Luan et al.

Education Big data and AI

INTRODUCTION positioned at the intersection of big data and AI, and are capable
of improving the services and productivity of education, as well as
many other fields including commerce, science, and government.
Regarding education, our main area of interest here, the
The purpose of this position paper is to present current status, application of AI technologies can be traced back to
opportunities, and challenges of big data and AI in education. The approximately 50 years ago. The first Intelligent Tutoring System
work has originated from the opinions and panel discussion “SCHOLAR” was designed to support geography learning, and was
minutes of an international conference on big data and AI in capable of generating interactive responses to student statements
education (The International Learning Sciences Forum, 2019), (Carbonell, 1970). While the amount of data was relatively small
where prominent researchers and experts from different at that time, it was comparable to the amount of data collected in
disciplines such as education, psychology, data science, AI, and other traditional educational and psychological studies. Research
cognitive neuroscience, etc., exchanged their knowledge and on AI in education over the past few decades has been dedicated
ideas. This article is organized as follows: we start with an to advancing intelligent computing technologies such as intelligent
overview of recent progress of big data and AI in education. Then tutoring systems (Graesser et al., 2005; Gobert et al., 2013; Nye,
we present the major challenges and emerging trends. Finally, 2015), robotic systems (Toh et al., 2016; Anwar et al., 2019), and
based on our discussions of big data and AI in education, chatbots (Smutny and Schreiberova, 2020). With the
conclusion and future scope are suggested. breakthroughs in information technologies in the last decade,
Rapid advancements in big data and artificial intelligence (AI) educational psychologists have had greater access to big data.
technologies have had a profound impact on all areas of human Concretely speaking, social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter), online
society including the economy, politics, science, and education. learning environments [e.g., Massive Open Online Courses
Thanks in large part to these developments, we are able to (MOOCs)], intelligent tutoring systems (e.g., AutoTutor), learning
continue many of our social activities under the COVID- 19 management systems (LMSs), sensors, and mobile devices are
pandemic. Digital tools, platforms, applications, and the generating ever-growing amounts of dynamic and complex data
communications among people have generated vast amounts of containing students’ personal records, physiological data, learning
data (‘big data’) across disparate locations. Big data technologies logs and activities, as well as their learning performance and
aim at harnessing the power of extensive data in real-time or outcomes (Daniel, 2015). Learning analytics, described as “the
otherwise (Daniel, 2019). The characteristic attributes of big data measurement, collection, analysis, and reporting of data about
are often referred to as the four V’s. That is, volume (amount of learners and their contexts, for purposes of understanding and
data), variety (diversity of sources and types of data), velocity optimizing learning and the environments in which it occurs”
(speed of data transmission and generation), and veracity (the (Long and Siemens, 2011, p. 34), are often implemented to
accuracy and trustworthiness of data) (Laney, 2001; Schroeck et analyze these huge amounts of data (Aldowah et al., 2019).
al., 2012; Geczy, 2014). Recently, a 5th V was added, namely Machine learning and AI techniques further expand the
value (i.e., that data could be monetized; Dijcks, 2013). Because of capabilities of learning analytics (Zawacki- Richter et al., 2019).
intrinsic big data characteristics (the five Vs), large and complex The essential information extracted from big data could be
datasets are impossible to process and utilize by using traditional utilized to optimize learning, teaching, and administration (Daniel,
data management techniques. Hence, novel and innovative 2015). Hence, research on big data and AI is gaining increasing
computational technologies are required for the acquisition, significance in education (Johnson et al., 2011; Becker et al., 2017;
storage, distribution, analysis, and management of big data (Lazer Hwang et al., 2018) and psychology (Harlow and Oswald, 2016;
et al., 2014; Geczy, 2015). Big data analytics commonly Yarkoni and Westfall, 2017; Adjerid and Kelley, 2018; Cheung and
encompasses the processes of gathering, analyzing, and Jak, 2018). Recently, the adoption of big data and AI in the
evaluating large datasets. Extraction of actionable knowledge and psychology of learning and teaching has been trending as a novel
viable patterns from data are often viewed as the core benefits of method in cutting-edge educational research (Daniel, 2015;
the big data revolution (Mayer- Schönberger and Cukier, 2013; Starcic, 2019).
Jagadish et al., 2014). Big data analytics employ a variety of
technologies and tools, such as statistical analysis, data mining,
data visualization, text analytics, social network analysis, signal
processing, and machine learning (Chen and Zhang, 2014). THE POSITION FORMULATION
As a subset of AI, machine learning focuses on building computer
systems that can learn from and adapt to data automatically
without explicit programming (Jordan and Mitchell, 2015).
Machine learning algorithms can provide new insights, A growing body of literature has attempted to uncover the value
predictions, and solutions to customize the needs and of big data at different education levels, from preschool to higher
circumstances of each individual. With the availability of large education (Chen N.-S. et al., 2020). Several journal articles and
quantity and high-quality input training data, machine learning book chapters have presented retrospective descriptions and the
processes can achieve accurate results and facilitate informed latest advances in the rapidly expanding research area from
decision making (Manyika et al., 2011; Gobert et al., 2012, 2013; different angles, including systematic literature review (Zawacki-
Gobert and Sao Pedro, 2017). These data-intensive, machine Richter et al., 2019; Quadir et al., 2020), bibliometric study
learning methods are. (Hinojo-Lucena et al., 2019), qualitative

