Beyond The Graph Theory

Ideas | Approaches | Accessibility | Availability

Dr. Henry Garrett

Report | Exposition | References | Research #22 2021
 Abstract

Graph theory has the widely ranges of applications and theoretical aspects. In
this book, focus in on definitions and there’s an effort to make connections
about different types of graphs with using the new ideas which arise from the
definitions and using examples which are the tools to get the understandable
perspective about the concepts. The context is away from some texts which
aren’t in literature of mathematics. The author avoid to bring some texts to
describe the ideas and the results before bringing them. The main idea is to
write the main concepts but in examples, some explanations are found about the
connections of the definitions. In this book, the goal is to present the relations
between definition in the ways, the number of definitions in the results is the
matter minds and it’s avoided to pay attention to the degree of the results in
the terms of being hard. The book is devised to make the gentle comparison
between concepts and in this way, there’s the priority about including the easy
concept for covering the wides ranges of readers and spreading the ranges of
readership. Easy connections with the priority of making connections with the
most definitions as possible.
Priority about including the easy concept for covering the wides ranges of readers
and spreading the ranges of readership. Easy connections with the priority of making
connections with the most definitions as possible.

i
 Acknowledgements

The author is going to say his gratitude and his appreciation about the brains
and their hands which are showing the importance of words in the framework
of every wisdom, knowledge, arts and emotions which are streaming in the lines The words of mind and the
from the words, notions, ideas and approaches to have the material which is minds of words, are too
eligible to be in the stage
only the way to flourish the minds, the growing the notions, advancing ways of aknowledgements
and making the stable ways to be amid the events and storms of minds for
surviving from them and making the outstanding experiences about the tools
and ideas to be on the star lines of words and shining like stars, forever.

iii
 Contents

Abstract i

Acknowledgements iii

Contents v

1 Words Of Graph Theory 1

1.1 Definition And Its Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Different Styles Of Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 List Of The Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Degree Of A Vertex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Some Classes Of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Connections Of The Words 5

2.1 Unary Operations And Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Related Classes Of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Directed Graphs And Its Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Infinite Graphs And Its Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Vertex and Edge: Delete Or Add . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6 Various Types Of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3 Ideas And The Approaches 21

v
 CHAPTER 1

Words Of Graph Theory

Points and
continuum of Beyond Of Graph Theory #1
points as lines Words of graph theory could act on any notions to get new notions.
and curves call
for a theory to
call it graph 1.1 Definition And Its Consequences
theory and there
are too many
There are different kinds of defining a graph. Sometimes, the couple of two
points about
seen points and distinct sets of objects with function amid them. The domain is called edges
unseen points set and the image of this function is called vertices set. In other ways, there
like one point are new notions to define a graph on a set of objects instead of defining by a
is seen and have
function but second style has open ways to connect other branch because every
a name but
points are function could be a graph.
unseen and have
no names but all
of them could be 1.2 Different Styles Of Graph
called lines,
loops and curve. Definition 1.2.1 (Graph: Function-Orientated Style). Let F be a function from
In the term of
V to E where V and E are the sets of distinct objects and function is assigning
pronoun, there
are two pronouns unordered couple of objects of V to any of object of E. Then the couple of V
we and us when and E is called graph and it’s denoted by G : (V, E).
the pronoun we
is used for Definition 1.2.2 (Graph: Set-Orientated Style). Let V be a set of objects and
known point but any set E of unordered couple objects of V is up. Therefore, G : (V, E) is a
the pronoun us graph.
is used for
unknown points Definition 1.2.3 (Graph: Matrix-Orientated Style). Let G be a matrix. If all
as the elements
of straight
entries are zero and one, then the couple of vertical set of objects which is
lines, curves denoted by V and the couple of horizontal set of objects which is denoted by E,
and loops is denoted by G : (V, E) and it’s called a graph.
Definition 1.2.4 (Graph: Matrix-Orientated Style). Let G be a matrix. If all
entries are zero and one, then the couple of vertical set of objects which is
denoted by V and the couple of horizontal set of objects which is denoted by
V, is denoted by G : (V, E) and it’s called a graph. Eigenvalue of graph is
the eigenvalues of this matrix and characteristic polynomial of graph is the
characteristic polynomial of this matrix where the characteristic polynomial of a
matrix is det(A − xI) and the eigenvalues of a matrix is the roots of det(A − xI).

Exercises

1
1. Words Of Graph Theory

1. If G is graph, then eigenvalue is lower or equal with ∆.

2. If G is a connected graph and ∆ is eigenvalue, then the graph is regular.
3. If G is a connected graph and −∆ is eigenvalue, then the graph is both
regular and bipartite.

1.3 List Of The Vertices

Definition 1.3.1 (List Of One Vertex). Let v be a given vertex. Then the list
of vertices v1 v2 · · · vn which have the edge with v is called list of vertex v.
Definition 1.3.2 (List Of Two Vertices). Let v and u be given vertices. Then
the list of vertices vv1 v2 · · · vn u which are consecutive vertices from v to u is
called list of vertex v and u.

1.4 Degree Of A Vertex

Definition 1.4.1 (Degree List Of Couple). Let v and u be given vertices. Then
the list of vertices v1 v2 · · · vn which are consecutive vertices’ degrees from v to
u is called degree list of vertex v and u.
Definition 1.4.2 (Degree List Of Vertices). The list of vertices v1 v2 · · · vn which
are vertices’ degrees is called degree list of vertices.
Definition 1.4.3 (Graphic). The list of numbers v1 v2 · · · vn is called graphic if
it’s degree list of vertices.
The summation of degree of all vertices is forever even number. So it’s the
criteria to decide whether a number could make a graph or not. If a given
number is odd, then it can’t form any of graph when the usage of formula is up.
Assigning the number to the summation when is possible that this number is
even. Usage of first version of Matrix-Orientated Style as graph is selected to
prove upcoming result by summation all enters twice. Once all columns and
another all rows.
Theorem 1.4.4. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then
X
degree(x) = 2|E| (1.1) {R1}
x∈V

Proof. For any given vertex x, summation of its row gives us degree(x) so
the summation of all rows equals x∈V degree(x) which is left hand of the
P
statement. Every edge has two endpoints so for any given edge e, summation
of its column gives us 2 thus the summation of all columns equals 2|E| which is
right hand of the statement. By summation twice, the statement is proved.
First, summation all enters from each rows and secondly, summation all
enters from each column. Summations of all enters from each column with each
others are summation of all numbers in the matrix. Therefore, there are two
systematically ways to summation of all enters of a matrix. Column by column
or row by row but the result is the same.
Strongest tool about determine number whether is or not an even number, is
module 2. 0 tells us the structure of number is even but 1 tells us the structure

2
 1.5. Some Classes Of Graphs

of the number is odd. The even number is shown the warmly welcome to the
numbers which belongs to this class and characteristics. 

The number of odd degree is even. So this could be another characteristic

for graphs in the terms of numbers.
Theorem 1.4.5. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then the number of vertices is even
where these vertices have odd degree.

Proof. By equation (1.1) under module 2, right-hand side is zero. Thus left-
hand side has to be zero which implies the number of vertices is even where
these vertices have odd degree. 

Degree of a vertex could spread to all vertices when all vertices have the
same degree thus there’s a new graph which is created by the notion of degree
of a vertex.
Definition 1.4.6. Let G : (V, E) be a graph such that all vertices have the same
degree t. Then a graph is called t−regular.

1.5 Some Classes Of Graphs

Definition 1.5.1 (Connected). A graph is called connected if for any given two
vertices, there’s a list of two vertices.
Definition 1.5.2 (Disconnected). A graph is called disconnected if it isn’t
connected.
Definition 1.5.3 (Finite). A graph is called finite if both its vertex set and edge
set are finite.
Definition 1.5.4 (Null). A graph is called null if its vertex set is empty set.
Definition 1.5.5 (Trivial). A graph is called trivial if its vertex set has one
vertex.
Definition 1.5.6 (Nontrivial). A graph is called nontrivial if its vertex set has
at least two vertices.
Definition 1.5.7 (Simple). A graph is called simple if its edges are neither
parallel nor loop.
Definition 1.5.8 (Planar). A graph is called planar if its edges meet each other
in vertex. This exhibition is called planar embedding.
Definition 1.5.9 (Complete). A graph is called complete if every two given
vertices has one edge.
Definition 1.5.10 (Empty). A graph is called empty if every two given vertices
has no edge.
Definition 1.5.11 (Bipartite). A graph is denoted by G[X , Y] where X and Y
are parts of G and is called bipartite if its vertex set is partitioned two parts
and every part has no edge inside.
Definition 1.5.12 (n−Partite). A graph is called n−partite if its vertex set is
partitioned n parts and every part has no edge inside.

