sustainability

Article
The Business Model in Sustainability Transitions:
A Conceptualization
Roberto Hernández-Chea 1 , Akriti Jain 2, * , Nancy M. P. Bocken 1,3 and Anjula Gurtoo 2

1 The International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics (IIIEE), Lund University, Tegnérsplatsen 4,
223 50 Lund, Sweden; [email protected] (R.H.-C.); [email protected] (N.M.P.B.)
2 Centre for Society and Policy, Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Science—Bangalore,
Mathikere, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560012, India; [email protected]
3 Maastricht Sustainability Institute, School of Business and Economics, Maastricht University,
Tapijn 11 Building D, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Business models direct a firm’s activity to move in coherence with the objectives of the
business. Current literature suggests business models can act as vital forces to facilitate sustain-
ability transitions and highlights the urgent research call to understand the role of business model
innovations in stimulating sustainability transitions. This paper addresses this research need by
investigating how firms create business model innovations for system-level transformation towards
sustainability. Through a systematic literature review and deductive content analysis methodology,
we identify and categorize different combinations of innovative activities in a firm’s business model.
Furthermore, two cases are illustrated to demonstrate the proposed conceptual model. The proposed
conceptualization bridges a significant gap in the theme of sustainability and business and presents a





 defensible and researchable problem for transitions literature. Specifically, we find (1) shared vision
and strategic dialogues among firms in different sectors as essential to develop value propositions and
Citation: Hernández-Chea, R.; Jain,
A.; Bocken, N.M.P.; Gurtoo, A. The
leverage business opportunities for sustainability in the long run; (2) companies ensure sustainable
Business Model in Sustainability value creation and value delivery in the medium term through creation of an interdependent network
Transitions: A Conceptualization. of the green supply chain and collaboration with stakeholders; (3) in the short term, companies
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763. https:// adopt sustainable practices, controlling daily operations, conducting awareness campaigns and
doi.org/10.3390/su13115763 experimenting with collaborations to deliver values based on sustainable practices.

Academic Editor: Luis Keywords: sustainable business models (SBM); activity-system approach; circular economy; sustain-
Jesús Belmonte-Ureña ability transition; transition management; transitions studies

Received: 13 April 2021

Accepted: 11 May 2021
Published: 21 May 2021
1. Introduction

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

Increasing environmental concerns and associated stricter regulations have directed
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
the attention of researchers and practitioners alike towards the potential role of multiple
published maps and institutional affil-
actors in a system to accelerate sustainability transitions [1,2]. Among them, the business
iations. model, as a tool to bring system-wide sustainability changes, has received increasing
attention in the literature [3]. This study investigates the role of business models in sustain-
ability transitions. Specifically, we ask the research question: what is the role of sustainable
business models’ activity system in sustainability transitions? Business models embrace
a wide range of operational and strategic activities [4]. Wirtz et al. [5] described business
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
models as representative of firm activities which help the business secure competitive
This article is an open access article
advantage and involve all stakeholders of the firm, including customers and partners (see
distributed under the terms and
also [4,6,7]). In line with this, sustainable business models take into account ecological,
conditions of the Creative Commons social and financial concerns embedded into business activities, as well as interactions with
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// a wide range of stakeholders to implement activities [8,9]. Sustainable business models
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ differ from dominant unsustainable ones (e.g., the linear economy business model) by
4.0/). either incorporating concepts to pursue sustainability and integrating sustainability or

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Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 2 of 25

circularity into their value proposition, value creation and delivery activities, and/or value
capture [7,10]. The literature describes circular business models as those that focus on
“slowing resource loop”, i.e., extending the consecutive use of material or component in
the product [11] and “closing resource loop”, i.e., capturing value from end-of-life mate-
rial [12,13]. Geissdoerfer et al. [14], and Nosratabadi et al. [15] provide a detailed review of
various types and definitions of sustainable business models. These reviews demonstrate
the growing importance of sustainable business models’ role in achieving sustainable
development goals over the past decade. A sustainable business model, therefore, can
play a strong role in sustainability transition (a) as an intermediary for facilitating the
commercialization or diffusion of sustainable technologies [16–18], and also (b) as a source
of niche creation through promoting different non-technological innovations [19–21].
Table 1 categorizes and exemplifies the technological and non-technological niche
innovations created at the micro level by firms, of which business model innovation
presents an important non-technological innovation. While small firms bring innovations
through sustainable entrepreneurship, large firms bring innovations through sustainable
intrapreneurship, new business units and/or spin-offs [22]. To accelerate the transition
towards sustainability there is an urgent need to understand how business activities
embedded in sustainable business models trigger sustainability transitions [19]. The
literature provides little evidence on how firms engage in developing and implementing
sustainable business model (SBM) innovation as non-technological innovations to influence
sustainability transitions [21,23,24].

Table 1. Niche innovations and niche actors.

Type of Niche Examples of Niche Innovations Niche Actors References

SMEs, entrepreneurs, government
Technological Technology: product and process [25,26]
agencies, large firms
Business model: service
Non-technological Social entrepreneurs, SMEs, large firms [21,22,27–29]
and organizational

Current literature suggests firms and their business models act as vital forces to facili-
tate sustainability transitions [19,21,30]. Despite such a recognition, conceptual advances
at the micro level, with niche innovations and niche actors (e.g., firm and partners) as foci
to capture multiple dynamic (inter)organizational activities, remain limited [31–33]. In
other words, the theory of the firm lacks the macro-perspective analysis of sustainability
transitions [19]. Therefore, further research is required to investigate SBM innovations and
their ecosystems for activities enabling sustainability transitions [34,35].
Parallel to this, we find sustainability transition theories comprising a rather wide
range of conceptualizations [36]. These frameworks are generally criticized for lacking
a firm-level perspective, which in turn causes limited understanding of how firms and
associated business models influence system transformations [21,37]. On the other hand,
the theory of the firm lacks the macro-perspective analysis of sustainability transitions [19].
This paper, therefore, investigates how firms with sustainable business model innova-
tions contribute to the dynamic system-level transformation towards sustainability over
time. We investigate the following question: what is the role of sustainable business models
activity system in sustainability transitions?
To investigate this, we integrate the two concepts of the “sustainable business model”
and “sustainability transition” to explain how business model innovations and activities at
the firm or micro level influence changes at the system or macro level. We use transition
management [38] as the main analytical framework to understand sustainability transitions
from a macro perspective, and the theoretical lens of the business model activity system [39]
to understand firm activities at the micro level. The outcome is a conceptualization of how
firms help radical changes at the system level by working at the micro level. The proposed
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 3 of 25

conceptualization bridges a significant gap in the theme of sustainability and business, and
presents a defensible and researchable problem for transitions literature.
The paper contributes to the literature in two ways. First, the analysis provides a
new conceptual model demonstrating firm-level perspective of sustainability transitions
through the theoretical integration of transitions and business model frameworks. The
framework increases our understanding of a diverse set of activities related to a firm
business model that support transitions from a governance perspective. Secondly, the paper
also provides a set of challenges, guiding questions, and activities to guide practitioners
and firms to move towards sustainability over time.
The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 outlines the theoretical background,
followed by Section 3 which presents the methodology of data collection and analysis.
Section 4 provides results in the form of the conceptualization of firms’ activities for
sustainability transitions along with the case illustration. Section 5 discusses the results
and Section 6 concludes the paper.