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Luan et al. Education Big data and AI

analysis (Maliketal.,2019; Chen L. et al., 2020), and social network AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO EDUCATIONAL ADOPTION
analysis (Goksel and Bozkurt, 2019). More details can be found in OF BIG DATA AND AI
the previously mentioned reviews. In this paper, we aim at
presenting the current progress of the application of big data and In response to the new opportunities and challenges that the big
AI in education. By and large, the research on the learner side is data explosion and AI revolution are bringing, academics,
devoted to identifying students’ learning and affective behavior educators, policy-makers, and professionals need to engage in
patterns and profiles, improving methods of assessment and productive collaboration. They must work together to cultivate
evaluation, predicting individual students’ learning performance our learners’ necessary competencies and essential skills
or dropouts, and providing adaptive systems for personalized important for the 21st century work, driven by the knowledge
support (Papamitsiou and Economides, 2014; Zawacki-Richter et economy (Bereiter, 2002). Collaboration across diverse disciplines
al., 2019). On the teacher side, numerous studies have attempted and sectors is a demanding task—particularly when individual
to enhance course planning and curriculum development, sides lack a clear vision of their mutually beneficial interests and
evaluation of teaching, and teaching support (Zawacki-Richter et the necessary knowledge and skills to realize that vision. We
al., 2019; Quadir et al., 2020). Additionally, teacher dashboards, highlight several overlapping spheres of interest at the
such as Inq- Blotter, driven by big data techniques are being used intersection of research, policy-making, and industry
to inform teachers’ instruction in real time while students engagements. Researchers and the industry would benefit from
simultaneously work in Inq-ITS (Gobert and Sao Pedro, 2017; targeted educational technology development and its efficient
Mislevy et al., 2020). Big data technologies employing learning transfer to commercial products. Businesses and governments
analytics and machine learning have demonstrated high predictive would benefit from legislature that stimulates technology markets
accuracy of students’ academic performance (Huang et al., 2020). while suitably protecting data and users’ privacy. Academics and
Only a small number of studies have focused on the effectiveness policy makers would benefit from prioritizing educational reforms
of learning analytics programs and AI applications. However, enabling greater adoption of technology-enhanced curricula. The
recent findings have revealed encouraging results in terms of recent developments and evolving future trends at intersections
improving students’ academic performance and retention, as well between researchers, policy-makers, and industry stakeholders
as supporting teachers in learning design and teaching strategy arising from advancements and deployments of big data and AI
refinement (Viberg et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019; Sonderlund et al., technologies in education are illustrated in Figure 1.
2019; Mislevy et al., 2020). The constructive domains among stakeholders progressively
Despite the growing number of reports and methods outlining evolve along with scientific and technological developments.
implementations of big data and AI technologies in educational Therefore, it is important to reflect on longer-term projections
environments, we see a notable gap between contemporary and challenges. The following sections highlight the novel
technological capabilities and their utilization for education. The challenges and future directions of big data and AI technologies at
fast-growing education industry has developed numerous data the intersection of education research, policy-making, and
processing techniques and AI applications, which may not be industry.
guided by current theoretical frameworks and research findings
from psychology of learning and teaching. The rapid pace of
technological progress and relatively slow educational adoption BIG DATA AND AI IN EDUCATION: RESEARCH
have contributed to the widening gap between technology
readiness and its application in education (Macfadyen, 2017).
There is a pressing need to reduce this gap and stimulate An understanding of individual differences is critical for
technological adoption in education. This work presents varying developing pedagogical tools to target specific students and to
viewpoints and their controversial issues, contemporary research, tailor education to individual needs at different stages. Intelligent
and prospective future developments in adoption of big data and educational systems employing big data and AI techniques are
AI in education. We advocate an interdisciplinary approach that capable of collecting accurate and rich personal data. Data
encompasses educational, technological, and governmental analytics can reveal students’ learning patterns and identify their
spheres of influence. In the educational domain, there is a relative specific needs (Gobert and Sao Pedro, 2017; Mislevy et al., 2020).
lack of knowledge and skills in AI and big data applications. On the Hence, big data and AI have the potential to realize individualized
technological side, few data scientists and AI developers are learning to achieve precision education (Lu et al., 2018). We see
familiar with the advancements in education psychology, though the following emerging trends, research gaps, and controversies
this is changing with the advent of graduate programs at the in integrating big data and AI into education research so that
intersection of Learning Sciences and Computer Science. Finally, in there is a deep and rigorous understanding of individual
terms of government policies, the main challenges faced are the differences that can be used to personalize learning in real time
regulatory and ethical dilemmas between support of educational and at scale.
reforms and restrictions on adoptions of data- oriented (1) Education is progressively moving from a one-size-fits-all
technologies. approach to precision education or personalized learning

