INTEGRATED POLYTECHNIC REGIONAL COLLEGE

IPRC-HUYE

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT PRODUCTION AND

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

Year of Study: Year 2

Semester : 2

Module code: PRT 203

Module Name

TRAINER: Aaron BUREGEYA

MEEEE

September, 2019

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 CHAPTER 1: ENGINEERING MATERIALS OVERVIEW

1. ENGINEERING MATERIALS
1.1 STATE OF MATTER
Almost all matter can exist in three physical states by changing its temperature
in appropriate conditions. These states are solids, liquids and gases.

 Ice is solid water and exists below 0°C.

 Water is a liquid above 0°C and below 100°C.
 Steam is water vapour above 100°C and becomes a gas as its
temperature is raised further (superheated).

Metals such as brass, copper or steel are solid (frozen) at room temperatures
but become liquid (molten) if heated to a sufficiently high temperature. If
they are heated to a high enough temperature they will turn into a gas. On
cooling, they will first turn back into a liquid and then back into a solid at
room temperature.

Providing no chemical change takes place (e.g. the oxidation of the metal
through contact with air at high temperatures) we can change substances
backwards and forwards through the three states by heating and cooling as often
as we like.

There are exceptions: for example, when a thermosetting plastic has been heated
during the moulding process, it undergoes a chemical change called ‗curing‘.
Once ‗cured‘, it can never again be softened nor turned into a liquid by heating.
It can, however, be destroyed by over- heating. Another example is the non-
metallic element iodine.

When heated this sublimes directly from a solid to a vapour without

becoming a liquid.

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1.2 Properties of materials
To compare and identify engineering materials, it is important to understand the
meaning of their more common properties. For example, it is no good saying
one material is stronger or harder than another material unless we know what is
meant by the terms ‗ strength ‘ and ‗ hardness ‘.

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1.2.1 Strength properties
1.2.1.1 Tensile strength
This is the ability of a material to withstand a stretching load without breaking.
This is shown in figure below.

The load is trying to stretch the rod. Therefore, the rod is

said to be in a state of tension – it is being subjected to a
tensile load. To resist this load without breaking, the
material from which the rod is made needs to have
sufficient tensile strength.

1.2.1.2 Compressive strength

This is the ability of a material to withstand a squeezing load without breaking.
This is shown in figure below.

The load is trying to squash (crush or compress) the

material from which the component is made. Therefore,
the component is said to be in a state of compression
– it is being subjected to a compressive load. To
resist this load without breaking, the material from
which it is made needs to have sufficient
compressive strength.

1.2.1.3 Shear strength

This is the ability of a material to withstand an offset load without

breaking (shearing). This is shown in figure below.

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 The loads are trying to pull the joint apart and
the rivet is trying to resist them. The loads are
not in line, but are offset. The rivet is subjected
to a shear load. The material from which it is
made must have sufficient shear strength or the
rivet will fail as shown, and the
loads will move apart. The rivet is then said to have sheared. The same effect
would have occurred if the loads had been pushing instead of pulling.

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Note: riveted joints should be designed so that the load always acts in shear
across the shank of the rivet as shown. It must never pull on the heads of the
rivet. The heads are only intended to keep the rivet in place.

1.2.1.4
Toughness
This is the ability of a material to withstand an impact load. This is shown in
figure below

The impact loading is causing the metal to crack. To

resist this impact loading without breaking, the material
from which it is made needs to have sufficient toughness.

Strength and toughness must not be confused. Strength

refers to tensile strength – the ability to withstand an
axial pulling load. For
example, when you buy a rod of high carbon steel (e.g. silver steel) it is in the
soft condition and it is strong and tough. It has a relatively high tensile
strength and its toughness will enable it to withstand relatively high impact
loading before it cracks.

If, however, this metal is quench-hardened its tensile strength will have greatly
increased, it will also have become very brittle. In this hard and brittle
condition it will now break with only a light tap with a hammer – it can no
longer resist impact loads – it has lost its toughness.

1.2.1.5
Brittleness

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 It is the property of a metal that allows no permanent
distortion before breaking. Cast iron is a brittle metal; it
will break rather than bend under shock or impact.

This property is the opposite of toughness. It is the

ability to shatter when subject to impact. For example,
the way a glass window behaves when struck by a
stone.

1.2.1.6
Rigidity
This property is also referred to as stiffness. This is the ability of a metal to
retain its original shape under load. That is, to resist plastic or elastic
deformation. Cast iron is an example of a rigid material. Because it is rigid and
because it can be cast into intricate shapes, it is a good material for use in
making the beds and columns for machine tools.

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1.2.2 Forming properties
1.2.2.1 Elasticity

This property enables a material to change shape under load and to return to its
original size and shape when the load is removed. Components such as springs
are made from elastic materials as shown in figure below

It is the ability of a metal to return to its original

shape after being distorted. Properly heat-treated
springs are good examples of elastic materials.

Note that springs will only return to their

original length providing they are not overloaded.

1.2.2.2 Plasticity

This property enables a material to deform under load and to retain its new
shape when the load is removed. This is shown in figure below:

The coin is made from a copper alloy

that is relatively soft and plastic. It takes the
impression of the dies when compressed
between them, and retains that impression
when the dies are opened. When deformed by
a tensile force, as when wire drawing, the
property of plasticity is given the special
name ductility. When the deforming force is
compressive,
for example when coining, the property of plasticity is given the special name
malleability.

1.2.2.3 Ductility

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 It is the ability of a metal to be permanently deformed without
breaking. Metals such as copper and machine steel, which may
be drawn into wire, are ductile materials

As stated above, this property enables a material to deform

in a plastic manner when subjected to a tensile (stretching)
force. For example, when
wire drawing as shown in figure (c). Also, the bracket shown in figure (d)
requires a ductile material. The outer surface of the material stretches as it bends
and is in a state of tension.

At the same time the material must remain bent when the bending force is
removed so it must be

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plastic. A ductile material combines tensile strength and plasticity. Note that even
the most ductile of metals still show a degree of elasticity. Therefore, when
bending the bracket to shape, it must be bent through slightly more than a right
angle. This ‗over bend‘ allows for any slight ‗spring back

1.2.2.4 Malleability

As stated above, this property enables a material to deform in a plastic

manner when subjected to a compressive (squeezing) force. For example, when
forging or as when rivet heading as shown in figure below:

The material must retain its shape when the

compressive force is removed so it
must be plastic. A malleable material
combines compressive strength and
plasticity.

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1.2.2.5 Hardness

This is the ability of a material to resist scratching and indentation. Figure 3.3
shows a hard steel ball being pressed into the surface of two pieces of
material using the same standard load. When pressed into a hard material, the
ball only makes a shallow indentation. When

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pressed into a soft material, under the same test conditions, the ball sinks into
the material further and makes a deeper impression. This is the basic principle of
all standard hardness tests.

1.2.3 Manufacturing and Technological Properties

1.2.3.1 Weldability
It is the ability of metals to be easily welded. The
grade of weldability depends on the content of
carbon. Steels with a content of max. 0.22% are more
or less good weldable metals.

1.2.3.2 Machinability

Indicates how easy or difficult materials can be

machined

1.2.3.3 Malleability

It is the property of metals that allows it to be

hammered or rolled into other sides and shapes.

1.2.3.4 Castability
It is the property of metals that allows it to be
molten and after it to be casted without any pores.

1.2.3.5 Hardenability

It is the property of iron metals that allows it to

increase the hardening through structural

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transformations.

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1.2.4 Chemical Properties
1.2.4.1 Corrosion Resistance

It is the ability of a material to resist the attack

of water, gases, acids or other chemicals

1.2.5 Heat properties

1.2.5.1 Heat conductivity

This is the ability of a material to conduct heat. Metals are good conductors of
heat and non- metals are poor conductors of heat. Figure 3.4(a) shows an
electrically heated soldering iron. The bit is made of copper because this is the
best of the common metals for conducting heat. It conducts the heat from the
heating element to the joint to be soldered. Copper also has an affinity for soft-
solder so it can be easily ―tinned‖. The handle is made of wood or plastic as
these materials are easily shaped and are poor conductors of heat. They are heat-
insulating materials. They keep cool and are pleasant to handle.

1.2.5.2 Refractoriness

Refractory materials are largely unaffected by heat. The fire-bricks used in

furnaces are refractory materials. They do not burn or melt at the operating
temperature of the furnace. They are also good heat-insulating materials.
However, the plastic or wooden handle of the soldering iron shown in figure
below.
It had good heat insulating properties but these are not refractory materials since
plastics and wood are destroyed by high temperatures.

1.2.5.3 Fusibility

This is the ease with which materials melt. Soft solders melt at relatively low
temperatures other materials melt at much higher temperatures. The figure
below shows the effect of turning a gas blowpipe onto a stick of soft solder.
The solder quickly melts

The same flame turned onto a block of steel makes the steel hot (possibly red-
hot) but does not melt it.

The soft solder melts at a relatively low temperature because it has

high fusibility.
The steel will not melt in the flame of the blowpipe because it has low fusibility
and will only melt at a very high temperature.

