Mathematics III
Uploaded by
PRAVEEN KUMAR MMathematics III
Uploaded by
PRAVEEN KUMAR MMALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(An Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt.of India)
Recognizes under 2(f) and 12(B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE –Accredited by NBA & NAAC-“A” Grade-ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
MATHEMATICS-III
B.Tech – II Year – I Semester
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SCIENCES
CONTENTS
1. Unit –I 1-23
(Fourier Series)
2. Unit –II 24-41
(Fourier Transforms)
3. Unit – III 42-71
(Analytic Functions)
4. Unit-IV 72-98
(Singularities and Residues)
5. Unit-V 99-118
(Conformal Mappings)
24
(R18A0023)MATHEMATICS-III
Objectives: To learn
1. The expansion of a given function by Fourier series.
2. The Fourier sine and cosine transforms, properties, inverse transforms, and finite Fourier
transforms.
3. Differentiation, integration of complex valued functions and evaluation of integrals using
Cauchy’s integral formula.
4. Taylor’s series, Laurent’s series expansions of complex functions and evaluation of
integrals using residue theorem.
5. Transform a given function from z - plane to w – plane. Identify the transformations like
translation, magnification, rotation, reflection, inversion, and Properties of bilinear
transformations.
UNIT – I: Fourier series
Definition of periodic function, Fourier expansion of periodic functions in a given interval of
length 2𝜋, Fourier series of even and odd functions, Half-range Fourier sine and cosine
expansions, Fourier series in an arbitrary interval.
UNIT – II: Fourier Transforms
Fourier integral theorem - Fourier sine and cosine integrals. Fourier transforms – Fourier sine
and cosine transforms, properties. Inverse transforms and Finite Fourier transforms.
UNIT – III: Analytic functions
Complex functions and its representation on Argand plane, Concepts of limit, continuity,
differentiability, Analyticity, and Cauchy-Riemann conditions, Harmonic functions – Milne –
Thompson method. Line integral – Evaluation along a path and by indefinite integration –
Cauchy’s integral theorem (singly and multiply connected regions) – Cauchy’s integral formula
– Generalized integral formula.
UNIT – IV: Singularities and Residues
Radius of convergence, expansion of given function in Taylor’s series and Laurent series.
Singular point –Isolated singular point, pole of order m and essential singularity. Residues –
Evaluation of residue by formula and by Laurent series. Residue theorem- Evaluation of
improper integrals of the type
(a) (b)
UNIT – V: Conformal Mappings
Conformal mapping: Transformation of z-plane to w-plane by a function, conformal
transformation. Standard transformations- Translation; Magnification and rotation; inversion and
reflection, Transformations like ez , log z, z2, and Bilinear transformation. Properties of Bilinear
transformation, determination of bilinear transformation when mappings of 3 points are given
(cross ratio).
TEXT BOOKS:
i) Higher Engineering Mathematics by B.S. Grewal, Khanna Publishers.
ii) Higher Engineering Mathematics by B.V Ramana , Tata McGraw Hill.
iii)Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Kreyszig, John Wiley & Sons.
REFERENCES:
i) Complex Variables and Applications by James W Brown and Ruel Vance Churchill-Mc Graw
Hill
ii)Mathematics-III by T K V Iyenger ,Dr B Krishna Gandhi, S Ranganatham and Dr MVSSN
Prasad, S chand Publications.
iii) Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Michael Greenberg –Pearson publishers.
Course Outcomes: After going through this course the students will be able to
1. Find the expansion of a given function by Fourier series in the given interval.
2. Find Fourier sine, cosine transforms and inverse transformations.
3. Analyze the complex functions with reference to their analyticity and integration using
Cauchy’s integral theorem.
4. Find the Taylor’s and Laurent series expansion of complex functions. Solution of
improper integrals can be obtained by Cauchy’s-Residue theorem.
