately. s h ave
e d , w e re t h e t r e e
previously touch h
Jn spite of tl1is protection, the ig t. E a c h of t h e
Figure 11.43
reac hed th eir g re a t e s t h e h
OejJUrtn,ent of E11viron111ent and
Conservation (DEC) JJlans to clear-fell ·ay th� w��t�· � �-A��t;�1i��- F�r� � n
Aui�· ·
c �,·r�rth.(Ad�pt�d) ·· felled giant ka rri n e e d s a d o u b le
o
tr
f
a
t
il e
e
r
s
to
e c a n
n d o ft n 1 2 h
take it to Sunbury, a
e

in ro a d to th p o rt e v e ry
be seen on t h e ma
e

D E C re g e n e ra ti o n p ro g ra m me
-r e a rin g hour.The
e n t in a s h e e p
o b a l Warming
source of employm involves th e han d -p la n ti n g o f k a rr i s eed s
Forest Alliance a n d t h e G l
d b y th e low world
region adversely affe cte k ly t a n ja rr a h . T h is
n u a c u t l, a d in c re as e d s as they grow m o re q u ic h
Forest Group, th e a n l
a m e ti m e , t e sta te w a
price for wool. At the s
h
w in g c o n c e rn o v er w h at
3 with th e large timber is l eading to a g ro
to over 1 500 000 m s try , a fo rm o f p lanta-
e r to p roduce encouraging agrofore appears to b e a d e li b e ra te p h a si n g o u t o f
companies using t h e tim b 482).
tion a griculture (p a g e s in d ro u g h t ye ars,
n d p o es. he re sid u e tl,e jarra h , e sp e c ia ll y a
woodchips, saw-logs a g
T y in
l
n se rv a tio n is ts w e re tr
b e us e d a s Meanwhile, co w h ic h are incre a si n g in fr e q u e n c y , t h e k a rr i is
e q u a n titi es to g in th e
was sent in larg to stop t he rap id in c re a s e in l o g g in
s m e te r. tim b e r m ills l oss t he less likely to survive.
charcoal in a silicon f
T h e te o
l
1 1 . ). ra
virgin forests (Figure 4 3 T h e
0 0 0 p eo p le, a n im p o rt a n t
provided work for 2 tive forest c Unlogged native forest
b Publicly-owned na
(old growth)
a Native forest
0.5 m ha unlogged Figure 11.4. ..4. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . ··· ··· ·
Publicly-owned .. . . . .. . . . ....... ...
2.6m ha native forest logged The status of native forest in
1.6m ha south-west Australia, 2000

50% 0.48m ha

0.32m ha 0.16m ha
10°/o - )
- )
0.5 m ha
•

D
2 9
p e rm a n e n tl y lo s t s in c e 1 8 _
..
i;�
,, :
....,.. unlogged in conservation
..,
·,,,
..-- ...
·
reserves (protected)
i;..._...,:.,
'q,�"'I·; .� _
)' •
••,

on unprotected private land Publicly-owned

native forest unlogged in State Forest
•
Publicly- 0 in c o n s e rv a ti o n re s e rv e s (unprotected - will be logged)
owned te c te d S ta te F o re s ts
in u n p ro
native • •• ••• •••• • •••
• •
•
•
•• ••••••••
• ••• ••• ••• • • • •
• • • • • •
forest • •
•••••••••••••••
• •
• • • • • • • • ••
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• ••••••••••••••••• •
• •••••
••••••• ••••• •••
•
•••••••• • •• ••••• •

• ••••••••••••••••

3 08 Biogeography
 The forests of south-west Australia ,·Case Stu.dy ,__11

Jarrah timber is corrimercially valuable for the cl1uditch, which is a marsupial, and the for increased protection of forest values,
its dark-red colour, hardness and durability. Western ring-tailed possum . improved forest management and, coming
However, it grows far more slowly, and is into being later that year, 29 National Parks
less i11 demand, thari karri - hence the diffi­ Sa/inisation of streams and otl,er conservation reserves ancl forest
culty in n1aintaining sustainable production areas. At the same. time, landowners were
This, resulting from the loss of the forest
- even though the state government has encouraged to practise agroforestry by
canopy, has become a serious problem
restricted extraction to 500 000 m 3 per year. planting fast-growing trees on agricultural
in tl1e region (page 496). Salts, previously
Marri, the tl1ird type of eucalyptLJS growing land in belts separated by grass pasture
trapped by the laterite soils (page 321 ),
inWestern Australia, tends to be found usable for sheep grazing. This was to use up
can be transported relatively easily by
within tl,e jarrah forest and, like tl1e karri, its surplus fertiliser in the soil and to reduce
the increase in groundwater which itself
main use is for woodchip. nitrates flowing into streams.
becomes more saline. In time tl1is water
finds its way i11to streams and, eventually, Altl1ough deforestatio11 i11 Western Australia
Effects of deforestation tl1e main watercourses. may 11ot be on the scale of tl1at in the Amazon
rainforest or Indonesia, to the people living
Visual and physical degradation of Eutrophication in tl1e south-west corner of the state it is just
the landscape As forest land is cleared for agricLiitLire, the as damagi11g. To some people deforestation
This is especially bad in clear-felled areas. nitrates used in fertilisers are also transferred means the destruction of a no11-replaceable
Where the land is steep, tree removal by groundwater to rivers (page 281 and Figure ecosystem and a loss for future generations. To
means there is no canopy to intercept 16.50). Tl1e nitrates enricl1 plant life which uses otl1ers logging means employment in an area
l1eavier rainfall, nor roots to hold the soil up more oxygen.This leaves less for fish and with relatively few Job opportunities. It is easy
together.This results in an increase in other water-inl,abiting organisms. to become emotive on a topic SL1ch as this,
surface runoff and consequent problems especially if the question is oversimplified to
of soil erosion, the sedimentation of rivers The situation since 2000 'Which is the n1ore important - jobs provided
and a greater risk of flooding (page 63). I11 early 2001, the state government ended by the production of paper or tl,e protection
Ar1y nutrients in the soil, including those logging in all the 'old growtl1'forests in tl,e of trees ancl wildlife?'lt revives a question long
released by burning the cleared forest, will care of the Conservation Commission of asked in Geography of which is the more
be lost due to leacl1ing. Western Australia and began, under the important: ecor1omic gain or environmental
Loss of native flora and fauna DEC, a process of creating the conservation loss? At present the answer appears to lie in
Tl,e south-west ofWestern Australia is parks and the 12 National Parks proposed the prospect of'sustai11able development'
ii, its 'Protecting our old growth forests' (Framework 16, page 499).
noted for its wildflowers, typical of other
policy. A major capital works programme Figure 11.46 describes the viewpoints
regio11s with a Mediterranea11-type climate
was established to upgrade visitor facilities, given in 2008 by, on one hand, the state gov­
(page 32Ll·). These are threatened, as are
and to encourage tourism and leisL1re along ernment and representatives of the timber
birds and small animals tl1at at present rely
with nature conservatior1. workers and, on the other, conservation
011 the groundcover of the forest. In total,
The Forest Manageme11t Plan 2004-13 groL1ps.
27 native species are listed as rare, includir1g
came into effect in 2004. This provided

,
(tj.�
.. . ,,. ...

Figure 11.45
....... , .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . �
'• .
Clear felling of karri,
near Bridgetown

. .. .. . . . . . . . . ...... .... . .. ... .. . . .... ...... .. ...... ... .. ............ .. .................. ... ...
. . . . . . .. .. ... . .. ... .. .. . .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. .. ..
.