1.2.6 Corrosion resistance

This is the ability of a material to withstand chemical or electro-

chemical attacks.
A combination of such everyday things as air and water will chemically attack
plain carbon steels and form a layer of rust on its exposed surfaces. Stainless
steels are alloys of iron together with carbon, nickel and chromium, they will
resist corrosion.
Many non-ferrous metals are corrosion resistant which is why we use copper for
water pipes, and zinc or lead for roofing sheets and flashings. The sheet metal
worker will often meet with such materials as tin plate and galvanized steel
(galvanized iron). The former is thin sheet steel coated with the metal tin
whilst the latter is thin sheet steel coated with zinc. These coatings resist corrosion
of the steel substrate.
1.3 Classification of materials

To keep things simple, we will group materials of similar types together and
then consider the properties and uses of some examples from each group. These
main groups are shown in figure below

1.3.1 Metals
For the purposes of this book, we can consider metals as substances that
have a lustrous sheen when cut, are good conductors of heat, and are good
conductors of electricity. Some examples are aluminium, copper and iron.
Sometimes metals are mixed with non-metals. For example, cast irons and
plain carbon steels are mixtures of iron and carbon with traces of other
elements. Sometimes metals are mixed with other metals to materially
alter their properties such mixtures of metals are called alloys. For example,
brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

1.3.2 Non-metals
These can be elements, compounds of elements and mixtures of compounds.
They include wood, rubber, plastics, ceramics and glass. Some materials are
compounds of metals and non- metals. For example, naturally occurring
abrasive grits, such as emery and corundum contain between 70% and 90% of
aluminium oxide (a compound of aluminium and oxygen). Aluminium oxide
(also known as alumina) is used in firebricks for furnace linings.
Organic compounds are based on the element carbon chemically combined with
other substances. Some examples of organic materials can be natural materials
such as wood and some rubbers, or synthetic materials such as plastics.
1.3.3 Ferrous metals (plain carbon steels)

Ferrous metals and alloys are based on the metal iron. They are called ferrous
metals because the Latin name for iron is Ferrum. Iron is a soft grey metal
and is rarely found in the pure state outside a laboratory. For engineering
purposes the metal iron is usually associated with the non-metal carbon.

1.3.3.1 Plain carbon steels

Plain carbon steels consist, as their name implies, mainly of iron with small
quantities of carbon. There will also be traces of impurities left over from when
the metallic iron was extracted for its mineral ore. A small amount of the metal
manganese is added to counteract the effects of the impurities. However, the
amount of manganese present is insufficient to change the properties of the
steel and it is, therefore, not considered to be an alloying element. Plain
carbon steels may contain:
 0.1% to 1.4% carbon.
 Up to 1.0% manganese (not to be confused with magnesium).
 Up to 0.3% silicon.
 Up to 0.05% sulphur.
 Up to 0.05% phosphorus.
Figure 3.7 shows how the carbon content of a plain carbon steel affects the
properties of the steel. For convenience we can group plain carbon steels into
three categories:

 Low carbon steels (below 0.3% carbon).

 Medium carbon steels (0.3% to 0.8% carbon).
 High carbon steels (between 0.8% and 1.4% carbon).
1.3.3.2 Low carbon steels
These are also referred to as mild steels. If the carbon content is kept
between 0.1% and 0.15%, the steel is often referred to as ‗dead mild‘ steel.
This steel is very ductile and very soft, and can be pressed into complicated
shapes for car body panels at room temperature without cracking. It is used for
the substrate of tin-plate and galvanized steel. It is slightly weaker than the next
group of low carbon steels to be considered.
If the carbon content is between 0.15% and 0.3%, the steel is stronger, but
slightly less soft and ductile. It is often referred to as ‗mild‘ steel. It can be
forged, rolled and drawn both in the hot and in the cold condition. It is easily
machined with high-speed steel cutting tools. Because of its ease of
manufacture and the very large quantities produced, mild steels are the cheapest
and most plentiful of the steel products. Hot worked mild steel is available as
structural sections for fabrication engineering (e.g. I-section beams, rolled steel
joists, reinforcing rods and mesh for concrete, etc.), forgings, sheet, strip, plate,
rods, bars and seam- welded tubes. Cold worked mild steel –also known as
bright drawn mild steel (BDMS) – is available as bright drawn bars and rods;
solid drawn tubes; sheet and strip; and formed wire goods.

The figure shows the effect of carbon content on the properties of plain carbon steels

1.3.3.3 Medium carbon steels

There are two groups of medium carbon
steels:

1. From 0.3% to 0.5% carbon. These can be heat treated to make them tough
and strong.
2. From 0.5% to 0.8% carbon. These can be heat treated to make them
fairly hard yet remain a degree of toughness (impact resistance).
Medium carbon steels are harder, stronger and tougher than low carbon steels.
They are also more expensive. They cannot be bent or formed in the cold
condition to the same extent as low carbon steels without cracking. However,
medium carbon steels hot forge well, but close temperature control is required
to prevent:

 ‗Burning‘ at high temperatures over 1150°C, as this leads to

embrittlement. The metal cannot be reclaimed and the forging has to be
scrapped.
 Cracking when forging is continued below 700°C. Cracking is due to
work hardening gas the steel is in the ‗cold‘ condition from a forging
point of view.

Medium carbon steels with a carbon content in the 0.3% to 0.5% range are
used for such products as drop-hammer die blocks, laminated springs, wire
ropes, screwdriver blades, spanners, hammer heads and heavy duty
forgings.

Medium carbon steels with a carbon content in the 0.5% to 0.8% range are
used for such products as wood saws, cold chisels, forged blanks for
connecting rods, crankshafts, gears and other stressed components such as
high-tensile pipes and tubes.

1.3.3.4 High carbon steels

These are harder, less ductile and more expensive than both mild and medium
carbon steels. They are also less tough and are mostly used for springs, cutting
tools and forming dies. High carbon steels work-harden readily and, for this
reason, they are not recommended for cold working. However, they forge well
providing the temperature is controlled at between 700°C and 900°C. There are
three groups of high carbon steels:
 1. From 0.8% to 1.0% carbon where both toughness and hardness are
required. For example, sheet metal pressing tools where the number of
components to be produced does not warrant the cost of expensive alloy
steels. Also, cold chisels for fi ne work, some hand tools, shear blades,
coil springs and high-tensile wire (piano wire).
2. From 1.0% to 1.2% carbon for sufficient hardness for most metal
cutting tools for example wood-drills, screw-cutting taps and screw-
cutting dies.
3. From 1.2% to 1.4% carbon where extreme hardness is required for
wood-working tools and knives where a very keen cutting edge is
required.
For all of these applications the steel has to be heat-treated to enhance its
properties.
1.3.3.5 Ferrous metals (alloy steels)
These are essentially plain carbon steels to which other metals (alloying
elements) have been added in sufficient quantities to materially alter the
properties of the steel.

The most common alloying

elements are:

 Nickel, to refine the grain and strengthen the steel.

 Chromium, to improve the response of the steel to heat treatment; also to
improve the corrosion resistance of the steel.
 Molybdenum, to reduce temper brittleness during heat treatment,
welding, and operation at sustained high temperatures.
 Manganese, improves the strength and wear resistance of steels. Steels
containing a high percentage of manganese (14%) are highly wear
resistant and these steels are used for such applications as bulldozer
blades and plough blades.
 Tungsten and cobalt improve the ability of steels to remain hard at high
temperatures and are used extensively in cutting tool materials.

Alloy steels are used where great strength is required, corrosion resistance is
required, or where the ability to remain hard at high temperatures is required. In
this book we only need to consider high-speed steels for cutting tools, and
stainless steels where corrosion resistance is required.
1.3.3.5.1 High-speed steels

High-speed steels are a group of alloy steels containing metallic elements

such as tungsten and cobalt. They are used to make tools suitable for cutting
metals. These cutting tools are for use with machine tools where the heat
generated by the cutting process would soon soften high carbon steel tools.
High-speed steels can operate continuously at 700°C whereas high carbon steel
starts to soften at 220°C. Table 3.3 lists the composition and uses of some
typical high speed steels.
1.3.3.5.2 Stainless steels

These are also alloy steels. They contain a high proportion of chromium to
provide corrosion resistance. Various grades of stainless steel are available to
suit various applications. For example:

 Ferritic stainless steel (BS 403S17), which has 14% chromium but only
0.04%carbon and 0.5% nickel, is easily formed by pressing and spinning
and is used widely for low cost domestic utensils. Unfortunately, it
cannot be hardened and has the lowest strength and corrosion
resistance of the stainless steels.
 Martensitic stainless steel (BS 420S45) has 13% chromium, 0.3%
carbon and1.0%
nickel. It can be quenching hardened and is used
for cutlery.
 Austenitic stainless steel (BS 302S25) has 18% chromium, 0.1%
carbon and
8%nickel; hence it is widely known as 18/8 stainless steel. It is widely
used for fabrications, domestic, architectural and decorative purposes. It
is the most corrosion resistant of all the stainless steels.
1.3.3.6 Ferrous metal (cast irons)
These are also ferrous metals containing iron and as much as 3% carbon. They
do not require the expensive refinement processes of steel making, and they
provide a relatively low cost engineering material that can be easily cast into
complex shapes at much lower temperatures that those associated with cast
steel. The cast irons are not likely to be met with by fabrication and welding
engineers.

1.3.3.7 Non-ferrous metals and alloys

Non-ferrous metals and alloys refer to all the multitude of metals and alloys
that do not contain iron or, if any iron is present, it is only a minute trace. The
most widely used non- ferrous metals and alloys are:

 Aluminium and its alloys.