2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Why the Activity System Perspective for SBMs
Sustainable business models help zoom in on a spectrum of innovative activities that
enable firms to propose, create and deliver, and capture sustainable value [15,40–42].
Previous studies have used the activity system to analyze SBM innovations. The
conceptualization of business models from an activity perspective was developed by [23]
Zott and Amit [39], who defined a business model as “a system of interdependent activities
that transcends the focal firm and spans its boundaries”. Activities are described as
commitments from different stakeholders (e.g., firms, customers, partners) to perform
duties related to a purpose and the accomplishment of an overall goal [39]. The activity
system offers a useful theoretical foundation and capacity to reflect on firm’s activities [43].
Based on the activity system, a business model innovation happens by: adding new
activities; linking activities in new ways; and/or changing one or more stakeholders to
perform activities [44].
Moroz and Gamble [45] and Serhan and Yannou-Le [46] examined the relation between
SBM activities and certifications. While Moroz and Gamble [45] provided insights into
the management of tensions between SBM innovation and certifications, Serhan and
Yannou-Le [46] discussed the evolution of innovative business model activity through
implementing principles of quality management systems to accomplish environmental and
social responsibilities. Breuer et al. [47] explored the differences within SBMs as planned
(i.e., design) and realized (i.e., outcomes) activity systems. Lemus-Aguilar et al. [48]
identified the key factors and activities in a sustainable business model that influence
firm design. Jacob and Teuteberg [49] provided the taxonomy of the design of social
networking technologies in sustainable business models. Inigo et al. [34] examined the
capabilities related to transforming internal and external systems of activities within
business model innovation.
Literature suggests large firms often focus on activities related to maximizing material
efficiency, create value from waste, and substitute with renewable energy, which are linked
to cost savings [3,41]. Smaller firms or SMEs actively adopt business model innovation for
sustainability. However, they face difficulties in integrating sustainable-related activities
while they strive for profits [50]. Drivers such as branding, marketing, and stakeholder
involvement support the SMEs in implementing a network-level business model to increase
sustainable value creation activities [51].
From the social enterprise point of view, business model innovation occurs by devel-
oping, discarding, and reconfiguring activities according to social and financial goals [52].
Previous research emphasizes sustainable-oriented activities as fundamental for sustain-
ability transitions as well as for sustainable business model development [41,53]. In this
paper, we address the research call to understand sustainable business model innovations
and its activities that play a strong role in sustainability transitions [53–55].
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 4 of 25

2.2. Sustainability Transitions

A transition refers to a long-term process of change in a system’s structures, culture,
institutions, or networks [56]. Sustainability transitions, therefore, happen when change is
directed from unsustainable to sustainable modes of production–consumption systems.
The change entails switching technology, business, industries, value chain and distribution,
user-practices, values, and culture [35,38,57]. Sustainability transitions refer to a complex
and long-term process involving a web of multiple actors operating at various levels of a
system [37,58].

Models and Frameworks of Sustainability Transitions

The complex process of transition is studied by investigating the socio-technical
system at three broad levels, namely, niche, regime, and landscape. Niches are protected
spaces such as markets, applications, or technologies where radical innovation brings about
change by breaking lock-ins, path dependence, and stability. Regimes represent a set of
dominant rules, regulation, infrastructure, practices, and cultures [56,57]. The landscape
involves societal, cultural, or environmental values, and the environment [59]. These three
levels form an analytical base of four popular conceptual frameworks, i.e., multilevel
perspective [1,60], strategic niche management [61], transition management [38,62], and
technological innovation system [63] perspective.
While the multilevel perspective, strategic niche management, and technological
innovation system focus on innovation, the transition management perspective aims to
analyze specific activities to govern sustainability transition at different levels. For our
analysis, the transition management framework therefore forms the basis of the framework.
Transition management refers to an analytical and normative approach that derives
theoretical insights from transition dynamics, complex systems thinking, resilience theory,
and governance approaches [37,38]. The framework advocates for effective governance of
a transition towards sustainability through four levels of activities, i.e., strategic, tactical,
operational, and reflexive [64].
1. Strategic activities consider long time horizons, problem structuring, envision al-
ternative futures, and discussions to create a shared understanding of reality (root
causes of problems) [65]. Activities at this level require actors to embrace openness for
change to achieve joint ambitions and open discussions to reflect on how innovation
contributes to desired changes [38].
2. Tactical activities relate to agenda-building, negotiation, networking, lobbying, and
coalitions to build new systems [55]. SBM activities at this level require alignment of
medium-term activities and strategies with the long-term vision of the organization.
3. Operational activities, in contrast, involve experimenting, project building, and im-
plementation to link everyday activities to the long- and medium-term visions and
goals [65].
4. Reflexive activities involve monitoring and evaluation of activities at each of the three
prior level steps to facilitate the revision of goals and visions whenever necessary [55].
Based on the transition management approach, we demonstrate how firms can move
towards sustainability by directing and realigning their activities in the short, medium and
long term through holistic change in their business models.

2.3. Interlinkage between Sustainability Transition and Sustainable Business Model Innovation
Debates on sustainability transitions bring forward multidisciplinary issues and com-
plex problems [35]. The debate highlights a variety of solutions ranging from radical
technological innovations to novel and creative non-technological solutions [56]. One such
solution gaining the attention of policymakers, the scientific community, and firms is the
idea of transitioning the production–consumption system from a linear to circular model
where output of one subsystem becomes the input for another sub-system [66,67]. The
circular economy involves the narrowing (using less material and energy), slowing (longer
use), closing (reusing material), and regenerating (improving the natural environment) of
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 5 of 25

resource loops [53,68–70]. The circular economy emphasizes the creation of a closed-loop
economic or production–consumption system to reduce waste and protect exhaustible
natural resources [20]. This idea has not only accelerated new and radical technologies (i.e.,
reuse, recycle, and reduce technologies) but also galvanized the development of new and in-
novative business models helping firms to contribute to sustainability transition (e.g., SBMs
that create value from waste, or that deliver functionalities rather than ownership) [71].
SBMs facilitate sustainable transition pathways, for example, through delivering
functionality (through leasing or rental) rather than ownership, reduction in waste through
buy-back schemes, and the use of renewable or recycled material in products and processes.
SBMs, therefore, help in directing firms’ activity to move in coherence with the idea of
the circular economy [20]. Thereby, they have the potential to disrupt the entire industry
by facilitating sustainable business offerings, processes, and operations [19,21,72]. Table 2
highlights the commonalities and differences between SBM and sustainability transitions
in terms of their content, scope, focus, and key issues involved in the two streams.