.
... ... .. .......... .. ... . ' ...... ... .. . ... . .. . .. ... ... ...... ...... . . . .. ..
Biogeography 309
 •

The forests of south-west Australia

•
.,
. ' ( ,. '

Tl1e Global Wa1·111ing Fo1·est Grou11

clain1ed that tl1e logging of a 62 ,n tall,
500-y ear-old kan·i tree 11ear Pe1nberto11 /
showed tl1at tl1e old gro\vth protection policy
was a sl1a1n a11d tl1at tl1ey, ru1d otl1er
enviro111ne11tal groups, l1acl been
double-crossed on defu1itio11s as, accordi11g
�o present gove1runent policy, a single stt1n11)
1n a hectare of virgi11 forest disqL1alifies it as
'old growth' . To tl1e111, forests co11 taini11g
huge ce11tt1ries-old trees have a lu oh �

conservatio11 valt,e a11d it is abst1rd t11at these

old trees should be logged before they clie
and fall 11att1rally. St1ch trees are more
valt1able as wildlife l1abitats than as
woodchip or sawdt1st, wl1icl1 is the e11d
'•
prodt1ct of 1nost harvested timber.
.
Tl1e Fo1�est Industries Federatio11 stated
tl1at it l1acl e11sured tl1 at 1.2 nullion l1a ot' 'old
growtl1' forest was now total1y protected by
state law i11 tl1e sot1tl1-\vest co1·11er of Weste111
Australia. However, it also said tl1at tl1ere
was never a comn1itment to l)rotect
inclividt1al trees, but rather to conserve areas
as a wl1ole. Ad1nittedly, tl1ere were still old
kan·i trees tl1at l1 ad not been logged in )

'regrowth forests' \Vl1icl1 n1ight in tin1e migl1t

11ave to be felled, bt1t these were outside 'old
growth l)rotection areas'. The federation also
said that over a doze11 karri trees, botl1 bigger
i11 dian1eter and. taller i11 heigl1 t tl1.an tl1e
<,.;;

felled Pe 111berton tree, were ur1der

protectio11, i11clt1ding one gro\ving near '

ManjiJnup (Figtrre l 1 .41) wluch was 6l 1n.

tall and l1ad a diai11eter of 291 cm - 26 cn1
greater tl1ru1 that of tl1 e Pe1nberton tree .
.
Austwest, the biggest karri 1niller i11 th.e
stale, said it was rare to receive timber
fron1 trees tl1e size of t1 1 e one 11 ear
Pe1riberton. W he11 it did, it was put to t11e Figure 11.46
n1ost valt1able use which was tisually for ................... .. ................... .... ...........................
' Adapted from material on the official
flooring or staircases (Figure 11.47).
·� ' ' ' .. ,,. . ' . . Serengetiwebsite (www.serengeti.org)

Bradbury, I.K. (1998) Tl1e Biosphere, O'Hare, G. (1988) Soils, Vegetatio11 and the National Associatio11 of Forest
Wi.leyBlackwell. EcosJ1ste1n, Oliver & Boyd. Inclustries (Australia):
www·.nafi.co1n.au
Brown, J.H., Riddle, B.R. and. Lo1nolino, � Biosphere basics:
1v1.V. (2005) Biogeography, Sina.uer www.geograpl1y4 kids.com Radforcl University Virttial Geography
Associates Inc. Bridgetown-Greenbushes Friends of the Depa1·tment's 'Biome':
Forest: www.ru11et.edu/-swoodwar/CLASSES/
Huggett, R.J. (2004) Ftt11da1nentals of GEOG235/biomes/n1ain.html#tabcont
Biogeography, Routledge. http://members.westnet.co1n.a11/bgff/
Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies: Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS),
MacDonald, G. (2003) Biogeography: 'Understa11ding biodiversity':
Introduction to Space, Time and Life, www.ecostttdies.org/
\Vww.ucs11sa.org/ - t1se searcl1 01Jtion
Wiley. In.ter11ational Biogeography Society:
www.biogeography.org/

. . .. . . . ..
. ..... .. . . . . . . ... . . . ....
. . " ....... . ...
. .. . . .... ......... . ...
.. . . .. ...... . . ... .. . . .. . .. . .. . . ...... ... . .... . . ... ....... . .. ..... ..................... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

310 Biogeography
 •

•••
'
••• Figure 11.48
---------------------- ------------- .....
J
.... , , ........ ,.................
--.....•, , KENYA
Location of the
Lake ' ,,
..... .. ...', Serengeti
Victoria
'
·,,'•
�':::,
Musoma '°"'-- Nairobi
', ··-...
r--J •
,,•',
""',,
Types and severity of threats
,,
,,
,,',
',
0 While Maasai pastoralists occupy the
..............
•,.
',
',
NCA, there are no people living within the
..... ......,,
'
',• SNP. However, the western frontier of this
',
.. ..
..... ............. park has a dense population, growing at
.... ........

i···- �
TANZANIA Mt ·-...'• 4 per cent a year. Livestock numbers are
Kilimanjaro increasing, and much of the area is being
5895 m ":
International boundary converted into cropland. Agriculture is the
0 ,,,-•
National capital
Arusha \ ....• main source of income, but many people
Lake
Serengeti National Park '
,, have been attracted to the area by the wild­
Manyara ',,
Maasai Mara National Park Eyasi ........ �.. '
•,
life resources and tourism opportunities
.-.-. •, '
...,__. Ngorongoro Conservation Area that tl1e park presents.
'•

Many animals within the SNP are killed

Before starting this exercise, read pages Kenya each year. Many associated preda­ by poachers, who may be local people
319-321,Tropical grasslands, and pages tors are also involved in these movements. hunting 'bush meat'for subsistence, organ­
335-338,Tropical grasslands in Kenya. By the onset of the dry season (late May), ised commercial hunters taking meat
Serengeti National Park's website is at: the grasses on the plains have either dried for sale in the cities, or Big Game hunters
www.serengeti.org out or been eaten down to stubble, and taking part in organised illegal safaris.
The Serengeti Shall Not Die area is useful water is scarce. This triggers the massive However, it is hoped that schemes to
for this exercise. migration from the plains northwards. give local communities legal rights to.
Then, at the start of the wet season, the manage the wildlife around their villages.
The Serengeti grasslands animals complete the cycle, and return to will reduce the worst excesses of the
the plains. hunting. There are also plans to channel
The Serengeti grasslands lie just soutl, of
Fires, usually set by humans, are an more money earned from tourist activities
the Tanzanian/Kenyan border, between within the· park back into the community
° °
2 and 4 South (Figure 11.48). Mean important dfsturbance in this eco-region.
° ° The burning helps provide accessible as, so far, the contribution from tour.ism to
maximum temperatures are 24 to 27 C, the local economy has been relatively low.
and mean minimum temperatures 15 ° pasture for the herds of cattle that are kept
to 21 °(. Mean annual rainfall varies from here but other species, including wilde­
beest, also favour grazing on the green Are the Serengeti grasslands
1050 mm in the north-west to 550 mm
in tl1e south-east. Rainfall peaks in March
flush that emerges after burning. natural?
to May, and November to December The Serengeti changed from a grassland
(compare Figure 12.49).
Current status state to woodland twice in the last century.
The soils are formed from volcanic Much of the eco-region occurs within The few old, large trees dotting the land­
ash.The eco-region consists of slightly protected areas, most of which are joined scape started life about 1900, followed by a
undulating grassy plains, interrupted by iilto a continuous block. The protected area slow decline in numbers due to elephants,
'
includes Serengeti National Park (SNP) and fire, disease, and natural thinning, leaving
scattered rocky areas (kopjes) which are
Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), both the few that we see today. The second group
parts of the Precambrian basement rocks
of which are World Heritage Sites (page of smaller trees established themselves·
protruding through the ash layers.
596). This area is probably large enough to between 1976 and 1983, and these trees
ensure the survival of the habitat and its are still growing i� ab.undance. Both groups
Biodiversity features were able to grow because for two periods
biodiversity.There has been little loss of
The Serengeti grasslands are vital to the habitat within the protected areas, excep� there were neither elephants nor fires.
cyclical movement of millions of large for small areas used for tourist hotels. Rinderpest, a cattle disease, came to East
mammals. Pop u la ti o n s A u ct u at e, b u t ab o u t
Outside the protected areas, however, there Africa in about 1896. Most of the Serengeti
1.3 million blue wildebeest, 200 000 plains has been a rapid expansion of human set­ wildebeest died in a few years, as did the
zebra, and 400 OOOThomson's gazelle tlement and agriculture .in recent years. cattle herds. There was famine, followed by
so u th.ern ... ..... .... . . . ... . . .. . .. . .
.. . ... .. . . . . . .
m ig ra te between.Serengeti an . d .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .
... . . . . .. . .. .... .. . . . . . . ' .. ... . . .. .. .. .. . . .
.
. .
. . . ..
.
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
. . .. . . .. . ... .. . ' .. . . .. . . . .. .

