Transfer functions of electrical networks

RC network
R
+ +

𝑣𝑖(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡) C
𝑣0(𝑡)

_ _

𝑣𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑅 + 𝑣0(𝑡)

1
𝑣𝑜(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 (𝑡)
Taking Laplace transform:
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑅 + 𝑉𝑜(𝑠)
𝐼(𝑠)
𝑉𝑜(𝑠) =
𝑠𝐶
∴ 𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶𝑉𝑜(𝑠)
Hence we have:
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶𝑉𝑜(𝑠) 𝑅 + 𝑉𝑜(𝑠)
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) = 𝑉𝑜(𝑠) (1 + 𝑠𝐶𝑅)
𝑉𝑜(𝑠) 1
=
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) 1 + 𝑠𝐶𝑅
RLC network
R L
+ +

𝑣𝑖(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡)
C 𝑣𝑜(𝑡)

_ _

1
 𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑣𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑅 + 𝐿 + 𝑣𝑜(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
1
𝑣𝑜(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 (𝑡)
Taking Laplace transform:
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿𝐼(𝑠) + 𝑉𝑜(𝑠)
𝐼(𝑠)
𝑉𝑜(𝑠) =
𝑠𝐶
∴ 𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶𝑉𝑜(𝑠)
Hence we have:
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶𝑅𝑉𝑜(𝑠) + 𝑠 2 𝐶𝐿𝑉𝑜(𝑠) + 𝑉𝑜(𝑠)
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) = 𝑉0(𝑠) (𝑠 2 𝐶𝐿 + 𝑠𝐶𝑅 + 1)
𝑉𝑜(𝑠) 1
= 2
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) 𝑠 𝐶𝐿 + 𝑠𝐶𝑅 + 1
Drawing block diagram for RC network and determining its transfer function
R
+ +

𝑣𝑖(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡) C
𝑣0(𝑡)

_ _

𝑉𝑖(𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑅 + 𝑉𝑜(𝑠) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1)

𝐼(𝑠)
𝑉𝑜(𝑠) = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (2)
𝑠𝐶
Block diagram for (1):
𝑉𝑜(𝑠) = 𝑉𝑖(𝑠) − 𝑅𝐼(𝑠)

2
 +
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) 𝑉0(𝑠)

-
𝑅𝐼(𝑠)

OR
+
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) 𝑉0(𝑠)

-
R 𝐼(𝑠)

Block diagram for (2):

𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶𝑉𝑜(𝑠)
𝑉0(𝑠)
𝐼(𝑠) sC

Combining the two blocks we get:

+
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) 𝑉0(𝑠)

-
R sC

OR
+
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) 𝑉0(𝑠)

-
sCR

Hence we have:
𝑉𝑜(𝑠) 𝐺 1
= =
𝑉𝑖(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺𝐻 1 + 𝑠𝐶𝑅

3
DC motors
In control systems, a dc motor can be used in different control modes. The two
control modes used are:
 Armature control with fixed field current.
 Field control with fixed armature current.
Armature control

𝑅𝑎 𝐿𝑎 𝑖𝑓 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
+

e 𝑖𝑎 𝑒𝑏 +

_
𝜃
𝐽, ϝ

Where:
𝑅𝑎 = resistance of the armature winding
𝐿𝑎 = inductance of the armature winding
𝑖𝑎 = the armature current
𝑖𝑓 = the field current
𝑒 = the applied armature voltage
𝑒𝑏 = the back emf
𝑇 = the torque developed by the motor
𝜃 = the angular displacement of the motor shaft
𝐽 = the equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load referred to the motor shaft
ϝ = the viscous friction coefficient

4
In the linear range of magnetization curve, air gap flux is proportional to the field
current.
∅ = 𝑘𝑓 𝑖𝑓
The torque developed by the motor is proportional to product of armature current
and the air-gap flux, hence we have:
𝑇 = 𝑘1 𝑘𝑓 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑎
For armature controlled dc motor, the field current is kept constant and hence we
have:
𝑇 = 𝑘 𝑇 𝑖𝑎 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1)
𝑘 𝑇 = 𝑘1 𝑘𝑓 𝑖𝑓 is the motor torque constant.
The Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the armature circuit is:
𝑑𝑖𝑎
𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑎 + 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑒 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (2)
𝑑𝑡
The mechanical torque equation is:
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑇 =𝐽 2 +ϝ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The back emf (𝑒𝑏 ) is proportional to speed and is given by:
𝑑𝜃
𝑒𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (4)
𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace transform of the above equations we get:
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝑘 𝑇 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (5)