3
1. Words Of Graph Theory

Definition 1.5.13 (Turan Graph). An n−partite is denoted Tk,n by and is called

Turan graph if every part has equal vertices such that b nk c = b nk c = 1.
Definition 1.5.14 (n−Path). A graph is denoted Pn by and is called n−path if
there are two vertices such that it’s a list of two vertices where n is the number
of its edges.

Exercises

1. Every n−path is bipartite.

Definition 1.5.15 (n−Cycle). A graph is denoted Cn by and is called n−cycle

if there are one vertex such that it’s a list of one vertex where n is the number
of its edges. 3-cycle, 4-cycle, 5-cycle and 6-cycle are often called triangle,
quadrilateral, pentagon, and hexagon, resepectively.

Exercises

1. Every n−cycle is bipartite if and only if n is even.

With having known attributes of vertex set and edge set, there’s new class of
graphs.
Definition 1.5.16 (n−Cube). A graph is denoted by Qn and is called n−cube
where the vertex set is the set of all n − tuple including 0s and 1s and edge set
is the set of couple of n-tuple of vertex set which have one difference in their
coordinate.
Definition 1.5.17 (Boolean Lattice). A graph is denoted by BLn and is called
boolean lattice where the vertex set is the set of all subsets of {1, 2, · · · , n} and
edge set is the set of couple of subsets of vertex set which have one difference
in their elements.
Definition 1.5.18 (Complement). A graph is denoted by Ḡ and is called
complement if it introduces a graph which its vertex set is vertex set of Ḡ
but its edge set is non-edge set of Ḡ.
Definition 1.5.19 (Strongly Regular Graph). A simple graph G which is neither
empty nor complete is called strongly regular with parameters (v, k, λ, µ) if:
• v(G) = v,
• G is k−regular,
• For any two given vertices which are in the list of each other, they’ve λ
common members in list of each other.
• For any two given vertices which aren’t in the list of each other, they’ve
µ common members in list of each other.

4
 CHAPTER 2

Connections Of The Words

In the term of
pronoun, there Beyond Of Graph Theory #1
are two pronouns
we and us when
the pronoun we 2.1 Unary Operations And Graphs
is used for
known point but Definition 2.1.1 (Identical). Using function-orientated style, two graphs G and
the pronoun us
is used for
H are denoted by G = H and are called identical if V(G) = V(H), E(G) = E(H)
unknown points and FG = FH .
as the elements
of straight Definition 2.1.2 (Isomorphic). Two unary operations are called isomorphism
lines, curves amid G and H such that using function-orientated Style, two graphs G and H
and loops are denoted by G ∼ = H and are called isomorphic if there are unary operations
θ : V(G) → V(H), φ : E(G) → E(H) which are bijection and ψG (e) = uv if
and only if ψH (φ(e)) = θ(u)θ(v). A representative of an equivalence class of
isomorphic graphs, is called unlabelled graph. Up to isomorphism, it makes
sense to use the notations Kn , Kn,m , Pn and Cn for complete, complete bipartite,
path and cycle graphs.

Exercises

1. Boolean lattice BLn and n−cube Qn are isomorphic.

Definition 2.1.3 (Automorphism). An unary operation is called automorphism

if it’s an isomorphism from one graph to itself. The set of all automorphisms of
a graph G is denoted by Aut(G) and is called automorphism group.

Exercises

1. Automorphism of a complete graph Kn is the symmetric group Sn .

2. Automorphism of a simple graph G on n vertices Aut(G) is a subgroup of

symmetric group Sn .

3. Automorphism of an n−cycle graph Cn is the dihedral group Dn , i.e.,

Aut(Cn ) = Dn but automorphism of an n−path graph Pn is isomorphic
with symmetric group S2 , i.e., Aut(Pn ) ∼
= S2 .

4. For any simple graph G, Aut(G) = Aut(Ḡ).

5
2. Connections Of The Words

2.2 Related Classes Of Graphs

Definition 2.2.1 (Self-complementary). A simple graph is called self-
complementary if it’s isomorphic to its complement.

Exercises

1. C5 is self-complementary.

2. P4 is self-complementary.

Definition 2.2.2 (Edge-Transitive Graph). A simple graph is called edge-

transitive if for any two edges uv and xy, there’s an automorphism α such that
α(u)α(v) = xy.
Definition 2.2.3 (Vertex-Transitive Graph). A simple graph is called vertex-
transitive if for any two vertices u and x, there’s an automorphism α such that
α(u) = x. Two vertices u and x are called similar. Similarity is an equivalence
relation on the vertex set of a graph and its equivalence classes are called orbits.

Exercises

1. A connected graph is bipartite if it’s edge-transitive and it isn’t vertex-

transitive.

Definition 2.2.4 (Folkman Graph). A graph is depicted by picture (2.1), and is

called Folkman, is the 4−regular graph obtained the left picture by replacing
each vertex v of degree eight by two vertices of degree four, both of which have
the same vertices in their lists as v.

Figure 2.1: Graph And Folkman Graph G1

Exercises

1. Consider Folkman graph. It’s edge-transitive and it isn’t vertex-transitive.

Definition 2.2.5 (Generalized Petersen Graph). A simple graph is denoted by

Pk,n when n, k ∈ N, n > 2k and is called generalized Petersen graph with
vertices x1 , x2 , · · · , xn , y1 , y2 , · · · , yn , and edges xi xi+1 , yi yi+k , xi yi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n,
indices are taken under module n. P2,5 is the Petersen graph.

6
 2.2. Related Classes Of Graphs

Definition 2.2.6 (Hypergraph). A hypergraph is denoted by HG : (V, F) where

V is a set of elements which are called vertices and F is a family of subsets of
V which are called hyperedges. A hypergraph is k−uniform if each hyperedge
is k−set where k−set is a set of k elements.
Definition 2.2.7 (Geometric Configuration). A Geometric configuration is
denoted by GC : (P, L) where P is a finite set of elements which are called
points and F is a finite family of subsets of V which are called lines such that
at most one line contains any given pair of points.
Example 2.2.8. Fano hypergraph has seven points and seven lines and
Desargues hypergraph has ten points and ten lines. They are 3-uniform
hypergraphs where each lines consists of three points. They are depicted
by the picture (2.2).

Figure 2.2: Fano Hypergraph And Desargues Hypergraph G2

Definition 2.2.9 (Incidence Graph). A graph associated with a hypergraph is

denoted by CG : (V, F) is bipartite graph where v ∈ V and F ∈ F have common
edge if v ∈ F and it’s called incidence graph.
Example 2.2.10. The incidence graph of Fano hypergraph is depicted by picture
(2.3) and is called Heawood hypergraph. Incidence graph is an unary operation
on hypergraphs.

Figure 2.3: Fano Hypergraph And Heawood Hypergraph G3

7
2. Connections Of The Words

Intersection Graph as Unary Operation And Its Variants

Definition 2.2.11 (Intersection Graph). A graph associated with a hypergraph
is denoted by SG : (V, F) where F is the vertex set and two sets in F are
adjacent if their intersection isn’t nonempty and it’s called intersection graph.
Intersection graph is an unary operation on hypergraphs.
Definition 2.2.12 (Line Graph). A graph associated with a graph is denoted by
LG : (V, F) where F is the vertex set and two edges in F are adjacent if their
intersection isn’t nonempty and it’s called line graph. Line graph is an unary
operation on graphs. Line graph is a variant of intersection graph.

Exercises

1. Intersection graph of Desargues hypergraph is isomorphic to line graph of

K5 .

2. Line graph of K5 is isomorphic to complement of the Petersen graph.

3. Intersection graph of Fano hypergraph is isomorphic to line graph of K7 .

4. Line graph of K3,3 is self-complementary.

5. Aut(LKn 6∼
= Aut(Kn ), n = 2, 4

6. Aut(LKn ∼
6 Aut(Kn ), n = 3, n ≥ 5
=

Definition 2.2.13 (Interval Graph). A graph associated with a graph is denoted

by LG : (V, F) where V = R and F is a set of closed intervals of R where F
is the vertex set and two intervals in F are adjacent if their intersection isn’t
nonempty and it’s called interval graph. Interval graph is an unary operation
on graphs. Interval graph is a variant of intersection graph.

Other Classes Of Graphs

Definition 2.2.14 (Kneser Graph). A graph is denoted by KG m,n when n, k ∈
N, n > 2m and is called Kneser Graph where vertices are the m−subsets of an
n−set S and two subsets have edges if their intersection is empty.