5. Understand the conformal transformations of complex functions can be dealt with ease.
MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER SERIES
UNIT – I
FOURIER SERIES
Fourier series
Suppose that a given function f x defined in , (or) 0, 2 (or) in any other
interval can be expressed as
a0
f x an cos nx bn sin nx
2 n 1
The above series is known as the Fourier series for f x and the constants
a0 , an , bn n 1,2,3 are called Fourier coefficients of f x
Periodic Function:-
A function f x is said to be periodic with period T 0 if for all 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑇) =
𝑓 (𝑥 ),and T is the least of such values
Example:- (1) sin x sin x 2 sin x 4 the function sin x is periodic with
period 2 . There is no positive value T, 0 T 2 such that sin x T sin x x
(2) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝜋
2𝜋 2𝜋
(3) The period of sin𝑛𝑛𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 ( 𝑛 + 𝑥)
Euler’s Formulae:-
The Fourier series for the function f x in the interval 𝐶 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐶 + 2𝜋 is given by
a0
f x an cos nx bn sin nx
2 n 1
1 𝐶+2𝜋
Where 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫𝐶 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
1 𝐶+2𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 and
1 𝐶+2𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫𝐶 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥
These values of a0 , an , bn are known as Euler’s formulae
Corollary:- If f x is to be expanded as a Fourier series in the interval 0 x 2 , put 𝐶 = 0
then the formulae (1) reduces to
1 2 1 2
f x dx f x cos nx.dx
a0 an
0 0
1 2
bn f x sin nx.dx
0
Corollary 2:- If f x is to expanded as a Fourier series in , put c , the interval
becomes x and the formulae (1) reduces to
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 1
MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER SERIES
1 1
f x dx f x cos nx.dx
a0 an
1
bn
f x sin nx.dx
Functions Having Points of Discontinuity :-
In Euler’s formulae for a0 , an , bn it was assumed that f x is continuous. Instead a
function may have a finite number of discontinuities. Even then such a function is expressible as
a Fourier series
Let f x be defined by
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝜙 (𝑥 ), 𝑐 < 𝑥 < 𝑥 0
= 𝜙(𝑥 ), 𝑥0 < 𝑥 < 𝑐 + 2𝜋
Where x0 is the point of discontinuity in c, c 2 in such cases also we obtain the Fourier
series for f x in the usual way. The values of a0 , an , bn are given by
1 x0 c 2
a0 x dx x dx
c x0
c 2
an x cos nx.dx x cos nx.dx
1 x0
c x0
c 2
bn x sin nx.dx x sin nx.dx
1 x0
c x0
Note :-
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛
𝜋
(i) ∫−𝜋 cos 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = { 𝜋, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚=𝑛>0
2𝜋, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑛 > 0
𝜋 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑛 = 0
(ii) ∫−𝜋 sin 𝑚𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = {
𝜋, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛 > 0
Problems:-
Fourier Series in [−𝝅, 𝝅]
1. 𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 f x x 𝒂𝒔 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 x
Sol : Let the function x be represented as a Fourier series
a0
f ( x) x an cos nx bn sin nx 1
2 n 1 n 1
π π
1 1
a0 = ∫ f(x)dx = ∫ f(x)dx = 0 (∵ x is odd function)
π π
−π −π
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER SERIES
π
1
an = ∫ f(x) cos nx. dx
π
−π
= 0 ( x cos nx is odd function and cosnx is even function)
π π π
1 1 1
bn = ∫ f(x) sin nx. dx = ∫(x) sin nx. dx = = [ ∫ x sin nx. dx]
π π π
−π −π −π
π
1
= [2 ∫ x sin nx. dx] [∵ x sin nx is even function]
π
−π
2 − cos nx − sin nx π 2 −π cos nπ
= [x ( )−1( 2
)] = [( ) − (0 + 0)]
π n n 0 π n
(∵ sin nπ = 0, sin 0 = 0)
2 2 2
cos n 1 1 n 1,2,3.....
n n 1
n n n
Substituting the values of a0 , an , bn in (1), We get
∞
2
x − π = −π + ∑ (−1)n+1 sin nx
n
n=1
1 1 1
= −π + 2 [sin x sin 2x + sin 3x − sin 4x + … … .]
2 3 4
2. 𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 f x x 𝐚𝐬 𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 x
Sol:
Let the function x be represented by the Fourier series
a0
f x x = n
2 n 1
a cos nx
n 1
bn sin nx 1 Then
π π π π
1 1 1
a0 = ∫ f(x)dx = ∫ f(x − π)dx = [ ∫ xdx = π ∫ dx]
π π π
−π −π −π −π
π
1
= [0 − π. 2 ∫ dx] (∵ x is odd function)
π
0
1
= [−2π(x)π0 ] = −2(π − 0) = −2π
π π π
1 1
and an = ∫ f(x) cos nx. dx = ∫(x − π) cos nx. dx
π π
−π −π
π π
1 1
= [ ∫ x cos nx. dx − π ∫ cos nx. dx] 0 2 cos nx.dx
x 0
−π −π
( x cos nx is odd function and cos nx is even function)
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π
sin nx π
∴ an = −2 ∫ cos nx. dx = −2 ( )
n 0
0
−2 −2
= (sin nπ − sin0) = (0 − 0) = 0 for n = 1,2,3 … … … .
n n
π π π π
1 1 1
∴ bn = ∫ f(x) sin nx. dx = ∫(x − π) sin nx. dx = [ ∫ x sin nx. dx − π ∫ sin nx. dx]
π π π
−π −π −π −π
π
1
= [2 ∫ x sin nx. dx − π(0)] [∵ x sin nx is even function]
π
−π
2 − cos nx − sin nx π 2 −π cos nπ
= [x ( )−1( )] = [( ) − (0 + 0)] (∵ sin nπ = 0)
π n n2 0 π n
2 2 2
cos n 1 1 n 1,2,3.....
n n 1
n n
Substituting the values of a0 , an , bn in (1), We get
∞
2
∴ 𝑥 − 𝜋 = −𝜋 + ∑ (−1)𝑛+1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥
𝑛
𝑛=1
1 1 1
= −𝜋 + 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 + … … .]