 Copper and its alloys.
 Zinc based die-casting alloys.
 Titanium and its alloys used in the aerospace engineering including
airframe and engine components.
1.3.3.8 Non-metals (natural)

Non-metals are widely used in engineering today. Some of the materials

occur naturally. For example:

1. Rubber is used for anti-vibration mountings, coolant and compressed air

hoses, transmission belts, truck wheel tyres.
2. Glass is used for spirit level vials (the tube that contains the bubble),
lenses for optical instruments.
 3. Emery and corundum (aluminium oxides) is used abrasive wheels belts
and sheets, and as grinding pastes. Nowadays it is usually produced
artificially to control the quality.
4. Wood for making casting patterns.
5. Ceramics for cutting tool tips and electrical insulators.

1.3.3.9 Non-metals (synthetic)

These are popularly known as plastics. A plastic material is said to be one that
deforms to a new shape under an applied load and retains its new shape when
the load is removed. Yet, the range of synthetic materials we call plastics are
often tough and leathery, or hard and brittle, or even elastic. They are called
plastics because, during the moulding operation by which they are formed,
they are reduced to a plastic condition by heating them to about twice the
temperature of boiling water.

There are many families of ‗plastic‘ materials with widely differing

properties. However, they all have certain properties in common.

1. Electrical insulation. All plastic materials are, to a greater or lesser

extent, good electrical insulators (they are also good heat insulators).
However, their usefulness as insulators is limited by their inability to
withstand high temperatures and their relative softness compared with
ceramics. They are mainly used for insulating wires and cables and for
moulded switch gear and instrument components and cases.
2. Strength/weight ratio. Plastic materials vary considerably in strength.
All plastics are much less dense than metals, resulting in a favourable
strength/weight ratio. The high strength plastics and reinforced plastics
compare favourably with the aluminium alloys and are often used for
stressed components in aircraft construction.
3. Degradation. Plastics do not corrode like metals. They are all inert to
most inorganic chemicals. They can be used in environments that are
chemically hostile to even the most corrosion resistant metals. They are
superior to natural rubber in their resistance to attack by oils and greases.
However, all plastics degrade at high temperatures and many are
 degraded by the ultraviolet content of sunlight. Plastics that are exposed
to sunlight (window frames and roof guttering) usually contain a pigment
that filters out the ultraviolet rays. Some thermoplastics can be dissolved
by suitable solvents.
4. SAFETY. Solvents used in the processing of plastics are often highly
toxic and should not be inhaled but used in well-ventilated
surroundings. Make sure you know the likely dangers before starting
work on plastic materials and always follow the safe working practices
laid down by the safety management.
1.4 SIZE AND SHAPE OF METALS

Due to the wide variety of work performed in a metal shop and the necessity of
conserving time, as well as reducing the amount of metal cut into steel chips,
metals are manufactured in a wide variety of shapes and sizes.

There is a proper method for specifying the sizes and dimensions of metal
when ordering:

Flat-bar: Thickness × Width ×

Length Round-bar: Diameter ×

Length Square-bar: Width × Length

Angle-bar: Thickness × Width × Length

Hexagon- Diameter × Length (or Distance Across

bar: Flats × Length)

Pipe: Diameter × Schedule × Length # 20 is

thinner than # 40

Square- Thickness × Width × Length

tubing:

Channel-Bar: Width × Height × Length

 I-Beam: Length × Thickness × pounds

Z-Bar: Width × Length

T-Bar: Width × Length

Metal Sheet: Gauge × Width × Length

1.5 METRIC AND INCH SYSTEMS

Over 90% of all countries in the world are presently using the Metric System.
But there are still some countries using the Inch System (e.g. United States,
Canada, and England). With the reality of global manufacturing continually
expanding, the need for metal workers in both systems of measurement will
continue to grow.
Metric System

The metric system uses the meter and linear units based on the meter as its
standards of measure.

At the General Conference on Weights and Measures in October, 1983, the

meter, defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during
1/299,792,458 of a second, was approved as a world standard.
All multiplies and subdivisions of the meter are directly related to the meter
by a factor of ten. This makes it easy to use the decimal system for calculations
involving metric units.

Kilometer = km 1km = 1,000 m

Meter = m 1m = 10 dm = 100 cm = 1,000mm

Decimeter = dm 1 dm = 10 cm = 100mm

Centimeter = cm 1 cm = 10 mm

Millimeter = mm 1mm = 1,000µm

Micrometer = µm

Inch
System

Unlike the Metric System, within the Inch System there is no relationship of
other linear units to the base inch unit. The values of yard, rod, mile, etc.
have to be studied and kept in memory in order to use them. The inch can be
dived in halves (1/2), quarters (1/4), eighths (1/8), sixteenth (1/16), thirty-
seconds (1/32), sixty-fourth (1/64), tenth, hundreds, thousandth, ten-thousands
etc.

Conversion from Metric to Inch or opposite

1 millimeter = 0.0394 inch 1 inch = 25.4 millimeters

1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters

1 meter = 39.37 inches 1 foot = 0.3048 meter

CHAPTER 2: SHEET AND PLATE METALWORK
2.1 Introduction to metal forming
Metal forming is also known as mechanical working of metals. Metal forming
operations are frequently desirable either to produce a new shape or to improve
the properties of the metal. Shaping in the solid state may be divided into non-
cutting shaping such as forging, rolling, pressing, etc., and cutting shaping such
as the machining operations performed on various machine tools. Non-cutting or
non-machining shaping processes are referred to as mechanical working
processes. It means an intentional and permanent deformation of metals
plastically beyond the elastic range of the material. The main objectives of
metal working processes are to provide the desired shape and size, under the
action of externally applied forces in metals. Such processes are used to achieve
optimum mechanical properties in the metal and reduce any internal voids or
cavities present and thus make the metal dense.

Metals are commonly worked by plastic deformation because of the beneficial

effect that is imparted to the mechanical properties by it. The necessary
deformation in a metal can be achieved by application of mechanical force only
or by heating the metal and then applying a small force. The impurities present
in the metal are thus get elongated with the grains and in the process get broken
and dispersed throughout the metal. This also decreases the harmful effect of the
impurities and improves the mechanical strength. This plastic deformation of a
metal takes place when the stress caused in the metal, due to the applied forces
reaches the yield point. The deformations may be carried out at room
temperature or higher temperatures. At higher temperatures the deformation is
faster because the bond between atoms of the metal grains is reduced. Plasticity,
ductility and malleability are the properties of a material, which retains the
deformation produced under applied forces permanently and hence these metal
properties are important for metal working processes.
Plasticity is the ability of material to undergo some degree of permanent
deformation without rupture or failure. Plastic deformation will take place only
after the elastic range has been exceeded. Such property of material is important
in forming, shaping, extruding and many other hot and cold working processes.
Materials such as clay, lead, etc. are plastic at room temperature and steel is
plastic at forging temperature. This property generally increases with increase in
temperature.
Ductility is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic.
The ductility is usually measured by the terms percentage elongation and
percent reduction in area often used as empirical measures of ductility. The
ductile material commonly used in engineering practice in order of diminishing
ductility are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.

Malleability is the ability of the material to be flattened into thin sheets without
cracking by hot or cold working. A malleable material should be plastic but it is
not essential to be so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in
engineering practice in order of diminishing malleability are lead, soft
steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium. Aluminium, copper, tin, lead,
steel, etc. are recognized as highly malleable metals.

2.2 RECRYSTALISATION

During the process of plastic deformation in metal forming, the plastic flow of
the metal takes place and the shapes of the grains are changed. If the plastic
deformation is carried out at higher temperatures, new grains start growing at
the location of internal stresses caused in the metal. If the temperature is
sufficiently high, the growth of new grains is accelerated and continuous till the
metal comprises fully of only the new grains. This process of formation of new
grains is known as recrystallisation and is said to be complete when the metal
structure consists of entirely new grains. That temperature at which
recrystalisation is completed is known as the recrystallisation temperature of
the metal. It is this point, which draws the line of difference between cold
working and hot working processes. Mechanical working of a metal below its
recrystalisation temperature is called as cold working and that accomplished
above this temperature but below the melting or burning point is known as hot
working.

2.3 HOT WORKING

2.3.1 Introduction
Mechanical working processes which are done above recrystallisation
temperature of the metal are know as hot working processes. Some metals, such
as lead and tin, have a low recrystallisation temperature and can be hot-worked
even at room temperature, but most commercial metals require some heating.
However, this temperature should not be too high to reach the solidus
temperature; otherwise the metal will burn and become unsuitable for use.
In hot working, the temperature of completion of metal working is important
since any extra heat left after working aid in grain growth. This increase in size
of the grains occurs by a process of coalescence of adjoining grains and is a
function of time and temperature. Grain growth results in poor mechanical
properties. If the hot working is completed just above the recrystallisation
temperature then the resultant grain size would be fine. Thus for any hot
working process the metal should be heated to such a temperature below its
solidus temperature, that after completion of the hot working its temperature
will remain a little higher than and as close as possible to its recrystalisation
temperature

2.3.2 EFFECT OF HOT WORKING ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

METALS

1. This process is generally performed on a metal held at such a

temperature that the metal does not work-harden. A few metals e.g., Pb
and Sn (since they possess low crystallization temperature) can be hot
worked at room temperature.
2. Raising the metal temperature lowers the stresses required to produce
deformations and increases the possible amount of deformation before
excessive work hardening takes place.
3. Hot working is preferred where large deformations have to be
performed that do not have the primary purpose of causing work
hardening.
4. Hot working produces the same net results on a metal as cold working and
annealing.
It does not strain harden the metal.
5. In hot working processes, compositional irregularities are ironed out and
nonmetallic impurities are broken up into small, relatively harmless
fragments, which are uniformly dispersed throughout the metal
 instead of being concentrated in large stress-raising metal working
masses.
6. Hot working such as rolling process refines grain structure. The
coarse columnar dendrites of cast metal are refined to smaller equiaxed
grains with corresponding improvement in mechanical properties of the
component.
7. Surface finish of hot worked metal is not nearly as good as with
cold working, because of oxidation and scaling.
8. One has to be very careful as regards the temperatures at which to start
hot work and at which to stop because this affects the properties to be
introduced in the hot worked metal.
9. Too high a temperature may cause phase change and overheat the steel
whereas too low temperature may result in excessive work hardening.
10. Defects in the metal such as blowholes, internal porosity and cracks get
removed or welded up during hot working.
11. During hot working, self-annealing occurs and recrystallization
takes place immediately following plastic deformation. This self-
annealing action prevents hardening and loss of ductility.