Exercises

1. KG 1,n ∼
= Kn , n ≥ 3.

2. KG 2,n is isomorphic to the complement of LKn , n ≥ 5.

Definition 2.2.15 (Cayley Graph). A graph is denoted by YG(Γ, S) when Γ is

a group and S is a set of elements of Γ with the exception the identity element
and S includes inverse of every elements of itself and it’s called Cayley graph
of Γ with respect to S where Γ is vertex set and two vertices x, y have edge if
xy −1 ∈ S.

8
 2.2. Related Classes Of Graphs

Exercises

1. Qn = YG(Γ, S).
2. YG(Γ, S) is vertex-transitive graph.
3. Every vertex-transitive graph isn’t YG(Γ, S).
Definition 2.2.16 (Circulant Graph). A Cayley graph is denoted by YG(Zn , S)
and it’s called circulant graph. In special case, let p be a prime number, then
YG(Zp , S) is circulant graph.
Definition 2.2.17 (Paley Graph). A graph is denoted by PG q (Zn , S) where q
is a prime power such that q ∼= 1 and it’s called Paley graph where vertex set
is the set of elements of the field GF(q) and two vertices have edge if their
difference is a nonzero square in GF(q).

Exercises

1. GF(5), GF(9) and GF(13) are self-complementary.

Product Of Graphs as Binary Operation

Definition 2.2.18 (Union Graph). Two simple graphs G and H are denoted by
G ∪ H where the vertex set is V(G) ∪ V(H) and the edge set is E(G) ∪ E(H) and
it’s called union graph. If G and H are disjoint, they’re denoted by G + H and
it’s called disjoint union graph. It’s associative, commutative and extended to
any number of given graphs.
Definition 2.2.19 (Intersection Graph). Two simple graphs G and H are denoted
by G ∩ H where the vertex set is V(G) ∩ V(H) and the edge set is E(G) ∩ E(H)
and it’s called intersection graph. If G and H are disjoint, it’s called disjoint
intersection graph and is null graph. It’s associative, commutative and extended
to any number of given graphs.
Definition 2.2.20 (Cartesian Graph). Two simple graphs G and H are denoted
by GH where the vertex set is V(G) × V(H) and the edge set is the set of all
(x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) such that either x1 x2 ∈ E(G) and y1 = y2 or y1 y2 ∩ E(H) and
x1 = x2 and it’s called cartesian graph. For each edge G in and for each edge
H, there are four edges in GH which the notation reflects this fact.
Example 2.2.21. The picture (2.4) depicts P1 P1 and (5 × 4)−grid.

Example 2.2.22. The picture (2.5) depicts C3 P1 and C5 P1 . Cn P1 is
called n−prism. In special case, it’s called triangular prism, the cube and
the pentagonal prism.

Exercises

1. Pn Pm is (m × n)−grid.
1. For n ≥ 3, Cn P1 is polyhedral graphs.

9
2. Connections Of The Words

Figure 2.4: Cartesian Graphs And (m × n)−grid G4

Figure 2.5: Cartesian Graphs And n−prism G5

2.3 Directed Graphs And Its Variants

Definition 2.3.1 (Directed Graph: Set-Orientated Style). Let V be a set of
objects and any set A of ordered couple objects of V is up. Therefore, D : (V, A)
is a directed graph. All notions which are defined on graph, become twofold
with labels, in and out. The term of dominating could be used when one object
is on the first position in the ordered couple and the second object is on the
second position thus it’s called first object dominates second object. Replacing
all arrows by segments, gives us the underlying graph G of D and it’s called
G(D). Replacing all segments by two arrows, gives us the directed graph D of
G and it’s called D(G).
Definition 2.3.2 (Directed Graph: Matrix-Orientated Style). Let D be a matrix.
If all enters are 0, 1 and -1, then the couple of vertical set of objects which is
denoted by V and the couple of horizontal set of objects which is denoted by A,
is denoted by D : (V, A) and it’s called a digraph.
Definition 2.3.3 (Directed Graph: Matrix-Orientated Style). Let D be a matrix.
If all enters are 0, −1 and 1, then the couple of vertical set of objects which is
denoted by V and the couple of horizontal set of objects which is denoted by
V, is denoted by D : (V, A) and it’s called a digraph. Eigenvalue of digraph is
the eigenvalues of this matrix and characteristic polynomial of digraph is the
characteristic polynomial of this matrix where the characteristic polynomial of a
matrix is det(A − xI) and the eigenvalues of a matrix is the roots of det(A − xI).
Definition 2.3.4 (Orientation Of The Graph). In a graph G, replacing segment

10
 2.3. Directed Graphs And Its Variants

→
−
by one of two arrows is denoted G and it’s called an orientation of G.
Definition 2.3.5 (Orientated Graph). An orientation of a simple graph is called
orientated graph.
Definition 2.3.6 (Tournament). An orientation of a complete graph is called
tournament.
Example 2.3.7. Picture (2.6) depicts four unlabelled tournaments on four
vertices. The orientation of unlabelled complete graph from the order four is
called unlabelled tournaments on four vertices.

Figure 2.6: Tournaments And Complete Graph G6

Example 2.3.8. Picture (2.7) depicts 2-diregular digraph and 3-diregular

digraph. These digraphs can both be constructed from Fano hypergraph.

Figure 2.7: Fano Hypergraph And Directed Graph G7

Definition 2.3.9 (Cayley Digraph). A digraph is denoted by YD(Γ, S) when Γ

is a group and S is a set of elements of Γ with the exception the identity element
and S includes inverse of every elements of itself and it’s called Cayley graph of
Γ with respect to S where Γ is vertex set and x dominates y if xy −1 ∈ S.
Definition 2.3.10 (Circulant Digraph). A Cayley digraph is denoted by
YD(Zn , S) and it’s called circulant graph. In special case, let p be a prime
number, then YG(Zp , S) is circulant graph.
Definition 2.3.11 (Converse Of A Digraph). Let D : (V, A) be a directed graph,
←−
the converse of digraph D is denoted by D where it’s obtained reversing every
arrow of D and it’s called converse of D.

11
2. Connections Of The Words

Definition 2.3.12 (Balanced Digraph). A digraph D : (V, A) is called balanced

if for all v ∈ V, |d+ (v) − d− (v)| ≤ 1.

Definition 2.3.13 (Paley Tournament). A tournament is denoted by PT q where

q is a prime power, q ≡ 3 (mod 4) and it’s called Paley tournament where the
vertex set is the set of elements of the field GF(q), vertex i dominates vertex j
if j − i is a nonzero square in GF(q).

Definition 2.3.14 (Stockmeyer Tournament). A tournament is denoted by ST n

where n ≥ 1 and it’s called Stockmeyer tournament where the vertex set is
{1, 2, 3, · · · , 2n } and vertex i dominates vertex j if odd(j − i) ≡ 1 (mode 4)
where pow(k) denote the greatest integer p such that 2p divides k, and set
odd(k) = 2kp where k is nonzero integer.

Definition 2.3.15 (Arc-transitive Graph). An undirected graph G is called arc-

transitive if D(G) is arc-transitive. Equivalently, G is called arc-transitive if
given any two ordered couple (x, y) and (u, v) of adjacent vertices, there exits
an automorphism of G which maps (x, y) to (u, v).

2.4 Infinite Graphs And Its Variants

Definition 2.4.1 (Infinte Graph). A graph G is called infinite if its vertex set
and/or its edge set is infinite.

Definition 2.4.2 (Countable Graph). A graph G is called countable if both its

vertex set and its edge set are countable.

Example 2.4.3. Picture (2.8), depicts three countable graphs and infinite graphs
which are well-known as square lattice, triangular lattice, and hexagonal lattice.

Figure 2.8: Infinite Graphs And Countable Graphs G8

Definition 2.4.4 (Unit Distance Graph). A graph G is called unit distance graph
if its vertex set is a subset of R2 and two vertices (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) have one
edge if their euclidean distance is 1 which it means (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 = 1.

Definition 2.4.5 (Rational Unit Distance Graph). A graph G is called rational

unit distance graph if its vertex set is Q2 .

Definition 2.4.6 (Real Unit Distance Graph). A graph G is called real unit
distance graph if its vertex set is R2 .

12
 2.5. Vertex and Edge: Delete Or Add

2.5 Vertex and Edge: Delete Or Add

Definition 2.5.1 (Edge-deleted Subgraph). A graph G \ e is called edge-deleted
subgraph.
Definition 2.5.2 (Vertex-deleted Subgraph). A graph G \ v is called vertex-
deleted subgraph.
Definition 2.5.3 (Subgraph: Function-Orientated Style). A graph S is called
subgraph of G if V(S) ⊆ V(G), E(S) ⊆ E(G) and FS is the restriction of FG to
E(S).
Theorem 2.5.4. If all vertices have degree at least two in a graph, then graph
has a cycle.