Biogeography 311
 figure 11.49.. . . . . .
... . . . . .
of h e S e r e ng eti Information from
Manag em e nt t
ues A n aly sis the Serengeti
Iss
website

gir affe, bttffa lo a 1d i111 pa la . Th e po pu lat ion s of tl1e se a11 j1n als
In rece1 1t years l1t11nan population h,lS i11creased. puttiJ1g presstire 011 park bttl also 1

1 to be ab le to stu -vi ve tl1i s po ac hin g vvi tl1o ut an y lon g- ten n cle cli ne
resources. Conflicts arise as wild anirnals dan1age pro1)e1ty ai1d eve11 se en
bttt tJ1e killing is a r11a ru fes tal io1 1 of gr ow i11g a11 tag on is1 n be tw ee n the
threaten life. Illegcll po,1cl1i11g acti,,ities crec1te co11flict In son1e sectio11s
ct1ltivation is 1igl1t 011 tl1e p,u·k border a11d tltis fuels co11flicl as a11jmals i1 111)overish ed vil lag ers a11 d the au tho rit ies of the SN P. Tl 1js co 11f lic t did
destroy the crops on one side or are illegally l1u11ted on the other. not ex ist tw o de ca de s ag o; the re wa s Jan d e11 ou gh for ev ery on e an d
The Sere11geti is a tJri 1ne exa111ple of 110\v r11any natural ecosysle111s eve1y a 1 1in1al. What vve n1ust all face - poachers, tourists, far1ners,
are bei 1 1g eroded by l1u1na 1 1 population effects, i11·especti,,e of legal ists an d p,t sto ral ist s - is tl1e fac t tha t the lan d do es no t go on
co11servatio1t
boundru·ies. Tl1e 01iginal Serengeti-Ngoro 1 1goro 'u11disturbecl' ecosyste,n forever.
(wl1icl1 i11cluded i_11dige 1 1ous l1u11ters with traditiona1 vveapons), set aside JJ1 an effort to hru1nonize tbe pastoraJists wiLh tJ1e wildlit'e i11 the
in the 1950s, has declined ste,1dily. Some 40o/o of tJ1e naturctl ecosystem Sere11ge ti, loc all y acl nii11is ter ed res erv es - W iJd life M an ag e11 1en t Ar ea s -
l1as been lost to far·n1ing and herdiJ1g. Todcty, there are signs tl1at tl'1is loss are 110\v created on tl1e borders of the park, \¥here villagers are given a
,nay be accelerati11g. far greate de r gre e of co 11tr ol ov er tl1e lan d a11 d its res ot1 rce s . In sit ua tio 11s
The Sere11geti is also losi11g species. Tl1t1s. rhi11oceros, 011ce \vl1ere protection of biodiversity is 11ot seen to be of clear economjc
abunda1 1t, l1ave been effectively exte1111inated from tl1e ecosyste111, ru1d ben it to the co1 nn1unity, outside assista11ce 111t1st atten1pt to bring
e f

elepl1ants were redt1ced by 80o/o, both by poacl1ing. Wild dogs went cl1ange by:
extinct i11 tl1e early 90s, due to co11tact with don1estic dogs and infectio11 • increa�ing co1n111unity pride in Ll1eir n,lUtraJ e 1 1vironn1e11t
witl1 diseases like distemper a11d rabies. Unregttlated l1t111ting of large • i1 1creasing tl1e econo1njc benefits of conse1-vatio11, e.g. by fosteri1 1g
predators ir1 areac;; ru·ound Serengeti has had dran1atic i111pacts. ecolourisn1, l1irir1g con1n1t111ity n1er11bers as resource stewards,
Over-hu11ting of n1ale lio11s alters the locaJ aclult sex ratio. dra,.vs 111ales rangers, etc.
out fro1n the park, ai1d thus disrupts popu1atio11s withjn in it. • rel1ab.ilitati11g depleted resot1rce syste111s
Tl1e 1989 worldwide ivory ban aln1osl con1pletely stopped the • increasing t11e co111muniLy's ability to co11trol the use of the resource
poaching of ele1)l1a11ts and their numbers are reco,,e,ing. Ho\vever. n1eat b)' outside interests.
poacl1ing conti11ues. In an average year, local people living aroL1nd tJ1e
park illegally kill abot1t 40,000 animals, 111ai11·1y v.1ildebeest ancl zebra,
an d b urn d urin g
did not dry
the grassIands , . tim . e there was
n. Du rin g thi s
the 'dry seaso ill g l
. ory
,v
u U ps win g in tl, e e a
an enor m o S
ed , h e
figure 11 .so n d lep h a nts r e m o : �
trade. Wit h ftre a e
urs t .
. . .. .. ..
d th emse lv e s ,n a
blis h
�

trees aga1·n est

e
Scenes in the a
y rs ld an d
n w b o ut . 3 0 ea o
These trees ar
e o a . g d ens e
Serengeti
tall ft n f o rmin
rang e f ro m 2 to 5 m o e

thickets. r s f ·
,m p al a
be n l rg e inc ea e o
Tl,ere h a s e a a
mo r
y s e m to b e m uch e
inside the pa rk. Th e e
. the
dl nds th an ,n
c ss ful in the w oo a
suc e
d as t h w ood-
a nd v e inc r ea s e e
grassIands, ha
p st, I e phants
av inc r ea s ed. In tl, e a e
. hment
lands h e
st ablis
h v co ntr oll e d the e
an d fir e a e
nts and
es. ay, b ot h e \ep h a
of ne w tre Tod
Eco l y
ored clo sel y. The Park �;
fire are m onit
fir -br aks t o st p t
Oe p rtm e 1,t bur ns e e �
a
co ndu cts c ool earl y
larg e fire s, and
spread of m oni­
-pr n e area s. It is a ls o
burn s in fir e o
ful\y t se e h ow all
em care
o
toring th e ec o syst
a sp ects interact.
th r w a s n o
.19rat1. on. w·th ' no people e e
A tho ritie s
em n t nal Park u
. ht fires and the Serengeti we. The Ser eng eti N atio
one to I 19 h tr d e ,n m ain aim s :
th s m e tim e , t e a
hav e t wo
un- burnt. At . e a
d n nat ral envi ron me nt
n fir es an o
to con se ve the u
. o ry was at its pea",, . Wit h o 1 r
iv bl t gr ow SNP
o un g tre e s w e r e a e o
of the
el e ph a n ts, y . establishment of trad itio nal way of life of
firs t big 2 to s u p por t the
s h ,n
· th e
and flo ur,· th ew ild e b ee st peo ple who live a r o u n d th � SNP.
h en, gr a d u aII the
the c e n tu ry. T
93 0s man age ment obJe c­
d an d :· y th e1 Dra w u p a list of
ttl r c o v ere of y
an d c a e e
nd gr w t h o f the Pa rk, j u stify ing eac � � ur
rt d to re tu rn, a o
tiv es for _
ele pha nts st a e
expl ainin g how ,nd1 v1dual
o bje ctiv es and
s c as ed. cohe rent
new tr ee e
w ea th e r pa t - es co m bin e to fo r m a
9 76 and 19 84 the o bje ctiv
Betw ee n 1 . hanged. The plan for the area .
d S r ng eti c m an age m e nt
s in a nd a rou n e e
tern m o re spr ea d o ut, so
ain s b c a m e . . . . . . . ......
seasonal r
e . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .
.. .. .. ... .. . . .. .. .
. .. .. ..
. ..... .. .
. . .. . . • • • • • •
. . . .. .. .. . . .. .
• • • • ..
. .. . . .. .. . . • • • • • • • • •
. ... .. . ..
 Activities
••••••••••••••••• ••• •••••••••
••••••••••••••••••••••• • • • • • 0 • • • • • • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

1 a W hat are· : •I herbs 11•• shrubs iii trees?