2.3.3 MERITS OF HOT WORKING

1. As the material is above the recrystallisation temperature, any amount of

working can be imparted since there is no strain hardening taking place.

2. At a high temperature, the material would have higher amount of
ductility and therefore there is no limit on the amount of hot working
that can be done on a material. Even brittle materials can be hot
worked.
3. In hot working process, the grain structure of the metal is refined and
thus mechanical properties improved.
4. Porosity of the metal is considerably minimized.
5. If process is properly carried out, hot work does not affect tensile
strength, hardness, corrosion resistance, etc.
6. Since the shear stress gets reduced at higher temperatures, this process
requires much less force to achieve the necessary deformation.
7. It is possible to continuously reform the grains in metal working
and if the temperature and rate of working are properly controlled, a
very favorable grain size could be achieved giving rise to better
mechanical properties.
8. Larger deformation can be accomplished more rapidly as the metal is in
plastic state.
9. No residual stresses are introduced in the metal due to hot working.
10. Concentrated impurities, if any in the metal are disintegrated and
distributed throughout the metal.
11. Mechanical properties, especially elongation, reduction of area and
izod values are improved, but fibre and directional properties are
produced.
 12. Hot work promotes uniformity of material by facilitating
diffusion of alloy constituents and breaks up brittle films of hard
constituents or impurity namely cementite in steel.

2.3.4 DEMERITS OF HOT WORKING

1. Due to high temperature in hot working, rapid oxidation or scale

formation and surface de-carburization take place on the metal surface
leading to poor surface finish and loss of metal.
2. On account of the loss of carbon from the surface of the steel piece
being worked the surface layer loses its strength. This is a major
disadvantage when the part is put to service.
3. The weakening of the surface layer may give rise to a fatigue crack
which may ultimately result in fatigue failure of the component.
4. Some metals cannot be hot worked because of their brittleness at high
temperatures.
5. Because of the thermal expansion of metals, the dimensional accuracy in
hot working is difficult to achieve.
6. The process involves excessive expenditure on account of high cost of
tooling. This however is compensated by the high production rate and
better quality of components.
7. Handling and maintaining of hot working setups is difficult and
troublesome.

2.3.5 HOT ROLLING

Rolling is the most rapid method of forming metal into desired shapes by
plastic deformation through compressive stresses using two or more than two
rolls. It is one of the most widely used of all the metal working processes. The
main objective of rolling is to convert larger sections such as ingots into smaller
 sections which can be used either directly in as rolled state or as stock for
working through other processes. The coarse structure of cast ingot is convened
into a fine grained structure using rolling process as shown in figure below
Significant improvement is accomplished in rolled parts in their various
mechanical properties such as toughness, ductility, strength and shock
resistance. The majority of steel products are being converted from the ingot
form by the process of rolling. To the steel
supplied in the ingot form the preliminary treatment imparted is the reduction in
its section by
rolling as shown in figure. The crystals in parts are elongated in the direction of
rolling, and they start to reform after leaving the zone of stress. Hot rolling
process is being widely used in the production of large number of useful
products such as rails, sheets, structural sections, plates etc. There are different
types of rolling mills, which are described as under.

2.4 COLD WORKING OF METALS

2.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Cold working of a metal is carried out below its recrystallisation temperature.
Although normal room temperatures are ordinarily used for cold working of
various types of steel, temperatures up to the recrystallisation range are
sometimes used. In cold working, recovery processes are not effective.

2.4.2 PURPOSE OF COLD WORKING

The common purpose of cold working is given

as under
1. Cold working is employed to obtain better surface finish on parts.
2. It is commonly applied to obtain increased mechanical properties.
3. It is widely applied as a forming process of making steel products using
pressing and spinning.
4. It is used to obtain thinner material.
 2.4.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF COLD WORKING

The main characteristics of cold working are given as under.

1. Cold working involves plastic deformation of a metal, which
results in strain hardening.
2. It usually involves working at ordinary (room) temperatures, but, for
high melting point metals, e.g., tungsten, the cold working may be carried
out at a red heat.
3. The stress required for deformation increases rapidly with the amount of
deformation.
4. The amount of deformation, which can be performed without introducing
other treatment, is limited.
5. Cold rolling process generally distorts grain structure.
6. Good surface finish is obtained in cold rolling.
7. The upper temperature limit for cold working is the maximum
temperature at which strain hardening is retained. Since cold working
takes place below the recrystallisation temperature, it produces strain
hardening.
8. Excessive cold working gives rise to the formation and propagation of
cracks in the metal.
9. The loss of ductility during cold working has a useful side effect in
machining.
10. With less ductility, the chips break more readily and facilitate the cutting
operation.
11. Heating is sometimes required.
12. Directional properties can be easily imparted.
13. Spring back is a common phenomenon present in cold-working processes.
14. For relatively ductile metals, cold working is often more
economical than hot working.
There is some increase and some decrease in properties of the cold worked
part, which are given as under.

 Cold working process increases:

• Ultimate tensile strength
• Yield strength
• Hardness
• Fatigue strength
• Residual stresses
 Cold working processes decreases:
 • Percentage elongation
• Reduction of area
• Impact strength
• Resistance to corrosion
• Ductility

2.4.4 LIMITATIONS OF COLD WORKING

1. The cold worked process possesses less ductility.

2. Strain hardening occurs.
3. Metal surfaces must be clean and scale free before cold working.
4. Hot worked metal has to be pickled in acid to remove scale, etc.
5. Higher forces are required for deformation than those in hot working.
6. More powerful and heavier equipments are required for cold working.

2.4.5 ADVANTAGES OF COLD WORKING

1. In cold working processes, smooth surface finish can be easily produced.

2. Accurate dimensions of parts can be maintained.
3. Strength and hardness of the metal are increased but ductility decreased.
4. Since the working is done in cold state, no oxide would form on the
surface and consequently good surface finish is obtained.
5. Cold working increases the strength and hardness of the material due
to the strain hardening which would be beneficial in some situations.
6. There is no possibility of decarburization of the surface
7. Better dimensional accuracy is achieved.
8. It is far easier to handle cold parts and it is also economical for smaller sizes.

2.5 COMPARISON OF HOT WORKING WITH COLD WORKING

The comparison of hot working with cold working is given in Table below
Sn0 Hot Working Cold Working

1 Hot working is carried out above the Cold working is carried out below
recrystallisation temperature and below the recrystallisation temperature. As such,
 melting point. Hence the deformation of metal there is no appreciable recovery.
and recovery take place simultaneously
2 No internal or residual stresses are set-up in In this process internal or residual
the metal in hot working stresses are set-up in the metal
3 Close tolerance cannot be maintained Better tolerance can be easily maintained.
4 Surface finish of this process is Surface finish of this process is better.
comparatively not good
5 It results in improvements of properties like It results in improvements of properties
impact strength and elongation. like impact strength and elongation
6 Due to re-crystallisation and recovery no or Since this is done below re-crystallisation
very negligible hardening of metal takes temperature the metal gets work
place. hardened.
7 Due to higher deformation temperatures, the The stress required to cause deformation
stress required for deformation is much less. is much higher.
8 Hot working refines metal grains resulting in Most of the cold working processes lead
improved mechanical properties. to distortion of grains.
9 If cracks and blow boles are present in the In cold working the existing cracks
metal, they are finished through hot working propagate and new cracks may develop
10 If properly performed, it does not affect It improves hardness, yield strength but
hardness, corrosion resistance, yield strength reduces the corrosion resistance of
and fatigue strength of the metal. strength of the metal.

2.6 Sheet metal work

Sheet metalwork is the manipulation of sheet metal of 3.5 mm in thickness, or

less, using mainly hand tools or portable power tools in order to
manufacture a range of diverse products. Plate metalwork is the manipulation
of metal plate over 3.5 mm in thickness using mainly power tools. The
fabricated products for both sheet metalwork and for thin plate metalwork are
produced from flat blanks that have been marked out, and then cut out
(contoured) prior to forming to shape. The forming operations used range
from simple bending and rolling operations to more complex flow-forming
operations such as spinning and presswork as shown below:
 Figures show the comparison of cold forming application

2.7 Forming by bending (folding)

The terms folding and bending are loosely used in the sheet-metal industry and
largely interchangeable in common parlance. To be precise, the term ‗folding‘
refers to sharp corners with a minimum bend radius. The term ‗bending‘
refers to deflections of relatively large corner radii. Folding and bending
involve the deformation of material along a straight line in two dimensions only.