Proof. If the graph isn’t simple, then it has either loop making cycle from order
one or parallel edges making a cycle from order two.
If the graph is simple, then let P is a longest path from one vertex to another
vertex. By all vertices have the degree at least two, the ending vertex of P has
the edge either with a vertex in P making a cycle or a vertex out of P which is
contradiction with choosing P as longest path in graph. 

Definition 2.5.5 (Maximal). S ∈ S is called maximal if no member of S properly

contains S where S is a family of subgraphs of a graph G.
Definition 2.5.6 (Minimal). S ∈ S is called minimal if no member of S is
properly contained in S where S is a family of subgraphs of a graph G.

Related Classes Of Graphs

Definition 2.5.7 (Acyclic). A graph G is called acyclic if it doesn’t contain a
cycle.
Definition 2.5.8 (Digraph From A Poset). A digraph is denoted by D(P) where
P = (X , <) is a poset. The vertex set is X and xy is edge if x < y.

Exercises

1. A digraph D(P) from poset P is acyclic and transitive where transitive

means xz is an edge if both xy and yz are the edges.

2. Let D(P) be a digraph from poset P. Then acyclic tournament is transitive

tournament.

3. Let D(P) be a digraph from poset P. Then chains in P are transitive

subtournament.

Definition 2.5.9 (Topological Sort). A digraph is called topological sort if there

is an linear ordering of its vertices such that for every edge, its arrow precedes
its starting point in the ordering.
Definition 2.5.10 (Triangle-Free Graph). A graph is called triangle-free graph
if it contains no triangles.

13
2. Connections Of The Words

Definition 2.5.11 (Monochromatic). A complete graph is called monochromatic

if all of its edges have same color so all are red or all are blue.
Definition 2.5.12 (Bichromatic). A complete graph is called bichromatic if all
edges are either red or blue.
Definition 2.5.13 (Spanning Subgraph). A graph is denoted by G \ S and is
called spanning subgraph if it’s obtained from a graph by edge deletion only
where S is the set of deleted edges.
Definition 2.5.14 (Spanning Supergraph). A graph is denoted by G + S and is
called spanning supergraph if it’s obtained from a graph by edge addition only
where S is the set of additive edges.
Definition 2.5.15 (Joint Graph). A graph is denoted by G ∨ S and is called join
graph if it’s obtained from an union graph of G and S and adding all possible
edges amid these two graphs.

Exercises

1. Cn ∨ K1 = Wn

Definition 2.5.16 (Hamilton Path). Spanning path is called Hamilton path.

Definition 2.5.17 (Hamilton Cycle). Spanning cycle is called Hamilton cycle.
Definition 2.5.18 (k−factor). Spanning k−regular subgraph is called k−factor.
Definition 2.5.19 (Symmetric Difference Graph). A spanning subgraph is
denoted by S1 ∆S2 and is called symmetric difference graph if it’s obtained
from two spanning subgraphs of S1 = (V, E1 ) and S2 = (V, E2 ) where edge set
is E1 ∆E2 .
Definition 2.5.20 (Induced Subgraph). A graph is denoted by G − S and is
called induced subgraph if it’s obtained from a graph by vertex deletion only
where S is the set of deleted vertices.
Definition 2.5.21 (Induced Subgraph). A graph is denoted by G[Y] and is called
induced subgraph by Y if it’s obtained from graph G where vertex set is Y and
edge set is all edges of G which have both ends in Y.

Exercises

1. Every graph with average degree at least 2k, where k is a positive integer,
has an induced subgraph with minimum degree at least k + 1.

Definition 2.5.22 (Weighted Graph). A graph is denoted by (G, ω) and is called

weighted graph if each edge is corresponded to a real number ω(e) which is
called its weight and G is with these weights on its edges where ω : E → R and
its denoted by RE . When the weights are rational numbers, it’s denoted by QE .
Definition 2.5.23 (Graph By Vertex Identification). A graph is denoted by
G \ {x, y} if the adjacent vertices x and y is to replace by a single vertex.

14
 2.5. Vertex and Edge: Delete Or Add

Definition 2.5.24 (Graph By Edge Contraction). A graph is denoted by G \ e

the adjacent edges e and e0 is to replace by a single edge.
Definition 2.5.25 (Graph By Vertex Splitting). A graph is made by vertex
splitting v if v is to replace by two adjacent vertices.
Definition 2.5.26 (Graph By Edge Subdivision). A graph is made by edge
subdivision e if e is to delete and add new vertex joining to ends of e.
Definition 2.5.27 (Decomposition). A family of graphs F is called a decom-
position of a graph G if it only has edge-disjoint subgraphs of G such that
∪F ∈F E(F ) = E(G).
Definition 2.5.28 (Path Decomposition). A decomposition of a graph G is called
path decomposition if it contains entirely of paths.
Definition 2.5.29 (Cycle Decomposition). A decomposition of a graph G is
called cycle decomposition if it contains entirely of cycles.
Definition 2.5.30 (Even Graph). A graph in which each vertex has even degree
is called an even graph.

Exercises

1. Every loopless graph has a trivial path decomposition, into paths of length
one.
2. A graph which admits a cycle decomposition is necessarily even.
3. A graph admits a cycle if and only if it’s even.
Definition 2.5.31 (Cover). A family of subgraphs F is called covering or cover
of a graph G if it isn’t necessarily edge-disjoint and ∪F ∈F E(F ) = E(G).
Definition 2.5.32 (Uniform). A covering is called uniform of a graph G if it
covers each edge of G the same number of times.
Definition 2.5.33 (k-cover). A covering is called k-cover of a graph G if it covers
each edge of G k-times. 2-cover is called a double cover. If family of subgraphs
F only consists paths, it’s called path covering. If family of subgraphs F only
consists cycles, it’s called cycle covering.

Exercises

1. 1-cover is a decomposition.
Definition 2.5.34 (Even Digraph). A digraph D is called even if d− (v) = d+ (v)
for each vertex v ∈ V.
Definition 2.5.35 (Hypomorphic). Two graphs G and H are called hypomorphic
if for all v ∈ V, their vertex-deleted subgraphs G − v and H − v are isomorphic.
Definition 2.5.36 (Reconstruction). Any graph which is hypomorphic to G is
called a reconstruction of G.
Definition 2.5.37 (Reconstructible). A graph is called reconstructible if any
reconstruction of G is isomorphic to G.

15
2. Connections Of The Words

Exercises

1. Regular graphs are reconstructible.

2. Disconnected graphs are reconstructible.

Definition 2.5.38 (Recognizable). A class C of graphs is called recognizable if

for each graph G ∈ C, every reconstruction of G belongs to C.
Definition 2.5.39 (Weakly Reconstructible). A class C of graphs is called weakly
reconstructible if for each graph G ∈ C, every reconstruction of G belongs to C
is isomorphic to G.
Definition 2.5.40 (Switching Of The Graph). A graph is called a switching of
the graph if it’s obtained by switching a vertex where switching a vertex means
to exchange its set of neighbors and non-neighbors. A collection of switchings
of a graph is called a deck of graph.
Definition 2.5.41 (Deck Of The Graph). A collection of switchings of a graph
is called a deck of graph.
Definition 2.5.42 (kth power). A graph is denoted by G k and is called kth
power of G = (V, E) where its vertex set is V and two distinct vertices are
adjacent in G k if their distance in G is at most k.
Definition 2.5.43 (Cage). A k−regular graph of girth g with at least possible
number of vertices is called a (k, g)−cage. A (3, g)−cage is referred to g−cage.
Definition 2.5.44 (Tutte-Coxeter Graph). A 8−cage is called Tutte-Coxeter
Graph.

Definition 2.5.45 (t-arc-transitive). A simple connected graph G is called t-

arc-transitive if given any two t-arcs v0 v1 · · · vt and w0 w1 · · · wt , there is an
automorphism of G which maps vi to wi , for 0 ≤ i ≤ t.

Exercises

1. K3,3 is 2-arc-transitive.

2. Petersen graph is 3-arc-transitive.

3. Heawood graph is 4-arc-transitive.

4. Tutte-Coxeter graph is 5-arc-transitive.

5. There are no t-arc-transitive cubic graphs when t > 5.

Definition 2.5.46 (t-arc-transitive). A simple connected graph G is called t-

arc-transitive if given any two t-arcs v0 v1 · · · vt and w0 w1 · · · wt , there is an
automorphism of G which maps vi to wi , for 0 ≤ i ≤ t.
Definition 2.5.47 (Eulerian). A connected graph is called eulerian if there’s a
closed walk which have all edges of G.