(3marks) c What is the meaning of the term'biomass'? (2marks)
b What is pla·nt succession7·
(3 marks)
c Ho d h b s ru b s h e lp to prepare the ground so
d What is the role of humans in the food chain? (2marks)
tha7tries n � : ; � t t e �s C02 builds up in the atmosphere, plant growth is
(6marks) increased. Suggest two effects of this on the material
d How wo � Id you carry out a field survey to
discover the cycles. (4marks)
d.1str1'but1on o f plants in the area of a playin .
. g field? (5 marks) f Explain the'greenhouse effect: (4marks)
e What kinds o f plants would you expect to
find on an
abandoned urban railway track? 3 Study Case Study 11 (pages 307-31 O).
Suggest reasons for your answer· a i What is the extent of deforestation in south-west
(4 mars
k)
f Flowers that grow in deciduous woodland are early spring Australia since white settlement started? · (2 marks)
flowers such as bluebell and primrose. Why do these plants ii Identify the proportion of:
_
flower so early 1n the year7·
(4 mars
k) (i) conserved native forest (ii) public ownership of the
2 a Study Figure 11.25 (page 298). forest (iii) forest in danger of being logged. (3 marks)
iii Identify and explain three reasons for deforestation
i Explain the roles played by plants in the carbon cycle. in south-west Australia. (6marks)
(4marks)
b Explain two impacts of deforestation on areas such as
Human activity (combustion) releases C02 into the air.
ii south-west Australia. (6marks)
_
What 1s the source of this carbon? (3 marks)
c Describe two advantages of the native forest to
b i studY Figure 11.26 (page 298). Why is nitrogen important south-west Australia and its people. (4marks)
for plant life?
'
(2 marks)
d Explain one way of protecting the forest lands of
ii What is the main source of new nitrogen into the
'

south-west Australia. (4marks)

nitrogen system? (2marks)
iii What is the main cause of loss of nitrogen from the
system? (2 marks)

Exam practice: basic structured question

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
4 a What is meant by: c Assume that there has been a landslide on an area of
i seral change non-calcareous rock in lowland Britain. Describe and
(6marks) explain the sequence of vegetation that would occur
ii climatic climax vegetation cover? so that the area eventually achieved a climatic climax
b Why is vegetation cover within an urban area different from . vegetation cover. (12marks)
the climatic climax vegetation in a similar rural area? (7 marks)

estions
Exam practice: structured qu••• .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
5 a Explain the meaning of: 6 a Study Figure 11.28 (page 300).
i seral progression (2mark s ) i Explain the meaning of the term'litter� (2 marks)
t sp ec ie . s . (2 ma rks) ii Explain what the arrows show. (2 marks)
ii dominan
a o s er e, a h al o s er e, o r a hy d ros er e. b Figure 11.29 (page 301) shows the nutrient cycles in three
b Choose one o f ps am m
ly to sh o w th e va riat ion different environments.
i Draw a n annotated d ia g ra m o n
o, ss th e e n vi ro n m e n t. (6 ma rk s ) i Why are the transfers in the taiga so small? (6marks)
in vegetation cover acr
ve g e ta �i o n co ve r sh o w n o n yo u r ii Explain the differences between the tropical forests
ii Explain the variation in (15 marks) and the mid-latitude grasslands in terms of their
d.iagram. nutrient stores and flows. (15 marks)

Exam p ra c tic:e: essay

••- ••••••••••••••••••••••••••·•·•••••••··•·••••···••·•••••••••··•·•·••·••·••·•···•··•·
r o f v e g e ta ti o the climatic climax theory of F.E. Clements as a way of
E x p la i n w h y th e 'p o ly c li m a � 't h e o y �
s 1d e re d to b e b e tt e r th a n explaini' n g the distribution of vegetation types. (25 marks)
ro g
p . re s s io·n is n o w g e n e ra ll y c o.n
· · · · · · · · · -- · · · · · · · · · · · • • ! • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . .. . . . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . .. . . .
· · · · · . · · · · · · ·· ·
......-.. ....................... ...... ...... ... ,
. . . � ·
�

Bio·geography 313
�
�
 0

e o 0 00 0 000 0 0 0 000000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1
There ,,vas . . . a11 instant i 11 the dista11t JJast wl1er1 tl1e living or area, i.e. the ave1·age, or 'normal' conditio11s
,.
t�l1ing·s, the 1·ock�, the ai,· an.cl tfze oceans me1-ged t-o fo, rn tl1e over a period of ti1ne (t1sually 35 years). Any area
may experie11ce short-tern1 departures from its
11eiv e11.tity, Gaia.' '11ormal' cli1nate, especially if tl1e 35-year· mean
James Lovelock, The Ages of Gaia, 1989
coincided witl1 an t1nust1ally wet/dry or l1ot/cold
Although it is 1Jossible to study clin1atic period, bt1t, at the same ti111e, it may have long­
pl1enome11a in isolation (Cl1apter 9), a11 11nder­ ter111 sin1ilarities with regions in other parts of
standi11g of the development of soils (Chapter the world.
10) and vegetation (Chapter 11) 11ecessitates a11 In seel<ing a se11se of order, tl1e geogra1Jher
appreciatio11 of the interrelatio11ships between tries to group · together those parts of tl1e world
all three (Figu1·e 12. la). This cl1apter attempts t11at 11ave similar meast1rable climatic cha1·acte1·­
to show how tl1e integration an.ct interaction of istics (temperature, rainfall distribt1tion, wi11ds,
cli1nate, soils and vegetation give th.e world its etc.) and to identify and to explain simila1·ities
1najor ecosyste1ns, or biomes, and l1ow these and differences.in spatial and temporal d.is·tribu­
have often been 111odified, in part or al111ost tions a11d patterns. Areas n1ay tl1en be compa.red
totally, by hu111a11 activity (Figure 12.1b). on a global scale - bearing in mind the problems
• •

Soils can be· grouped, at the sim.JJlest of levels, res11lting from sl1ort-term an · d long-term clima.tic
under z_onal, azonal and int1·azonal (page 273) change - to l1elp to ide11tify a11d to explain
with eacl1 group, in tur11, being subdivided (zonal distributions of soil, vegetatio11 and crops.
· Figure 12.2, azonal page 273, a11d intrazonal Bases for classification
page 274). Likewise, the major vegetation a11d The early Greeks divided the world i11to th1·ee
f. auna grot1pings (biomes) were listed on. page 306 zo11es based tipon a sim.ple temperature descrip­
and. tl1eir ge11eralised global locations and distri-. tio11: torrid (tropical), ten1pera.te, a11d frigid
butions shown. in Figure 11.38. In a. similar way, (pola1·); they ignored precipitatio11.
geograpl1ers seek - despite the difficulties and In 1918, Koppen advanced the fi1·st n1odern
limitations - to classify: diffe1·ent world climates classification of cli1nate. To support l1is claim
(Framework 7, page 167). tl1at natt1ral vegetation boundaries were deter­
mined by clin1ate, he selected as l1is basis what
Classification of climates l1e cons.id e. rect were appropriate ten1peratt1re
By studying tl1e weathe1: - the atmospl1eric con­ and seaso11al precipitation values. I-Iis resultant
ditions prevailing at a given ti1ne or times in classification is still used today, althotigh a
a specific place or area - it is possible to 1nalze modificatio11 by Trewartha, with 23 climatic
· out the clima.te of that place
gene1·alisations ab regio11s, has become more widely accepted.