When a bending force is applied to a workpiece under free bending conditions,

the initial bending is elastic in character. This is because the stresses that are
developed in the opposite faces of the material are not sufficiently high to
exceed the yield strength of the material. The stresses developed on the outside
of the bend tend to stretch the metal and are, therefore, tensile stresses. The
stresses developed on the inside of the bend tend to shorten the metal and are,
therefore, compressive stresses. The movement or strain which takes place in
the metal as a result of the initial bending force is elastic only and, upon
removal of the force, the workpiece springs back to its original shape.
As the bending force is gradually increased these stresses, both tensile and
compressive, produced in the outermost regions of the material, will eventually
exceed the yield strength of the material. Once the yield strength of the
material has been exceeded, the movement (strain) which occurs in the
material becomes plastic and the material takes on a permanent
set. This permanent strain occurs only in the outermost regions furthest from
the neutral plane (neutral axis). The neutral plane is an imaginary plane
situated between the tension side and the compression side of the bend of the
material where the metal is neither stretched or shortened but maintains its
original length. Its position will vary slightly due to the differing properties
of different materials, their thickness and their physical condition. Therefore,
there is a zone adjacent to the neutral plane where the strain remains elastic.
On release of the bending force the material adjacent to the neutral plane will
try to give up its elastic strain energy and straighten the material out. However,
the greater portion of the material which has suffered plastic deformation will
resist this release of elastic strain energy and the material will remain bent.
Nevertheless, there will be some slight recovery of shape and this is known as
‗spring-back ‘. To allow for this springback a degree of ‗overbend ‘is required.
Figure below shows the effects of a bending force on a material.
 The effects of a bending force on a material
Folding or bending usually occurs in press tools (pressure bending) or in folding
machines. The principle of pressure bending is shown below
 2.8 Spring-back

When bending a material an unbalanced system of varying stresses occurs in the

region of the bend. When the bending operation is complete and the bending
force is removed, this unbalanced system of stresses tends to return to a state of
equilibrium.
The material tries to spring back and any part of the elastic stress which remains
in the material becomes residual stress in the bent zone. The amount of spring-
back to be expected will vary because of the differing composition and
mechanical properties of the materials used in fabrication processes. Some
materials, because of their composition, can withstand more severe cold-
working than others.

The severity of bending a specific material can withstand without cracking

depends upon the
ratio of bend radius to material
thickness.
 A ‗tight‘ (small) radius causes greater cold-deformation than a more
generous bend in a material of the same thickness.
 A thicker material develops more strain-hardening (work-
hardening) than is experienced in a thinner material bent to the same
inside radius.
 Allowing for springback on a folding machine

Compensating for spring-

back
The figure above shows how the clamping beam of a folding machine is
specifically designed to compensate for spring-back, whilst figure below shows
two methods of compensating for spring-back when using a press-brake or a
‗vee‘ tool in a fly press.
Two methods of pressure bending.

(a) Air pressure bending

The principle of air-bending is
shown in above. This allows for
various angles of bend to be
achieved by three-point loading.
These three points are the two
edges of the ‗vee-die‘ and the nose
of the
‗vee-punch‘ (top tool). During air-
bending, the material retains some
of its elasticity. Therefore, the
bending angle must be over-
closed (overbend) to
compensate for the spring-back
that
occurs when the tools are opened. The bending tools are designed
accordingly, with both
the top and bottom tools having ‗vees‘ that are less than 90°, usually about
85°.

The advantages of air-bending are:

a) A smaller bending force is required for any given
material. b) The ability to bend heavy (thick) sheets
and plates.
c) The ability to form various angles in the
same tools. (b) Coining pressure bending
The principle of this method of
bending is shown in figure below.
The nose of the vee punch crushes
the natural air-bending radius of the
material on the inside of the bend.
This compression removes most or
all of the elasticity from the
bent material, resulting in the bend
retaining the exact angles of the
bending tools. Therefore, when
coining a bend, both the punch and
the die have an included angle of
90°.
 2.9 Folding machines

Manually operated folding machines are usually used for folding tinplate and
thin sheet metal up to 1.62 mm in thickness. An example of a manually
operated folding machine is shown in figure below. The smallest width of
bending is 8 to 10 times the material thickness and the minimum inside corner
radius of the bend is 1.5 times the metal thickness.

The procedure for bending sheet metal in a folding machine is

as follows:
1. Clamping: In clamping, the amount of lift of the clamping beam is
important. It should be sufficient to allow the fitting and use of special
clamping blades (fingers) and to give adequate clearance for previous
folds.
2. Folding: Care must be taken to see that the folding beam will clear the
work, particularly when making second or third folds. Some folding
machines are designed to fold radii above the minimum, either by fitting
a radius bar or by adjustment of the folding beam.
3. Removal of work: Care must be taken when folding to ensure that the
work can be easily removed on completion of the final bend. The
sequence of folding must be carefully planned. The lift of the clamping
beam is important when removing the work. Some folding machines,
known as universal folders, have swing beams. The work may be folded
completely around the beam, which is swung out to allow removal of
the work.
An example of a manually operated folding machine
 2.10 Bend allowance for sheet metal

When sheet metals are bent through an angle, the metal on or adjacent to the
outside surfaces becomes stretched, whilst the metal on or adjacent to the
inside surfaces of the bends becomes compressed. It is necessary to make
allowance for these effects when developing a template or when marking out a
blank sheet prior to bending. Because there is a slight difference between the
amount of compressive strain and the amount of tensile strain, the neutral line
does not lie on the centre line of the metal but lies in a position nearer to the
inside of the bend as shown below

Figure above shows Bend allowances for sheet metal and plate

This neutral line is an imaginary curved line lying somewhere inside the
metal in the bend. Its position and length does not alter from the original flat
length during bending.
For the purpose of calculating the allowance for a bend in sheet metal, the
neutral line curve is regarded as the arc of a circle whose radius is equal to the
sum of the inside bend radius plus the distance of the neutral line in from the
inside of the bend. The precise position of the neutral line inside the bend
depends upon a number of factors which include:
  The properties of the metal.
 The thickness of the metal.
 The inside radius of the bend.

Generally, if the position of the neutral line is 0.4 times the thickness of the
metal in from the inside of the bend. Therefore, the radius used for calculating
the bend allowance is equal to the sum of the inside bend radius plus 0.4 times
the thickness of the metal. Furthermore, the bend radius is rarely less than twice
the metal thickness and rarely more than four times the metal thickness.
Therefore, for all practical purposes, when calculating the required length of a
thin sheet-metal blank when forming cylindrical or part cylindrical work, the
mean circumference is used. That is, the neutral line is assumed to be the central
axis of the metal thickness. It is only when working with thin plate and thick
plate that the neutral line needs to be calculated more accurately. The
terminology used when bending metal is as follows:
 Bend radius: the inside radius of the bend.
 Outside bend radius: the inside radius of the bend plus the metal
thickness.
 Bend allowance: the length of the metal required to produce only the
radius portion of the bend.
Neutral line data for bending sheet metal
Bending operation
Bending is defined as the straining of the sheet metal around a straight edge: as
shown below

Bending of sheet
metal
Bending operations involve the processes such as:

i) V-bending—sheet metal is bent along a straight line between a V-

shape punch and die.

V-bending before and after

bending

ii) Edge bending—bending of the cantilever part of the sheet around

the die edge.
Edge bending before and after
bending
Bend allowance
This is the stretching length that occurs during bending. It must be accounted to
determine the length of the blank,

Where Lb is the length of the blank, L are the lengths of the straight parts of the
blank, BA is the bend allowance,

Where A is the bend angle; t is the sheet thickness; R is the bend radius; Kba
is a factor to estimate stretching, defined as follows:
Calculation of bending allowance and total length

Example1

Calculate the length of the blank required to form the ‗U‘ clip shown below.
The position of the neutral line = 0.5T (centre line), where T =12.7 mm.

Solution:
Example
2

Calculate the length of the blank required to form the bracket shown below,
using the neutral line value of 0.4 T from the inside bend radius, and given that
the metal thickness (T) =6.35 mm and the inside bend radius (r) =2 T.
Solution:

PRT 203 - Metal Forming and Fabrication

Page 41
Example3
Determine the blank length of the right-angled bracket shown below

Solution

PRT 203 - Metal Forming and Page 42

Fabrication
Example
4
Determine the blank length of the right-angled bracket
shown below

Solutio
n

2.11 Roll-bending sheet metal and plate

Roll-bending sheet metal and plate is
used for:
 Producing cylindrical components.
 Producing conical components.
 Wiring cylindrical edges.

2.11.1 Roll-bending machines

Bending rolls for sheet metal and plate are made in a variety of sizes. Those
intended for thin sheet metal and wiring beaded edges are usually manually
operated, whilst those for plate work are always power-driven. Bending rolls for
PRT 203 - Metal Forming and Page 43
Fabrication
sheet metal are known as pinch-type machines, whilst those intended for plate
work are pyramid-type machines. Also available for heavy-duty plate work are
universal machines, which may be used for both pinch and pyramid
rolling.

PRT 203 - Metal Forming and Page 44

Fabrication
The figure above shows a set of manually operated sheet-metal bending rolls.
The grooves at the right-hand end of the rolls are for wire-beading the
edges of cylindrical or conical components. This is a pinch -type machine. It
has two front rollers that are geared together and lightly grip (pinch) the sheet,
propelling it through the machine.

There is a third ‗free ‘roller at the rear of the machine to ‗set‘ the sheet to the
required radius. This third roller may be below the sheet or above the sheet.

Roll-up-type machine
This has the ‗free‘ roller below the sheet as shown in
figure below
Roll-up machines have adjustment on the top or
bottom pinch roll to compensate for various material
thicknesses and adjustment in the upward direction
on the back (free) roller to adjust the set of the sheet
to the required radius.