2 3 4
3. F𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐭𝐨 𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 e
ax
from x .
1 1 1 ax
𝐃𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 2 2 2 2 Sol. Let the function e
sinh 2 1 3 1 4 1
be represented by the Fourier series
a0
e ax = an cos nx bn sin nx 1
2 n 1 n 1
1 e ax 1 a a ea e a
1
a0 e ax dx
a
a
e e a
Then
a ea e a 1 sinh a
0 a
2 2 a
π
1 π 1 e−ax
∴ an = π ∫−π e−ax cos nx. dx = π [a2 +n2 (−a cos nx + n sin nx)]
−π
−ax eax
[∵ ∫ e cos bx. dx = a2 +b (
2 a cos bx + b sin bx
)]
1 e−aπ e−aπ
∴ an = π {a2 +n2 (−a cos nπ + 0) − a2 +n2 (−a cos nπ + 0)}
a 2a cos nπ sinh aπ
= π(a2 +n2 ) (eaπ − e−aπ ) cos nπ = π(a2 +n2 )
(−1)n 2a sinh aπ
= (∵ cos nπ = (−1)n )
π(a2 +n2 )
1 π
Finallybn = ∫−π e−ax sin nx. dx
π
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eax
[∵ ∫ eax sin bx. dx = (a sin bx − b cos bx)]
a2 +b2
1 e ax
2 2 a sin nx n cos nx
1 a ( n (
e−aπ eaπ
= π [a2 +n2 0 − n cos nπ − a2 +n2 0 − n cos nπ)]
)
n cos nπ(eaπ −e−aπ ) (−1)n 2n sinh aπ
= =
π(a2 +n2 ) π(a2 +n2 )
a0
Substituting the values of , an and bn in (1) we get
2
sinh aπ (−1)n 2a sinh aπ sinh aπ
e−aπ = + ∑∞
n=1 [ cos nx + (−1)n 2n π(a2 +n2 ) sin nx]
aπ π(a2 +n2 )
2sinh aπ 1 a cosx a cos 2x a cos 3x sin x 2 sin 2x 3 sin 3x
= {( − 12 +a2 + − +. . ) (12+a2 − + … )} ──(2)
a 2a 22 +a2 32 +a2 22 +a2 32 +a2
𝐃𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: −
Putting x 0 and a 1 in (2), we get
2sinh 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2
2 2 22 1 32 1 42 1 sinh 2 1 3 1 4 1
2 2 2
4. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐱 + 𝐱 𝟐 , − <𝐱<
𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐡𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐝𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬
𝐢) − − − −= 𝐢𝐢) − −=
Sol: Let x + x2 = + cos nx + → (1)
1
To find ao = = =
π
1
To find an =
π
1
=
π
1
=
π
= [
= [
= =
1
To find bn =
π
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER SERIES
= =
Substituting in (1), the required Fourier series is,
π2 2x 3x 2x 3x
x + x2 = – 4(Cos x – Cos + Cos +. . ) + 2(Sin x – Sin + Sin +⋯)
3 4 9 4 9
5. Find the Fourier series of the periodic function defined as 𝒇(𝒙) =
−𝝅, −𝝅 < 𝑥 < 0
]Hence deduce that 1 1 1
2
[
𝒙, 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝜋 2
1 3 52 2
8
a0
Sol. Let f x an cos nx bn sin nx 1 then
2 n 1 n 1
1 1 o
1 x 2 1 2 2 1 2
0
a0
0
f x dx dx xdx x
2 0 2 2 2
f x cos nx.dx cos nx.dx x cos nx.dx
1 1 o
an
0
1 sin nx 1
0
sin nx cos nx 1 1
x 2 0 2 cos n 2
n n n 0 n n
1 1
= 𝜋𝑛2 (cos 𝑛𝜋 − 1) = 𝜋𝑛2 [(−1)𝑛−1 ]
−2 −2 −2
𝑎1 = 2 , 𝑎2 = 0, 𝑎3 = 2 , 𝑎4 = 0, 𝑎5 = 2 − − −
1 .𝜋 3 .𝜋 5 .𝜋
𝜋 0 𝜋
1 1
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = [ ∫(−𝜋) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝜋 𝜋
−𝜋 −𝜋 0
1 cos 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