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Luan et al. Education Big data and AI

(Lu et al., 2018; Tsai et al., 2020). The one-size-fits-all approach focus that incorporates cognition in its design, such as perception
was designed for average students, whereas precision education (VanRullen, 2017), emotion (Song et al., 2016), and cognitive
takes into consideration the individual differences of learners in thinking (Bramley et al., 2017). Moreover, it is also shifting from a
their learning environments, along with their learning strategies. single domain (e.g., domain expertise, or expert systems) to a
The main idea of precision education is analogous to “precision cross-disciplinary approach through collaboration (Spikol et al.,
medicine,” where researchers harvest big data to identify patterns 2018; Krouska et al., 2019) and domain transfers (L’heureux et al.,
relevant to specific patients such that prevention and treatment 2017). These controversial shifts are facilitating transitions from
can be customized. Based on the analysis of student learning the knowing of the unknown (gaining insights through reasoning)
profiles and patterns, precision education predicts students’ to the unknown of the unknown (figuring out hidden values and
performance and provides timely interventions to optimize unknown results through algorithms) (Abed Ibrahim and Fekete,
learning. The goal of precision education is to improve the 2019; Cutumisu and Guo, 2019). In other words, deterministic
diagnosis, prediction, treatment, and prevention of learning learning, aimed at deductive/inductive reasoning and inference
outcomes (Lu et al., 2018). Contemporary research gaps related to engines, predominated in traditional expert systems and old AI.
adaptive tools and personalized educational experiences are Whereas, today, dynamic and stochastic learning, the outcome of
impeding the transition to precision education. Adaptive which involves some randomness and uncertainty, is gradually
educational tools and flexible learning systems are needed to becoming the trend in modern machine learning techniques.
accommodate individual learners’ interaction, pace, and learning (3)The format of machine-generated data and the purpose of
progress, and to fit the specific needs of the individual learners, machine learning algorithms should be carefully designed. There
such as students with learning disabilities (Xie et al., 2019; is a notable gap between theoretical design and its applicability. A
Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019). Hence, as personalized learning is theoretical model is needed to guide the development,
customized for different people, researchers are able to focus on interpretation, and validation of algorithms (Gobert et al., 2013;
individualized learning that is adaptive to individual needs in real Hew et al., 2019). The outcomes of data analytics and
time (Gobert and Sao Pedro, 2017; Lu et al., 2018). algorithmically generated evidence must be shared with
(2) The research focus on deploying AI in education is gradually educators and applied with caution. For instance, efforts to
shifting from a computational focus that demonstrates use cases algorithmically detect mental states such as boredom, frustration,
of new technology to cognitive and confusion (Baker