PRT 203 - Metal Forming and Page 45

Fabrication
As a general rule, the
minimum diameter that
can be rolled on a
pinch- type, roll-up
machine is about 1.5 to
2 times the diameter of
the rear roller.

PRT 203 - Metal Forming and Page 46

Fabrication
Roll-down-type
machine
This has the free roller above the sheet as shown in
figure below
Roll-down machines have adjustment in a vertical
direction on the top and bottom pinch rollers to
compensate for various material thicknesses and
adjustment in a downward direction on the back roller.
This type of machine will not roll more curvature than
will pass beneath the pedestal frame.

2.11.2 Rolling plate

Rolling machines used for plate work are very much more robust than those
used for sheet metal and tin plate. They are always power driven. Whereas
heavy-duty, motorized pinch- type rolls are suitable for thin plate work,
machines intended for thick plate work are of the pyramid type. These have
three rolls arranged in a pyramid formation as shown below

Most plate-rolling machines are provided with longitudinal grooves along the
lower rolls to assist in gripping and driving the plate.
These grooves can also be used for the initial alignment of the plate. The
top roll is adjustable up or down and may be ‗slipped‘ to allow removal of the
work when rolling is complete to form a cylinder
The main advantage of the three-roll pyramid type machine is that for heavy
plate the bottom roll centres are wide apart. This reduces the load on the top
roller. Since the bottom rollers are mounted in inclined slideways, the bottom
roll centres are automatically reduced as the rollers are adjusted upwards for
work on thin plate and small diameters.
CHAPTER3. MARKING OUT AND MEASURING TOOLS

3.1 MEASURING TOOLS

3.1.1 Scale, rule

(1) Steel rule: As the most comfortable measurement tool which is used at
job site, it is mainly used for measuring of straight line‘s size. The size
can be read by scale of rule‘s edge and steel rule of stainless steel is
commonly used. The length, 300mm,
600mm, 1,000mm, is commonly us and scale is mostly mm type
and inch type.

(2) Pull-push rule: Pull-push rule measure the length near

2,000~7,000mm and it consists of flexible spring tape and case for
keeping of this tape. This rule is much available at short length‘s inside
and outside measuring and it can be used in circumference measuring of
cylinder body.

(3) Folding rule: It is used for measuring of structure‘s long length and
made of solid wood or aluminum. The whole size is 1,000~2,500mm and
one knot‘s length is normally 150mm.

3.1.2 Square

(1) Normal square: Normal square consists of strong material‘s stock and
thin blade. The blade‘s length is normally 50~300mm. This rule is used
for checking accuracy of a straight line, plane and angle and drawing a
right angle and a perpendicular line and checking the right angle.

Normal
 square
(2) Combination square: It consists of mobile square head and grooved steel
rule. There are levels on each head and it can check plate‘s horizontality
of plane which you want to measure and there is scale of mm or inch in
the rule. It can set up the angle to 45˚ and 90˚ and it can be used for depth
measurement gauge.
 (3) Combination square set: It is called combination square set which
protractor is added to combination rule. Protractor is attached by the
same method of combination square‘s head and the angle, 0~180˚ or
0~90˚, is carved at revolving turret in both direction. There are protractor
for acknowledging the relationship between horizontality and vertical in
angle measuring. This combination square set has the overall function
of height gauge, bevel protractor, protractor, steel rule, depth gauge,
and scriber and is square measurement, etc. then it is much available tool.

Combination square and combination square set

3.1.3 Calipers

Calipers is used for comparing diameter, distance measuring, set up value or

size with the standard like rule‘s scale and there is outside calipers which is
used for measuring the distance and diameter of outer surface and there is
inside calipers which is used for measuring the distance and diameter of inner
surface.
Also, both inside and outside, there is spring type which can control the
degree of legs‘
divergenc
e.
(a) For outside (b) For inside (c) Spring type(For
outside)
 3.1.4 Vernier calipers

Vernier calipers is the tools that a straight rule is combined with calipers and
it is broadly used for measuring length, external diameter, internal diameter and
depth of a structure.

(c) Measuring outside (d) Measuring inside (e) Measuring

Depth

3.1.5 Level

Level is used for testing of horizontality or perpendicularity of structure‘s

surface and there are aluminum bubble tube level and digital level. Aluminum
bubble tube have the advantage of that level is light and rustproof and it is not
bended or twisted, so it is commonly used at sheet metal job site. Digital level
can measure accurately the horizontality of a plane, it is very comfortable for
setting up the work table.
(a) Digital level (b) Bubble tube level
 3.1.6 Micrometer

As micrometer is the measuring tools which use the screw of exact pitch, there
are the micrometer for measuring external diameter, inside micrometer and
depth measuring micrometer.
It is broadly used for length measuring at sheet metal work and minute
mechanical industry, and it has high accuracy, then it can measure till 0.001mm,
0.001mm.

3.1.7 Dial gauge

Dial gauge is the measuring tools which magnify and show the minute scale by
using the movement of rack and pinion. It is used for inspecting shaking of
processing machine‘s revolution body or rotation axis, for measuring parallel of
structure and status of plane and comparing measurement with standard and
merchandise inspection.

(a) Shape of dial gauged (b) Digital dial

gauge

3.1.8 Depth gauge and surface plate

1. Depth gauge: Depth gauge is used for measuring depth of structure‘s hole,
counter bore
and slot,
etc.
 2. Height gauge or vernier height gauge: Height gauge is used for cutting
of jig or parts, inspecting of hole‘s position and surface and it is
used for drawing line of merchandise. Generally, vernier is attached
at this gauge and it is a kind of calipers that foot block is attached for
using on the surface plate. Popular gauge is two types, normal
vernier gauge and digital vernier gauge.

3. Surface plate: Surface plate is usually made of cast iron of minute

particles and it consist of accurate and smoothly plane, so it is used as
standard plane of minute measurement. Mostly, height gauge is used as
standardized plane.

3.1.9 Other gauge

(1) Feeler gauge: Thickness gauge is the thin hard gauge that it is fixed by
screws 9~26 steel sheets of different thickness and each size is marked at
each steel sheet. It is used for measuring of the joining spot or gap of little
groove.

2 Wire gauge: Wire gauge is used for thickness measuring of thickness of wire
and plat, and the shape is round and there is measuring groove around circle
circumference of gauge.
3 Drill gauge: It is used for recognizing of drill measurement or finding drill
of suitable size to given tap size.

3.2 MARKING OUT TOOLS

3.2.1 Scriber
Drawing needle is normally called scriber and it is used for drawing the line at
cutting materials of metal plate. Generally, it is made of high carbon steel or
bronze and the diameter of handle is 5~10mm, the whole length is near 200mm.
Scriber has a screw which can be attached to both side of handle and there
is knurling at
handle for worker‘s tightly
grabbing.

Scribers

3.2.2 Center punch

Center punch is made of tool steel and it is mainly used for showing
accurately of a certain
plate‘s cutting line or checking of the holes center at drilling
processing.
Center punch and Auto center
punch
Normal punch‘s end is tempered to cone shape of 60˚ and measurements are
much various. Auto center punch does not need a hammer, if you grab with
hand and push strongly, it stamp automatically by internal structure.

3.2.3 Compass

There is normal compass and spring compass and beam compass and it is
used when you draw circular arc or circle at plates and move a segment or
divide into equal parts. Especially, beam compass or trammel are used for
moving long segment and drawing big circle which cannot be drew by normal
compass. Beam‘s length is usually 200~500mm and it can be increased by
extension tool.

a) Normal compass (b) Beam

compass

3.2.4 Divider

Divider is used for measuring distance between 2 spots, moving a

measuring value or drawing a circular arc and circles. There are spring type
and wing type.

(a) Spring type (b) Wing

type

Dividers
Spring type is that two sharp ended legs can be diverged by spring and can be
controlled by screw and nut. The size is normally 75~250mm. There is a bar at
wing type and it can control two legs divergence distance.
The divider of this form has three kinds of length. : 150,
200, 300mm.
The divider which is explained until now is used similarly with compass which
is explained already.
CHAPTER4. METAL CUTTING
PROCESSES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Metal cutting is a process of dividing a work piece into small pieces by

means of flame cutting, shearing, hacksawing, disc cutting, plasma cutting
and so on.

4.2 OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING

Oxyfuel gas cutting uses a fuel gas combined with oxygen. On carbon steels
and low alloy steels containing less than about 9% chromium, acetylene is
the fuel gas most commonly used for cutting. Acetylene mixed with oxygen is
used to preheat the base metal prior to cutting. A stream of pure oxygen is
introduced to do the actual cutting by a high temperature exothermic reaction of
the oxygen with iron.
Metal oxides and molten metal are expelled from the cut by the kinetic energy
of the oxygen stream.
A view of oxyfuel gas cutting is shown in
Figure below

Propane or natural gas can be substituted for acetylene as the fuel gas.
Propane is safer to use than acetylene. It is stored as a liquid and so requires less
cylinder handling. Another acetylene substitute is methylacetylene-propadiene
stabilized (MPS), a proprietary acetylene. MPS is a mixture of several
hydrocarbons, including propadiene, propane, butane, butadiene, and
methylacetylene. MPS burns hotter than propane or natural gas and is easier to
use than acetylene for cutting preheat because it has more even heat distribution
in the flame. Like propane, MPS is a liquid and so requires less cylinder
handling. Use of alternate fuel gases such as propane and MPS generally
depends upon availability, safety requirements, and economics.
Advantages of gas cutting
process

(i) It cuts the metal thickness up to 24mm

(ii) It produces the smooth edge when the automatic gas cutter is used.
(iii) It can cut by reading and interpreting the drawings in case the
automatic cutter is used.
(iv) It is used for edge preparation by changing
the angles. (v) It is easier to cut pipes with
automatic gas cutter
(vi) It is used to cut a circular form on the
plates. (vii) It is used for beveling the
pipes and plates.
(viii) It can be used anywhere due to the mobility of the equipment
(ix) It is used where there is no
electricity. (x) It is low in cost

Disadvantages of gas cutting

process

(i) It is used for cutting only ferrous metals

(ii) Manual cutting requires skilled personnel to produce smooth edge
(iii) The equipment requires attention for handling them.