16
 2.5. Vertex and Edge: Delete Or Add

Figure 2.9: 8−cage: Tutte-Coxeter Graph G9

Exercises

1. A connected graph is eulerian if and only if it’s even.

Definition 2.5.48 (Dominating Subgraph). A subgraph F of a graph G is called

dominating if every edge of G has at least one end in F.

Exercises

1. L(G) is hamiltonian if and only if G has a dominating eulerian subgraph.

Definition 2.5.49 (De Bruijn-Good Digraph). A digraph is denoted by BG n

and it’s called De Bruijn-Good digraph if the vertex set is the set of all binary
sequences of length n, vertex a1 a2 · · · an being joined to vertex b1 b2 · · · bn if and
only if ai+1 = bi for 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1.

Exercises

1. BG n is an eulerian digraph of order 2n and directed diameter n.

17
2. Connections Of The Words

Definition 2.5.50 (Acyclic Graph). A graph is called acyclic graph if it contains

no cycles.
Definition 2.5.51 (Tree Graph). A graph is called tree graph if it’s connected
acyclic graph.
Definition 2.5.52 (Distance Tree). A graph is called distance tree if it’s spanning
x−tree T of a graph G and dT (x, v) = dG (x, v) for all v ∈ V.
Definition 2.5.53 (Fan). A graph is called fan if it’s P ∨ K1 .
Definition 2.5.54 (Cotree). A graph is denoted by T̄ and it’s called cotree if
it’s the complement of a spanning tree T .
Definition 2.5.55 (Matroid). A graph is denoted by (E, B) and it’s called
matroid if E is a finite set and B is a nonempty family of subsets of E with
exchange property, which is
If B1 , B2 ∈ B and e ∈ B1 \ B2
then there exists f ∈ B2 \ B1 such that (B1 \ {e}) ∪ {f } ∈ B
Definition 2.5.56 (Separable Graph). A graph is called nonseparable if it’s
connected and has no separating vertices; otherwise, it’s separable. Where
a separation of a connected graph is a decomposition of the graph into two
nonempty connected subgraphs which have just one vertex in common which is
called a separating vertex.
Definition 2.5.57 (Block Graph). A subgraph is called block if it’s nonseparable
and maximal with respect to this property.
Definition 2.5.58 (Block Tree). A bipartite graph (B, S) obtained from a graph
G is called block tree where B is the set of blocks of G and S is the set of
separating vertices of G. A block B and a separating vertex v have edge if B
contains v. Blocks corresponding to leaves are called end blocks and the vertex
which isn’t separating vertex is called internal vertex.

2.6 Various Types Of Numbers

Definition 2.6.1 (Connectivity). A number is denoted by κ is called connectivity
of G if it’s the maximum number k for which G is k−connected.
Definition 2.6.2 (Local Connectivity). A number is denoted by p(x, y) is called
is local connectivity amid distinct vertices x and y which is the maximum
number of edges amid all xy−paths.

Graphs Based On Numbers

Definition 2.6.3 (k−connected). A nontrivial graph G is called k−connected if
p(x, y) ≥ k for any two distinct vertices x and y.

Some Classes Of Graphs

Definition 2.6.4 (Planar). A graph is called planar if it can be drawn in the
plane so that its edges intersect only at their ends. Such a drawing is called a
planar embedding of the graph.

18
 2.6. Various Types Of Numbers

Definition 2.6.5 (Face-regular). A planar graph is called face-regular if all of

its faces have the same degree.

Sets And Numbers

Definition 2.6.6 (Stability Number). A set of vertices is called stable set if no
couple of vertices are adjacent. The cardinality of a maximum stable set in a
graph G is called the stability number of G and is denoted by α(G).
Definition 2.6.7 (Covering Number). A set of vertices is called covering set if
they’re incident to all edges of graph. The cardinality of a minimum covering
set in a graph G is called the covering number of G and is denoted by β(G).
Definition 2.6.8 (Clique Number). A set of vertices is called clique set if they’re
mutually adjacent. The cardinality of a maximum covering set in a graph G is
called the covering number of G and is denoted by ω(G).

19
 CHAPTER 3

Ideas And The Approaches

Words are
related to each Example 3.0.1. Consider f : {α, β, η} → {a, b, c}. Thus it’s a graph. In the
other by terms of simple graph, it represents one graph. One edge from one vertex to
different types it, is called loop. Thus there’s one graph with three loops and it’s 3-connected
of tools
graph which has three components. In Listing (3), the python code is used to
engage this concept. And in Listing (3), the TeX code is used where the code
is about the Figures.
lst:code_direct
Listing 3.1: Python Code
i =3
print ( i ∗ i )
i f i ==3:
def Ver ( i ) :
print ( "One s i m p l e g raph w i t h number o f e d g e s : " , i )

x=input ( ’ i= ’ )
n=7;
x =8;
i f n%3==1:
print ( " The number o f s i m p l e g r a p h s i s " , 2^n )
e l i f x%3==2:
print ( " The number o f s i m p l e g r a p h s i s " , 2^ x )

e l i f i %3==0:
print ( " The number o f s i m p l e g r a p h s i s " , 2^ i )
else :
print ( x , ( " i s odd " ) )

print ( " Number i s " , x )

List1
lst:code_direct
Listing 3.2: TeX Code
\ begin { f i g u r e }
\ s u b f i g u r e [ S im pl e Graph ] {
\ d e f i n e c o l o r { u d u d f f }{ rgb } { 0 . 3 0 1 9 6 0 7 8 4 3 1 3 7 2 5 4 7 , 0 . 3 0 1 9 6 0 7 8 4 3 1 3 7 2 5 4 7 , 1 . }
\ b e g i n { t i k z p i c t u r e } [ l i n e cap=round , l i n e j o i n=round,>= t r i a n g l e 4 5 ,
x =1.0cm , y =1.0cm , s c a l e = 0 . 2 ]
\ c l i p ( −4.3 , −3.08) r e c t a n g l e ( 7 . 3 , 6 . 3 ) ;
\ draw [ l i n e width =2. pt ] ( −1.92 ,3.12) − − ( 0 . 2 4 , 0 . 4 ) ;
\ draw [ l i n e width =2. pt ] ( 0 . 2 4 , 0 . 4 ) − − ( 4 . 1 8 , 2 . 9 4 ) ;
\ draw [ l i n e width =2. pt ] ( 4 . 1 8 , 2 . 9 4 ) − − ( − 1 . 9 2 , 3 . 1 2 ) ;
\ draw ( 0 . 7 2 , 3 . 8 6 ) node [ an cho r=n o r t h west ] { $ \ a l p h a $ } ;
\ draw ( 2 . 1 , 1 . 8 4 ) node [ anc hor=n o r t h west ] { $ \ b e t a $ } ;
\ draw ( − 1 . 4 , 2 . 1 8 ) node [ anc ho r=n o r t h west ] { $ \ e t a $ } ;

21
 3. Ideas And The Approaches

\ draw ( − 2 . 1 4 , 3 . 9 2 ) node [ a nch or=n o r t h west ] { $a$ } ;