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Luan et al. Education Big data and AI

et al., 2010) must be supported by the operational definitions and A huge amount of learning data is created accordingly. The
constructs that have been prudently evaluated. Additionally, the extraction of meaningful patterns and the discovery of knowledge
affective data collected by AI systems should take into account from these data is expected to be carried out through learning
the cultural differences combined with contextual factors, analytics and AI techniques. Inevitably, the current learning
teachers’ observations, and students’ opinions (Yadegaridehkordi cultures, learning experiences, and classroom dynamics are
et al., 2019). Data need to be informatively and qualitatively changing as “we live algorithmic lives” (Bucher, 2018). Thus, there
balanced, in order to avoid implicit biases that may propagate into is a critical need to adopt proper learning theories of educational
algorithms trained on such data (Staats, 2016). psychology and to encourage our learners to be active
(4) There are ethical and algorithmic challenges when balancing participants rather than passive recipients or merely tracked
human provided learning and machine assisted learning. The objects (Loftus and Madden, 2020). For example, under the
significant influence of AI and contemporary technologies is a constructionist framework (Tsai, 2000), the technology-enhanced
double-edged sword (Khechine and Lakhal, 2018). On the one or AI-powered education may empower students to know their
hand, it facilitates better usability and drives progress. On the learning activities and patterns, predict their possible learning
other, it might lead to the algorithmic bias and loss of certain outcomes, and strategically regulate their learning behavior (Koh
essential skills among students who are extensively relying on et al., 2014; Loftus and Madden, 2020). On the other hand, in the
technology. For instance, in creativity- or experience-based era of information explosion and AI revolution, the disadvantaged
learning, technology may even become an obstacle to learning, students and developing countries are indeed facing a wider
since it may hinder students from attaining first-hand experiences digital divide. To reduce the inequalities and bring more
and participating in the learning activities (Cuthbertson et al., opportunities, cultivating young people’s competencies is seemed
2004). Appropriately balancing the technology adoption and like one of the most promising means (UNESCO, 2015).
human involvement in various educational contexts will be a Meanwhile, overseas support from international organizations
challenge in the foreseeable future. Nonetheless, the convergence such as World Bank and UNESCO are imperative for developing
of human and machine learning has the potential for highly countries in their communication infrastructure establishment
effective teaching and learning beyond the simple “sum of the (e.g., hardware, software, connectivity, electricity). Naturally,
parts of human and artificial intelligence” (Topol, 2019). technology will not replace or hinder human learning; rather, a
(5) Algorithmic bias is another controversial issue (Obermeyer et smart use of new technologies will facilitate transfer and
al., 2019). Since modern AI algorithms extensively rely on data, acquisition of knowledge (Azevedo et al., 2019).
their performance is governed solely by data. Algorithms adapt to
inherent qualitative and quantitative characteristics of data. For An overarching theme from the above trends of research is that
example, if data is unbalanced and contains disproportionately we need theories of cognitive and educational psychology to
better information on students from general population in guide our understanding of the individual learner (and individual
comparison to minorities, the algorithms may produce systematic differences), in order to develop best tools, algorithms, and
and repeatable errors disadvantaging minorities. These practices for personalized learning. Take, for example, VR (virtual
controversial issues need to be addressed before its wide reality) or AR (augmented reality) as a fast-developing technology
implementation in education practice since every single student is for education. The industry has developed many different types of
precious. More rigorous studies and validation in real learning VR/AR applications (e.g., Google Expeditions with over 100 virtual
environments are required though work along these lines is being field trips), but these have typically been developed in the views
done (Sao Pedro et al., 2013). of the industry (see further discussion below) and may not be
(6) The fast expansion of technology and inequalities of learning informed by theories and data from educational psychology about
opportunities has aroused great controversies. Due to the how students actually learn. To make VR/AR effective learning
exponential nature of technological progress, particularly big data tools, we must separate the technological features from the
and AI revolution, a fresh paradigm and new learning landscape human experiences and abilities (e.g., cognitive, linguistic, spatial
are on the horizon. For instance, the elite smartphone 10 years abilities of the learner; see Li et al., 2020). For example, VR
ago, in 2010, was BlackBerry. Today, 10 years later, even in sub- provides a high- fidelity 3D real-life virtual environment, and the
Saharan Africa, 75% of the population has mobile phones several technological tools are built on the assumption that 3D realism
generations more advanced (GSMA Intelligence, 2020). Hence, the enables the learner to gain ‘perceptual grounding’ during learning
entry barriers are shifting from the technical requirements to the (e.g., having access to visual, auditory, tactile experiences as in
willingness of and/or need for adoption. This has been clearly real world). Following the ‘embodied cognition’ theory (Barsalou,
demonstrated during the COVID-19 pandemic. The need for social 2008), we should expect VR learning to yield better learning
distancing and continuing education has led to online/e-learning outcomes compared with traditional classroom learning.
deployments within months (United Nations, 2020). However, empirical data suggest that there are significant
individual differences in that some students benefit more than