4.3 PLASMA ARC CUTTING

The plasma arc process is the highest quality cutting process for alloy steel and
nonferrous alloys. (The alternative is to use powder cutting.) It generates a very
high temperature, high velocity constricted arc between a non-consumable
tungsten electrode (contained within a torch) and the base metal. The intense
heat continuously melts the metal, which is removed by a high velocity stream
of ionized gas. Plasma arc cutting produces a fast, clean cut with a much thinner
HAZ and oxide layer than with other processes. Plasma arc cutting produces a
slightly tapered cut because the kerf is on the top rather than on the bottom. The
taper can be placed on one side of a cut in order to obtain one straight side if
needed. Although plasma arc cutting is the most economical process on high
alloys, it can also have an advantage on thinner carbon steel, where it allows
cutting speeds that are much faster than for oxyfuel gas cutting with thicknesses
up to about 24.5mm
 PARTS DIAGRAM FOR TORCH HANDLE COMPONENTS

What Is Plasma
Cutting?

Plasma - the fourth state of matter - is an ionized gas that conducts electricity.
Plasma is created by adding energy to an electrically neutral gas. In this case,
the gas is compressed air and the energy is electricity.

The more electrical energy added, the hotter the plasma arc becomes. Plasma
arc cutting machines control this powerful energy by constricting the arc
and forcing it through a concentrated area (the nozzle). By increasing air
pressure and intensifying the arc with higher amperage, the arc becomes hotter
and more capable of blasting through thicker metals and blowing away the
cuttings, with minimal cleanup required.

It is easy to learn and use the process. First time users of the process can achieve
good quality cuts after minutes of practice.
Advantages of Plasma Arc Cutting

Plasma provides numerous advantages over other cutting processes. While

there are many common methods of cutting metal, the plasma process offers the
following advantages:

1. It cuts any type of electrically conductive metals including aluminum,

copper, brass and stainless steel
2. It cuts carbon steel up to 10 times faster than oxy-fuel cutting, with equal
quality more economically.
3. It produces a small and more precise kerfs (width of the cut)—great
when precision matters.
4. It has a smaller heat affected zone which prevents the area around
the cut from warping and minimizes paint damage.
5. Plasma cutting being primarily a melting process can cut any metal.
6. Arc plasma torches give the highest temperature available from many
practicable sources.
7. It provides gouging and piercing capabilities Sawing or chopping can
take a long time and will typically leave a rough edge — plasma cutting
is fast, clean, and leaves a nice straight edge. It is also a less expensive
and more convenient method for cutting than many other processes
because compressed air is typically available in most applications via
shop or portable compressors.
8. The energy seems to be unlimited in this method.
9. Does not require a pre-heat cycle which saves time and is more convenient

Disadvantages of plasma arc cutting

1. High initial cost of the equipment

Applications of Plasma Arc Cutting

1. Plasma cutting is used to cut particularly those nonferrous and stainless

metals that cannot be cut by the usual rapid oxidation induced by ordinary
flame torches.
2. Plasma cutting can be used for stack cutting, plate beveling, and shape
cutting and piercing.
 3. With some modifications, plasma arc cutting can be used under water.
4. Plasma arc cutting finds applications in many industries such as
shipyard, chemical, nuclear and pressure vessel.
5. It cuts hot extrusions to desired length.
6. It is used to cut any desired pipe contour.

How Do I Use My Plasma

Cutter?

Begin cutting by placing the torch as close as

possible to the edge of the base metal. Pull the
trigger to initiate the pilot arc. Move the torch
near the workpiece to initiate the cutting arc.
Wait for the arc to penetrate through the bottom
of the workpiece. Start moving the torch slowly,
perpendicular to the workpiece. Watch sparks
leaving the bottom of the workpiece to judge
your speed. If the sparks are not visible at the
bottom of the plate, you have not penetrated
the metal. This is because your travel speed is
too fast or you have insufficient output
amperage.
At the end of a cut, angle the torch slightly or pause briefly to completely finish
the cut. The plasma systems provide a post-flow circuit, the post-flow air will
continue for a short period of time after the trigger is released to cool the torch
and consumable parts. However, cutting can be resumed immediately. To
maximize cutting speeds, it is recommended to turn your power source to full
output for all material thicknesses.
Proper Safety
Procedures

Safety procedures must be closely followed in any application of a plasma

cutter. Be aware of potential hazards involved with the process, including high
voltages, noise, temperatures, flammable materials, fumes, ultraviolet radiation,
and molten metal.
Proper welding clothing should be worn, as well as shaded eye protection, as
specified by the manufacturer.
 4.4 SHEAR CUTTING

PROCESS Shearing machine

The important thing in shearing work is to select the shearing machine

by material‘s thickness. To get good shearing surface, the space between upper
blade and under blade of shearing machine must be accurate. Also, when you
use shearing machine, you should select the machine which has correct capacity
and it is dangerous work, so you must be careful of safety rules.

a. Foot
shear
It is a kind of passive shearing machine and it is straight shearing machine that
you push the lever by foot and shear the plate. The size of shearing machine is
appeared by possible plates thickness of shearing × Possible shearing width
and this subject is noticed at name plate which is attached at the front side of
machine, so you must check it before processing. The plate which is between
upper blade and under blade should not be touched entirely to upper blade, but
touched partially to reduce the shearing power, and this is called shear angle.
Generally shear angle is 3~6˚

Foot shearing machine Shear angle

Processing method is that you assemble the shearing line to under blade
and push the pressure plate to fix the plate and push the foot switch and shear

Also, to cut several plates into same size, it is possible by using stopper
which is placed at the back side of shearing machine. The possible plate
thickness by shearing machine is about
1.2m
m.
b. Lever
shear
Lever shear is a kind of passive shearing machine using the link
equipment or gear equipment. Lever shear can just straight shearing process

Hand lever
shear

When you cut the plates with lever shear, cut the plates with pushing handle to
downside and pushing aside it simultaneously, not to diverge much and keep the
clear shearing surface.

c. Straight power
shear
It means the power shearing machine which cut the plate to straight line and
it is usually called square shear. It has the shearing tool, which transports fly
wheel‘s rotation power rotated by shearing machine, to the eccentric axis
through clutch and do upper blade‘s which has the shear angle about the under
blade up and down movement.

Straight blade power shearing machine

Advantages of shear cutting:

(1) It is easy to cut with a shear machine, it doesn‘t require a higher skilled
people
(2) No material lost during shear cutting process
(3) The hand lever shear it can be used anywhere due to its
mobility. (4) The power shear machine can cut bigger
thickness
(5) It is used to cut any type of metals
(6) The power shear machine can be used in mass production
(7) The power shear machine can be automated
Disadvantages of shear cutting:
(1) The hand shear lever is limited for cutting thickness above 3mm
(2) Some shear machines are limited for cutting big thicknesses
(3) The shear machines are used to cut only the plates in general.
(4) The different shapes of metals cannot be cut by shear cutting (e.g.
Pipes, hexagonal shape, round bar, square bar, rectangular shape etc..)
(5) The power shear machines are much cost.
(6) The shear machines which are used to cut bigger thickness
automatically require the higher maintenance.

4.5 Angle grinder/portable grinding machine

It is a hand power tool used to separate metals into different parts. This
portable grinder is used to cut metals when it is fitted with the cutting disc.

Advantages of angle grinder

(1) It is portable, means that it can be used on the side during fabricating
different items such as trusses, doors, windows etc..
(2) It is used to cut any shape of metals (e.g. flat bar, sheet metal, square,
pipes, etc
(3) When the skilled person is using it, the metal can be cut at a
certain angle. (4) The cost is low

Disadvantages of angle grinder

(1) It cannot be used when there is no electricity

(2) When used to cut big thicknesses, a lot of time is required.
(3) The care should be taken when using the angle grinder, if the disc
is not fixed properly, it can jump and damage the user.
(4) Some materials are lost during this process.
 4.6 High speed cutting machine

Like the angle grinder, the high speed cutting machine fitted with the bigger
diameter of cutting disc is used to separate the metals into different parts.

Advantages of angle grinder

(1) It is portable, means that it can be used on the side during cutting
different parts. (2) It is used to cut any shape of metals (e.g. flat bar,
sheet metal, square, pipes, etc (3) It can cut the bigger thickness
compared with angle grinder
(4) It can be used to cut metals on different angles.
(5) It cuts the work is shorter time compared to the angle grinder

Disadvantages of angle grinder

(1) It cannot be used when there is no electricity

(2) The care should be taken when using high speed cutting machine, if
the disc is not fixed properly, it can jump and damage the user.
(3) Some materials are lost during this process.
 4.7 HACKSAWING

A hacksaw is a fine-tooth saw with a blade held under tension in a frame, used
for cutting materials such as metals or plastics.

