Duff.

book Page 81 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

Chapter 5

Grounding for the

Control of EMI

There are two primary reasons for grounding devices, cables, equip-
ments, and systems. The first reason is to prevent shock and fire haz-
ards in the event that an equipment frame or housing develops a high
voltage due to lightning or an accidental breakdown of wiring or compo-
nents. The second reason is to reduce EMI effects resulting from elec-
tromagnetic fields, common impedance, or other forms of interference
coupling.
Historically, grounding requirements arose from the need to provide
protection from electrical faults, lightning, and industrially generated
static electricity. Because most power-fault and lightning control relies
on a low-impedance path to earth, all major components of an electrical
power generation and transmission system were earth grounded to pro-
vide the required low-impedance path. As a result, strong emphasis was
placed on earth grounding of electrical equipment, and the overall phi-
losophy was “ground, ground, ground” without regard to other prob-
lems, such as EMI, that may be created by this approach.
When electronic equipments were introduced, grounding problems
became evident. These problems resulted from the fact that the circuit
and equipment grounds often provided the mechanism for undesired
EMI coupling. Also, with electronic systems, the ground may simulta-
neously perform two or more functions, and these multiple functions
may be in conflict either in terms of operational requirements or in
terms of implementation techniques. For example, as illustrated in
Fig. 5.1, the ground network for an electronic equipment may be used
as a signal return, provide safety, provide EMI control, and also per-
form as part of an antenna system.
Therefore, in order to avoid creating EMI problems, it is essential to
recognize that an effective grounding system, like any other portion of

81
Duff.book Page 82 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

82 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

Electronic Enclosure

Sig.
In
Sig.
Out
Signal Ground, Signal Return, dc Common
Signal Ground, Cabinet Ground, Safety Ground, etc.
Building Ground, Power Ground, Safety Ground, etc.
Antenna Ground,
Building Ground,
Lightning Ground
etc.

Figure 5.1 The multiple functions of grounds.

an equipment or system, must be carefully designed and implemented.

Grounding is a system problem and in order for a grounding arrange-
ment to perform well it must be well conceived and accurately designed
and implemented. The grounding configurations must be weighed with
regard to dimensions and frequency, just like any functional circuit.
The objective of this chapter is to help engineers, designers, and
technicians to optimize the functionality and reliability of their equip-
ment by providing an orderly systems approach to grounding. Such an
approach is highly preferable to the empirical and sometimes contradic-
tory approaches that are often employed.

5.1 Definitions

The term ground is one of the most abused words in the electronic engi-
neering vocabulary. In addition, several other words are often used in
conjunction with the term ground, and these words are also often mis-
used. For the purpose of this chapter, it is important to carefully define
these terms. The definitions that follow are given in terms of the noun
rather than the verb.

Ground: Any reference conductor that is used for a common return.

Earth: The soil into which a safety conductor (rod, grid, plate) is driven
or buried to provide a low-impedance sink for fault and lightning cur-
rents.
Duff.book Page 83 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS 83

Reference: Some object whose potential (often 0 V with respect to earth

or a power supply) is the one to which analog and logic circuits,
equipments, and systems can be related or benchmarked.
Return: The low (reference) voltage side of a wire pair (e.g., neutral),
outer jacket of a coax or conductor providing a path for intentional
current to get back to the source.
Bond: The process used to join two metal surfaces via a low-impedance
path.
Connection: A mechanical joint between two electrical conductors, often
including an intermediary conductor such as a jumper, pigtail, or
shield braid.

Figure 5.2 illustrates the reason that the term ground can be a mis-
leading, ambiguous term if one does not consider its electrical parame-
ters. Referring to Fig. 5.2, it is apparent that significant voltages may
exist between two different points on the “ground” associated with a
platform, facility, or rack. This potential difference is a major cause for
EMI problems resulting from grounding of circuits, equipments, or sys-
tems.

5.2 Characteristics of Grounding Systems

Ideally, a ground system should provide a zero-impedance path to all

signals for which it serves as a reference. If this were the situation, sig-
nal currents from different circuits or equipments that are connected to
the ground could return to their respective sources without creating
unwanted coupling between the circuits or equipments. Many interfer-
ence problems occur because designers treat the ground as ideal and
fail to give proper attention to the actual characteristics of the ground-
ing system. One of the primary reasons that designers treat the ground
system as ideal is that this assumption is often valid from the stand-
point of the circuit or equipment design parameters (i.e., the impedance
at power or signal frequencies is small and has little or no impact on
circuit or equipment performance). However, the non-ideal properties of
the ground must be recognized if EMI problems are to be avoided.

5.2.1 Impedance Characteristics

Every element (conductor) of a grounding system, whether it be for
power grounding, signal grounding, or lightning protection, has proper-
ties of resistance, capacitance, and inductance. Shields and drain wires
Duff.book Page 84 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

84 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

“Ground” Means any Reference Conductor

that is Used for a Common Return

Earthing is only a particular case of grounding.

0V
Ref.
100 V 50 V
30 V

17 V
10 V
80 V 10 V In a building, levels of several
On an aircraft,
10 to 100 V kilovolts develop on grounds
differences may exist when lightning creates earth
10 V
between structural points. gradients.

Ground?

In vehicles, differences of In a ship, levels of several

several volts develop between hundred volts exist
points on the steel body. between decks,
What For?
superstructures and rigging.
Where?
How?
Is this “ground”
really equipotential?

In racks, several hundred

millivolts can develop between
different drawers.

Figure 5.2 Ground can be a misleading, ambiguous term if one does not con-
sider its electrical parameters.

of signal cables, the green wire power safety ground, lightning down
conductors, transformer vault buses, structural steel members—all
conductors have these properties. The resistance property is exhibited
by all metals. The resistance of a ground path conductor is a function of
the material, its length, and its cross-sectional area. The capacitance
associated with a ground conductor is determined by its geometric
Duff.book Page 85 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS 85

shape, its proximity to other conductors, and the nature of the interven-
ing dielectric. The inductance is a function of its size, geometry, length,
and, to a limited extent, the relative permeability of the metal. The
impedance of the grounding system is a function of the resistance,
inductance, capacitance, and frequency.
Because the inductance properties of a conductor decrease with
width and increase with length, it is frequently recommended that a
length-to-width ratio of 5:1 be used for grounding straps. This 5:1
length-to-width ratio provides a reactance that is approximately 45 per-
cent of that of a straight circular wire.
The impedance of straight circular wires is provided as a function of
frequency in Table 5.1 for several wire gauges and lengths. Typical
ground plane impedances are provided in Table 5.2 for comparison. Note
that for typical length wires, ground plane impedances are several orders
of magnitude less than those of a circular wire. Also note that the imped-
ance of both circular wires and ground planes increase with increasing
frequency and become quite significant at higher frequencies.
A commonly encountered situation is that of a ground cable (power
or signal) running along in the proximity of a ground plane. This situa-
tion is illustrated in Fig. 5.3 for equipment grounding. Figure 5.4 illus-
trates a representative circuit of this simple ground path. The effects of
the resistive elements of the circuit will predominate at very low fre-
quencies. The relative influence of the reactive elements will increase
at increasing frequencies. At some frequency, the magnitude of the
inductive reactance (jωL) equals the magnitude of the capacitive reac-
tance (1/jωC), and the circuit becomes resonant. The frequency of the
primary (or first) resonance can be determined from:

1
f = ------------------- (5.1)
2π LC

where L is the total cable inductance, and C is the net capacitance

between the cable and the ground plane. At resonance, the impedance
presented by the grounding path will either be high or low, depending
on whether it is parallel or series resonant, respectively. At parallel res-
onance, the impedance seen looking into one end of the cable will be
much higher than expected from R + jωL. (For good conductors, e.g.,
copper and aluminum, R « ωL; thus, jωL generally provides an accurate
estimate of the impedance of a ground conductor at frequencies above a
few hundred hertz). At parallel resonance:

Zp = QωL (5.2)
Duff.book Page 86 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

86 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

Table 5.1 Impedance of Straight Circular Copper Wires

AWG# = 2 , D = 6.54mm AWG# = 10, D = 2.59mm AWG# = 22, D = .64mm
Freq. l = 1cm l = 10cm l = 1m l = 10m l = 1cm l = 10cm l = 1m l = 10m l = 1cm l = 10cm l = 1m l = 10m

10Hz 5.13µ 51.4µ 517µ 5.22m 32.7µ 327µ 3.28m 32.8m 529µ 5.29m 52.9m 529m
20Hz 5.14µ 52.0µ 532µ 5.50m 32.7µ 328µ 3.28m 32.8m 529µ 5.29m 53.0m 530m
30Hz 5.15µ 52.8µ 555µ 5.94m 32.8µ 328µ 3.28m 32.9m 529µ 5.30m 53.0m 530m
50Hz 5.20µ 55.5µ 624µ 7.16m 32.8µ 329µ 3.30m 33.2m 530µ 5.30m 53.0m 530m
70Hz 5.27µ 59.3µ 715µ 8.68m 32.8µ 330µ 3.33m 33.7m 530µ 5.30m 53.0m 530m

100Hz 5.41µ 66.7µ 877µ 11.2m 32.9µ 332µ 3.38m 34.6m 530µ 5.30m 53.0m 530m
200Hz 6.20µ 99.5µ 1.51m 20.6m 33.2µ 345µ 3.67m 39.6m 530µ 5.30m 53.0m 530m
300Hz 7.32µ 137µ 2.19m 30.4m 33.7µ 365µ 4.11m 46.9m 530µ 5.30m 53.0m 531m
500Hz 10.1µ 219µ 3.59m 50.3m 35.3µ 425µ 5.28m 64.8m 530µ 5.31m 53.2m 533m
700Hz 13.2µ 303µ 5.01m 70.2m 37.7µ 500µ 6.66m 84.8m 530µ 5.32m 53.4m 537m

1kHz 18.1µ 429µ 7.14m 100m 42.2µ 632µ 8.91m 116m 531µ 5.34m 53.9m 545m
2kHz 35.2µ 855µ 14.2m 200m 62.5µ 1.13m 16.8m 225m 536µ 5.48m 56.6m 589m
3kHz 52.5µ 1.28m 21.3m 300m 86.3µ 1.65m 25.0m 336m 545µ 5.71m 60.9m 656m
5kHz 87.3µ 2.13m 35.6m 500m 137µ 2.72m 41.5m 559m 571µ 6.39m 72.9m 835m
7kHz 122µ 2.98m 49.8m 700m 189µ 3.79m 58.1m 783m 609µ 7.28m 87.9m 1.04Ω

10kHz 174µ 4.26m 71.2m 1.00Ω 268µ 5.41m 82.9m 1.11Ω 681µ 8.89m 113m 1.39Ω
20kHz 348µ 8.53m 142m 2.00Ω 533µ 10.8m 165m 2.23Ω 1.00m 15.2m 207m 2.63Ω
30kHz 523µ 12.8m 213m 3.00Ω 799µ 16.2m 248m 3.35Ω 1.39m 22.0m 305m 3.91Ω
50kHz 871µ 21.3m 356m 5.00Ω 1.33m 27.0m 414m 5.58Ω 2.20m 36.1m 504m 6.48Ω
70kHz 1.22m 29.8m 498m 7.00Ω 1.86m 37.8m 580m 7.82Ω 3.04m 50.2m 704m 9.06Ω

100kHz 1.74m 42.6m 712m 10.0Ω 2.66m 54.0m 828m 11.1Ω 4.31m 71.6m 1.00Ω 12.9Ω
200kHz 3.48m 85.3m 1.42Ω 20.0Ω 5.32m 108m 1.65Ω 22.3Ω 8.59m 142m 2.00Ω 25.8Ω
300kHz 5.23m 128m 2.13Ω 30.0Ω 7.98m 162m 2.48Ω 33.5Ω 12.8m 214m 3.01Ω 38.7Ω
500kHz 8.71m 213m 3.56Ω 50.0Ω 13.3m 270m 4.14Ω 55.8Ω 21.4m 357m 5.01Ω 64.6Ω
700kHz 12.2m 298m 4.98Ω 70.0Ω 18.6m 378m 5.80Ω 78.2Ω 30.0m 500m 7.02Ω 90.4Ω

1MHz 17.4m 426m 7.12Ω 100Ω 26.6m 540m 8.28Ω 111Ω 42.8m 714m 10.0Ω 129Ω
2MHz 34.8m 853m 14.2Ω 200Ω 53.2m 1.08Ω 16.5Ω 223Ω 85.7m 1.42Ω 20.0Ω 258Ω
3MHz 52.3m 1.28Ω 21.3Ω 300Ω 79.8m 1.62Ω 24.8Ω 335Ω 128m 2.14Ω 30.1Ω 387Ω
5MHz 87.1m 2.13Ω 35.6Ω 500Ω 133m 2.70Ω 41.4Ω 558Ω 214m 3.57Ω 50.1Ω 646Ω
7MHz 122m 2.98Ω 49.8Ω 700Ω 186m 3.78Ω 58.0Ω 782Ω 300m 5.00Ω 70.2Ω 904Ω

10MHz 174m 4.26Ω 71.2Ω 1.00kΩ 266m 5.40Ω 82.8Ω 1.11kΩ 428m 7.14Ω 100Ω 1.29kΩ
20MHz 348m 8.53Ω 142Ω 2.00kΩ 532m 10.8Ω 165Ω 2.23kΩ 857m 14.2Ω 200Ω 2.58kΩ
30MHz 523m 12.8Ω 213Ω 3.00kΩ 798m 16.2Ω 248Ω 3.35kΩ 1.28Ω 21.4Ω 301Ω 3.87kΩ
50MHz 871m 21.3Ω 356Ω 5.00kΩ 1.33Ω 27.0Ω 414Ω 5.58kΩ 2.14Ω 35.7Ω 501Ω 6.46kΩ
70MHz 1.22Ω 29.8Ω 498Ω 7.00kΩ 1.86Ω 37.8Ω 580Ω 7.82kΩ 3.00Ω 50.0Ω 702Ω 9.04kΩ