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Luan et al. Education Big data and AI

others from VR learning. It may be that the individuals with higher (Boyd and Crawford, 2012; Pardo and Siemens, 2014).
cognitive and perceptual abilities need no additional visuospatial Education records and personal data are highly
information (provided in VR) to succeed in learning. In any case, sensitive. There are significant risks associated with
we need to understand how embodied experiences (provided by students’ educational profiles, records, and other
the technology) interact with different learners’ inherent abilities personal data. Appropriate security measures must be
(as well as their prior knowledge and background) for the best adopted by educational institutions. Commercial
application of the relevant technology in education. educational system providers are actively exploiting
both legislative gaps and concealed data acquisition
channels. Increasing numbers of industry players are
BIG DATA AND AI IN EDUCATION: POLICY-MAKING
implementing data- oriented business models (Geczy,
2018). There is a vital role to play for legislative,
Following the revolution triggered by breakthroughs in big data
regulatory, and enforcing bodies at both the national
and AI technology, policy-makers have attempted to formulate
and local levels. It is pertinent that governments enact,
strategies and policies regarding how to incorporate AI and
implement, and enforce privacy and personal data
emerging technologies into primary, secondary, and tertiary
protection legislation and measures. In doing so, there
education (Pedró et al., 2019). Major challenges must be
is a need to strike a proper balance between desirable
overcome in order to suitably integrate big data and AI into
use of personal data for educational purposes and
educational practice. The following three segments highlight
undesirable commercial monetization and abuse of
pertinent policy-oriented challenges, gaps, and evolving trends.
personal data.
(1) In digitally-driven knowledge economies, traditional
formal education systems are undergoing drastic
changes or even a paradigm shift (Peters, 2018). BIG DATA AND AI IN EDUCATION: INDUSTRY
Lifelong learning is quickly being adopted and
implemented through online or project-based learning As scientific and academic aspects of big data and AI in education
schemes that incorporate multiple ways of teaching have their unique challenges, so does the commercialization of
(Lenschow, 1998; Sharples, 2000; Field, 2001; Koper educational tools and systems (Renz et al., 2020). Numerous
and Tattersall, 2004). This new concept of continual countries have attempted to stimulate innovation-based growth
education will require micro-credits or micro-degrees through enhancing technology transfer and fostering academia-
to sustain learners’ efforts (Manuel Moreno-Marcos et industry collaboration (Huggins and Thompson, 2015). In the
al., 2019). The need to change the scope and role of United States, this was initiated by the Bayh-Dole Act (Mowery et
education will become evident in the near future al., 2001). Building a reciprocal and sustained partnership is
(Williams, 2019). For example, in the next few years, strongly encouraged. It facilitates technology transfers and
new instruction methods, engagement, and strengthens the links between academia and the education
assessment will need to be developed in formal industry. There are several points to be considered when
education to support lifelong education. The system approaching academia-industry collaboration. It is important that
should be based on micro-credits or micro-degrees. collaboration is mutually beneficial. The following points highlight
(2) Solutions for integrating cutting-edge research the overlapping spheres of benefits for both educational
findings, innovative theory-driven curricula, and commerce and academia. They also expose existing gaps and
emerging technologies into students’ learning are future prospects.
evidently beneficial, and perhaps even ready for (1)
adoption. However, there is an apparent divergence Commercializing intelligent educational
between a large number of pre-service and in-service tools and systems that include the latest
teachers and their willingness to support and adopt scientific and technological advances can
these emerging technologies (Pedró et al., 2019). Pre- provide educators with tools for developing
service teachers have greater exposure to modern more effective curricula, pedagogical
technologies and, in general, are more willing to adopt frameworks, assessments, and programs.
them. In-service teachers have greater practical Timely release of educational research
experience and tend to more rely on it. To bridge the advances onto commercial platforms is
gap, effective teacher education programs and desirable by vendors from development,
continuing education programs have to be developed marketing, and revenue perspectives (Renz
and offered to support the adoption of these new and Hilbig, 2020). Implementation of the
technologies so that they can be implemented with latest research enables progressive
fidelity (O’Donnell, 2008). This issue could become development of commercial products and
even more pressing to tackle in light of the extended distinctive differentiation for marketing
period of the COVID-19 pandemic. purposes. This could also potentially solve
(3) A suitable legislative framework is needed to the significant gap between what the
protect personal data from unscrupulous collection, industry knows and develops and what the
unauthorized disclosure, commercial exploitation, and academic research says with regard to
other abuses student learning. Novel features may also
be suitably monetized—hence, expanding
revenue streams. The gaps between
availability of the latest research and its
practical adoption are slowing progress and
negatively impacting commercial vendors. A
viable solution is a