Figure 12.1 a b
. " .. . . . .. . '. . ... .... '
Relationship between world
climate, vegetation climate climatic
and soils types

biomes
(large
ecosystems) world
vegetation vegetation
belts

. . .. . . . .. . . . . , .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . 'I . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
,

31·4 World climate, soils and vegetation

 Thor11tl1waite, in the 1930s and 1940s, sL1ggested a '"fhey do 11ot allow for 1nesoscale variation
and later n1oclified a classificatio11 with a more (the Lake District and Lo11don do rzot have
qua11titative basis. I-Ie introdttced tl1e term 'effec­ exactly the same climate) or microscale
tive11ess of precipitation' (his P /E inde. x - (local) variation.
page 178) wl1icl1 l1e obtained by dividi11g the tJ Tl1ey can be criticised for bei11g either
mea11 1nonthly precipitation of a place by its too simplistic (1'11iller) or too co1nplex
n1ean mo11tl1ly evapotranspi1:ation, a11d tal,i11g (Thorntl1_waite).
"'
the sum of the 12 montl1s. 1 he difficulty was, f1 They ignore hLrman inflttence a11d climatic
and still is, in obtaining acct1rate evapotranspira­ change, both in the lo11g ter1n and the
tio11 figu1·es. (How can you 111easure transpiratio11 short tern1.
loss fro1n a forest'?) ,_fhis classificatio11 resulted i11 Cl Most te11d to be based upon te1n1Jerature
32 climatic regio11s. and precipitation figures, and neglect recent
111 Britain, in the 1930s, Mille1· proposed studies in heat and water budgets, air-mass
a relatively sin1ple classification based 011 five movement and the transfer of en.ergy.
latitL1dinal temperature zo11es wl1icl1 l1e deter- EJ All suffer from the fact that some areas still
1nined by using just three te1nperatt1re figt1res: lack the necessary clirnatic data to enable
°
21 C (the lin1it for growth of coconut palms); t11em to be categorisecl accurately.
° °
l0 C (tl1e n1inimt11n. for tree growth); and 6 C However, climatic clas_sifications suc11 as those
(tl1e minin1u1n for grasses a11d cereals). I-Ie tl1en 11amed above are rarely used today. I11stead, as
subdivided tl1ese zo11es lo11gitt1din.ally according we saw in Chapter 11, the relationship between
to seaso11al distribu.tio11s of precipitation. rfl1e climate, vegetation and soils can best be described
advantages of tl1is classificatio11 inclt1de its ease a11d t1nderstood at this level through the st11dy
of ttse and conve11ie11ce; and its close relation- ,
of ecosystems, especially tl1e largest of the eco­
ship to vegetation zones a11d also, as these are systems: tl1e bion1es (FigL1re 12. lb). Figure 12.2
a respo11se on a global scale to cli1nate a11d lists eight of the more important bio111es a11d
vegetation, to zonal soils. shows, simplistically, the links between climate,
All classifications have weak11esses: none vegetation and soils. These links are described in
is pe1·fect. more detail and explained in t11e remainder of
II They do not sl1ow tra11sitio11 zo11es between this chapter, using knowledge and Lrnderstanding
clin1ates, a11d often the division lines are gaiI1ed from Chapters 9, 10 and 11.
purely arbitra.ry.

• tundra tundra
arctic 8 very cold all year
-
cold 7 cold all year coniferous forest (taiga) podsols

cool temperate western margin 6 rain all year, winter maximum temperate deciduous forest brown earths
chernozems
continental 5 summer-rainfall maxfmum temperate grassland • •
pra1r1e
chestnut

warm temperate western ma·rgins: Mediterranean 4 winter rain Mediterranean Mediterranean

eastern margins: monsoon 4A some (ajn all year, summer maximum tropical deciduous forest

desert 3 little rain desert (xerophytes) desert

tropical
continental 2 tropical grassland (savanna)
summer rain ferruginous
1B jungle
monsoon
•

tropical eastern margins 1A

rain all year rainforest ferralitic
equatorfal 1

Figure 12.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .
World biomes: the relationship
between climate, vegetation and
soils at the global scale

............................ . . .. . . . . .. . . .... .. .. . . . . .. . ............................................. " ........ " ....................

················ ···· · · ····· ······ ··· ····· · ········ ····. ...
World climate, soils and vegetation 315
a Manaus (Brazil) b Belem {Brazil)
3° 5 1 °5
altitude 44 m altitude 24 m a11cl 12 hot1rs of darl<ness. "fl1e diur11al temperature
annual temperature range 2° ( annual temperature range 1°(
annual precipitation 2104 mm annual precipitation 2732 mm
ra11ge is also small, about l0° C. Eve11ing te1npera­
°
tt1res rarely fall below 22 C wJ1ile, due to the
'1 +- 'l'l 450
Li ·1�1111· 450
.

-i
i
-- !--·-I 400
··i-r1·· -- --, __-l.1J-�- ---, ··f-{--r·- - -�-+-··rL
-- _L_L-"--l·t·· +- - L 400
presence of afternoon cloud, dayti1ne tem­
peratures rarely rise above 32° C. It is tl1e high
--�-'-,I--n·I'-1;---r--l--J-·+--1-
r-1- - Hi-f-L 350 30 - - --,·-
30
I , :
,.
-· --�--
-, , - r,.;;
-�- I - --
,+--}----.
" r1- J-,-1-!------!-+-�----
"--·
...,..,. I- :- � 350 humidity, with its sticky, unl1ealthy heat, that

-r·-1-�-l-t-1 r1· ·
c I
I�
I 1-i-j �fl ,-- is least ap1Jreciated by Europeans.
E
-
300 E 300
u Annual rainfall totals usually exceed 2000 m . m
L1 L E ' I '
.._
l
0

I E
.._.,
.
·i.·--·- r,--·1l-· --·-i. · ·'t·-· �--
� 20
I -I 1I ---tI I .• 250 c
·-.....
� 20 250 c (Belem, 2732 mm) and 111ost afternoons l1ave
J
::,
·-
•
::,

. �-· r-.--·r�- +-·�-+±t=

�=·
+-' .....
._.LL .I I .
m m I a heavy shower (Belem has 243 rai11y days per
.....
200 ·-
(0 ,._ _L I I---,-__ 200 .....
a. IL., _L . ·-
Q)

·-ua. . I
Q)
I
a.
E -�·- -r- ........ Ii +-i-
150 EQ)
'--;--
'
: I !
.
' I I
I
r- 150
·-u
year). rfhis is dtle to the co11verge11ce of t he t1·ade
10 __ · -i111
..... I __! 1
' i; Q)
,._ winds at the 11,CZ a.nd the st1bseqt1ent enforced
10 a. a.
. -·-
l• l : I --I---- 100
I·-H--r·-·-�
-
·· I • -
100 asce11t of warm, 1noist, t1nstable air i11 strong
JI+·-
I t- .
. !
. l
I : • • convectio11 ct1rre11ts (Figure 9 .34). Evapo­
so I
I I so
1--- - l
I
--1- •