100MHz 1.74Ω 42.6Ω 712Ω 10.0kΩ 2.66Ω 54.0Ω 828Ω 11.1kΩ 4.28Ω 71.4Ω 1.00kΩ 12.9kΩ
200MHz 3.48Ω 85.3Ω 1.42kΩ 20.0kΩ 5.32Ω 108Ω 1.65kΩ 22.3kΩ 8.57Ω 142Ω 2.00kΩ 25.8kΩ
300MHz 5.23Ω 128Ω 2.13kΩ 30.0kΩ 7.98Ω 162Ω 2.48kΩ 33.5kΩ 12.8Ω 214Ω 3.01kΩ 38.7kΩ
500MHz 8.71Ω 213Ω 3.56kΩ 50.0kΩ 13.3Ω 270Ω 4.14kΩ 55.8kΩ 21.4Ω 357Ω 5.01kΩ 64.6kΩ
700MHz 12.2Ω 298Ω 4.98kΩ 70.0kΩ 18.6Ω 378Ω 5.80kΩ 78.2kΩ 30.0Ω 500Ω 7.02kΩ 90.4kΩ
1GHz 17.4Ω 426Ω 7.12kΩ 26.6Ω 540Ω 8.28kΩ 42.8Ω 714Ω 10.0kΩ

*AWG = American Wire Gage

D = wire diameter in mm Non-Valid Region
l = wire length in cm or m for which l ≥ λ/4
µ = microhms
m = milliohms
Ω = ohms

where Q, the quality factor, is defined as:

ωL
Q = ------------ (5.3)
R ( ac )

where R(ac) is the cable resistance at the frequency of resonance. Then:

Duff.book Page 87 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS 87

Table 5.2 Metal Ground Plane Impedance in Ohms/Square

COPPER, COND-1, PERM-1 STEEL, COND-17, PERM-200
Freq. t = .03 t = .1 t = .3 t=1 t=3 t = 10 t = .03 t = .1 t = .3 t=1 t=3 t = 10

10Hz 574µ 172µ 57.4µ 17.2µ 5.74µ 1.75µ 3.38m 1.01m 338µ 101µ 38.5µ 40.3µ
20Hz 574µ 172µ 57.4µ 17.2µ 5.75µ 1.83µ 3.38m 1.01m 338µ 102µ 49.5µ 56.6µ
30Hz 574µ 172µ 57.4µ 17.2µ 5.75µ 1.95µ 3.38m 1.01m 338µ 103µ 62.3µ 69.3µ
50Hz 574µ 172µ 57.4µ 17.2µ 5.76µ 2.30µ 3.38m 1.01m 338µ 106µ 86.2µ 89.6µ
70Hz 574µ 172µ 57.4µ 17.2µ 5.78µ 2.71µ 3.38m 1.01m 338µ 110µ 105µ 106µ

100Hz 574µ 172µ 57.4µ 17.2µ 5.82µ 3.35µ 3.38m 1.01m 338µ 118µ 127µ 126µ
200Hz 574µ 172µ 57.4µ 17.2µ 6.04µ 5.16µ 3.38m 1.01m 340µ 157µ 179µ 179µ
300Hz 574µ 172µ 57.4µ 17.2µ 6.38µ 6.43µ 3.38m 1.01m 342µ 199µ 219µ 219µ
500Hz 574µ 172µ 57.4µ 17.3µ 7.36µ 8.27µ 3.38m 1.01m 350µ 275µ 283µ 283µ
700Hz 574µ 172µ 57.4µ 17.3µ 8.55µ 9.77µ 3.38m 1.01m 362µ 335µ 335µ 335µ

1kHz 574µ 172µ 57.4µ 17.5µ 10.4µ 11.6µ 3.38m 1.01m 385µ 403µ 400µ 400µ
2kHz 574µ 172µ 57.5µ 18.3µ 16.1µ 16.5µ 3.38m 1.02m 495µ 566µ 566µ 566µ
3kHz 574µ 172µ 57.5µ 19.5µ 20.3µ 20.2µ 3.38m 1.03m 623µ 693µ 694µ 694µ
5kHz 574µ 172µ 57.6µ 23.0µ 26.2µ 26.1µ 3.38m 1.06m 862µ 896µ 896µ 896µ
7kHz 574µ 172µ 57.8µ 27.1µ 30.9µ 30.9µ 3.38m 1.10m 1.05m 1.06m 1.06m 1.06m

10kHz 574µ 172µ 58.2µ 33.5µ 36.9µ 36.9µ 3.38m 1.18m 1.27m 1.26m 1.26m 1.26m
20kHz 574µ 172µ 60.4µ 51.6µ 52.2µ 52.2µ 3.40m 1.57m 1.79m 1.79m 1.79m 1.79m
30kHz 574µ 172µ 63.8µ 64.3µ 63.9µ 63.9µ 3.42m 1.99m 2.19m 2.19m 2.19m 2.19m
50kHz 574µ 173µ 73.6µ 82.7µ 82.6µ 82.6µ 3.50m 2.75m 2.83m 2.83m 2.83m 2.83m
70kHz 574µ 173µ 85.5µ 97.7µ 97.7µ 97.7µ 3.62m 3.35m 3.35m 3.35m 3.35m 3.35m

100kHz 574µ 175µ 140µ 116µ 116µ 116µ 3.85m 4.03m 4.00m 4.00m 4.00m 4.00m
200kHz 575µ 183µ 161µ 165µ 165µ 165µ 4.95m 5.66m 5.66m 5.66m 5.66m 5.66m
300kHz 575µ 195µ 203µ 202µ 202µ 202µ 6.23m 6.93m 6.94m 6.94m 6.94m 6.94m
500kHz 576µ 230µ 262µ 261µ 261µ 261µ 8.62m 8.96m 8.96m 8.96m 8.96m 8.96m
700kHz 578µ 271µ 309µ 309µ 309µ 309µ 10.5m 10.6m 10.6m 10.6m 10.6m 10.6m

1MHz 582µ 335µ 369µ 369µ 369µ 369µ 12.7m 12.6m 12.6m 12.6m 12.6m 12.6m
2MHz 604µ 516µ 522µ 522µ 522µ 522µ 17.9m 17.9m 17.9m 17.9m 17.9m 17.9m
3MHz 638µ 643µ 639µ 639µ 639µ 639µ 21.9m 21.9m 21.9m 21.9m 21.9m 21.9m
5MHz 736µ 827µ 826µ 826µ 826µ 826µ 28.3m 28.3m 28.3m 28.3m 28.3m 28.3m
7MHz 855µ 977µ 977µ 977µ 977µ 977µ 33.5m 33.5m 33.5m 33.5m 33.5m 33.5m