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Luan et al. Education Big data and AI

closer alignment and/or direct collaboration (3) Vocational and practical education provides numerous
between opportunities for fruitful academia-industry collaboration. With
academia and industry.
the changing nature of work and growing technology adoption,
(2) A greater spectrum of commercially and freely
available
there is an increasing demand for radical changes in vocational
tools helps maintain healthy market competition. It education—for both teachers and students (World Development
also helps to avoid monopolies and oligopolies that and Report, 2019). Domain knowledge provided by teachers is
stifle innovation, limit choices, and damage beneficially supplemented by AI-assisted learning environments in
markets for educational tools. Some well- academia. Practical skills are enhanced in industrial environments
stablished or free-of-charge platforms (e.g., with hands-on experience and feedback from both trainers and
Moodle, LMS) might show such potential of technology tools. Hence, students benefit from acquiring domain
oligopolies during the COVID-19 pandemic. With
more tools available on the market, educators and
knowledge and enhancing their skills via interactions with human
academics may explore novel avenues for teachers and trainers. Equally, they benefit from gaining the
improving education and research. New and more practical skills via interactions with simulated and real-world
effective forms of education may be devised. For technological environments. Effective vocational training
instance, multimodal virtual educational demands teachers and trainers on the human-learning side, and
environments have high potential future AI environments and actual technology tools on machine-learning
prospects. These are environments that would side. Collaboration between academia and industry, as well as
otherwise be impossible in conventional physical
settings (see previous discussion of VR/AR).
balanced human and machine learning approaches are pertinent
Expanding educational markets and commerce for vocational education.
should inevitably lead to expanding resources for
research and development funding (Popenici and
Kerr, 2017). Collaborative research projects
sponsored by the industry should provide support DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
and opportunities for academics to advance
educational research. Controversially, in numerous
geographies there is a decreasing trend in
collaborative research. To reverse the trend, it is
desirable that academic researchers and industry Big data and AI have enormous potential to realize highly effective
practitioners increase their engagements via learning and teaching. They stimulate new research questions and
mutual presentations, educations, and even designs, exploit innovative technologies and tools in data
government initiatives. All three stakeholders (i.e., collection and analysis, and ultimately become
academia, industry, and government) should play
more active roles.