(i) HAND HACKSAWING

Hand-held hacksaws consist of a metal arch with a handle, usually a pistol grip,
with pins for attaching a narrow disposable blade. A screw or other mechanism
is used to put the thin blade under tension. The blade can be mounted with the
teeth facing toward or away from the handle, resulting in cutting action on either
the push or pull stroke. On the push stroke, the arch will flex slightly, decreasing
the tension on the blade.

It consists of a frame and a saw blade as shown below. It is a "U" shaped steel
frame with a pistol handgrip and a saw blade as shown below. The frame may
be of fixed type to take only one length of blade, or adjustable to take different
blade lengths. It has a wing nut to adjust the tension of the blade.

Hand
hacksaw

Saw in a straight line along the

marking line.
Safety and Care of Hacksaw

(1) The cutting action is carried on the forward action only. So the
blade must be mounted with its teeth pointing forward.
(2) Suitable tension should be applied on the blade to avoid
breakage or loosen. (3) Change the blade if some teeth are broken.
(4) Avoid rapid and erratic strokes
of cut. (5) Avoid too much
pressure.
(6) Workpiece must be hold firmly.
(7) When sawing through reduce pressure on hand hacksaw just before
the workpiece separate

Advantages of hand hacksaw

(1) It is used to cut any shape of metals (e.g. flat bar, sheet metal, square,
pipes, etc
(2) It is available anywhere anytime, means it is
low in cost. (3) It doesn‘t require a skilled person to
operate it.
(4) The blade can be replaced when broken.
(5) It is used anywhere since it doesn‘t require electricity.
Disadvantages of hand Hacksaw
(1) It will take a time when cutting big thickness
of work. (2) The blade is broken easily
(3) The blades are replaced many times.
(4) Some materials are lost during this process.
 (ii) POWER HACKSAWING

Power hacksawing machines cut by drawing the hacksaw blade towards the
motor end of the machine. Ata the completion of this movement call the draw
stroke, the hacksaw blade is lifted slightly to clear the material being cut and
moved an equal distance in the opposite direction.

Power hacksaw machines are primarily intend for straight line cutting of stock
to specific lengths. Laying out the workpiece consists of measuring the length
to be cut and indicating the position for the cut by scribing a line on the stock.

A power hacksaw (or electric hacksaw) is a type of hacksaw that is powered

either by its own electric motor or connected to a stationary engine. Most power
hacksaws are stationary machines but some portable models do exist. Stationary
models usually have a mechanism to lift up the saw blade on the return stroke
and some have a coolant pump to prevent the saw blade from overheating.
While stationary electric hacksaws are reasonably uncommon they are still
produced but saws powered by stationary engines have gone out of fashion. The
reason for using one is that they provide a cleaner cut than an angle grinder or
other types of saw. Large, power hacksaws are sometimes used in place of a
bandsaw for cutting metal stock to length.

Advantages of Power
hacksaw

(1) It is used to cut any shape of metals (e.g. flat bar, sheet metal, square,
pipes, etc
(2) It can also cut the bigger
thicknesses (3) It uses a short time to
cut big thickness (4) The blade can
be replaced when broken

Disadvantages of Power
Hacksaw

(1) It cannot be used when there is no electricity

(2) The care should be taken when using power hack saw machine and it
can cause the injury the user.
(3) Some materials are lost during this process.
(4) The coolant is required in order to prevent the overheating of the hacksaw
blade.

4.8 PRESS TOOL PROCESS

4.8.1 INTRODUCTION TO PRESS WORKING

Press working may be defined as a chipless manufacturing process by which

various components are made from sheet metal. This process is also termed as
cold stamping. The main features of a press are: A frame which supports a ram
or a slide and a bed, a source of mechanism for operating the ram in line with
and normal to the bed. The ram is equipped with the suitable punch and a die
block is attached to the bed. A stamping is produced by the downward stroke of
the ram when the punch moves towards and into the die block. The punch
and die block assembly is generally termed as a ―die set‖ or simply as the ―die‖.
Press working operations are done at room temperature.

In this process, the wall thickness of the parts remains almost constant and
differs only slightly from the thickness of the initial sheet metal.
Advantag
es

1. Small weight of fabricated parts

2. High productivity of labour (up to 30,000 to 40,000 pieces per hour)
3. High efficiency of technique as regards the fabrication of items of
diversified shapes, both simple and complex, such as washers,
bushings, retainers (cages) of ball bearings, tanks and car bodies.
4. Size accuracy
5. In many cases they require no subsequent machining

Applicatio
ns

All the above advantages have made sheet stamping very attractive to a host of
industries, to automotive, aircraft, electrical engineering and others.

Materi
al

The initial material in cold press working is: low carbon steels, ductile alloy
steels, copper and its alloys, aluminium and its alloys, as well as other ductile
materials from tenth of mm to about 6 or 8mm thick.

4.8.2 PRESS OPERATIONS

The sheet metal operations done on a press may be grouped into two categories:
cutting operations and forming operations. In cutting operations, the
workpiece is stressed beyond its ultimate strength. The stresses caused in the
metal by the applied forces will be shearing forces. In forming operations, the
stresses are below the ultimate strength of the metal. In this operation, there is
no cutting of metal but only the contour of the workpiece is changed to get the
desired product. The cutting operation include: blanking, punching, notching,
perforating, trimming, shaving, slitting and lancing etc. the forming operations
include: bending, drawing, squeezing etc.

Blanking: blanking is the operation of cutting a flat shape from sheet metal.
The article punched out is called ―blank‖ and is the required product of the
operation. The hole and the metal left behind are discarded as a waste.
 4.8.3 PUNCH AND DIE SHEARING OPERATION

Shearing is a cutting operation used to remove a blank of required dimensions

from a large sheet. To understand the shearing mechanism, consider a metal
being sheared between a punch and a die, Typical features of the sheet and the
slug are also shown in the figure below. As it can be seen that cut edges are
neither smooth nor perpendicular to the plane of the sheet.

Shearing starts as the punch presses against the sheet metal. At first, cracks form
in the sheet on both the top and bottom edges (marked T and T', in the figure).
As the punch descends further, these cracks grow and eventually meet each
other and the slug separates from the sheet. A close look at the fractured
surfaces will reveal that these are quite rough and shiny;
rough because of the cracks formed earlier, and shiny because of the contact
and rubbing of the sheared edge against the walls of the die.

The clearance between the punch and the die plays an important role in the
determination of the shape and quality of the sheared edge. There is an optimum
range for the clearance, which is 2 to 10% of the sheet thickness, for the best
results. If the clearance increases beyond this, the material tends to be pulled
into the die and the edges of the sheared zone become rougher. The ratio of the
shining (burnished) area to the rough area on the sheared edge decreases with
increasing clearance and sheet thickness. The quality of sheared edge is also
affected by punch speed; greater the punch speed better the edge quality.

The shearing operations make which use of a die, include punching, blanking,
piercing, notching, trimming, and nibbling.

Punching/
Blanking

Punching or blanking is a process in which the punch removes a portion of

material from the larger piece or a strip of sheet metal. If the small removed
piece is discarded, the operation is called punching, whereas if the small
removed piece is the useful part and the rest is scrap, the operation is called
blanking.
Comparison of basic stamping operations.
In punching, the metal inside the part is removed; in blanking, the metal around
the part is removed.

A typical setup used for blanking is shown in

figure below:

Blanking punch and

die.

Trimming: When parts are produced by die casting or drop forging, a small
amount of extra metal gets spread out at the parting plane. This extra metal,
called flash, is cut – off before the part is used, by an operation called
trimming. The operation is very similar to blanking and the dies used are also
similar to blanking dies. The presses used for trimming have, however,
relatively larger table.

Notching: It is an operation in which a specified small amount of metal is cut

from a blank. It is different from punching in the sense that in notching cutting
line of the slug formed must touch one edge of the blank or strip. A notch can
be made in any shape. The purpose of notching is generally to release metal for
fitting up.

Perforating: Perforating is an operation is which a number of uniformly spaced

holes are punched in a sheet of metal. The holes may be of any size or shape.
They usually cover the entire sheet of metal.

Punching (piercing): It is a cutting operation by which various shaped holes

are made in sheet metal. Punching is similar to blanking except that in
punching, the hole is the desired product, the material punched out to form the
hole being waste.
CHAPTER4. METAL FABRICATION

REFERENCES:

1) Workshop processes, Practices and Materials (By Bruce J.Black)

2) Ito, Y. and Kiyoshi, B., “Weldability Formula of High Strength Steels,”
1968 Annual Meeting of the International Institute of Welding, paper IX-
576-68.
3) Ito and Kiyoshi, “A Prediction of Welding Procedure to Avoid Heat
Affected Zone Cracking,” 1969 Annual Meeting of IIW, paper IX-631-69.
4) Welding Principles and Application, Larry Jeffus, Seventh Edition
5) Welding Practice,R C Gupta,NOVA
6) Welding Science and Technology,Volume 1,A.C.Dave,10th Edition
7) Welding Techniques Distortion Control and Line Heating, N.R Mondal
8) Modern Welding Technology,Howard B.Cary and Scott C.Helrer,6th Edition
9) Aluminum Welding, N.R Mondal, Second Edition
10) Welding Technology for Engineers,Baldev Raj,V Shankar,A.K
Bhaduri
11) Welding and Metal Fabrication,Larry Jeffus,International Edition.
12)