Table 2. Commonalities and differences between SBM and sustainability transition (adapted from [73]).

SBM Sustainability Transition

The SBM creates significant positive and/or
Sustainability transitions are long-term,
significantly reduced negative impacts for the
multidimensional, and fundamental transformation
environment and/or society through changes in the
Concept processes through which established socio-technical
way the company and its value network create and
systems shift to more sustainable modes of
deliver value and capture value or change their value
production and consumption [37]
propositions [8]
Sustainable vision of organizations and
key stakeholders Sustainable vision of organizations, societal actors,
Innovation as a driver to improve business, society, and stakeholders
Key issues
and environment Innovation promotes sustainability transitions
Positive impacts in internal and external Positive impacts in societies and industries
organizational structures
Scope Internal and external organizational structures Industries and societies
To operate business with positive impact in societies, To solve societal needs through sustainable
Focus
natural environment, and business production and consumption
Dimension Micro Micro, meso, and macro

Current literature suggests firms and their business models act as vital forces to
facilitate sustainability transitions [19,21,30]. However, the conceptual advances at the
micro level with niche innovations and niche actors (e.g., firm and partners) as a foci to
capture organizational activities influencing system changes is missing [31,32]. In this paper,
we address the urgent research call to understand sustainable business model innovation
and its implicated activities, which play a large role in sustainability transitions [53–55].

3. Materials and Methods

We conducted the research in three phases. In the first phase, we conducted a bib-
liometric search and literature review in two streams, business model and sustainability
transitions, and identified the relevant articles from the two streams. In the second phase,
we performed a content analysis to understand the integration of the business model
activity system with the transition management perspective of sustainability. The third
and final phase involved analyzing two illustrative short cases to demonstrate the practical
application of our conceptualization and how such cases perform in practice.

3.1. Data Collection—Bibliometric Search and Identification of Relevant Articles

The bibliometric search was conducted on two streams, namely, business model and
sustainability transitions, between August 2019 and June 2020.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 6 of 25

3.1.1. Article Search Criteria

The key databases approached for the literature search are EBSCO, Web of Science
(WoS), Science Direct (SD), and Scopus. The selected key terms were initially obtained
from the keyword list of frequently cited publications, such as studies by [63,64], and [5].
Subsequently, we applied paired keywords using AND, OR operators to identify studies
at the intersection of SBM and ST. Some examples of keywords and their paired search
terms used during the extensive literature survey are: ((“sustainable” OR “sustainab*”)
AND (“business models”)); (“circular economy” OR “circular business”), (“sustainability
transition” AND “business model innovation”), (“transition” AND “sustainable business
model”), (“transition management” AND “business model”), (“activity system approach”
AND “sustainable business model”). The search scope was limited to academic literature
of peer-reviewed articles and included scientific journals, conference proceedings, doctoral
thesis, and books in the English language. Figure 1 describes the article search and selection
criteria in detail.

Figure 1. Article selection process (Based on Hofmann (2019).

Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 7 of 25

3.1.2. Article Selection (Inclusion and Exclusion) Criteria

The initial search generated 1717 articles from the four databases (i.e., EBSCO = 282;
Scopus = 1018, WoS = 269, and SD = 148). The article selection process took place in five
systematic steps, adopted and modified from Hoffmann [20].
In the first step, we removed all duplicate results from the four databases, which
left us with 632 articles from 1997–2020. This included articles on business models for
sustainability (e.g., [24,74,75]), transition management for sustainability (e.g., [62,76]), and
conceptualization of sustainability transition [37,77].
In the second step of the screening process, articles were screened based on their title,
abstract, and relevance to the research topic. Only those studies were included that:
1. Provide a conceptual or theoretical framework or model of SBM or circular business
model (CBM);
2. Discuss the activity system perspective of SBM;
3. Theoretically or empirically examine the role of SBM in bringing systematic change
for sustainability.
Articles that did not meet these criteria and their research fields or objectives were not
relevant or inconsistent with our study were removed in this stage. The deletion included
articles focusing exclusively on “financial sustainability”, “healthcare sustainability”, “po-
litical dynamics for sustainability”, “human resource management”, and in fields such as
poultry, medicine, nursing, sports, tourism, information system, forestry, and others. This
process left 242 articles from 2004–2020.
In the third step, we conducted a bibliometric analysis of the publication and citation
count of 237 articles to identify the relevant period during which the maximum number and
highly cited papers were published. Figure 2 shows the year-wise growth of 237 articles in
the field of SBM/CBM from 2004–2019 and their respective citation count, showing the
relevance of these articles in SBM and sustainability fields. The first seminal paper in SBM
(much more than a thousand citations) was published in 2008 by Stubbs and Cocklin [78].
Subsequently, Zott and Amit [39] introduced the concept of activity system perspective and
emphasized system-level thinking for BMI. Thus, in this stage, inclusion criteria involved
the citation analysis to include papers that have more than 25 citations in the study, which
provided us 110 articles from 2004–2019.

Figure 2. Year-wise publication and citation count of CBM/SBM/ articles (2004–2019).

Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 8 of 25

In the fourth and fifth stage of article selection, the remaining articles were screened
based on the title and abstract and main text reading of papers. After in-depth analysis
we divided the literature into three broad themes, circular economy, the sharing economy,
and green supply chains, and we gave emphasis to environmental sustainability due to the
climate change crisis. Detailed reading left us with 33 articles, published during 2008–2019,
to be included in content analysis.
For the two illustrative cases, we collected secondary data such as articles, brochures,
websites, and sustainability reports to review the two firms based on theoretical concepts
from the literature associated with transition effects outside the firm boundaries.