10MHz 1.04m 1.16m 1.16m 1.16m 1.16m 1.16m 40.0m 40.0m 40.0m 40.0m 40.0m 40.0m
20MHz 1.61m 1.65m 1.65m 1.65m 1.65m 1.65m 56.6m 56.6m 56.6m 56.6m 56.6m 56.6m
30MHz 2.03m 2.02m 2.02m 2.02m 2.02m 2.02m 69.4m 69.4m 69.4m 69.4m 69.4m 69.4m
50MHz 2.62m 2.61m 2.61m 2.61m 2.61m 2.61m 89.6m 89.6m 89.6m 89.6m 89.6m 89.6m
70MHz 3.09m 3.09m 3.09m 3.09m 3.09m 3.09m 106m 106m 106m 106m 106m 106m

100MHz 3.69m 3.69m 3.69m 3.69m 3.69m 3.69m 126m 126m 126m 126m 126m 126m
200MHz 5.22m 5.22m 5.22m 5.22m 5.22m 5.22m 179m 179m 179m 179m 179m 179m
300MHz 6.39m 6.39m 6.39m 6.39m 6.39m 6.39m 219m 219m 219m 219m 219m 219m
500MHz 8.26m 8.26m 8.26m 8.26m 8.26m 8.26m 283m 283m 283m 283m 283m 283m
700MHz 9.77m 9.77m 9.77m 9.77m 9.77m 9.77m 335m 335m 335m 335m 335m 335m

1GHz 11.6m 11.6m 11.6m 11.6m 11.6m 11.6m 400m 400m 400m 400m 400m 400m
2GHz 16.5m 16.5m 16.5m 16.5m 16.5m 16.5m 566m 566m 566m 566m 566m 566m
3GHz 20.2m 20.2m 20.2m 20.2m 20.2m 20.2m 694m 694m 694m 694m 694m 694m
5GHz 26.1m 26.1m 26.1m 26.1m 26.1m 26.1m 896m 896m 896m 896m 896m 896m
7GHz 30.9m 30.9m 30.9m 30.9m 30.9m 30.9m 1.06Ω 1.06Ω 1.06Ω 1.06Ω 1.06Ω 1.06Ω
10GHz 36.9m 36.9m 36.9m 36.9m 36.9m 36.9m 1.26Ω 1.26Ω 1.26Ω 1.26Ω 1.26Ω 1.26Ω

* t is in units of mm NOTE: Do not use table at frequencies in MHz above

µ = microhms 5/lm since the separation distance in meters, lm, of two
m = milliohms grounded equipments will exceed 0.05λ where error
Ω = ohms becomes significant.

2 2
ωL ω L
Z p = QωL = ------------ ωL = ------------- (5.4)
R ( ac ) R ( ac )
Duff.book Page 88 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

88 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

Equipment

Grounding Conductor

Zin Zo = L/C ZL = 0

Ground Plane

Figure 5.3 Idealized equipment grounding.

Ground
Cable

Ground
Plane

Figure 5.4 Equivalent circuit of a ground cable parallel to a ground plane.

Above the primary resonance, subsequent resonances (both parallel

and series) will occur between the various possible combinations of
inductances and capacitances (including parasitics) in the path.
Series resonances in the grounding circuit will also occur between
the inductances of wire segments and one or more of the shunt capaci-
tances. The impedance (Zs) of a series resonant path is:

ωL
Z s = -------- (5.5)
Q

Therefore,

ωL R ( ac )
Z s = ----------------------
- = R ( ac ) (5.6)
ωL

The series resonant impedance is thus determined by, and is equal to,
the series ac resistance of the particular inductance and capacitance in
resonance. (At the higher ordered resonances, where the resonant fre-
quency is established by wire segments and not the total path, the
series impedance of the path to ground may be less than predicted from
a consideration of the entire ground conductor length).
An understanding of the high-frequency behavior of a grounding con-
ductor is simplified by viewing it as a transmission line. If the ground
Duff.book Page 89 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS 89

path is considered uniform along its run, the voltages and currents
along the line can be described as a function of time and distance. If the
resistance elements in Fig. 5.4 are small relative to the inductances and
capacitances, the grounding path has a characteristic impedance, Zo,
equal to L ⁄ C where L and C are the per-unit length values of induc-
tance and capacitance. The situation illustrated in Fig. 5.3 is of particu-
lar interest in equipment grounding. The input impedance of the
grounding path, i.e., the impedance to ground seen by the equipment
case, is:

Zin = jZ • tan βχ (5.7)

where,

β = ω LC = the phase constant for the transmission line

χ = the length of the path from the box to the short

where βχ is less than π/2 radians, i.e., when the electrical path length is
less than a quarter wavelength (λ/4), the input impedance of the short-
circuited line is inductive with a value ranging from 0 (βχ = 0) to ∞ (βχ =
π/2 radians). As βχ = increases beyond π/2 radians in value, the imped-
ance of the grounding path cycles alternately between its open- and
short-circuit values.
Thus, from the vantage point of the device or component that is
grounded, the impedance is analogous to that offered by a short-cir-
cuited transmission line. Where βχ = π/2, the impedance offered by the
ground conductor behaves like a lossless parallel LC resonant circuit.
Just below resonance, the impedance is inductive; just above resonance,
it is capacitive; while at resonance, the impedance is real and quite
high (infinite in the perfectly lossless case). Resonance occurs at values
of χ equal to integer multiples of quarter wavelengths, such as a half
wavelength, three-quarter wavelength, etc.
Typical ground networks are complex circuits of Rs, Ls, and Cs with
frequency-dependent properties including both parallel and series reso-
nances. These resonances are important to the performance of a ground
network. Resonance effects in a grounding path are illustrated in
Fig. 5.5. The relative effectiveness of a grounding conductor as a func-
tion of frequency is directly related to its impedance behavior (Fig. 5.6).
It is evident from Figs. 5.5 and 5.6 that, for maximum efficiency, ground
conductor lengths should be a small portion of the wavelength at the
frequency of the signal of concern. The most effective performance is
obtained at frequencies well below the first resonance.
Duff.book Page 90 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

90 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

2 2
Zp = w L
R ac Parallel Resonances, fp
log10 |Z|

Rac
jw L

R dc Zs = R ac Series Resonances, fs

log10 f

Figure 5.5 Typical impedance vs. frequency behavior of a grounding conduc-

tor.

200

150
|Z| in Ohms

100

50

0 50 100 150 200

Frequency in MHz

Figure 5.6 Photograph of the swept frequency behavior of a grounding strap.