•
,,
- i--1-
I i I I •I
I -+-
I
I
l
•
1-
transpiratio11 is rapid fro1n the many rivers,
I
0 0 • 1 0 swam1Js and trees. Most storn1s are violent, with
JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND
tl1e l1eavy rain, acco1n1Janied by tl1under and
ligl1tni.ng, falling fro111 cu111t1lo-ni1nbus clouds .
Figure 12.3
• • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • •J
1 Tropical rainforests Some areas may have a clrier season wl1e11 tl1e
I1"CZ 1noves a few degrees away from tl1e Equator
Climate graphs for
the equatorial biome The rainforest biorne is located i11 tl1e tropics at tl1e win.ter and summer solstices (Belem), a11d
a11d principally witl1i11 the eqt1atorial cli1nate otl1ers have double maxima when tl1e su11 is
°
belt, 5 either side of tl1e Equator. It i11cludes tl1e directly overl1eacl at the spring and autt1m11 equi-
Amazon and Co11go basi11s and tl1e coastal lands 11oxes. The higl1 daytime l1t1midity 11eeds 011ly a
of Ecuador, West Africa, and extreme soutl1-east little nigl1t-time radiation to give condensa tion
Asia (Figt1.re 11.38). i11 tl1e form of dew. The winds at ground-level
at the ITCZ are light and varia.ble (dolclrt1n1s)
•
Equatorial climate allowing land a11d sea breezes to develop i11
Temperatt1res are high and consta11t tl1rougl1ot1t coastal areas (page 240).
the year because tl1e st1n is always high in tl1e sky.
The a11nual temperatu1:e ra11ge is under 3°C inland Rainforest vegetation
°
(Ma11atlS, I�igure 12.3a) and 1. C on tl1e coast It is esti111atecl tl1at the rainforests provide 40 per
(Belem, Figu1�e 12.3b). Mea11 monthly tempera­ ce11t of the net pri111ary prod·L1ction of terrestrial
° °
tures, ranging from 26 C to 28 C, reflect the lack energy (NPP, page 306). 1"11is is a result of high solar
Figure 12.4 of seasonal change. Slightly higl1er te.mperatures radiation, a11. all-year growi11g season, hea.vy rain.­
. . .. . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . ...
1nay occur during any 'drier' seaso11. I:nsolatio11 is fall, a constant moisture budget surplt1s, the rapid
Emergents rising
above the rainforest evenly distributed throughout the year, with each decay of leaf litter and the recycling of ntttrients.
canopy, Borneo day havin. g approximately 12 hours of dayligh. t

..,
·:; Figure 12.5
Buttress roots,
· Queensland, Australia

••
••••• •••• ,. •• &•• •.1•••••• •••••••••••••••• •••• ••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••• •• ••••••••••••••• •• ••••

316 World climate, soils and vegetation

 •

are adapted to living in the shade of their

taller 11eighbot1rs.
Tl1e cli1nate is at the optimum for pl1oto­
synthesis. rfl1e trees grow tall to try to reach
tl1e sunlight, a11d tl1e tallest have buttress roots
which e1nerge over 3 111 above grou11d-level to
give support (Figure 12.5). Tl1e trunks are ust1ally
sle11der and brancl1less. So1ne, like the cacao,
have flowers growing on tl1em, and th.eir bark
is thin as there is no n.eed for protection against
adverse cli1natic con.ditio11s. Tree trunks also
Figure 12.6 In just one l1ectare of rai11forest in A1nazonian
. . . · · · · · .. · · ···· · .. . . . .. . ... . provide sttpport for lianas, vine-like plants,
Rainforest vegetation Ecuador, researchers recorded 473 species of tree, which can grow to 200 m in length. Lianas cli1nb
has to adapt to the inclt1ding rosewood, 1nahogany, ebony, green­ 11p tl1e tru11k and alo11g brancl1es before plt111ging
wet environment: heart, palm and rubber, wl1icl1 is 111ore than twice back dow11 to the forest floor. Leaves are dark
water lilies, Victoria
regia, native to the
tl1e total nu1nber fot1nd in all of Nortl1 A111erica. gree11, sinooth and ofte11 have drip tips to shed
"'
Amazon Basin l he trees, which are mainly hardwoods, excess vva.ter.
l1ave an evergreen appeara11ce for, althougl1 Epipl1ytes - I)lants that do 11ot l1ave their roots
deciduous, tl1ey can shed thei1· leaves at any in the soil - grow on trunks, branches and eve11 on
time during tl1e continuous growing season_. rfhe tl1e leaves of trees a11d sl1rubs. Epiphytes si111ply
tallest trees, emergents, may reach ttp to SO m i11 'hang on' to the tree: they derive 110 nourish111ent
heigl1t and for1n tl1e l1abitat for 11t1merous birds from the host a11d are rzot parasites. Less tl1an
and i11sects. Below the emerge11ts are tl1.ree layers, 5 per cent of insolatio11 reacl1es tl1e forest floor,
all co1npeting for su11light (Figt1re 12.4). witl1 the rest1lt that t1ndergrowtl1 is thin exce1)t in
The top layer, or canopy, forins an al1n.ost areas where trees may have been felled by shifti11g
continuous cover which absorbs over 70 per cent cultivators or where a giant emergent has fallen,
of the ligl1t and intercepts 80 per cent of tl1e dragging with it several of tl1e top canopy trees.
rainfall. Tl1e crowns of these trees 1nerge so1n.e V'egetation is also dense along the m.any river
30 n1 above ground-level. They sl1ade the under­ banks, again because sunlight can penetrate the
lyi11g species, protect th_e soil from erosion, and canopy l1ere. Alongside the A1nazon, many trees
t)rovid.e a habitat for 1nost of tl1e birds, animals spe11d several months of the year growing in water
an.ct insects of the rai11forest. as the river a11d its tributaries rise over 15 m in
rfl1e second layer, or unde1·canopy, consists the rainy season. Huge water l!lies with leaves
Figure 12.7 of trees growing_ up to 20 1n (similar i11 height to exceeding 2 m in width are fou11d. in flooded areas
.. . . . .. . .. ..
The rainforest deciduotis trees in Britain). The lowest, or sl1rub adjacent to rivers (Figure 12.6). Ma11grove swamps
nutrient cycle layer, consists of s11rt1bs and small trees �hich occur in coastal areas.

precipitation sunlight for less moisture in air:

photosynthesis less oxygen less evapotranspiration
oxygen less precipitation
evapotranspiration

defore$tation (although
trees intercept recolonisation begins
rainfall and pr:otect immediately) .........
the forest floor
leaves fall to·
forest floor fewer leaves returned
nutrients
absorbed to ground:
by plant roots less organic matter

fungi and bacteria few nutrients

for plant use
rapidly break down
litter into hum.us
(humic acid increases less humus replaced
chemical weathering)
nutrteots
added to soil

fewer nutrients returned to soil

more nutrients lo vegetation
than in soil; recyr.:ling takes
only 6 months rapid loss of nutrients by leaching:
resultant a€id soil releases iron Figure 12.8
ar:ld aluminium giving a not very . .. � . . . . . .
rapid chemical weathering of productive, ferralitic soil The interrupled
parent material releases riutrients nutrient cycle
 tropical
rainforest
Figure 12.9 '
.. ..... .. ... .. . . . .. .... , ......... .
thick litter layer
A ferralitic soil profile
very thin humus
layer as litter is
rapid recycling rapidly
of nutrients incorporated into
the soil and
decomposes to
give a greyisl,-red
colour

rapid leaching
• of silica and
up to 30 m dissolved
in depth mineral matter

Altl1ougl1 groL111d anin1als are relatively few ,

in nun1ber, the rainforests of Brazil alone are removal of bases
by throughflow
said to be the habitat for 2000 species of birds,
600 species of insects and mosqt1itoes, a11d 1.500 Figure 12.10
species of fisl1. . . . .. . . . . . ..
. .... ' . . ...
A ferralitic
The productivity of this biome, upo11 whicl1 soil (latosol)
tl1e world depends to replace 1nL1ch of its used profile typical
parer-'lt roe-k..__ ............
oxyge11, is dt1e largely to the rapid and unbroke11 of the tropical ..- - -
1:ecycling of 11t1trients. Figttre 12. 7 shows tl1e rainforest
...