3.2. Data Analysis—Content Analysis

A qualitative content analysis method was adopted to identify the relationship be-
tween the SBM activity system and transition management. Among the two qualitative
methods, i.e., grounded theory and the content analysis approach, the grounded theory
method was adopted when there were no theoretical foundations in the field (i.e., SBM
and ST literature in the present case) and the objective of the study was to generate a
new theory. However, when the theory exists, and the study aims to explore more unique
relationships and explain the phenomenon, the content analysis method was considered
appropriate [79]. The present study aims to determine the components (and thus the
role) of the SBM activity system that can contribute towards sustainability transitions.
Therefore, the content analysis method was adopted to explore such newer relationships
between the two.
Content analysis is a widely used and acknowledged methodology to analyze textual
data, that systematically and objectively analyze documents to enhance the understanding
of a phenomenon (here, the role of SBM activity system in sustainability transition) and pro-
vide as an outcome a conceptual model or framework describing the phenomenon [80,81].
Among the qualitative and quantitative approach to content analysis, the quantitative
content analysis method is criticized for its oversimplification and “distorted meaning
as a result of breaking down text into quantifiable units in the analytic process” ([79],
p. 3). Qualitative content analysis, on the other hand provides a more holistic, contextual
meaning of the text using systematic categorization schemes. Since the present study is
primarily based on textual data of peer-reviewed literature, qualitative content analysis
was considered a suitable technique for the analysis.
A deductive approach, which means using existing theoretical concepts (in the SBM
activity system and ST fields) for our categorization scheme was applied as the approach
increases the reliability of the coding [82].
The data was coded in two stages: In the first stage, two main codes were created
(“first level code”) for each of the two constructs, namely, transition management and
business model activity system. Subsequently, six sub-codes (“second level codes”) were
created, three for each first level code. Specifically, we had three codes for transition
management activities (strategic, tactical, and operational) and three for business model
activity system (content, structure, and governance).
In the second stage, multiple keywords were identified from the literature to identify,
extract, and categorize relevant text from the business model activity system, and transition
management activities literature. These keywords were useful to extract texts having
arguments and evidence of discrete business-related activities and categorize them into
each construct.
For extraction, in addition to relying on predetermined keywords from literature, we
also introduced new keywords and extracted and categorized texts based on the contextual
meaning during the process. For example, the keyword “collaboration” was identified
during the process of extraction but was not pre-determined for tactical-level transition
management. Similarly, text was extracted and categorized under “governance” category
based on the key word “responsibilities” that was not predetermined but was selected
due to contextual meaning. The classification was open for modification and performed
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 9 of 25

iteratively based on discussions during the data analysis and coding. Such discussions
ensured the internal validity of the findings [83]. Figure 3 shows the coding structure and
the literature-based list of keywords used for extracts and classification of each extract.

Figure 3. Identification of categories and sub-categories for content analysis.

Appendix A Table A1 shows some examples from the coding in which different
extracts are related to different sub-codes, codes, and themes.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 10 of 25

3.3. Illustrative Case Examples

After conceptualizing how a firm’s SBM activities can contribute to sustainability
transition at the societal, industry, sector, and company level, we present two illustrative
case examples to understand the application of this concept in practice. The first example
illustrates the case of the U.S. based firm Tesla. Tesla has pursued transforming the
automobile industry with its value offer of electric vehicles (EVs). The second example
illustrates the case of the Danish MNC Ørsted. Ørsted operates in the green energy sector,
with the mission to combat climate change by supplying renewable energy (e.g., wind
and solar).

4. Results
4.1. Conceptualizing Firm Activities for Sustainability Transitions
The content analysis revealed different combinations of non-technical, innovative,
activities in the business models related to long-, medium-, and short-term goals. The
combinations are categorized from a transitions perspective as strategic, tactical, and oper-
ational, and from the business model activity system as content, structure, and governance.
Reflexive activities from the transitions perspective that involve continuous monitoring,
joint reflection, and evaluation run parallel to strategic, tactical, and operational level
activities. Figure 4 provides a visual representation of the conceptual framework, and
following sub-sections discuss the framework in detail.

Long-term
Strategic Level
Achieve sustainable vision and purpose of a sustainable
business model at a large scale

Change dominant cultures and practices at societal level

Reflexive monitoring and evaluation

Medium-term
Tactical Level
Set networks and collaborations towards sustainability with
key stakeholders identified in a sustainable business model

Change dominant operational structure of value creation

along the value-chain at sector level

Short-term
Operational Level
Establish a sustainable business model vision and purpose &
start implementing sustainable-related practices

Change dominant practices at firm level

Figure 4. Business model activity system for sustainability transitions.

4.1.1. Sustainable Business Model Activities at the Strategic Long-Term Level

Investigations on the strategic long-term focus demonstrated two relevant SBM activi-
ties. These long-term strategic changes are (a) the development of sustainable value, which
brings about product and service feature changes towards sustainability, and (b) leverage
on sustainable business opportunities. Table 3 illustrates the strategic SBM activities.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 11 of 25

Table 3. Activities of a sustainable business model at the strategic level.

Long-Term Strategic Level

Focus on Challenges SBM Guiding Questions SBM Activities Changes
What unsustainable technologies
Ability to Offering sustainable
are we substituting?
influence product/service/technologies to
Achieve sustainable How should we capture value Industry and
change in substitute unsustainable ones
vision and purpose and make sustainable society
dominant Leveraging business
technologies profitable for
cultures opportunities for sustainability
the business?

Firms pursue sustainability by aligning their business strategies to benefit society and
the environment. The starting point for adopting a SBM is the development of a viable
vision and purpose [8,83]. A viable vision embeds a desired sustainable impact—for people,
planet, and profit—to achieve in the long-term, and also a motivating force as inspiration
to improve well-being and environment issues [84]. For example, when firms implement
reduce or recycle plans in their business models, they set a vision to follow pathways to
change from a linear to circular economy [85].
Furthermore, firms moving towards SBM partially or completely substitute existing
unsustainable value propositions with sustainable products and services [37]. For example,
firms in the mobility sector pursue product-service systems to create better sustainability
outcomes by using more sustainable modes of transportation [21] and, e.g., substituting
gasoline vehicles with electric ones, to contribute to mitigating the present carbon cri-
sis [86]. However, sustainable products and services involve a balance (trade-offs) between
profitability for firms and benefits for customers and society [87].
When firms implement circular business models—as drivers for sustainability—they
leverage new business opportunities. Remanufacturing, refurbishment, reverse logistics,
recycling, and waste management are examples of business opportunities that firms can
leverage by adopting circular business models. For example, waste remains a worldwide
issue. Waste mainly ends up in landfills or incinerated, releasing CO2 emissions and toxins
into groundwater [88]. Overall, firms, by implementing circular and sustainable business
models, are able to offer sustainable products and services, which are profitable, and meet
customer demands to replace conventional products in existing markets [89].

4.1.2. Sustainable Business Model Activities at the Tactical Level

Our analysis identified the following SBM activities at the tactical level: building and
setting networks, and collaborations with various stakeholders. The identified collabora-
tions are (a) customer engagement, (b) networking with the society and government, and
(c) collaborative activities with the suppliers. Table 4 lists the tactical SBM activities in the
medium-term.