\ draw ( 4 . 3 2 , 3 . 4 8 ) node [ anc ho r=n o r t h west ] { $b$ } ;
\ draw ( 0 . 0 2 , 0 . 5 8 ) node [ anc ho r=n o r t h west ] { $c$ } ;
\ begin { s c r i p t s i z e }
\ draw [ f i l l =u d u d f f ] ( − 1 . 9 2 , 3 . 1 2 ) c i r c l e ( 2 . 5 pt ) ;
\ draw [ f i l l =u d u d f f ] ( 0 . 2 4 , 0 . 4 ) c i r c l e ( 2 . 5 pt ) ;
\ draw [ f i l l =u d u d f f ] ( 4 . 1 8 , 2 . 9 4 ) c i r c l e ( 2 . 5 pt ) ;
\ end { s c r i p t s i z e }
\ end { t i k z p i c t u r e }
\ s u b f i g u r e [ Graph With Three Loops ] {
\ d e f i n e c o l o r { u d u d f f }{ rgb } { 0 . 3 0 1 9 6 0 7 8 4 3 1 3 7 2 5 4 7 , 0 . 3 0 1 9 6 0 7 8 4 3 1 3 7 2 5 4 7 , 1 . }
\ b e g i n { t i k z p i c t u r e } [ l i n e cap=round , l i n e j o i n=round,>= t r i a n g l e 4 5 ,
x =1.0cm , y =1.0cm , s c a l e = 0 . 3 ]
\ c l i p ( −4.3 , −3.08) r e c t a n g l e ( 7 . 3 , 6 . 3 ) ;
\ draw ( − 2 . 1 2 , 4 . 8 4 ) node [ a nch or=n o r t h west ] { $ \ a l p h a $ } ;
\ draw ( 5 . 1 4 , 4 . 2 ) node [ anc hor=n o r t h west ] { $ \ b e t a $ } ;
\ draw ( − 1 . 1 , 0 . 2 6 ) node [ anc ho r=n o r t h west ] { $ \ e t a $ } ;
\ draw ( − 2 . 1 4 , 3 . 9 2 ) node [ a nch or=n o r t h west ] { $a$ } ;
\ draw ( 4 . 3 2 , 3 . 4 8 ) node [ anc ho r=n o r t h west ] { $b$ } ;
\ draw ( 0 . 0 2 , 0 . 5 8 ) node [ anc ho r=n o r t h west ] { $c$ } ;
\ draw [ l i n e width =2. pt ] ( − 1 . 9 2 , 3 . 1 2 ) c i r c l e ( 1 . 0 2 8 3 9 6 8 1 0 5 7 4 5 9 5 5cm ) ;
\ draw [ l i n e width =2. pt ] ( 4 . 1 8 , 2 . 9 4 ) c i r c l e ( 1 . 0 6 6 2 0 8 2 3 4 8 2 0 9 4 6 3cm ) ;
\ draw [ l i n e width =2. pt ] ( 0 . 2 4 , 0 . 4 ) c i r c l e ( 0 . 9 3 7 2 2 9 9 6 1 1 0 8 7 9 7 7cm ) ;
\ begin { s c r i p t s i z e }
\ draw [ f i l l =u d u d f f ] ( − 1 . 9 2 , 3 . 1 2 ) c i r c l e ( 2 . 5 pt ) ;
\ draw [ f i l l =u d u d f f ] ( 0 . 2 4 , 0 . 4 ) c i r c l e ( 2 . 5 pt ) ;
\ draw [ f i l l =u d u d f f ] ( 4 . 1 8 , 2 . 9 4 ) c i r c l e ( 2 . 5 pt ) ;
\ end { s c r i p t s i z e }
\ end { t i k z p i c t u r e }
\ c a p t i o n {Two D i f f e r e n t Graphs }
\ end { f i g u r e }
List2

Figure 3.1: Simple Graphs And A Graph With Three Loops G1011

Theorem 3.0.2. Let n be a positive integer. Then there are only n numbers of
labelled simple graph where n is both the number of vertices and the number of
edges.
Theorem 3.0.3. Let I be an identity function. Then it represents one labelled
simple graph.
Theorem 3.0.4. Let f be a map. If the cardinality of domain is greater than
the cardinality of image, then it doesn’t represent any labelled simple graph.

22
Theorem 3.0.5. Let f be a map. If there’s a labelled simple graph, then the
cardinality of domain is greater than the cardinality of image.

Example 3.0.6. Let V be a set {1, 2, 3}. Thus the complete graph could be like
functions summation, minus, production, and division as Figures (3.2). There
are infinite graphs on a given set {1, 2, 3} but 23 = 8 are simple graphs.

Figure 3.2: Simple Graphs: Summation, Minus, Production, And Division G1217

Theorem 3.0.7. Let n be a positive integer. Consider Nn = {1, 2, · · · , n}. The

power set of Nn is all possibly simple graphs with the exception complete graph.

Example 3.0.8. Consider N3 . Then {1, 2} is the graph which the edge amid
vertices 1 and 2 holds but the vertex 3 is isolated. By using this notation,
{1, 2, 3} aren’t complete graph because there’s no edge amid the vertex 1 and
the vertex 3, although, vertex 1 and 2 as has edge as vertex 2 and vertex 3.

Theorem 3.0.9. Let n be the number of objects. The power set of Nn is all
possibly simple graphs with the exception complete graph.

0 1 0
 

Example 3.0.10. Let 1 0 0 be a matrix. It’s a graph but it isn’t simple

0 0 1
graph because at third object, there’s oneloop if the vertical rows as are
1 0 0
the set of vertices as horizontal columns. 0 1 0 is a graph with three
0 0 1

23
 3. Ideas And The Approaches

0 1 1 0 0 0
   

loops. 0 0 1 and 1 0 0 have the entries on upper the diagonal and

0 0 0 1 1 0
downward the diagonal but both represent a complete simple graph.

Theorem 3.0.11. For any given vertex, its list of vertices are the vertices with
nonzero number in the corresponded column or corresponded row.

Theorem 3.0.12. For any given vertex, the cardinality of its list of vertices are
the summation of all numbers belongs to its column.

Theorem 3.0.13. For any given vertex, summation of all numbers belongs to
its column, are equal with summation of all numbers belongs to its row.

Theorem 3.0.14. Summation of all numbers belongs to all columns, are equal
with summation of all numbers belongs to all rows. The number is double
number of edges.

Theorem 3.0.15. For any given vertex in a simple graph, the number of its
edges are equal with the number of its vertices in its list.

Theorem 3.0.16. For any given vertex in a simple graph, the number of its
edges are equal with the number of its vertices in its list.

R17 Theorem 3.0.17. Any of zero-one square matrix represents a graph.

Figure 3.3: Binary Matrixes And Graphs G1823

24
 Example 3.0.18. Consider the matrixes.

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
           
0 0 0 , 0 1 0 , 0 0 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 1 0 , 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

By Theorem (3.0.17), these matrixes are graphs. Thus we want to draw the
figures of these graphs as figures (3.3). Parallel edges give us the opportunity
to have infinite numbers of edges amid two vertices as the 22nd item of Figures
(3.3).
Theorem 3.0.19. In matrix, the ijth place is as nonzero as jith place. Then
there are at least two parallel edges.
Theorem 3.0.20. In the directed graphs, it’s possible to get the edge in its simple
graph as two edges with different directions.
Theorem 3.0.21. Any simple graphs could be a directed graphs where the edges
are double but with different directions.
R22 Theorem 3.0.22. Any of zero-one-minus-one square matrix represents a directed
graph.

Figure 3.4: Matrixes And Directed Graphs G2429

Example 3.0.23.

−1 0 −1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 −1 1 0 1
           
−1 −1
 0 0 0  , 0 −1 0 , 0 0 −1 ,  0 0 0 , 0 1 0  , 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 −1 0 0 0 −1 0

25
3. Ideas And The Approaches

By Theorem (3.0.22), these matrixes are directed graphs. Thus we want to

draw the figures of these directed graphs as Figures (3.4). Parallel edges give
us the opportunity to have infinite numbers of edges amid two vertices as the
24th item and the 28th item of Figures (3.4).
There’s one notion to have two graphs with one graph by using matrix
version of a graph. Two matrixes could get summation, subtraction, production
and division. This notion introduces graphs which have multiple loops and
multiple parallel edges. In reverse ways, finding decomposition and packing
notions when one graph is decomposition to at least two graphs or at least
multiple graphs. Thus the matrixes can get numbers without restriction as its
member where the numbers denotes the number of the edges amid two vertices.
Thus
Theorem 3.0.24. Every square matrix represents a graph and a directed graph.
Example 3.0.25. Figure (3.5), shows the equation amid three matrixes which
are denoted by
1 −1 0 3 1 −1 4 0 −1
     
0 2 0 + 0 3 0 = 0 5 0 .
−1 0 −1 −3 0 0 −4 0 −1

Figure 3.5: Extended Matrixes And Graphs G3032

Theorem 3.0.26. Consider a matrix involving V and E. Then a number greater

than two denotes that the edge isn’t simple and it’s either parallel edges or loops.
Theorem 3.0.27. Consider a matrix involving V and E. Then summation of
all numbers are equal to double number of edges
Theorem 3.0.28. Consider a matrix involving V and E as simple graph. Then
summation of all numbers belong to one column are equal to two.
Example 3.0.29. Another vision of a matrix is that, it represents a graph when
the couple of vertical set of objects which is denoted by V and the couple of

26
 horizontal set of objects which is denoted by E. Thus the number two in a
matrix denotes either parallel edges or loops. Consider

−1 0 −1
 
0 0 0
1 0 0

The first vertex has one outer first edge and the third vertex has one inner
outer edge. The first vertex has one outer third edge but there’s no destination
vertex to accept one inner third edge. Thus,
Theorem 3.0.30. Consider a matrix involving V and E. Then it forever
represents neither a simple graph nor directed simple graph.
R31 Theorem 3.0.31. Consider a matrix involving V and E. Then it represents
either a graph or directed graph.

Figure 3.6: Matrixes And Directed Graphs G3338

Example 3.0.32.