𝑠𝐿𝐼𝑎(𝑠) + 𝑅𝐼𝑎(𝑠) + 𝐸𝑏(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (6)

𝑇(𝑠) = 𝑠 2 𝐽𝜃(𝑠) + 𝑠ϝ𝜃(𝑠) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (7)
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑠𝑘𝑏 𝜃(𝑠) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (8)
From (6) we have:
(𝑠𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 )𝐼𝑎(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠) − 𝐸𝑏(𝑠) ⋯ ⋯ (9)

5
From (5) and (7) we have:
(𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ)𝜃(𝑠) = 𝑘 𝑇 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (10)

𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ
𝐼𝑎(𝑠) =
𝑘𝑇
Substituting for 𝐼𝑎(𝑠) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑏(𝑠) in (9) we get:
(𝑠𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 )(𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ)𝜃(𝑠)
= 𝐸(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑘𝑏 𝜃(𝑠)
𝑘𝑇
(𝑠𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 )(𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ) + 𝑠𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑇
𝜃(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠)
𝑘𝑇
Hence we have the transfer function:
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑘𝑇
= 2
𝜃(𝑠) (𝑠𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 )(𝑠 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ) + 𝑠𝑘𝑏 𝑘 𝑇

Block diagram of the system

From (9) we have:
1
𝐼𝑎(𝑠) = (𝐸(𝑠) − 𝐸𝑏(𝑠) ) ( )
𝑠𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎
+ 1
𝐸(𝑠) 𝐼𝑎(𝑠)
𝑠𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎
-
𝐸𝑏(𝑠)

From (10) we have:

𝑘𝑇
𝜃(𝑠) = 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) ( )
𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ
𝑘𝑇
𝐼𝑎(𝑠) 𝜃(𝑠)
𝑠2𝐽+ 𝑠ϝ

6
From (8) we have:
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑠𝑘𝑏 𝜃(𝑠)

𝜃(𝑠)
𝐸𝑏(𝑠) 𝑠𝑘𝑏

Combining all we have:

+ 1 𝑘𝑇
𝐸(𝑠) 𝜃(𝑠)
𝑠𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 𝑠2𝐽+ 𝑠ϝ
-
𝑠𝑘𝑏

In canonical form:
+ 𝑘𝑇
𝐸(𝑠) 𝜃(𝑠)
(𝑠𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 )(𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ)
-
𝑠𝑘𝑏

Hence:
𝜃(𝑠) 𝐺 𝑘𝑇
= =
𝐸(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺𝐻 (𝑠𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 )(𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ) + 𝑠𝑘𝑏 𝑘 𝑇
Field control

𝑖𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) 𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓
+

𝐿𝑓 𝑒𝑓

𝐽, ϝ

7
We have:
𝑅𝑓 =resistance of the field winding
𝐿𝑓 =inductance of the field winding
𝑖𝑎 =armature current
𝑖𝑓 =field current
𝑒𝑓 =applied voltage
𝑇=torque developed by the motor
𝜃=angular displacement of the motor shaft
𝐽=equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load referred to the motor shaft
Ϝ=viscous friction coefficient.
In the linear range of magnetization curve, air gap flux is proportional to the field
current.
∅ = 𝑘𝑓 𝑖𝑓
The torque developed by the motor is proportional to product of armature current
and the air-gap flux, hence we have:
𝑇 = 𝑘1 𝑘𝑓 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑎
For armature controlled dc motor, the field current is kept constant and hence we
have:
𝑇 = 𝑘 𝑇 𝑖𝑓 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1)
𝑘 𝑇 = 𝑘1 𝑘𝑓 𝑖𝑎 is the motor torque constant.
The Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the field circuit is:
𝑑𝑖𝑓
𝐿𝑓 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓 = 𝑒𝑓 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (2)
𝑑𝑡
The mechanical torque equation is:
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑇 =𝐽 2 +ϝ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

8
From (1) and (3) we have:
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑘 𝑇 𝑖𝑓 = 𝐽 2 + ϝ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace transform of (2) and (3) we have:
(𝑠𝐿𝑓 + 𝑅𝑓 )𝐼𝑓(𝑠) = 𝐸𝑓(𝑠) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (5)
(𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ)𝜃(𝑠) = 𝑘 𝑇 𝐼𝑓(𝑠) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (6)