Table 4. Activities of a sustainable business model at the tactical level.

Medium-Term Tactical Level

Focus on Challenges SBM Guiding Questions SBM Activities Changes
How do we partner with our
customers to co-create
Ability to Creating and maintaining
sustainable value?
Set networks and change the interdependencies with customer,
How should we motivate societal
collaborations dominant suppliers and stakeholders
stakeholders to move towards Value chains
towards operational including the government
sustainable practices?
sustainability structures for Configuring sustainability in
What sustainable practices should
value creation operations and value chains
we integrate into our supply chain
to reduce its negative effects?
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 12 of 25

Cooperative networks with one of the key stakeholders, the customer, form a critical
tactical move for a sustainable business model. For instance, firms and customers share
information and collaborate to optimize features of products and services [90]. Strong cus-
tomer relationships lead to improved product performance, service delivery, and product
development [91,92]. Other benefits seen with customer involvement include prolonged
product life by maximizing the product use time [93,94], promotion of recyclability, and
reuse or recycle of resources [87,88]. In manufacturing, firms design products that assure
the reuse of parts after the end of the product lifetime. Either a local firm or the customers
retain ownership of products; thus, take-back agreements ensure the collection of products
for reuse [93].
Collaborations and networks with societal actors form another activity of a sustainable
business model. In the energy and mobility sectors, for example, public and private organi-
zations collaborate to develop sustainable solutions and address national policies related to
sustainability, such as renewable energy and sustainable transportation [21]. For example,
communication through workshops and conferences following sustainability frameworks,
such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or circular economy concepts, create
value in a coordinated manner and [95] collaborative activities on reuse and recycling help
recirculate materials across the supply chain [96]. Moreover, stakeholders also include
research institutes and rural communities—as knowledge, knowhow, and materials to
create sustainable products and services can originate from different stakeholders [97].
Furthermore, as firms outsource activities to suppliers, they may motivate the sup-
pliers to adopt green practices [84]. For example, hotels have implemented sustainable
solutions by joining efforts with their suppliers on reducing consumables and supplying
organic food [98]. Integrating and configuring sustainable operations into key activities
with the suppliers include reducing waste, reducing resource consumption and negative
environmental impact throughout upgradability, product recycling with collecting points,
and/or online waste management platforms across green supply chains [74,99].

4.1.3. Sustainable Business Model Activities at the Operational Level

The coding identifies relevant SBM activities at the operational level. These activi-
ties relate to (a) experimentation and co-experimentation, and (b) create value through
implementing a shared vision. Table 5 lists the operational SBM activities in the short term.

Table 5. Activities of a sustainable business model at the operational level.

Short-Term Operational Level

Focus on Challenges SBM Guiding Questions SBM Activities Changes
Which staff should we recruit and
how do we train them Adopting technologies and
for sustainability? innovations to make operations more
Establish a Ability to How can we make our day-today efficient and sustainable
sustainable vision engage people operations more efficient and less Experimenting and/or implementing
and purpose and and influence harmful to society campaigns to create awareness
Firms
start implementing change in and environment? about sustainability
sustainable-related dominant What experimentations should we Experimenting within collaborations
practices practices undertake with technologies, Controlling daily operations
initiatives, project and activities to and logistics
capture sustainable Rethinking the way to create value
business opportunities?

At the operational level, firms establish their sustainable vision by assembling different
operational features needed to create value together. Experimenting with initiatives,
technologies, projects and activities saves costs and demonstrates potential large-scale
implementation to leverage on sustainable business opportunities [21,35]. Experimenting
also verifies the alignment of the new project with the sustainable purpose so it does
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 13 of 25

not lead to an undesired outcome such as more use of resources [97]. In the mobility
sector, we see examples of digital solutions and use of customer data to enable sustainable
solutions [21]. In the hospitality sector, hotels implement daily control of the use of water
and energy; water-saving showers and toilets and innovative cleaning procedures have
helped reduce water consumption [98].
Collaborations for experimentation help firms develop consensus and clear out false
assumptions. In the water sector, for example, different stakeholders (private and public
organizations) have held sessions (as experiments) on a regular basis to discuss about
water resilience in urban areas (ref: workshops held by World Resources Institute and
World Environment Federation). Results from the sessions suggest stakeholders letting
go of assumptions that impeded them to advance on the next step [97]. Frequent sessions
among stakeholders thus help create awareness and engage the stakeholders in strategic
discussions to collaborate and/or change modes of operations to tackle sustainability
challenges [100].
In the circular economy, manufacturers and service providers rethink their operations
to reduce waste, increase resource productivity, minimize extraction of virgin materials, and
reduce output of waste [93,101]. Further, firms modify logistics systems to ensure proper
channels (related to sustainability) to deliver and/or collect materials or products [91].
Communication channels are critical to create awareness and some firms are investing in
communicating sustainability (for example, about circular economy) to businesses and
helping them create business opportunities [20,102].

4.2. Illustrative Cases

In this section we present two case examples, namely, Tesla and Ørsted, to illustrate
how such cases perform in practice according to the summary in Tables 6 and 7. The two
illustrative cases demonstrate diverse activities and their functionalities implemented by
the two companies in different industries towards transforming systems with a global
sustainable impact.

4.2.1. Case 1: Tesla

Tesla, a company in the automobile industry, pursues transforming the automobile
industry with its value offer of electric vehicles (EVs). Table 6 provides an overview of how
Tesla’s activities create radical changes in the automobile industry.
At the strategic level, through its mission, “to accelerate the advent of sustainable transport
by bringing compelling mass-market electric cars to market as soon as possible” [103], the company
envisions facilitating the world’s transition to sustainable energy. Tesla intends to achieve
this goal by positioning its electric motor technology favorably against the dominant in-
ternal combustion engine technology in the auto industry [104]. The initial challenge for
the company focused on changing the consumer’s attitude towards electric and private
mobility consumption and to substitute the dominant logic of unsustainable mobility and
energy solutions. The company started by offering a sustainable value proposition of
eco-friendly, efficient, and zero-emission battery electric vehicles (BEVs), and lithium-ion
battery packs to the market. The company later expanded this value proposition by offering
clean energy solutions through solar-powered fast-charging infrastructure. Through com-
petitive leadership and technological innovation for sustainability, the company leveraged
various business growth opportunities. Starting with offering EV in the luxury sports
car segment, the company has now expanded the value proposition to include multiple
ranges of BEVs for different consumer segments. The company succeeded in achieving
consistently growing revenue (more than 20 million USD in 2019) [105] and strengthened
its position and reputation in the global market.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 14 of 25

Table 6. Overview of Tesla’s business model and its contribution to transforming the industry.