----
natural nutrient cycle and Figure 12.8 the conse­
que11ces of breaking the system, e.g. by felli11g tl1e stiffer fron1 alumi11ium toxicity) fro1n the pare11t
forest. In areas wl1ere tl1.e forest l1as been cleared, material. Leaching results in the removal of silica.
the secondary succession differs from that of tl1e rJ�he continual lea.Ching and abundance of
original clin1ax vegetation. The new dominants mixing agents inhibit tl1e for1natio11 of horizons
are less tall;the trees a1:e less stratified; tl1ere are (Figure 12.10). Tl1e lower parts of the profile
fewer species a11d 1nany are intolerant of shade - may have a more yellowish-red tint due to
even though tl1ere is 111ore light at ground-level the extre1ne l1ydration of aluminit1m and i1·on
which encot1rages a dense undergrowtl1. oxides. Tl1e clay-ricl1 soils are also very deep,
often up to 20 1n, dt1e to tl1e rapid breakdown of
Ferralitic soils (latosols) parent 111aterial. Ferralitic sojls have a loose strt1c­
Tl1ese soils result f1·om the high annual te1n­ tu.re and, if exposed to l1eavy rai11fall, a1·e easiJy
perature and 1·ainfall wl1icl1 cat1se rapid cl1e111ical gullied and eroded. Despite their depth, the soils
weath_e1·i11g of bedrock and create the opti111um of the rai11forest are 11ot agricultt1rally produc­
conditio11s for breaking down th.e luxuriant veg­ tive. On.ce the source of nutrie11ts (tl1e t1:ees) has
etatio11. Continuous leaf fall within the forest been removed, the soil rapidly loses its fertility
gives a thick litter la·yer, but tl1e t1nderlying humus and local fa1·mers, often sl1ifting cultivators, l1ave
is thin due to the rapid decomposition and. mixing to rnove to clear· 11ew plots (Places 66, page 480).
of organic matter by inte11sive biota activity, e.g.
ants and termites. A key feature of these soils is 1 A Tropical eastern margins
a dense 1·oot mat in the top 20-30 cm of the A Located within tl1e tropics, the easte1·n coasts
l1orizon. According to research, this intercepts and of central America, Brazil, Madagasca1· and
ca.11 take 11p as much as 99.9 per cent of the nt1tri­ Qtteensland (Australia) receive r·ain thro11ghot1t
ents released by the decomposition of organic the year. The rai11 is brought by the trade wtnds
matter. The root map helps tl1e rapid recycling of whicl1 blow across warm, offsho1·e ocean cu1·rents
nutrients in the hu1nus cycle (Figure 12. 7). Even (Figure 9 .9) before being forced to rise by coastal
so, ma11y soils have a low nutrie11t status (94 per �oun,tains. Temperatures are generally very
cen.t of soils iI1 the Amazon Basin have a. nutrient high, although there is a slightly cooler season
deficiency) and fertility is 011ly maintai11ed by the when the overhead s1111 appea:rs to have inigrated
rapid and contint1ous replacement from the lush into the opposite hen1isphere. The resultant veg­
vegetation. Where the tree canopy is absent, or is etation an.ct soil types are, therefore, si:milar to
removed, the heavy rainfall causes the release of those found in the equatorial belt, i.e. rainforest
iron (giving t. he soil its characteristic red colou.r - and ferralitic.
Figure 12�9) and aluminium (most ferr· alitic soils
. . . .. 111 · · ·· · · · · · · · · · � · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ... ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · ·-·· · · ·· · · · · • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . ,. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
•

318 World cl.imate, soils and vegetation

•
 2 Tropical grasslands
. . . .. . . ··-· . ..
. Figure 12.11 Kano (Nigeria)
. . .. . ...... ' °
These are 1nainly located between latitudes 5 °
,
12 N
°
Climate graph for a
311d 15 north and SOLttl1 of the Eqt1ato1· ancl tropical continental altitude 630 m
annual temperature range 8 °(
within ce11t1�al tJa1..ts of continents, i.e. the Llanos biome
1
annual precipitati'on 920 mm
11 ' I I I
(Venezuela), the Carnpos (Brazilian I-Iighla11ds), I

mo�t of ce11tral .Africa SL1rroL1ndi11g th.e Congo 3s 1----+l r-� j : I

-�·-I
:
350
11'-�1-"''-! 1I I _ , --! _, 300
Basin, a11d parts of Mexico and nortl1ern
Attstralia (Figt1re 11.38).
i I J
i j
1

- ,_J' ,· ·
"'-

Tropical continental climate ue_..

25 T
:
•• I
-i-i-- 1-'----1-

._,_
I 250
E
-

. E
.Q
� 20 1--. ·- -- -l· --1·-1·--+--4-I 200 �

L
I
Altl1o·t1gh te1nperah1res a1·e l1igh tl1roughot1t tl1e
year, tl1ere is a short, slightly cooler seaso11 (i11 �
ai 15 '-,--1-,!--1--1 I l --+---+-I 150 -�
·�!----1---i-
a. . a.
I
comparison witl1 tl1e eqttatorial) whe11 tl1e su11. �
· 1
1 ....
. I 1 1
1 -..--I 100
·�

is overhead at the tro1)ic in the op1Josite hemi­ +-' 10 --,----+--lf -i--·· 1 --+-*--·+- Q.
I
I ,---I
sphere (Figure 12.11). The a1111t1al range is also :
1--.4. • .__.___ -- ·1--1>-+-
11 --l--i----l--+,--,-- so
5
I
,·

°
sligl1tly greater (I<ano 8 C) due to tl1e sun's sligl1tly (-
reduced angle i11 the sky for part of the year,· tl1e 0
_ r
'--.lo....=-'--�..l--�· _,L__t__t__J__j�L__J
: I l
o

greater dista11ce from the sea, a11d tl1e less com­ JF M A M JJASO N D
plete cloud a11d vegetatio11 cover. Te1nperatures
n1ay drop slightly at the 011set of the rainy season. sponds with tl1e moving away of the ITCZ, leaving
For 1nost of the year, cloud amount is limited, tl1e area with the strong, steady trade winds. T11e
allowing diur11a.l te1nperatures to exceed 2s c. 0 trades are d1·y because tl1ey are wartning as they
Tl1e n1ai11 cl1aracte1�istic of this climate is tl1e blow towards the Equator and they will have shed
alternating wet and dry seaso11s. The wet season any 111oisture on distant easter11. coasts. Places
occurs when the strn moves overhead bringi11g with nearer to the desert margins te11d to experience dry,
Figure 12.12 stable co11ditions (tl1e subt1·opica.l high pressure)
it the l1eat equator, the ITCZ, and the equatorial low
Causes of seasonal caused by the migration of t11e desce11ding li1nb
press·u1:e belt (Figure 12.12). Heavy co11vectional
rainfall in places with of the Hadley cell (page 226). Humidity is also low
a tropical continental storms can give 80 per ce11t of the an11ual rainfall
total in four or five mo11tl1s. The dry seaso11 corre- dt1ring this season.
(savanna) climate

1 21 March 2 21 June Tropical or savanna grassland

overhead sun overhead sun vegetation
The tropical grasslands are estimated to l1ave a
• mea11 NPP of 900 g/1n2/yr (page 306). This is
•
' - considerably less than the rainforest, partly
because of the s1naller number of trees, species
lTCZ --- ' '
ITCZ a11d layers and partly becat1se, althot1gh grass­
,!,' Kano •
r
I
\

' K"clnO
1 I
' '
I e
I

I
I I
) • I
I \
la11ds have t.l1e potential to rett1rn organic ma.tter
' I
'
I
I
I
'
''
I
I I
I
\
\
'
back to tl1e soil, the rate of decomposition is
i' I I
I
'
'wet some ra,n dry \ reduced duri11g the vvi11 ter drot1ght leaving
I \

wet dry \
I
.' dry I

co11siderable a111.ou11ts left stored in tl1e litter.