0
= [𝜋 ( ) + (−𝑥 + ) ]
𝜋 𝑛 −𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0
1 𝜋 𝜋 1
= [ (1 − cos 𝑛𝜋) − cos 𝑛𝜋] = (1 − 2cos 𝑛𝜋)
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 1
b1 3, b2 , b3 1, b4 and so on
2 4
Substituting the values of a0 , an and bn in (1), we get
sin 3𝑥
+ 3 sin3 3𝑥 + sin44𝑥 + ⋯ ) … (2)
−𝜋 2 cos 3𝑥 cos 5𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 4
− 𝜋 (cos 𝑥 + 32
+ 52
+ − − −) + (3 sin 𝑥 − 2
Deduction:-
−𝜋 2 1 1
Putting x0in (2), we obtain 𝑓 (0) = 4 − 4 (1 + 32 + 52 + … . ) ─── … . (3)
Now f x is discontinuous at x 0
f 0 0 and f 0 0 0
1
f 0 f 0 0 f 0 0
2 2
−𝜋 −𝜋 2 1 1 1 1 𝜋2
Now (3) becomes = − (1 + + + − − −) → + + 1⁄52 + ⋯ =
2 4 𝜋 32 52 12 32 8
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−𝝅, −𝝅 < 𝑥 < 0
6. Find the Fourier series of the periodic function defined as 𝒇(𝒙) = [ ]
𝝅, 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝜋
a0
Sol. Let f x an cos nx bn sin nx 1
2 n 1 n 1 then
1 o
dx dx
1
f x dx
a0
0
1 1 1
x x 0 2 2 0 0
0
1 o
cos nx.dx cos nx.dx
1
f x cos nx.dx
an
0
1 sin nx
0
sin nx
n n 0
1
(0) (Q sin 0 0,sin n 0)
𝜋 0 𝜋
1 1
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = [ ∫(−𝜋) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝜋 𝜋
−𝜋 −𝜋 0
1 cos 𝑛𝑥 0 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= [𝜋 ( ) + (−𝜋 ) ]
𝜋 𝑛 −𝜋 𝑛 0
1 𝜋 𝜋
= [ (1 − cos 𝑛𝜋) − (cos 𝑛𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0)]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛
1 1 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
= (2 − 2cos 𝑛𝜋) = (2 − 2(−1) ) = { 4 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑛
4
Substituting the values of a0 , an and bn in (1), we get𝑓(𝑥) = ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑛 sin(𝑛𝑥 ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
1 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 4 (sin 𝑥 + sin(3𝑥 ) + sin(5𝑥 ) ± − −)
3 5
𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝑺𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒊𝒏 [𝟎, 𝟐𝝅]
1. 𝑶𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒙 = [0,2𝜋]
𝑆𝑜𝑙: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + → (1)
1 1 1 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑜 = = = (𝑒 𝑥 )2𝜋
0 = ( − 1)
π π 𝜋 𝜋
1 1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛 = =
π π
1
= =
π
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1 1
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑛 = =
π π
1
= =
π
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = + +
=
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠.
𝟐. 𝑶𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒌𝒙(𝝅 − 𝒙) 𝒊𝒏 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 2𝝅𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒌 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕.