Focus on Challenges SBM Guiding Questions SBM Activities Changes

Long-term Strategic Level
Offering long-distance and efficient EVs along
Facilitating world’s What unsustainable technologies are with solar powered fast charging infrastructure,
Overall consumer Automobile industry
transition to sustainable we substituting? and advanced battery storage solutions for
adaptation of EVs ability to and consumer attitudes
energy by substituting How should we capture value and make electrical grids
influence consumption towards private
unsustainable mobility and sustainable technologies profitable for Leveraging business growth opportunities
pattern of automobile transportation
energy solutions the business? through competitive leadership and
technological innovation for sustainability
Medium-term Tactical Level
Whom should we partner or work with to
Collaborative and manufacturing partnerships
Set networks and Ability to influence change co-create sustainable value?
for EV models with incumbents in same
collaborations to create and in hardware and system What sustainable practices should we integrate Partners’ or competitors’
industry and different industry
deliver high quality efficient architecture by promoting into our supply chain to reduce its negative effects practices as part of the
Collaboration with utility firm (Pacific Gas and
EV models and energy incremental and on environment and society? value chain
Electric (PG&E)) for energy storage installation
solutions transformative changes How should we motivate our stakeholders to move
for Moss Landing project in California
towards sustainable practices?
Short-term Operational Level
Experimenting with battery technologies,
Which staff should we recruit and how are we train revisiting product design and engineering to
them for sustainability? reduce battery costs and increase vehicle
Increase the number of EVs Ability to engage with
How can we make our day-today operations more efficiency and performance
available to mainstream hardware and software
efficient and less harmful to society Implementation of smart communications,
consumers by adopting engineering team, design Tesla business operations
and environment? IoT in the vehicle and in electric
sustainable and innovative and production team,
What experimentations should we undertake with charging infrastructure
practices distributors and retailers
technologies, initiatives, project and activities to Experimenting with innovative sales and
capture sustainable business opportunities? distribution model and innovative marketing
strategies to educate and attract new customers
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 15 of 25

Table 7. Overview of Ørsted’s business model and its contribution to transforming the industry.

Focus on Challenges SBM Guiding Questions SBM Activities Changes

Long-term Strategic Level
Buy green power, choose
sustainable products and services,
Accelerating transition to What unsustainable technologies are
invest in companies aligned with
Achieve Ørsted’s vision clean energy by scaling up we substituting? Offering the global installed green power
the 1.5 ◦ C target, use sustainable
of a world that runs green power deployment How should we capture value and make (wind, solar, bioenergy) to replace fossil fuels
modes of transportation
entirely on green energy and cutting emissions in half sustainable technologies profitable for Going green is the competitive differentiator
Encourage other energy companies
by 2030 the business?
to transform their production from
black to green energy
Medium-term Tactical Level
Program for suppliers to reduce supply chain
Whom should we partner to co-create
emissions, encourage suppliers to disclose
Influence better functioning sustainable value? Suppliers to decarbonize the
Collaboration as a key emissions and set science-based
of global and European What sustainable practices should we offshore wind supply chain through
factor to succeed with carbon-reduction targets
Internal Energy Market integrate into our supply chain? Ørsted’s new supply chain
all stakeholders Use 100% renewable electricity in the
and suppliers to decarbonize How should we motivate our stakeholders to decarbonization program
manufacturing of turbines, cables,
move towards sustainable practices?
substations etc.
Short-term Operational Level
Which staff should we recruit and how are
Engage in early dialogue with workers
we train them for sustainability?
through innovation programs to generate
Established the vision of Ability to engage with How can we make our day-today operations
green solutions
transforming its business directors (38% female more efficient and less harmful to society
Develop offshore wind solutions from a niche
from fossil fuels by directors), and operations and environment? Ørsted business
paying fair tax, and promoting employee
adopting and producing team improve Ørsted’s What experimentations should we undertake
diversity
green energy sustainability credentials with technologies, initiatives, project and
Increase carbon productivity and water
activities to capture sustainable
productivity by more than 50%.
business opportunities?
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 16 of 25

At the tactical level, the company develops networks and collaborations to create
and deliver high-quality efficient EV models and energy solutions. The challenge for the
company’s SBM, therefore, revolves around the ability to influence change in hardware
and system architecture by promoting incremental and transformative changes. To address
this, the company entered into collaborative and manufacturing partnerships for EV
models with incumbents in the same industry (i.e., alliances with other automakers—
Daimler, Toyota, and Lotus Cars), and also in different or unrelated industries (i.e., an
R&D alliance with an electronics firm—Panasonic) [106]. The alliance with Lotus Cars
helped the company become more efficient during the initial stages of building a new
sports car for the market. With Panasonic, the company entered into a supply and R&D
agreement, first, for the supply of automotive-grade lithium-ion battery packs for Tesla
Model S and subsequently for the joint-development of automotive-grade battery cells. The
company has developed a direct relationship with the B2C customers, where, instead of
selling cars through a franchised dealership, it sells directly to customers. Tesla established
a direct connection with customers to give them a unique buying experience and constantly
interacted with them to receive direct feedback regarding the vehicle performance. These
collaborations helped the company influence the practice of its’ partners and collaborators
towards sustainability, and also modify the buying behavior and attitude of customers
towards private consumption of EV.
At the operational level the company developed a system to monitor and control every
aspect of design to deliver high-performance electric vehicles to the market. The company
has made many iterative and transformative changes to the core hardware and system
architecture by employing qualified engineering, design and production team to ensure
efficiency and energy frugality [107]. The company increased the number of EV available
to mainstream consumers by adopting sustainable and innovative practices. The challenge
now was to develop an ability to engage with the hardware and software engineering team,
design and production team, distributors, and retailers for focusing the business operations
on sustainability. Key SBM activities at this level adopted by the company include: experi-
menting with battery technologies, revisiting product design and engineering to reduce
battery costs and increase vehicle efficiency and performance, implementation of smart
communications and IoT in the vehicle and electric charging infrastructure; experiment-
ing with innovative sales and distribution models; and developing innovative marketing
strategies to educate and attract new customers.