Tropic of Capricorn
,

Tropic of Cancer Equator Tropic of Capricorn Tropic of Cancer Equator As sl1own in Figure 12.13, the savanna
0° 23!0 S 231°N 0° 23lo5
23! N 9
2
includes a series of transitions between the ra.in-
4 21 December forest and the desert. At one extreme, the 'closed'
3 21 September
overhead sun savanna is mainly trees witl1 areas of grasses;
overhead sun
at the other, the 'open' sava.nna is vegetated
only by scattered tufts of grass. The trees are
deciduot1s and, like those in B1·itain, lose their
leaves to reduce tra11spiration, but, 1111like i11
ITCZ B1·itain, this is dt1e to the winter drougl1t rather
f(ano
ITCZ ;
... I
\

-
I \
'
' ,.
I
' tl1an to cold-. T1·ees a1·e xeropl1ytic, or drot1gl1t­
I
).

' \
� j
' I \ resistant. Even ·when. leaves do appear, they are
\

I
I

,i
\
' I
I
\

I
\

•
I

small, waxy and some. times thorn-like. Roots are

I

I ' som·e rain wet' '

\ \

,' dry
), I

,' dry wet dry\ I

lo11g and extend to tap any u·ndergrou11.d water.
Troplc of Canaer Equator, Tropic of Capricorn Tropic of Cancer Equator Tropic of Capricorn T1·unl<s are gnarled an . d the bark is 11sually thick
23!2 N oo 23!0 S 231 °N 0° 23 120 s
0
to 1·ed11ce moisture loss.
· ······· ·· .. ······ ······ ··· ··,·· ················· ············· ·········�········· ·············-····················· ... ······
............... 'I ....... t • •
• • • • • • • • .. • • .. • • • • • • •
\t••• · •

World climate, soils and vegetati'on 319

•
Figure 12.13 Equator .. .. °
l0 N (or 10 5) °
20°
N (or 20 °
5)
Transect across the .-¥
,.�/
� /

savanna grasslands
:,,

.' /

''(, "'t:!:
· -�-��-=>Sf�·��
��··�'��
ratnforest parkland or savanna semi-desert desert
'closed' (scrub) or 'open'
savanna savanna
summer ra,n;
rain all year winter annual drought
2 months without rain drought 7 months without rain

The baobab tree (also known as tl1e 't1pside­ ct1r\1ing blades and silvery sp· il<es. After the onset
down tree') has a trunk of up to 10 1.11. in diameter of tl1e st11nmer rains, they grow very quickly to
in w·hich it stores water. lts root-like brancl1es over 3 m in height: elepha11t grass reacl1es 5 m
hold 011ly a mini1nt1m nt11nber of tiny leaves in (Figr1re 12.15). As the sun dries up the vegetatio11,
order to restrict tra.nspiratio11 (l�igrrre 12.14). Some it becomes yellow i11 colot1r (Figure 12.46). By
ba.obabs are estimateci to be several thousand early wi11ter, tl1e straw-like grass l1as died clown,
years old and, like otl1er sav. anna trees, are p"),ro­ leavi11g seeds dorn1,1nt on tl1e st1rface u11til tl1e
phytic, i.e. tl1eir trL1nks are resistant to tl1e 111any follovvi11g seaso11's rain. By the e11d of wi11ter, 011ly
local fires. Acacias, with their crowns flatteneci by tl1e roots re1nai11 anci tl1e surface is exposect to
the trade winds (Figure 12.15), provide welcome wi11d and rain.
thougl1 limited shade - as do the eu.calyptus i11 Over 40 different species of large J1erbivore
At1stralia. Savanna trees reach 6-12 in i11 heigl1t. graze on the grassla11ds, i11clt1cli11g wildebeest,
Many l1ave Y-sl1apecl, bra11chi11g trLtnks - ideal for zebra and antelope, and it is the home of several
Figure 12.14 tl1e leopard to rest in after its meal! Tl1e 11umber carnivores - botl1 predators, st1ch as lio11s, and
A baobab tree, of trees increases near to rivers and waterl1oles. scavengers, st1ch as l1yenas. Termites and microbes
Malawi Grasses grow in tt1fts a11d tend to have inward- are the major decomposers. As previously me11-
·--�----�--- tioned (page 293), fire is possibly the n1ajor deter­
minant of the sava1111a biome - either caused
deliberately by farn1ers or resulting fron1 lightning
associated witl1 st1m1ner electrical storms.
It is the fringes of the savan11as, tl1ose bor­
derin,g the deserts, which are at greatest risk of
desertification (Case Stt1dy 7). As more trees are
re1noved for fuel and overgrazi11g reduces tl1e
t)roductivity of grasslan.ds, the heavy rain forms
gulleys and . wind blows away the Sttrface soil.
Wl1ere tl1e savanna is 11ot farmed, tl1ere a1·e t1sually
1nore trees, st1ggesting that grass may not be ·tl1e
11att1ral cli1natic climax vegetation.

Figure 12.15
Savanna grassland during
the wet season in the
- Maasai Mara, Kenya
dry season followed savanna grassland 3 Hot deserts
by a wet season
tl1in, dark-brown litter °'
·layer with organic matter 1 he hot deserts of tl1e -Ataca111a and I(alahari­
Na1nib a11d those in Mexico and Australia., are all
A Fe and Al sesquioxides °
located i11 tl1e trad.e wincl belt, between 15 and
°
30 nortl1 or sot1th of the Eqt1ator, and on the west
coasts of co11tine11ts where there are cold, off­
some loss of silica shore, ocean ct1rrents (Figures 7.2, 9.9 and 11.38).
•
E In wet season The exception is tl1e extensive Sahara-Arabian­
Thar desert which owes its existe11ce to the size
depth 1-2 m
of the Afro-Asian landn1ass.

Climate
B redeposition of silica Desert te1nperatures are characterised by their
°
extre1nes. '"fhe annual ra11ge is often 20-30 C
c °
and tl1e diurnal range over 50 C (Figure 12.17).
rapid chemical Dt1ri11g the daytime, especially in st1mmer, tl1ere
weathering of are higl1 levels of il1solation f1·0111 tl1e overhead
parent material st1n, intensified by tl1e lack of cloud cover and
the bare rock or sand grot1nd su1:face. In. contrast,
nigl1ts 1nay be extremely cold witl1 temperatures
Figure 12.16
. . .. . ..
. .. .. . . . Ferruginous soils likely to fall below 0° C. Coastal areas, hovvever,
A ferruginous soil As savan11a gra.sses die back during the dry seas011, have mucl1 lower 111onthly te111peratures (Arica
profile in the Atacama has a. warmest mo11th of 011ly
they provide orga11ic 1natter which is readily
°
broke11 down to give a tl1in, da1·k-brown layer of 22 C) due to the {)r·esence of offshore, cold,
hu1nus (Figt1re 12.16). Dt1ring the wet season, ocean currents (Figure 9.9).
rapid leaching re1noves silica from the upper Altl1ot1gh all deserts suffer a11 acute wa.ter
profile, leaving bel1ind the red-coloured oxides of shortage, none is trt1ly dry. Aridity and extreme
1
iron and alt1miniu1n. As these soils contain few aridity have bee11 defined by using Tl1ornthwaite s
nut1·ients, they te11d to be acidic a11cl lacking i.n PIE iI1dex (Figt.1re 7.1), and four of the main causes
bases. Althot1gl1 the process of capillary action of deserts are described on page 179. Amounts
might be expected to 01)erate during tl1e dry of moistt1re are t1sually small and precipitation
season, in practice it rarely does as the water ta'ble is extremely t1nreliable. Death Valley, California,
invariably falls too low at this time of year. averages 40 mm a year, yet rain may fall only
Ferruginot1s soils tend to be soft unless once every two 01· three years. Whereas mean
exposed at tl1e s11rface where, bei11g subject to annt1al totals vary by less than 20 per cent a year
wet and dry seasons, they can harden to form a i11 north:-west Europe, tl1e eqL1ivalent figure for
cemented c1ust known as laterite. Tl1e tern1 lat­ the Sahel is 80-150 per cent (Figure 9.28). Rain,
erite is de:rived fro1n tl1e Latin for 'brick'. I11deed
t11is deposit is used as a b11ilding material because, Ail'\ Salah (Al.geria) Figure 12.17