𝑆𝑜𝑙: − 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥(𝜋 − 𝑥) 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓(𝑥)
∞ ∞
𝑎0
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝑥(𝜋 − 𝑥 ) + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑥 − − − − − − − − − (1)
2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
1 1 𝑘 𝑥2 𝑥3 2𝜋 2 𝑘
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘𝑥(𝜋 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝜋 − ] = −
𝜋 0 𝜋 0 𝜋 2 3 0 3
2𝜋 2𝜋
1 1
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘𝑥(𝜋 − 𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0 𝜋 0
𝑘 2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 2𝜋
(
= [ 𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 ( )
− 𝜋 − 2𝑥 (− ) + (−2) (− )]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 0
𝑘 −3𝜋 𝜋 𝑘 −4𝜋 4𝑘
= [{0 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑛𝜋 + 0} − {0 + 2 + 0}] = ( 2 ) = − 2 (𝑛 ≠ 0)
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 𝜋 𝑛 𝑛
1 2𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘𝑥(𝜋 − 𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0 𝜋 0
𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 2𝜋
= [(𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) (− ) − (𝜋 − 2𝑥 ) (− ) + (−2) ( )]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 0
𝑘 2𝜋 2 2 2 2𝑘𝜋
= [{ + 0 − 3 } − {0 + 0 − 3 }] =
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 𝑖𝑛 (1) 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
∞
𝜋 2𝑘 ∞ 1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = − − 4𝑘 ∑ 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + 2𝑘𝜋 ∑ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥
3 𝑛=1 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=1
𝟑. . 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞
(𝛑 − 𝐱)𝟐
𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 𝟎 < 𝐱 < 𝟐𝛑
𝟒
Sol:
(π − x)2
Given f(x) = 0 < x < 2π
4
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fourier series of the function f(x) is given by
∞ ∞
(π − x)2 a0
f(x) = = + ∑ an cos nx + ∑ bn sinnx − − − − − − − −(1)
4 2
n=1 n=1
2π
1 2π 1 2π (π − x)2 1 (π − x)3 π2
a0 = ∫ f(x)dx = ∫ dx = [ ] = − −(2)
π 0 π 0 4 4π 3 0
6
1 2π 1 2π (π − x)2
an = ∫ f(x) cosnx dx = ∫ cosnx dx
π 0 π 0 4
2π
1 sin nx cos nx sin nx 1 2π 2π
= [ [(π − x)2 − {2(π − x)} (− 2
) + 2 (− 3 )]] = [ + ]
4π n n n 0
4π n2 n2
1
= 2 − (3)
n
1 2π 1 2π (π − x)2
bn = ∫ f(x) sinnx dx = ∫ sin nx dx
π 0 π 0 4
2π
1 cos nx sin nx cos nx
= [ [(π − x)2 (− ) − {2(π − x)} (− 2 ) + 2 ( 3 )]]
4π n n n 0
π2 2 π2 2
= [(− + 3 ) − (− + 3 )] = 0 ; bn = 0 − − − − − −(4)
n n n n
put the values of a0 , an , bn in (1) we get
∞
(π − x)2 π2 cos nx π2 cosx cos2x cos3x
f(x) = = +∑ = + 2 + 2 + + −−−
4 12 n2 12 1 2 32
n=1
𝟏; 𝟎 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
4. Expand 𝒇(𝒙) = { as a Fourier Series.
𝟎 𝝅 < 𝑥 < 2𝝅
Sol:- The Fourier series for the function in (0,22𝜋) is given by
∞ ∞
a0
f(x) = + ∑ an cos nx + ∑ bn sinnx … … . . (1)
2
n=1 n=1
1 2π 1 π 2π 1
a0 = π ∫0 f(x)dx = π [∫0 1 dx + ∫π 0 dx] = π (x)π0 =1
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2 1 2
(0) cos nx.dx
1
an f x cos nx.dx 1 cos nx.dx
0
0
1 sin nx
0
n 0
1
(0) ( sin 0 0,sin n 0)
2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
1 1
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = [∫ (1) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 0. sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝜋 𝜋
0 0 𝜋
1 𝜋 1 − cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 1 1
= [∫ (1) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 ] = ( ) =− 𝑛𝜋 (cos 𝑛𝜋 − cos 0) = − 𝑛𝜋 [(−1)𝑛 − 1]
𝜋 0 𝜋 𝑛 0
0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
∴ 𝑏𝑛 = { 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑛𝜋
put the values of a0, an , bn in (1) we get
1 2 1 1 2 1 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑∞
𝑛=1,3,5 sin 𝑛𝑥 = + (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 + sin 5𝑥+. . )
2 𝑛𝜋 𝑛 2 𝑛𝜋 3 5
5. Obtain Fourier series expansion of f x x in 0 x 2 and deduce the value of
2
1 1 1 2
12 22 32 6
Sol:-
Given f(x) = (π − x)2 0 < x < 2π
fourier series of the function f(x) is given by
∞ ∞
a0
f(x) = (π − x)2 = + ∑ an cos nx + ∑ bn sinnx − − − − − − − −(1)
2
n=1 n=1
1 2π 1 2π
a0 = ∫ f(x)dx = ∫ (π − x)2 dx
π 0 π 0
2π
1 2 2
2π2
∫ [π + x − 2πx] dx = − −(2)
π 0 3
1 2π 1 2π
an = ∫ f(x) cosnx dx = ∫ (π − x)2 cosnx dx
π 0 π 0
2π
1 sin nx cos nx sin nx 1 2π 2π
= [ [(π − x)2 − {2(π − x)} (− 2
) + 2 (− 3 )]] = [ 2 + 2 ]
π n n n 0
π n n
4
= 2 − (3)
n
1 2π 1 2π
bn = ∫ f(x) sinnx dx = ∫ (π − x)2 sin nx dx
π 0 π 0
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2π
1 cos nx sin nx cos nx
= [ [(π − x)2 (− ) − {2(π − x)} (− 2 ) + 2 ( 3 )]]
π n n n 0
1 π2 2 π2 2
= [(− + 3 ) − (− + 3 )] = 0 ; bn = 0 − − − − − −(4)
π n n n n
put the values of a0 , an , bn in (1) we get