5.2.2 Antenna Characteristics

Antenna effects are also related to circuit resonance behavior. Ground

conductors will act as antennas to radiate or pick up potential interfer-
ence energy, depending on their lengths relative to a wavelength, i.e.,
Duff.book Page 91 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

GROUND-RELATED INTERFERENCE 91

their efficiency. This fact permits a wavelength-to-physical-length ratio

to be derived for ground conductors. The efficiency of a conductor as an
antenna is related to its radiation resistance. Radiation resistance is a
direct measure of the energy radiated from the antenna. A good mea-
sure of performance for a wire is a quarter-wave monopole, which has a
radiation resistance of 36.5 Ω. An antenna that transmits or receives 10
percent or less than a monopole can be considered to be inefficient. To
be effective, a ground wire should be an inefficient antenna. A conve-
nient criterion for a poor antenna, i.e., a good ground wire, is that its
length be λ/10 or less. Thus, a recommended goal in the design of an
effective grounding system is to maintain ground wires exposed to
potentially interfering signals at lengths less than 1/10 of a wavelength
of the interfering signal.

5.3 Ground-Related Interference

Interference is any extraneous electrical or electromagnetic disturbance

that tends to disrupt the reception of desired signals or produces undesir-
able responses in a circuit or system. Interference can be produced by
both natural and man-made sources, either external or internal to the
circuit. The correct operation of complex electronic equipment and facili-
ties is inherently dependent upon the frequencies and amplitudes of both
the signals utilized in the system and the potential interference emis-
sions that are present. If the frequency of an undesired signal is within
the operating frequency range of a circuit, the circuit may respond to the
undesired signal (it may even happen out of band). The severity of the
interference is a function of the amplitude and frequency of the undes-
ired signal relative to that of the desired signal at the point of detection.
Ground-related interference often involves one of two basic coupling
mechanisms. The first mechanism results from the fact that the signal
circuits of electronic equipments share the ground with other circuits or
equipments. This mechanism is called common-ground impedance cou-
pling. Any shared impedance can provide a mechanism for interference
coupling. Figure 5.7 illustrates the mechanism by which interference is
coupled between culprit and victim circuits via the common-ground
impedance. In this case, the interference current, I, flowing through the
common-ground impedance, Z, will produce an interfering signal volt-
age, Vc, in the victim circuit. It should be emphasized that the interfer-
ence current flowing in the common impedance may be either a current
that is related to the normal operation of the culprit circuit or an inter-
mittent current that occurs due to abnormal events (lightning, power
faults, load changes, power line transients, etc.).
Duff.book Page 92 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

92 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

Rg1 I1

Victim
Rg2 I2 Receptor

Finite Common Impedance

Culprit in Ground RL1
Source
V1 Vi RL2
V2
Vc

I1 + I2

Figure 5.7 Common-mode impedance coupling between circuits.

Even if the equipment pairs do not use the signal ground as the sig-
nal return, the signal ground can still be the cause of coupling between
them. Figure 5.8 illustrates the effect of a stray current, IR, flowing in
the signal ground. The current IR may be the result of the direct cou-
pling of another equipment pair to the signal ground. It may be the
result of external coupling to the signal ground, or induced in the
ground by an incident field. In either case, IR produces a voltage VN in
the ground impedance ZR. This voltage produces a current in the inter-
connecting loop, which in turn develops a voltage across ZL in Equip-
ment B. Thus, it is evident that interference can conductively couple
through the signal ground to all circuits and equipment connected
across the non-zero impedance elements of that ground.

Equipment A Equipment B
Z
+

VS ZL VL + VN

Z
–

ZR
Ground – V +
N IR

Figure 5.8 Conductive coupling of extraneous noise into equipment intercon-

necting cables.
Duff.book Page 93 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

GROUND-RELATED INTERFERENCE 93

The second EMI coupling mechanism involving ground is a radiation

mechanism whereby the ground loop, as shown in Fig. 5.9, acts as a
receiving or transmitting antenna. For this EMI coupling mechanism,
the characteristics of the ground (resistance or impedance) do not play
an important role, because the induced EMI voltage (for the susceptibil-
ity case) or the emitted EMI field (for the emission case) is mainly a
function of the EMI driving function (field strength, voltage, or cur-
rent), the geometry and dimensions of the ground loop, and the fre-
quency of the EMI signal.
It should be noted that both the conducted and radiated EMI cou-
pling mechanisms identified above involve a “ground loop.” However, it

Electromagnetic Wave

I1, I2 Represent Common

Mode Currents
Box #1 Box #2
Zw I1
C D
D´
C´
ZS I2
Zw
Vo ZL

eS
Signal E Load
B
Reference Reference
Plane Cp Cp Plane

Cp Cp
Vi Ground
A F
Reference
I Plane

(a) Susceptibility Case

Electromagnetic Wave

Box #1 Box #2
Zw
IS
C D
D´
C´
ZS
Zw IR
Vo ZL

eS
Signal E Load
B
Reference Reference
Plane Cp IG Cp Plane

Cp Cp

A F

(b) Emission Case

Figure 5.9 Common-mode radiation into and from ground loops.

Duff.book Page 94 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

94 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

should be recognized that ground loop EMI problems can exist without
a physical connection to ground. In particular, at RF frequencies, dis-
tributed capacitance to ground can create a ground loop condition even
though circuits or equipments are floated with respect to ground.
Also, it should be noted that, for both of the EMI coupling mecha-
nisms involving the ground loop, the EMI currents in the signal lead
and the return are flowing in the same direction. This EMI condition
(where the currents in the signal lead and the return are in phase) is
referred to as common-mode EMI. The EMI control techniques that will
be effective for ground loop problems are those that either reduce the
coupling of EMI into the ground loop or provide suppression of the com-
mon-mode EMI that is coupled into the ground loop.

5.4 Circuit, Equipment, and System Grounding

In the previous section, EMI coupling mechanisms resulting from cir-

cuit, equipment, and system grounding were identified and discussed.
At this point, it should be obvious that grounding is very important
from the standpoint of minimizing and controlling EMI. However,
grounding is one of the least understood and most significant culprits in
many system-level EMI problems. The grounding scheme of a system
must perform the following functions:

• Analog, low-level, and low-frequency circuits must have noise-free

dedicated returns. Due to the low frequencies involved, wires are
generally used (more or less dictating a single-point or star ground
system).
• Analog high-frequency circuits {radio, video, etc.} must have low-
impedance, noise-free return circuits, generally in form of planes or
coaxial cables.
• Returns of logic circuits, especially high-speed logic, must have low
impedances over the whole bandwidth (dictated by the fastest rise
times), since power and signal returns share the same paths.
• Returns of powerful loads (solenoids, motors, lamps, etc.) should be
distinct from any of the above, even though they may end up in the
same terminal of the power supply regulator.
• Return paths to chassis of cable shields, transformer shields, filters,
etc. must not interfere with functional returns.
• When the electrical reference is distinct from the chassis ground,
provision and accessibility must exist to connect and disconnect one
from the other.
Duff.book Page 95 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

CIRCUIT, EQUIPMENT, AND SYSTEM GROUNDING 95

• More generally, for signals that communicate within the equipment

or between parts of a system, the grounding scheme must provide a
common reference with minimum ground shift (unless these links
are balanced, optically isolated, etc.). Minimum ground shift means
that the common-mode voltage must stay below the sensitivity
threshold of the most susceptible device in the link.