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Luan et al. Education Big data and AI

a mainstream research paradigm (Daniel, 2019). Nonetheless, data. Such data-intensive and technology-driven analysis of
they are still fairly novel and unfamiliar to many researchers and human behavior, in real-world and simulated environments, may
educators. In this paper, we have described the general assist teachers in identifying students’ learning trajectories and
background, core concepts, and recent progress of this rapidly patterns, developing corresponding lesson plans, and adopting
growing domain. Along with the arising opportunities, we have effective teaching strategies (Klašnja-Milicevic et al., 2017; Gierl
highlighted the crucial challenges and emerging trends of big data and Lai, 2018). It may also support teachers in tackling students’
and AI in education, which are reflected in educational research, more complex problems and cultivating students’ higher-order
policy-making, and industry. Table 1 concisely summarizes the thinking skills by freeing the teachers from their monotonous and
major challenges and possible solutions of big data and AI in routine tasks (Li, 2007; Belpaeme et al., 2018). Hence, it is now
education. In summary, future studies should be aimed at theory- imperative for us to embrace AI and technology and prepare our
based precision education, incorporating cross-disciplinary teachers and students for the future of AI-enhanced and
application, and appropriately using educational technologies. The technology-supported education.
government should be devoted to supporting lifelong learning, The adoption of big data and AI in learning and teaching is still in
offering teacher education programs, and protecting personal its infancy and limited by technological and mindset challenges for
data. With regard to the education industry, reciprocal and now; however, the convergence of developments in psychology,
mutually beneficial relationships should be developed in order to data science, and computer science shows great promise in
enhance academia-industry collaboration. revolutionizing educational research, practice, and industry. We
Regarding the future development of big data and AI, we hope that the latest achievements and future directions
advocate an in-depth dialog between the supporters of “cold” presented in this paper will advance our shared goal of helping
technology and “warm” humanity so that users of technology can learners and teachers pursue sustainable development.
benefit from its capacity and not see it as a threat to their
livelihood. An equally important issue is that overreliance on AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
technology may lead to an underestimation of the role of humans
in education. Remember the fundamental role of schooling: the HLu wrote the initial draft of the manuscript. PG, HLa, JG, and PL
school is a great equalizer as well as a central socialization agent. revised the drafts and provided theoretical background. SY, HO,
We need to better understand the role of social and affective JB, and RG contributed content for the original draft preparation
processing (e.g., emotion, motivation) in addition to cognitive of the manuscript. C-CT provided theoretical focus, design, draft
processing in student learning successes (or failures). After all, feedback, and supervised throughout the research. All authors
human learning is a social behavior, and a number of key regions contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
in our brains are wired to be socially engaged (see Li and Jeong,
2020 for a discussion). FUNDING
It has been estimated that approximately half of the current
routine jobs might be automated in the near future (Frey and This work was financially supported by the Institute for Research
Osborne, 2017; World Development and Report, 2019). However, Excellence in Learning Sciences of National Taiwan Normal
the teacher’s job could not be replaced. The teacher-student University (NTNU) from the Featured Areas Research Center
relationship is indispensable in students’ learning, and Program within the framework of the Higher Education Sprout
inspirational in students’ personal growth (Roorda et al., 2011; Project by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Taiwan.
Cheng and Tsai, 2019). On the other hand, new developments in Baker, R. S. J. D., D’Mello, S. K., Rodrigo, M. M. T., and Graesser, A.
technologies will enable us to collect and analyze large-scale, C. (2010). Better to be frustrated than bored: the incidence,
multimodal, and continuous real-time persistence, and impact of learners’ cognitive-affective states
during interactions with three different computer-based learning
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systematic review of journal publications from 2007 to 2017. Conflict of Interest: JG was employed by company Apprendis, LLC, Berlin.
Comp. Educ.
140:103599. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103599 The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in
Yadegaridehkordi, E., Noor, N. F. B. M., Ayub, M. N. B., Affal, H. B., the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that
and could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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systematic review and future research. Comp. Educ. 142:103649. Copyright © 2020 Luan, Geczy, Lai, Gobert, Yang, Ogata, Baltes,
doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.10 3649 Guerra, Li and Tsai. This is an open-access article distributed under
Yarkoni, T., and Westfall, J. (2017). Choosing prediction over the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY).
explanation in psychology: lessons from machine learning. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted,
Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 12, 1100– 1122. doi: provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are
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(2019). Systematic review of research on artificial intelligence or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these
applications in higher education– where are the educators? Int. J. terms.
Educ. Technol. Higher Educ. 16:39. doi: 10.1186/ s41239- 019-
0171- 0

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