∞
2
π2 cos nx π2 4cosx 4cos2x 4cos3x
f(x) = (π − x) = +4∑ = + 2 + + + −−−
3 n2 3 1 22 32
n=1
Deduction:-
Putting x 0 in the above equation we get
∞
π2 cos nx π2 4cos0 4cos0 4cos0
f(0) = (π − 0 )2 = +4∑ = + + + + −−−
3 n2 3 12 22 32
n=1
π2 4 4 4
𝜋2= + 2 + 2 + 2 + − − −
3 1 2 3
π 2 1 1 1
𝜋 2 − =4[ 2 + 2 + 2 + − − −]
3 1 2 3
1 1 1 2
12 22 32 6
Even and Odd Functions:-
A function f x is said to be even if f x f x and odd if f x f x
Example:- x 2 , x 4 x 2 1, e x e x are even functions
x3 , x,sin x,cos ecx are odd functions
Note1:-
1. Product of two even (or) two odd functions will be an even function
2. Product of an even function and an odd function will be an odd function
f x dx 0 when f x is an odd function
a
Note 2:- a
2 f x dx when f x is even function
a
Fourier series for even and odd functions
We know that a function f x defined in , can be represented by the
Fourier series
a0
f x an cos nx bn sin nx
2 n 1 n 1
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1
f x dx
Where a0
1
f x cos nx.dx
an
1
f x sin nx.dx
and bn
Case (i):- when f x is an even function
1 2
a0 f x dx f x dx
0
Since cos nx is an even function, f x cos nx is also an even function
1 𝜋
Hence 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥
2 𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥
Since sin nx is an odd function, f x sin nx is an odd function
1
bn
f x sin nx.dx 0
If a function f x is even in , , its Fourier series expansion contains only
cosine terms
a0
f x an cos nx
2 n 1
2
f x cos nx.dx, n 0,1, 2,
Where an
0
Case 2:- when f x is an odd function in ,
1
a0
f x dx 0 Since f x is odd
Since cos nx is an even function, f x cos nx is an odd function and hence
1
an
f x cos nx.dx 0
Since sin nx is an odd function; f x sin nx is an even function
1 𝜋
∴ 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥
2 𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥
Thus, if a function f x defined in , is odd, its Fourier expansion contains only
sine terms
2
∴ 𝑓 (𝑥) = ∑𝜋𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 Where bn f x sin nx.dx
0
Even and Odd Functions:-
Problems:-
1. Expand the function f x x2 as a Fourier series in[−𝜋, 𝜋], hence deduce that
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(i) 1 1 1 1 2
2
2 2 2
1 2 3 4 12
Sol. Since f x x 2 x 2 f x
∴ 𝑓(𝑥 ) is an even function
Hence in its Fourier series expansion, the sine terms are absent
𝑎0
∴ 𝑥2 = 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 … … ───(1)
2
n 1
𝜋
2 𝜋 2 𝑥3 2𝜋2
Where 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ( 3 ) = …… ───(2)
0 3
𝜋 𝜋
2 2
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
0 0
2 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 −cos 𝑛𝑥 − sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= [𝑥 ( ) − 2𝑥 ( )+ 2( )]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 0
2 cos 𝑛𝜋 4 cos 𝑛𝜋 4
= 𝜋 [0 + 2𝜋 𝑛2 + 2.0] = 𝑛2 = 𝑛2 (−1)𝑛 --------------(3)
Substituting the values of a0 and an from (2) and (3) in (1) we get
2 1
n 1
2 4
x 2 1 cos nx 4 2 cos nx
2 n
3 n1 n 3 n1 n
2 cos2 x cos3x cos4 x
4 cos x 2 2 2 4
3 2 3 4
Deduction:- Putting x 0 in (4), we get
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
0 4 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2
3 2 3 4 2 3 4 12
2. Find the Fourier series to represent the function f x sin x , x
Sol: Since sin x is an even function, bn 0 for all n
Let f x sin x
a0
an cos nx 1
2 n 1
1 𝜋 2 𝜋 2
Where 𝑎0 = | | = 𝜋 (− cos 𝑥 )𝜋0
∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋
−2 4
= (−1 − 1) =
𝜋 𝜋
1 𝜋 2 𝜋
and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 sin 𝑥. cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
1
= ∫[𝑠𝑖𝑛(1 + 𝑛)𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(1 − 𝑛)𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0
𝜋
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(1 + 𝑛)𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠(1 − 𝑛)𝑥
= [− − ] (𝑛 ≠ 1)
𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 0
𝜋
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 𝑛 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠(1 − 𝑛)𝜋
( ) 1 1
=− [ + − − ] (𝑛 ≠ 1)
𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 0
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1 1 1 1 1
n 1 n 1
1 n 1 1 1 1 1
1
1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n
−1 2 2 2
= [(−1)𝑛+1 − 1−𝑛2 ] = 𝜋(𝑛2−1) [(−1)𝑛+1 − 1]
𝜋 1−𝑛 2
−2
= 𝜋(𝑛2−1) [1 + (−1)𝑛 ] (𝑛 ≠ 1)
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ≠ 1
∴ 𝑎𝑛 = { −4
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝜋(𝑛 2−1)
2 𝜋 1 𝜋
For 𝑛 = 1, 𝑎1 = 𝜋 ∫0 sin 𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 − cos 2𝑥 𝜋 −1
= 𝜋( ) = 2𝜋 (cos 2𝜋 − 1) = 0
2 0
2
4
Substituting the values of in (1) We get sin x cos nx
n2,4, n2 1
a0 , a1 and an
2 4 cos nx 2 4 cos2nx
n2,4 n2 1 n1 4n2 1
(Replace n by 2n)