All the above constraints can be accommodated if their functional

returns and protective grounds are integrated into a grounding system
hierarchy as shown in Fig. 5.10. The application of this concept is the
subject of the following discussion.
Modern electronic systems seldom have only one ground. To miti-
gate interference, such as due to common-mode impedance coupling, as
many separate grounds as possible are used. Separate grounds in each
subsystem for structural grounds, signal grounds, shield grounds, and
primary and secondary power grounds are desirable if economically
and logistically practical. These individual grounds from each sub-
system are finally connected by the shortest route back to the system
ground point, where they form an overall system potential reference.

Low-Level, Low-Level Digital Levels,

Low-Frequency High-Frequency High-Frequency
Ground Ground. Ground.
(mV to mV Radio Communication (Volts, dc to 100 MHz)
dc to a few 100 kHz) (mV to mV, kHz to GHz)

Relays, etc. . . ., DC Power Ground

Signaling Grounds (Returns for Loads > 1 A)
(5 V to 50 V
dc to a few kHz)

Lightning, EMP AC Power Safety Ground

Ground (50 Hz/60 Hz or 400 Hz)
(Tens of kA,
dc to a few tens of MHz)

Figure 5.10 Grounding hierarchy.

Duff.book Page 96 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

96 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

This method is known as a single-point ground and is illustrated in

Fig. 5.11.

5.4.1 Single-Point Grounding Scheme

The single-point or star type of grounding scheme shown in the figure
avoids problems of common-mode impedance coupling discussed in the
previous section. The only common path is in the earth ground (for
earth-based structures), but this usually consists of a substantial con-
ductor of very-low impedance. Thus, as long as no or low ground cur-
rents flow in any low-impedance common paths, all subsystems or
equipments are maintained at essentially the same reference potential.
The problem of implementing the above single-point grounding
scheme comes about when (1) interconnecting cables are used, espe-
cially ones having cable shields that have lengths on the order of 1/20 of
a wavelength or greater, and (2) parasitic capacitance exists between
subsystem or equipment housings or between subsystems and the
grounds of other subsystems. This situation is illustrated in Fig. 5.12.
Here, cable shields connect some of the subsystems together so that
more than one grounding path from a particular subsystem to the
ground point exists. Unless precautions are taken, common-impedance
ground currents could flow. At high frequencies, the parasitic capacitive
reactance represents low-impedance paths, and the bond inductance of
a subsystem-to-ground point results in higher impedances. Thus, again,
common-mode currents may flow or unequal potentials may develop
between subsystems.

Subsystem Subsystem Subsystem

(or Equipment) (or Equipment) (or Equipment)
#1 #2 #3

System (or Subsystem)

Ground Point

Earth
Ground

Subsystem Prime Power Subsystem

(or Equipment) Generator (or Equipment)
#4 #N

Figure 5.11 Single-point or star grounding arrangement.

Duff.book Page 97 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

CIRCUIT, EQUIPMENT, AND SYSTEM GROUNDING 97

Interconnecting Cable Parasitic Capacitance

Subsystem Subsystem Subsystem

(or Equipment) (or Equipment) (or Equipment)
#1 #2 #3

System (or Subsystem)

Ground Point

Parasitic
Capacitance

Earth
Ground

Subsystem Prime Power Subsystem

(or Equipment) Generator (or Equipment)
#4 #N

Figure 5.12 Degeneration of single-point ground by interconnecting cables

and parasitic capacitance.

5.4.2 Multipoint Grounding Scheme

Rather than have an uncontrolled situation as shown in Fig. 5.12, the

other grounding alternative is multipoint grounding as illustrated in
Fig. 5.13. For the example shown in Fig. 5.13, each equipment or sub-
system is bonded as directly as possible to a common low-impedance

Ground Plane

Subsystem Subsystem Subsystem

(or Equipment) (or Equipment) (or Equipment)
#1 #2 #3

Interconnecting
Cables
Ground Lugs or
Bonds on Unit Frame
Grounds

Earth
Ground

Subsystem Prime Power Subsystem

(or Equipment) Generator (or Equipment)
#4 #N

Ground Plane

Figure 5.13 Multipoint grounding system.

Duff.book Page 98 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

98 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

ground plane to form a homogeneous, low-impedance path. Thus, com-

mon-mode currents and other EMI problems will be minimized. The
ground plane then is earthed for safety purposes.

5.4.3 Selection of a Grounding Scheme

The facts are that a single-point grounding scheme operates better at

low frequencies, and a multipoint ground behaves best at high frequen-
cies. If the overall system, for example, is a network of audio equip-
ment, with many low-level sensors and control circuits behaving as
broadband transient noise sources, then the high-frequency perfor-
mance is irrelevant, since no receptor responds above audio frequency.
For this situation, a single-point ground would be effective. Conversely,
if the overall system were a receiver complex of 30 to 1,000 MHz tuners,
amplifiers, and displays, then low-level, low-frequency performance is
irrelevant. Here, multipoint grounding applies, and interconnecting
coaxial cables should be used.
The above comparison of audio versus VHF/UHF systems makes
clear the selection of the correct approach. The problem then narrows
down to one of defining where low- and high-frequency crossover exists
for any given subsystem or equipment. The answer here in part
involves the highest significant operating frequency of low-level circuits
relative to the physical distance between the farthest located equip-
ments. The determination of the crossover frequency region involves
consideration of (1) magnetic versus electric field coupling problems
and (2) ground-plane impedance problems due to separation. Hybrid
single and multipoint grounding systems are often the best approach
for crossover region applications.
When printed circuits and ICs are used, network proximity is consid-
erably closer. Thus, multipoint grounding is more economical and prac-
tical to produce per card, wafer, or chip. Interconnection of these
components through wafer risers, motherboards, etc. should use a
grounding scheme following the illustrations of previous paragraphs.
This will likely still represent a multipoint or hybrid grounding
approach in which any single-point grounding (for hybrid grounds), if
used, would be to avoid low-frequency ground current loops and/or com-
mon-mode impedance coupling.
In summary, many system-level EMI problems can be avoided by
paying careful attention to the grounding scheme used. Common-mode,
common-ground impedance problems may be reduced by application of
one or more of the following techniques.
Duff.book Page 99 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

CIRCUIT, EQUIPMENT, AND SYSTEM GROUNDING 99

• Eliminate common impedance by using a single point ground

(Fig. 5.11) if possible. This configuration is usually optimal for
power frequencies and signal frequencies below 300 kHz.
• Separate and isolate grounds on the basis of signal type, level, and
frequency as illustrated in Fig. 5.10.
• Minimize ground impedance as illustrated in Fig. 5.14 by using
ground bus, ground plane, or ground grid.
• Float circuits or equipments if practical from a safety standpoint as
illustrated in Fig. 5.15. The effectiveness of floating circuits or
equipments depends on their physical isolation from other conduc-
tors. In large facilities, it is difficult to achieve a floating system.
• Use an inductor or capacitor in the ground connection to provide
high- or low-frequency isolation, respectively, as illustrated in
Figs. 5.16 and 5.17.