4.2.2. Case 2: Ørsted

Ørsted operates in the green energy sector, with the mission to prevent climate change
by supplying, e.g., wind, solar, and bioenergy. The company is committed to increasing the
green power installed capacity to keep down global temperature rise. Table 7 shows an
overview of Ørsted’s activities in the green energy industry.
At the strategic level, the company envisions a world running entirely on green energy
and has set its target to achieve a neutral carbon footprint by 2040 [108]. The challenge,
therefore, is to scale up green power deployment to meet the world’s energy demand while
cutting emissions by half by 2030. The company is transitioning from being among the
most coal-intensive companies in Europe to focusing entirely on renewables [108]. Ørsted
thinks that its ability to transform from a company with coal, oil, and gas at its core to the
world’s most sustainable energy company within a decade would prove that profound
change is possible. Replacing fossil fuels in the global energy system by increasing and
offering global installed green power forms the company’s main business model. The
company realized that fossil fuels are neither environmentally nor financially sustainable,
and shortly, green energy will be the key to stay in the business. The company started
by offering a value proposition of offshore wind, onshore wind, solar energy, and storage
solutions as these technologies are mature and cost-effective. Changes that are required at
the society level are: demand policies to keep global warming below 1.5 ◦ C; buying green
power; choosing sustainable products and services; investing in companies and pension
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 17 of 25

funds that are aligned with the 1.5 ◦ C targets; choosing sustainable modes of transportation;
and ensuring homes are energy efficient. At the industry level, other energy companies
should transform their production from black to green energy as Ørsted did by focusing
its entire investment program on green energy.
At the tactical level, Ørsted acknowledges that collaboration forms the key to succeed-
ing with stakeholders (authorities, suppliers, local communities, environmental NGOs, etc.)
and to enable the co-existence of green energy (e.g., offshore wind farms). The challenge is
to influence the creation of a well-functioning global market and the European Internal En-
ergy Market for barrier-free trade of electricity across Europe. The company engaged with
suppliers and encouraged them to set climate-science-based carbon emission reduction
targets for themselves and run their operations on green energy [109]. The company works
with strategic suppliers and runs a decarbonization program for the manufacturing and
installation of offshore wind farm components. The strategic offshore wind suppliers that
account for 50% of the total procurement are required to disclose their emissions and use
100% renewable electricity in the manufacturing of wind turbines, foundations, etc. and
optimize their vessel fleet. Thus, through its new supply chain decarbonization program,
the company makes changes at the sector level and encourages its suppliers to decarbonize
the offshore wind supply chain.
At the operational level, Ørsted has implemented a sustainable growth program in its
business strategy, which includes protecting biodiversity, paying fair taxes, and increasing
employee diversity. Through continuous R&D, innovation and scale-up, the company
is achieving economies of scale, simultaneously reducing the cost of its green energy.
The structural activities of the company’s SBM include increasing the number of female
directors and continuous engagement with these directors and the operations teams for
making Ørsted a green business. The company hired specialists to engage in an early
dialogue and cooperation with workers to encourage them to come up with solutions on
how to decarbonize. These SBM activities have radically changed the company’s internal
operations and contributed towards increased carbon productivity and water productivity
by more than 50% due to cuts in absolute carbon emissions and lower water use during
the company’s transitions [109].

5. Discussion
This paper responds to the research calls to understand how business activities em-
bedded in sustainable business models trigger sustainability transitions. Specifically, the
paper addresses the following research question: What is the role of sustainable business
models’ activity systems in sustainability transitions?
This conceptual framework developed in Figure 4 contributes to: (a) the understanding
of a diverse set of activities related to a firm business model that support transitions from
a governance perspective and (b) challenges, guiding questions, and activities to guide
practitioners and firms to move towards sustainability over time.
First, we find that several business model activities, being non-technical in nature,
have the potential to create large systemic changes. For long-term strategic action, the
vision/purpose help firms to strive for making a positive change. Some of these activities
include: maintaining dialogues and strategic discussions to pursue a shared vision, leverag-
ing business opportunities for sustainability, and offering and improving sustainable value
propositions. With a change in vision, firms are able to change unsustainable dominant
logics embedded in cultures and reflected in sectors and consumption systems. SBM
guiding questions to be considered by firms at this level include:
• What unsustainable technologies are we substituting?
• How should we capture value and make sustainable technologies profitable for
the business?
The challenge is to replace unsustainable systems by offering sustainable value propo-
sitions to stakeholders (mainly customers, firms, and nature). SBM activities include
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 18 of 25

offering sustainable products/services/technologies (value proposition) and leveraging

business opportunities for sustainability (value capture).
Second, the medium-term stage is critical for companies to set sustainable organiza-
tional structures—i.e., networks and collaborations—through active reciprocal interactions.
SBM guiding questions to be considered by firms at this level include:
• Whom should we partner or work with to co-create sustainable value?
• What sustainable practices should we integrate into our supply chain to reduce its
negative effects on environment and society?
Networks can involve diverse stakeholders from different sectors and define their
interdependencies and roles as well as agreements and terms of collaborations. Activities
such as collecting feedback from customers, influencing customers through campaigns
and services, developing, and maintaining interdependencies with suppliers and partners,
and integrating and configuring sustainability in operations drive a change in creating and
delivering value. How to create and deliver sustainable value is the challenge faced by firms
in the medium-term stage. As suggested by Hofmann [20] and Sarasini and Linder [21],
firms need to coordinate among themselves and find a common ground in adjusting the
way they conduct business in a sustainable manner as interdependent and unified networks
(including supply chains and collaborations) to address sustainability challenges. [110]
confirmed the statement that internal and external organizational structures contribute
to sustainability.
Finally, in the short term, firms start experimenting and implementing sustainable-
related practices in line with the vision they have established.
SBM guiding questions to be considered by firms at this level include:
• Which staff should we recruit and how should we train them for sustainability?
• How can we make our day-to-day operations more efficient and less harmful to society
and environment?
• What experimentations should we undertake with new business models, technologies,
and new initiatives, to capture sustainable business opportunities?
Firms start developing technologies and product and process innovations to make
operations more efficient and sustainable, while also challenging fundamental parts of
their business models, such as how they sell their products and their value propositions.
Additionally, they experiment with campaigns to create awareness about sustainability
challenges. Investing in technologies, implementing initiatives and campaigns, experi-
menting within collaborations, and controlling their daily operations and logistics are part
of rethinking the way to create and deliver, and capture value based on sustainability
concepts. The focus of firms in the short-term is to make unsustainable practices more
sustainable in a timescale of five years. During this timeframe, concrete sustainable projects
are developed, as a focused firm is already aware of sustainability challenges that not only
affect the context but also the firm operations in the long-term. Authors [97] highlighted
the challenge of taking away false assumptions from external stakeholders, which are
barriers to establish collaborations. Companies need to undertake continuous monitoring,
evaluation and reflexive actions at each step to see whether it is making progress in the
path of sustainability or not. Objectives, goals and needs are reassessed and re-evaluated
while measuring progress towards sustainability.