Hence sin x 2 4 cos 2 x cos 4 x
3 15
2sin a sin x 2sin 2 x 3sin 3x
3. Show that for x , sin ax 2 2 ......
1 a
2 2
2 a 2
3 a 2
(a is not an integer)
Sol: - As sin ax is an Odd function. It’s Fourier series expansion will consist of sine terms only
sin ax bn sin nx
n 1 ------------- (1)
2 2 2
bn
f ( x)sin nx dx sinax .sin nx dx [cos(a n) x cos(a n) x]dx
Where 0 0 0
[ 2 sin A sin B cos(A B) cos(A B)]
1 sin(a n) x sin(a n) x
bn
an a n 0
1 sin a cos n cos sin n sina cosn cos a sin n
an an
1 sin a .cos n sin a .cos n
bn
an
an sin n 0
1 1 1 1 n anan (1)n 2n
sin a cos n sin a ( 1) sin a
an an a n (a n )
2 2 2 2
Substituting these values in (1), we get
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2 sin a
n( 1) n 2 sin a
n( 1) n 1
sin ax
n 1 ( a n )
2 2
sin nx
n 1 ( n a )
2 2
sin nx
2 sin a sin x 2 sin 2 x 3sin 3 x
2 ......
1 a
2 2
2 a
2 2
3 a 2
4. Find the Fourier series to represent the function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒙, −𝝅 < 𝒙 < 𝝅.
Sol:- since sin x is an odd function 𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑛 = 0
Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
2 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ sin 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [cos(1 − 𝑛) 𝑥 − cos(1 + 𝑛) 𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0 𝜋 0
1 sin(1−𝑛)𝑥 sin(1+𝑛)𝑥 𝜋
= 𝜋[ − ] (n≠ 1) = 0(𝑛 ≠ 1)
1−𝑛 1+𝑛 0
2 𝜋 2 𝜋 1−cos 2𝑥 1 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝜋 1
If n=1 𝑏1 = ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 − ) = ( 𝜋 − 0) = 1 ∴ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝜋 𝜋 2 𝜋 2 0 𝜋
𝑏1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
2sink sin x 2sin 2 x 3sin 3 x
5. Show that for x , sink x 2 2 ......
1 k
2 2
2 k 2
3 k 2
(k is not an integer)
Sol: - As sin kx is an Odd function.
It’s Fourier series expansion will consist of sine terms only
sin k x bn sin nx
n 1 ------------- (1)
2 2 2
bn
f ( x)sin nx dx sin kx .sin nx dx [cos(k n) x cos(k n) x]dx
Where 0 0 0
[ 2 sin A sin B cos(A B) cos(A B)]
1 sin(k n) x sin(k n) x
bn
k n k n 0
1 sin k cos n cos sin n sink cosn cos k sin n
k n k n
1 sin k .cos n sink .cos n
bn
k n
k n sin n 0
1 1 1 1 n k nk n (1)n 2n
sink cos n sin k ( 1) sink
k n k n k n (k n )
2 2 2 2
Substituting these values in (1), we get
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER SERIES
2 sink
n( 1) n 2 sink
n( 1) n 1
sink x
n 1 (k n )
2 2
sin nx
n 1 ( n k )
2 2
sin nx
2 sink sin x 2 sin 2 x 3sin 3 x
2 ......