Daisy Chaining (Poor)

Heavier Ground Path (Better) or: Parallel Ground Wires (Better)

Ground Plane (Better Still) Ground Grid (Better Still)

Figure 5.14 Means of decreasing common-impedance coupling by decreasing

ground path impedance. From the bad practice of daisy-chain (top), the
improvement evolves toward a plane (left) or a grid (right).
Duff.book Page 100 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

100 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

Box 1 Box 2
Safety Bus
Z

ZL Vo

Case

Float
Zs
Vi

(a) Float Equipment Enclosures

Box 1 Box 2

Float

Vi

(b) Float Circuits and Boards

Figure 5.15 Float circuits or equipments.

Rs

Vs RL

Figure 5.16 Capacitive grounding.

• Use filters or ferrites in ground loops to limit common-mode cur-

rents or provide a common-mode voltage drop.
• Use a common-mode choke as illustrated in Fig. 5.18 or a common-
mode isolation transformer as illustrated in Fig. 5.19 to suppress
ground-loop EMI. These devices may provide on the order of 60 dB
Duff.book Page 101 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

CIRCUIT, EQUIPMENT, AND SYSTEM GROUNDING 101

Vs RL

RF Choke

Figure 5.17 Inductive grounding.

Rs I’n Is

•
Vs RL
I”n • Is

In

Vn

Figure 5.18 Common-mode chokes.

A C
Victim
Primary Secondary =
B Case D

Or Green Ordinary
Wire Isolation
Transformer

A Parasitic C
Cap
Victim
B
D

en

Figure 5.19 Common-mode isolation transformer.

Duff.book Page 102 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

102 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

of common-mode rejection at frequencies up to several hundred

kilohertz.
• Use optical isolators and/or fiber optics to block common-mode EMI
effects as illustrated in Fig. 5.20. Optical isolators provide a high
degree of common-mode rejection at frequencies up to and including
the HF band (i.e., 3 to 30 MHz). Optical isolators are usually lim-
ited to digital applications (they are not applicable to low-level ana-
log circuits).
• Use balanced circuits to minimize effects of common-mode EMI in
the ground loop as illustrated in Fig. 5.21. With a perfectly bal-
anced circuit, the currents flowing in the two parts of the circuit
will produce equal and opposite voltages across the load, so the
resulting voltage across the load is zero. Balanced circuits can pro-
vide significant (greater than 20 dB) common-mode reduction for
low-frequency conditions. However, at higher frequencies (above
30 MHz), other effects start to predominate, and the effectiveness of
balanced circuits diminishes.
Common-mode radiated EMI effects resulting from emissions that
are radiated or picked up by a ground loop may be reduced by the appli-
cation of one or more of the following techniques:
• Minimize the common-mode ground loop area by routing intercon-
necting wires or cable close to the ground.
• Reduce the common-mode ground loop currents by floating circuits
or equipments; using optical isolators; or inserting common-mode
filters, chokes, or isolation transformers.
• Use balanced circuits or balanced drivers and receivers.

Figure 5.20 Use of optical isolation to combat common-mode impedance.

Duff.book Page 103 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

GROUND SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS 103

R1
RS
2
Z1
VS +
2 _ Balanced
+ Vo RL
VS Signal Source
_
2
RS R2
2
Z2

RCM
VCM
Common-Mode
Noise Source

Figure 5.21 Balanced configuration with respect to common-mode voltage.

5.5 Ground System Configurations

The ground system for a collection of circuits within a system or facility

can assume any one of several different configurations. Each of these
configurations tends to be optimal under certain conditions and may
contribute to EMI problems under other conditions. In general, the
ground configurations will involve either a floating ground, a single-
point ground, a multipoint ground, or some hybrid combination of
these.
A floating ground configuration is illustrated in Fig. 5.22. This type of
signal ground system is electrically isolated from the ground and other
conductive objects. Hence, noise currents present in the ground system
will not be conductively coupled to the signal circuits. The floating
ground system concept is also employed in equipment design to isolate
signal returns from equipment cabinets and thus prevent unwanted cur-
rents in cabinets from coupling directly to signal circuits.
Effectiveness of floating ground systems depends on their true isola-
tion from other nearby conductors; floating ground systems must really
float. In large facilities, it is often difficult to achieve and maintain an
effective floating system. Such a floating system is most practical if a
few circuits or a few pieces of equipment are involved and power is
applied from either batteries or dc-to-dc converters.
Duff.book Page 104 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

104 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

Figure 5.22 Floating Signal Ground.

A single-point ground for an equipment complex is illustrated in

Fig. 5.23. With this configuration, the signal circuits are referenced to a
single point, and this single point is then connected to the facility
ground. The ideal single-point signal ground network is one in which
separate ground conductors extend from one point on the facility
ground to the return side of each of the numerous circuits located
throughout a facility. This type of ground network requires an
extremely large number of conductors and is not generally economically
feasible. In lieu of the ideal, various degrees of approximation to single-
point grounding are employed.

Equipment

Signal Ground

Structure or other Grounded Objects

Figure 5.23 Single-point signal ground.

Duff.book Page 105 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

GROUND SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS 105

The configuration illustrated in Fig. 5.24 represents a ground bus

arrangement that is often used to provide an approximation to the sin-
gle-point grounding concept. The ground bus system illustrated in
Fig. 5.24 assumes the form of a tree. Within each system, the individual
subsystems are single-point grounded. Each of the system ground
points is then connected to the tree ground bus with a single insulated
conductor.
The single-point ground accomplishes each of the three functions of
signal circuit grounding. That is, a signal reference is established in
each unit or piece of equipment, and these individual references are
connected together. These, in turn, are connected to the facility ground
at least at one point, which provides fault protection for the circuits and
provides control over static charge buildup.
An important advantage of the single-point configuration is that it
helps control conductively coupled interference. As illustrated in
Fig. 5.23, closed paths for noise currents in the signal ground network
are avoided, and the interference currents, or voltages in the facility
ground system, are not conductively coupled into the signal circuits via
the signal ground network. Therefore, the single-point signal ground
network minimizes the effects of any noise currents that may be flowing
in the facility ground.
In a large installation, a major disadvantage of a single-point ground
configuration is the requirement for long conductors. In addition to

System C
System A

System B

Subsystem
A

Subsystem
Grounding B
Bus
Subsystem
C

Earth Ground

Figure 5.24 Single-point ground bus system using a common bus.