6. Conclusions
The study conceptualizes how firms contribute to sustainability transitions through
the theoretical integration of transitions and business model frameworks. It used transition
management [38] as the main analytical framework to understand sustainability transitions
from a macro perspective, and the theoretical lens of the business model activity system [39]
to understand firm activities at the micro level. The outcome is a conceptualization of
how firms enable radical changes at the system level by working at the micro level. The
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 19 of 25

proposed conceptualization bridges a significant gap in the theme of sustainability and

business and presents a defensible and researchable problem for transitions literature.
Transformation to sustainable activities implicates a systemic process in adopting
environmental practices [111], as well as taking away assumptions that delay or retain
the advancement in the process towards sustainable businesses [112]. Business models
form the core of the main operational and strategic vision of a firm and thereby reveal
the activities that can advance sustainability transitions. In this paper we highlight how
sustainable business models (SBMs) embed sustainable activities at the strategic, tactical
and operational levels to support the global call for transitioning towards a more sus-
tainable world. The activities include ecological, social and financial changes as well as
collaboration with stakeholders to implement sustainable activities.
These non-technological business model changes, at the micro level of a firm, create
multiple niche innovations that generate radical changes in the system. Hence, we argue
that sustainability transitions and transition theories not only require studying the wide
conceptualization of changes in societies but also capture the firm-level distinctions and
nuances by investigating the strategic and operational activities of a firm. Lack of a firm-
level perspective limits the understanding of the specific steps required for transition, of
specific influences on system transitions, and the nuances of strategy and operations that
lead to sustainability transitions.
This study shows that sustainable business models pursue sustainability either through
value proposition, value creation or value capture. Business models act as intermediaries to
facilitate the commercialization or diffusion of sustainable technologies as well as a source
of niche creation through promoting different non-technological innovations. The concep-
tualization of business model from an activity perspective demonstrates interdependent
activities transcending to include multiple perspectives; namely, including sustainability
while trying to be financially viable. Business model innovations take place by adding
new activities, modifying activities to incorporate new ways, linking activities towards
sustainability, or even modifying one or more stakeholders’ activities (for example, supplier
activities) to move towards sustainability.
As a key contribution to theory, we conceptualize sustainability transitions from
the firm- and activity-level perspective, involving concepts from the transition manage-
ment [38] and business model activity system [39]. Our analysis highlights how firm
activities contribute in sustainability transitions by starting with changes in firm’s practices,
going through internal and external organizational structures, and reaching industry and
societal changes in systems in a timescale from short- to long-term respectively. This
contribution increases the understanding of how a diverse set of activities related to a firm
business model support transitions from a governance perspective [21,42].
As a key contribution to practice, we point out different challenges, guiding questions,
and activities at different stages for guiding practitioners and managers to move towards
sustainability over time. Our analysis highlights activities as being actively involved
in a co-evolutionary process in which such a process may start from transformation of
practices until making societal changes. However, stages at this process are interdependent,
intertwined and overlapping; corroborating Gorinssen [113], who suggested activities
follow an alternate rather than a linear process.
This study has the following limitations. First, we propose a conceptualization based
on previous literature. The proposed conceptual framework deserves to be examined
through empirical evidence and should dig into firm dynamics and contexts in which
they operate. Second, there is still a limited understanding on the different internal and
external factors contingent to sustainability transitions; for example, how leadership and
group behavior can influence firms towards operating in a sustainable manner [114–116].
Although examples can be scarce in terms of achieving sustainability transitions at the
system level, some firms are currently pushing themselves (and are being pushed) to
drive wider systematic change, such as Tesla in the area of electric mobility, Fairphone
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 20 of 25

for transparent global value chains for smartphones, and Patagonia for environmental
stewardship in the outdoor industry.
Future research may focus on the co-evolutionary process of firms involved in sus-
tainability transitions through longitudinal data (see, e.g., [24] and [117]. Finally, although
prior research suggests the relevance of national policies in pushing firms to adopt sustain-
ability concepts through certifications [8,86], the dynamics of national policies, sustainable
business models, and the co-evolutionary process in sustainability transitions, remain
unclear. Our study intended to provide a theoretical understanding of sustainability transi-
tions from a firm-level perspective, which needs more attention from scholars to support
practitioners and policy makers in their role to support business in a sustainable trajec-
tory and breakdown unsustainable business models, so that societies can flourish and the
environment can be preserved in the long-term for future generations.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.H.-C., A.J., N.M.P.B. and A.G.; formal analysis, R.H.-C.
and A.J.; funding acquisition, N.M.P.B. and A.G.; investigation, N.M.P.B. and A.G.; methodology,
R.H.-C., A.J. and N.M.P.B.; supervision, N.M.P.B. and A.G.; writing—original draft, R.H.-C. and
A.J.; writing—review and editing, A.J., N.M.P.B. and A.G. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research is an outcome of the Intellectual Models for Accelerating Sustainability
Transitions (IPACST) project funded by the Belmont Forum and New Opportunities for Research
Funding Agency Cooperation in Europe (NORFACE) Joint Research Programme on Transformations
to Sustainability, co-funded by Deutsches Zentrum für Luft-und Raumfahrt (DLR)/German Federal
Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) (Research for Sustainable Development: FONA), the
UK’s Economics Social Science Research Council (ESRC), Global Challenge Research Funds (GCRF),
VR, and the European Commission through Horizon 2020.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We would like to offer our special thanks to all other IPACST project team
members for valuable discussions on the topic.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Examples of extracts and categorization of text during content analysis.

Theme Code Sub-Code (Keywords) Extract Source

“In a circular economy, manufacturers can recirculate
Tactical (collaboration) materials by reusing, remanufacturing or recycling
Activities with Structure (arrangement products or components and materials therein as part
Circular
benefits in the of business model of a ‘circular business model’ . . . . In practice this [35]
economy
medium term activities to recirculate implies radical changes to the way products are
materials designed and to value networks, and manufacturers
must adjust their business models”. [p. 22]
“In a value proposition experiment, the business model
Operational was changed to better meet the retailers’ needs. After
(experimenting) exploring the business case and analyzing these ideas
Activities with
Sharing Content (purpose to on their impact, the business model idea was
benefits in the [97]
economy reduce consumption discontinued, as the idea counteracts with their
short term
and more sustainable purpose by stimulating sales of products. In fact, its
growth strategy purpose is to enhance the sharing economy by offering
an alternative for excessive consumption”. [p. 88]
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5763 21 of 25

Table A1. Cont.

Theme Code Sub-Code (Keywords) Extract Source

Tactical (collaboration)
“Collaboration is crucial to develop sustainable
Governance
Activities with business models for supply chain management. They
Green supply (responsibilities in
benefits in the believe that collaboration between producers and [15]
chains the sustainable
medium term suppliers in the procurement process mitigates the use
procurement with
of raw material and waste generation” [p. 16]
suppliers)

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