−1 0 −1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 −1 1 0 1
           
−1 −1
 0 0 0  , 0 −1 0 , 0 0 −1 ,  0 0 0 , 0 1 0  , 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 −1 0 0 0 −1 0

By Theorem (3.0.22), these matrixes are directed graphs. Thus we want to

draw the figures of these directed graphs as Figures (3.6). Loops give us the
opportunity to have infinite numbers of edges for one vertex as the 34th item
and the 36th-38th items of Figures (3.6).

27
3. Ideas And The Approaches

Theorem 3.0.33. The list of given vertex has the length at most n − 2.
Theorem 3.0.34. The list of given vertex has the length n − 2. Then the graph
is a star graph.
Theorem 3.0.35. The list of given vertex has the length n − 2 and the list has
consecutive vertices. Then the graph is a wheel graph.
Theorem 3.0.36. For two given vertices u, v, the list of u and v has the length
at most n − 1.
Theorem 3.0.37. For two given vertices u, v, the list of u and v has the length
n − 1. Then the graph is a path graph.
Theorem 3.0.38. For two given vertices u, v, the degree list of u and v has
degree at most ∆ and the length at most n − 1.
Theorem 3.0.39. The degree list of a given vertex has degree at most ∆ and
the length at most n − 2.
Theorem 3.0.40. The list of numbers is graphic if and only if it’s degree list.
Theorem 3.0.41. δ = ∆ if and only if it’s ∆−regular graph.
Theorem 3.0.42. Any cycle graph from any given order is 2−regular graph.
Theorem 3.0.43. A complete graph from any given order is (n − 1)−regular
graph.
Example 3.0.44. In Figure (3.7), the graph isn’t a complete graph but it’s
3−regular graph. The number list 333333 is degree list. Thus it’s graphic. It
isn’t a cycle graph because it has more than one cycle. Precisely, there are two
cycles which are v1 v4 v5 v6 v1 and v1 v4 v2 v1 . It isn’t path graph because there’re
two vertices such that there is more than one path amid them. Precisely, there
are two paths v1 v4 v5 v6 and v1 v2 v3 v6 from the vertex v1 to the vertex v6 and
they’re two lists from the vertex v1 to the vertex v6 . v2 v4 v6 is list of v1 .

Figure 3.7: 3−Regular Graph On 6 Vertices G39

Theorem 3.0.45. If n is a number in number list, then it isn’t degree list in a

simple graph.
Theorem 3.0.46. If summation of all numbers in a number list is odd, then it
isn’t degree list in a simple graph.

28
Example 3.0.47. The number list 543258642 isn’t degree list in any given simple
graph with any given order. Consider 4567264. Parity of summation the all
numbers is even but it isn’t degree list because of attending the number 7 which
is the length of number list in the number list.

Theorem 3.0.48. If the length of number list is in the number list, then it isn’t
degree list in a simple graph.

Figure 3.8: Some Classes Of Graphs G4045

Example 3.0.49. Consider Figure (3.8). The first item is connected graph.
The second item is disconnected graph which has two components. The first
component has the vertex set {x1 , x2 } and second component has the vertex
set {x3 } and it’s called trivial graph. The items 1,2,4,5,6 are simple graphs but
the item 3 isn’t simple graph. The item 4 isn’t a planar graph and it’s also
called complete graph from order four, K5 . The item 5 is a planar graph and
it’s also called K4 . The item 6 is empty graph and it isn’t trivial graph and
it’s also called nontrivial graph. All items are nontrivial graphs but the second
component from item 1, is called trivial graph. All items are finite graphs.

29
3. Ideas And The Approaches

Theorem 3.0.50. A graph which the second component is null graph, is called
connected graph.
Theorem 3.0.51. A graph with vertex set, N and two vertices have edges if their
parity is even, is infinite graph.
Theorem 3.0.52. Null graph and trivial graph are finite graph but empty graph
could be either finite graph or infinite graph.

Figure 3.9: Bipartite, 3−partite, Turan, 6−path, 6−cycle, 3−cycle G4651

Example 3.0.53. Consider Figure (3.9). The first item is bipartite because it
has two parts which one part has three vertices and second part has four vertices.
The second item is 3−partite because there are two parts including two vertices

30
and one part including three vertices. Third item is Turan because every part
has the three vertices and the graph is Turan from the order three. Fourth
part is 6−path including seven vertices and six edges. Fifth item is 6−cycle
including six vertices and six edges. The sixth item is 3−cycle including three
vertices and three edges.
The fourth item is 2−partite but it isn’t complete. The fifth item is 3−partite
but it isn’t complete. For n ≥ 3, n−cycle is defined. Thus first n−cycle is
3−cycle. The sixth item is 3−partite but it isn’t complete. The items one, two
and three are complete. The sixth item is 3−partite. All items are n−partite
but the items two, three, four, five and six aren’t bipartite. The only item one
is bipartite.
Theorem 3.0.54. Turan graph is n−partite.
Theorem 3.0.55. Bipartite graph is n−partite.
Theorem 3.0.56. m−path is n−partite.
Theorem 3.0.57. m−cycle is n−partite.
Theorem 3.0.58. m−cycle is bipartite where m is even.
Theorem 3.0.59. Bipartite graph is m−cycle where m is even.
Theorem 3.0.60. Null graph and trivial graph are finite graph but empty graph
could be either finite graph or infinite graph.
The next example plays with the notions of order and the lack of it in the
terms of n−cube and Boolean lattice.
Example 3.0.61. Consider Figure (3.10). 6−cube Q6 , Boolean lattice BL6 ,
Complement of Q6 , Complement of BL6 , Strongly regular graph with (6, 4, 2, 4),
Complement of strongly regular graph with (6, 4, 2, 4) are the items, respectively.
All items are defined on six vertices. One difference amid the labels, is a necessary
and sufficient condition to have edges amid intended vertices.
The items of three to six are the complements of mentioned graphs.
Complement is unary operation thus the input is one graph and the output is
another graph which couldn’t hold the property of the input. The complement
of items one and two don’t hold initial property. The complement of 6−cube Q6
isn’t n−cube as items of one and three. The complement of Boolean lattice BL6
isn’t Boolean lattice BLn as items of two and five. The complement of strongly
regular graph with (6, 4, 2, 4) isn’t strongly regular graph with (6, 1, 0, 0) as
items of three and six.
Theorem 3.0.62. n−cube is a star graph if a degree one vertex is order minus
one.
Theorem 3.0.63. n−cube has at most n − 1 edges if there’s one vertex whose
degree is order minus one.
Theorem 3.0.64. There are 2n−1 + 1 n−cube if there’s one vertex whose degree
is order minus one.
Theorem 3.0.65. Boolean lattice is a star graph if there’s one vertex whose
degree is order minus one.

31
3. Ideas And The Approaches

Figure 3.10: 6−cube Q6 , Boolean lattice BL6 , Complement of Q6 , Complement

of BL6 , Strongly regular graph with (6, 4, 2, 4), Complement of strongly regular
graph with (6, 4, 2, 4) G5257

Theorem 3.0.66. Boolean lattice has at most n − 1 edges if there’s one vertex
whose degree is order minus one.
Theorem 3.0.67. There are 2n−1 + 1 Boolean lattice if there’s one vertex whose
degree is order minus one.
Theorem 3.0.68. A strongly regular graph is regular.
Theorem 3.0.69. The complement of n−cube isn’t forever n−cube.
Theorem 3.0.70. The complement of Boolean lattice isn’t forever Boolean
lattice.
Theorem 3.0.71. There’s at least one strongly regular graph whose complement
is strongly regular graph.

Example 3.0.72. Consider Figure (3.11). 6−cycle C6 , 6−path P6 , 6−star S5,1 ,

32
Figure 3.11: 6−cycle C6 , 6−path P6 , 6−star S5,1 , line graph of 6−cycle C6 , line
graph of 6−path P6 , line graph of 6−star S5,1 G5863

line graph of 6−cycle C6 , line graph of 6−path P6 , line graph of 6−star S5,1 are
the items, respectively. All items are defined on six vertices.
The items of three to six are the line graph of mentioned graphs. Line graph
is unary operation thus the input is one graph and the output is another graph
which couldn’t hold the property of the input as items two and three. The line
graph of items two and three don’t hold initial property but the item two holds
the type of initial graph. The item three not only doesn’t preserve initial graph
but also it doesn’t preserve the style of initial graph. The line graph of the item
three, 6−star S5,1 is the item six, 5−complete K5 . line graph of 6−cycle C6 is
6−cycle C6 and line graph of 6−path P6 is 5−path P5

33
3. Ideas And The Approaches

Figure 3.12: 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 5−wheel W5,1 , line graph of
6−complete K6 , line graph of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , line graph of 5−wheel W5,1 G6469

In this case, the line graph of path is path but in the case of cycle, not only
a line graph of cycle is cycle but also both input and output are the same up to
isomorphism. The line graph of star graph is complete.
Theorem 3.0.73. Line graph if cycle graph is cycle graph.
Theorem 3.0.74. Line graph if n−cycle Cn is n−cycle Cn−1 .
Theorem 3.0.75. Line graph of path graph is path graph.
Theorem 3.0.76. Line graph of n−path Pn is (n − 1)−path Pn−1 .
Theorem 3.0.77. Line graph of star graph is complete graph.