Duff.book Page 106 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

106 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

being expensive, long conductors prevent realization of a satisfactory

reference for higher frequencies because of large self-impedances. Fur-
thermore, because of stray capacitance between conductors, single-
point grounding essentially ceases to exist as the signal frequency is
increased. In general, for typical equipments, systems, or facilities, sin-
gle-point grounds tend to be optimum for frequencies below approxi-
mately 300 kHz.
The multiple-point ground illustrated in Fig. 5.25 is the third config-
uration frequently used for signal ground networks. This configuration
establishes many conductive paths to various electronic systems or sub-
systems within a facility. Within each subsystem, circuits and networks
have multiple connections to this ground network. Thus, in a facility,
numerous parallel paths exist between any two points in the multiple-
point ground network.
Multiple-point grounding frequently simplifies circuit construction
inside complex equipment. It permits equipment employing coaxial
cables to be interfaced more easily, since the outer conductor of the
coaxial cable does not have to be floated relative to the equipment cabi-
net or enclosure.
However, multiple-point grounding suffers from an important disad-
vantage. Power currents and other high-amplitude, low-frequency cur-
rents flowing through the facility ground system can conductively
couple into signal circuits to create intolerable interference in suscepti-
ble low-frequency circuits. Also, multiple ground loops are created, and
this makes it more difficult to control radiated emission or susceptibil-
ity resulting from the common-mode ground loop effects. In addition,

Equipment
Safety Ground

Signal Ground

Facility Ground

Figure 5.25 Multiple-point ground configuration.

Duff.book Page 107 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

GROUND SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS 107

for multiple-point grounding to be effective, all ground conductors

between the separate points must be less than 0.1 wavelength of the
interference signal. Otherwise, common-ground impedance and ground-
radiated effects will become significant. In general, multiple-point
grounding configurations tend to be optimum at higher frequencies (i.e.,
above 30 MHz).
To illustrate one form of a hybrid-ground system, Fig. 5.26 shows a
19-in cabinet rack containing five separate sliding drawers. Each
drawer contains a portion of the system (top to bottom): (1) RF and IF
preamp circuitry for reception of microwave signals, (2) IF and video

Single-Point Power Line & Gnd Return (SPPL&GR)

LO

Ant BPF & Pre- IF

Mixer A
In RF Ampl Selector Preamp

SPPL&GR Multipoint Ground Plane

IF Log IF Demod- Video B

A Ampl. Ampl. ulator Ampl.

Multipoint Ground Plane

Power Ground

Signal Ground

Sweep Display
B Driver CRO
Circuits Drawer

Singlepoint Ground Plane

Diff Recorders Audio

Ampl. Driver

Singlepoint Ground Plane

Earth
Ground Distribution Block
Gnd

Figure 5.26 Grounding arrangement used in cabinet racks.

Duff.book Page 108 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

108 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

signal amplifiers, (3) display drivers, displays, and control circuits, (4)
low-level audio circuits and recorders for documenting sensitive multi-
channel, hard-line telemetry sensor outputs, and (5) secondary and reg-
ulated power supplies. The hybrid aspect results from:

• The RF and IF video drawers are similar. Here, unit-level boxes or

stages (interconnecting coaxial cables are grounded at both ends)
are multipoint grounded to the drawer-chassis ground plane. The
chassis is then grounded to the dagger pin, chassis ground bus as
suggested in Fig. 5.27. The power ground to these drawers, on the
other hand, is using a single-point ground from its bus in a manner
identical to the audio drawer.

Insulator

Low-Level RF Circuits & IF

Preamp
Antenna Jack To Power Gnd
To Signal Gnd

RF-IF Coax Cables

Signal Gnd

IF Amplifiers, BP Filters
Demodulators, & Video Ampl

Chassis Shelves of Rails

Video Cables, Coax or Twisted
Shielded Pair
Computer Display Drivers and
Clock Input Readout Circuitry

Multiplex Input Low-Level Audio

Sensor Jack Sensor Circuits & Display
Raceway
Power

Secondary & Regulated

AC Power Power Supplies
Mains Input
Ground or
Weld
Earthing
Stake Ground Distribution Block

Figure 5.27 Block diagram detail of hybrid grounding arrangement.

Duff.book Page 109 Friday, January 28, 2011 2:18 PM

EMI CONTROL DEVICES AND TECHNIQUES 109

• The chassis or signal ground and power ground busses each consti-
tute a multipoint grounding scheme to the drawer level. The indi-
vidual ground busses are single-point grounded at the bottom
ground distribution block. This avoids circulating common-mode
current between chassis or signal ground and power grounds, since
power ground current can vary due to transient surges in certain
modes of equipment operation.
• Interconnecting cables between different drawer levels are run sep-
arately, and their shields, when used, are treated in the same
grounding manner as at the drawer level.
• The audio and display drawers shown in Fig. 5.27 use single-point
grounding throughout for both their unit-level boxes (interconnect-
ing twisted cable is grounded at one end to its unit) and power
leads. Cable and unit shields are all grounded together at the com-
mon dagger pin bus. Similarly, the outgoing power leads and
twisted returns are separately bonded on their dagger pin busses.

To review the above scheme, the following is observed:

• The audio and display drawers have ground runs of about 0.6 m
and an upper frequency of operation of about 1 MHz (driver and
sweep circuits). Thus, single-point grounding to the strike pins is
indicated.
• The RF and IF drawers process UHF and 30 MHz signals over a
distance of a meter so that multipoint grounding is indicated.
• The regulated power supplies furnish equipment units having tran-
sient surge demands. The longest length is about 1.5 m, and signifi-
cant transient frequency components may extend up in the HF
region. Here, hybrid grounding is indicated: single-point within a
drawer and multipoint from the power bus to all drawers.

5.6 EMI Control Devices and Techniques

The performance of some EMI control techniques or devices may be sig-
nificantly influenced by grounding. In particular, cable shields; isola-
tion transformers; EMI filters; ESD, lightning, and EMF protection
techniques; and Faraday shields must be properly grounded so as to
provide maximum EMI protection. A detailed discussion of specific
grounding considerations associated with these EMI control techniques
or devices is beyond the scope of this book. However, it is important to
emphasize the importance of grounding on the performance of these
techniques or devices, and details may be found in the references.
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110 GROUNDING FOR THE CONTROL OF EMI

Suggested Readings: Grounding

[1] Morrison, Ralph, and W. H. Lewis, Grounding and Shielding in

Facilities, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
[1] Morrison, Ralph, Grounding and Shielding Techniques in Instru-
mentation, 3rd ed., Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
[1] Denny, Hugh W., Grounding for the Control of EMI, Gainesville,
VA, Interference Control Technologies, Inc.
[1] Grounding, Bonding and Shielding for Electronic Equipment and
Facilities, MIL-HDBK-419.