Substituting for 𝐼𝑓(𝑠) in (5) we get:

(𝑠𝐿𝑓 + 𝑅𝑓 )(𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ)𝜃(𝑠)

= 𝐸𝑓(𝑠)
𝑘𝑇
𝜃(𝑠) 𝑘𝑇
=
𝐸𝑓(𝑠) (𝑠𝐿𝑓 + 𝑅𝑓 )(𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ)

Block diagram of the system

From (5) we have:
1
𝐼𝑓(𝑠) = 𝐸𝑓(𝑠)
𝑠𝐿𝑓 + 𝑅𝑓
1
𝐸𝑓(𝑠) 𝐼𝑓(𝑠)
𝑠𝐿𝑓 + 𝑅𝑓

From (6) we have:

𝑘𝑇
𝜃(𝑠) = 𝐼𝑓(𝑠)
𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ
𝑘𝑇
𝐼𝑓(𝑠) 𝜃(𝑠)
𝑠2𝐽+ 𝑠ϝ

Combining we get:
1 𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝑓(𝑠) 𝜃(𝑠)
𝑠𝐿𝑓 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑠2𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ

Combining blocks we get:

9
 𝐸𝑓(𝑠) 𝑘𝑇
𝜃(𝑠)
(𝑠𝐿𝑓 + 𝑅𝑓 )(𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ)

The transfer function is given by:

𝜃𝑠 𝑘𝑇
=
𝐸𝑓(𝑠) (𝑠𝐿𝑓 + 𝑅𝑓 )(𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠ϝ)

10
Block diagram reduction techniques
A control system may consist of several kinds of components of different section
with different kinds of components. The important feature of each component is the
effect it has on the system. This component may be replaced by blocks each relating
only the important features of the component like mathematical expression that
defines the characteristic of the component.
Eventually a control system may consist of several blocks. To manipulate the blocks,
several block diagram reduction rules can be used.
Block diagram in series

R 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 C Equivalent 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 C
R

𝐶 = 𝑅(𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 )
Block diagram in parallel
+
𝑅1 𝐺1 Equivalent R 𝑅1 𝐺1 + 𝑅2 𝐺2 C
C
+
𝑅2 𝐺2

𝐶 = 𝑅1 𝐺1 + 𝑅2 𝐺2
Any closed loop can be reduced to an equivalent open loop
+
R G R 𝐺 C
C Equivalent
- 1 + 𝐺𝐻
H

𝐶 𝐺
=
𝑅 1 + 𝐺𝐻

11
Order of summing point does not affect result
𝑅2 𝑅2
+ +
+ + +
𝑅1 C Equivalent 𝑅1 C
-
𝑅3 -
𝑅3

𝐶 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 − 𝑅3
Moving summing point ahead of an element
+ +
𝑅1 G C Equivalent 𝑅1 G C
-
-
𝑅2
1 𝑅2
𝐺

𝐶 = 𝐺𝑅1 − 𝑅2
Moving summing point beyond an element

+ +
𝑅1 G C Equivalent 𝑅1 G C
-
𝑅2 -
𝑅2 G

𝐶 = 𝐺(𝑅1 − 𝑅2 )
Moving a taking off point ahead of an element

R G C Equivalent 𝑅 G C

C C G

𝐶 = 𝐺𝑅

12
Moving a taking off point beyond an element

R G C Equivalent 𝑅 G C

R 1
R 𝐺

𝐶 = 𝐺𝑅
Multi-input systems
These are systems with more than one input. When multi-input systems are
considered, in linear time invariant systems, superposition method is applied.
Below is a two input linear system.
𝑅2
+
+ +
𝑅1 𝐺2
𝐺1 C
-

Assuming 𝑅2 = 0, we have:
+
𝑅1 𝐺2
𝐺1 C
-

𝐺1 𝐺2
𝐶𝑅1 = 𝑅
1 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻 1
Assuming 𝑅1 = 0, we have:
+
𝑅2
𝐺2 C
-

𝐺1 H

13
 𝐺2
𝐶𝑅2 = 𝑅
1 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻 2
Hence we have:
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑅1 + 𝐶𝑅2
𝐺2
𝐶= (𝐺 𝑅 + 𝑅2 )
1 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻 1 1

14