34
Figure 3.13: 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 5−wheel W5,1 , 2−vertex
deletion of 6−complete K6 , 4−edge deletion of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 2−vertex
deletion and 5−edge deletion of 5−wheel W5,1 G7075

Theorem 3.0.78. Line graph of n−star Sn−1,1 is (n − 1)−complete Kn−1 .

Example 3.0.79. Consider Figure (3.12). 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite K3,3 ,
5−wheel W5,1 , line graph of 6−complete K6 , line graph of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 ,
line graph of 5−wheel W5,1 are the items, respectively. All items are defined
on six vertices.

35
3. Ideas And The Approaches

The items of three to six are the line graph of mentioned graphs. Line graph
is unary operation thus the input is one graph and the output is another graph
which couldn’t hold the property of the input. The line graph of items don’t
hold initial property. The items not only don’t preserve initial graph but also
they don’t preserve the style of initial graph.
Example 3.0.80. Consider Figure (3.13). 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite K3,3 ,
5−wheel W5,1 , 2−vertex deletion of 6−complete K6 , 4−edge deletion of
(3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 2−vertex deletion and 5−edge deletion of 5−wheel W5,1 are
the items, respectively. All items are defined on six vertices.
The items of three to six are the line graph of mentioned graphs. n−vertex
deletion and n−edge deletion are unary operations thus the input is one graph
and the output is another graph which couldn’t hold the property of the input.
The n−vertex deletion and n−edge deletion of items don’t hold initial property.
The items not only don’t preserve initial graph but also they don’t preserve the
style of initial graph. n−vertex deletion and n−edge deletion of a graph make
the graphs which are subgraphs of initial graph. All items are countable graphs.
All items have cycle with the exception item five. The item five is acyclic graph.
All items are triangle-free graph with the exception item five. The item five is
spanning subgraph of item two.

Example 3.0.81. Consider Figure (3.14). 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite

K3,3 , 5−wheel W5,1 , Hamiltonian cycle of 6−complete K6 , Hamiltonian cycle
of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , Hamiltonian cycle of 5−wheel W5,1 are the items,
respectively. All items are defined on six vertices.
The items of three to six are the Hamiltonian cycle of mentioned graphs.
Hamiltonian cycle is unary operations thus the input is one graph and the
output is another graph which couldn’t hold the property of the input as items.
Theorem 3.0.82. n−complete Kn has Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 3.0.83. n−complete Kn has Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 3.0.84. (n, m)−partite Kn,m has Hamiltonian cycle where n, m 6= 1.
Theorem 3.0.85. (n, m)−partite Kn,m has Hamiltonian path where n, m 6= 1.
Theorem 3.0.86. n−wheel Wn,1 has Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 3.0.87. n−wheel Wn,1 has Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 3.0.88. n−star Sn,1 doesn’t have Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 3.0.89. n−star Sn,1 doesn’t have Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 3.0.90. Peterson graph has Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 3.0.91. Peterson graph has Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 3.0.92. n−regular graph has Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 3.0.93. n−regular graph has Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 3.0.94. Empty graph doesn’t have Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 3.0.95. Empty graph doesn’t have Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 3.0.96. Trivial graph has Hamiltonian cycle.

36
Figure 3.14: 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 5−wheel W5,1 , Hamiltonian
cycle of 6−complete K6 , Hamiltonian cycle of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , Hamiltonian
cycle of 5−wheel W5,1 G7681

Theorem 3.0.97. Trivial graph has Hamiltonian path.

Theorem 3.0.98. Null graph has Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 3.0.99. Null graph has Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 3.0.100. Disconnected graph doesn’t have Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 3.0.101. Disconnected graph doesn’t have Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 3.0.102. Turan graph Tn,m has Hamiltonian cycle where n, m 6= 1.

37
3. Ideas And The Approaches

Theorem 3.0.103. Turan graph Tn,m has Hamiltonian path where n, m 6= 1.

Figure 3.15: Initial graph, 2−factor of initial graph, First element of symmetric
difference graph, Second element of symmetric difference graph, 4−factor of
initial graph. G8287

Example 3.0.104. Consider Figure (3.15). Initial graph, 3−factor of initial

graph, First element of symmetric difference graph, Second element of symmetric
difference graph, 4−factor of initial graph are the items, respectively. All items
are defined on six vertices.
The items of two to six are the operations of mentioned graph as item one.
n−factor is unary operation thus the input is one graph and the output is
another graph which couldn’t hold the property of the input as items. The

38
items two and three are spanning subgraphs form the initial graph with new
title symmetric difference graph.

Figure 3.16: Initial graph, vertex identification of initial graph, edge contraction
of initial graph, vertex splitting of initial graph, edge subdivision of initial graph,
weighted graph of initial graph. G8893

Theorem 3.0.105. A complete graph is (n − 1)-factor.

Theorem 3.0.106. A complete graph is 0-factor, 1-factor, · · · , (n − 1)-factor.
Theorem 3.0.107. Every graph is symmetric difference graph.

39
3. Ideas And The Approaches

Figure 3.17: Tree graph, cyclic graph, cotree, nonplanar bipartite graph K3,3 ,
nonplanar complete graph K5 , fan graph. G9499

Theorem 3.0.108. A star graph only has 0-factor.

Theorem 3.0.109. A wheel graph only has 0-factor, 1-factor and 2-factor.

40
Theorem 3.0.110. A graph only has 0-factor, is disconnected graph.
Theorem 3.0.111. A graph has 1-factor, is connected graph.
Example 3.0.112. Consider Figure (3.16). Initial graph, vertex identification of
initial graph, edge contraction of initial graph, vertex splitting of initial graph,
edge subdivision of initial graph, weighted graph of initial graph, respectively.
All items are defined on six vertices.
Labeled edges and vertices are the changes in comparison to the initial
graph. The items of two to six are the operations of mentioned graph as item
one. all operations, vertex identification, edge contraction, vertex splitting, edge
subdivision, weighted graph are unary operations thus the input is one graph
and the output is another graph which couldn’t hold the property of the input
as items with exception item six.
Example 3.0.113. Consider Figure (3.17). Tree graph, cyclic graph, cotree,
nonplanar bipartite graph K3,3 , nonplanar complete graph K5 , fan graph,
respectively. All items are defined on six vertices with exception item five.
Item one and item two are planar graphs. Item four and item five aren’t
planar. Item two is tree graph and item three is cotree of item two. Item six is
a fan graph.
Theorem 3.0.114. A bipartite graph K3,3 is nonplanar.
Theorem 3.0.115. A complete graph K5 is nonplanar.
Theorem 3.0.116. A fan graph is cyclic where the order is greater than two.
Theorem 3.0.117. A fan graph is planar.
Theorem 3.0.118. A fan graph isn’t tree where the order is greater than two.
Theorem 3.0.119. A bipartite graph K3,3 is cyclic.
Theorem 3.0.120. A complete graph K5 is cyclic.
Theorem 3.0.121. A bipartite graph K3,3 isn’t tree.
Theorem 3.0.122. A complete graph K5 isn’t tree.
Theorem 3.0.123. A complete graph Kn is cyclic where the order is greater
than two.
Theorem 3.0.124. A bipartite graph Kn,m is cyclic where the order is greater
than three.
Theorem 3.0.125. A complete graph Kn isn’t tree where the order is greater
than two.
Theorem 3.0.126. A bipartite graph Kn,m isn’t tree where the order is greater
than three.
Theorem 3.0.127. A tree graph is acyclic.
Theorem 3.0.128. A path graph Pn is acyclic.
Theorem 3.0.129. A complete graph Kn isn’t tree where the order is greater
than two.

41
3. Ideas And The Approaches

Theorem 3.0.130. A bipartite graph Kn,m isn’t tree where the order is greater
than three.
Theorem 3.0.131. An n−star Sn,1 is acyclic.
Theorem 3.0.132. An n−star Sn,1 is tree.
Theorem 3.0.133. An n−star Sn,1 is planar.
Theorem 3.0.134. A path graph Pn is tree.
Theorem 3.0.135. A path graph Pn is planar.
Theorem 3.0.136. A cycle graph Cn is planar.
Theorem 3.0.137. A cycle graph Cn isn’t tree.

42