1 k
2 2
2 k
2 2
3 k 2
Half –Range Fourier Series:-
1) The sine series:-
2
f x bn sin nx where bn f x sin nx.dx
n 1 0
2) The cosine series:-
2
f x 0 an cos nx where a0 f x dx and
a
2 n 1 0
2
an f x cos nx.dx
0
Note:-
1) Suppose f x x in 0, .It can have Fourier cosine series expansion as well as Fourier
sine series expansion in 0,
2) If f x x2 in 0, can have Fourier cosine series expansion as well as Fourier sine
series expansion in 0, .
Half –Range Fourier Series:-
Problems:
1. Find the half range sine series for . 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙(𝝅 − 𝒙), 𝒊𝒏 𝟎 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
1 1 1 1 3
Deduce that 3 3 3 3
1 3 5 7 32
Sol. The Fourier sine series expansion of f x in 0, is 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 (𝜋 − 𝑥 ) =
∞
∑𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥
2 𝜋 2 𝜋
Where 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 ; 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥(𝜋 − 𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥
x x sin nx.dx
2
2
0
2 cos nx sin nx cos nx
x x 2 2 x 2
n n
2
n 3 0
22
n 3
4
1 cos n 3 1 1
n
n
0, when n is even
bn 8
, when n is odd
n3
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER SERIES
Hence
8 8 sin 3x sin5x
x x
n 1,3,5... n
3
sin nx or x x sin x 3 3 1
3 5
Deduction:-
Putting in (1), we get
x
2
𝜋 𝜋 8 𝜋 1 3𝜋 1 5𝜋
(𝑥 − ) = (𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 + − − −)
2 2 𝜋 2 3 2 5 2
𝜋2 8 1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝜋
⟹ = [1 + 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜋 + ) + 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜋 + ) + 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (3𝜋 + ) + − − −]
4 𝜋 3 2 5 2 7 2
𝜋2 1 1 1
(or) 32 = 1 + 33 + 53 + 73 + − − −
eax eax
2.Find the half- range sine series for the function f x a a in 0,
e e
Sol. Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥───(1)
2 𝜋 2 𝜋 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑎𝜋 −𝑎𝜋 . sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 𝑒 −𝑒
2 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝜋(𝑒 𝑎𝜋−𝑒 −𝑎𝜋) [∫0 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 − ∫0 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝜋 𝜋
2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
= [[ (𝑎 sin 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 )] − [ 2 (−𝑎 sin 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 )] ]
𝜋(𝑒 𝑎𝜋 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝜋 ) 𝑎2 + 𝑛2 0 𝑎 + 𝑛2 0
2 −𝑒 𝑎𝜋 𝑛 −𝑒 𝑎𝜋
𝑛
= [ 𝑛(−1)𝑛 + 2 + 𝑛(−1)𝑛 − 2 ]
𝜋(𝑒 𝑎𝜋 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝜋 ) 𝑎2 + 𝑛2 𝑎 + 𝑛2 𝑎2 + 𝑛2 𝑎 + 𝑛2
2𝑛(−1)𝑛 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 2𝑛(−1)𝑛+1
= [ ] = − − ───(2)
𝜋(𝑒 𝑎𝜋 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝜋 ) 𝑛2 + 𝑎2 𝜋 (𝑛 2 + 𝑎 2 )
Substituting (2) in (1), we get
2 𝑛(−1)𝑛+1 2 sin 𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥 3 sin 3𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝜋 ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎 2 +𝑛 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 = 𝜋 [𝑎 2 +12 − + − − − − −]
𝑎 2+22 𝑎 2 +32
Fourier series of 𝒇(𝒙) defined in [𝑐, 𝑐 + 2𝑙 ]
It can be seen that role played by the functions
1, cos x, cos 2 x, cos 3x,.....sin x,sin 2 x.........
In expanding a function f x defined in [𝑐, 𝑐 + 2𝜋] as a Fourier series, will be played by
x 2 x 3 x
1, cos , cos , cos ,.....
e e e
x 2 x 3 x
sin ,sin ,sin ,.....
e e e
In expanding a function f x defined in c, c 2l
𝑐+2𝑙
𝑚𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
(𝑖 ) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑐 𝑙 𝑙
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER SERIES
𝑐+2𝑙 0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛
𝑚𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
(𝑖𝑖 ) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (
) . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = { 𝑙, 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 = 𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑐 𝑙 𝑙
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 = 𝑛 = 0
𝑐+2𝑙 0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛
𝑚𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
(𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = { 𝑙, 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 = 𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑐 𝑙 𝑙
2𝑙, 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 = 𝑛 = 0
[It can be verified directly that, when m, n are integers ]
Fourier series of 𝒇(𝒙) defined in[𝟎, 𝟐𝒍]:
Let f x be defined in 0, 2l and be periodic with period 2l . Its Fourier series expansion is
1 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
defined as 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2 𝑎0 + ∑∞
𝑛=1 [𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ] → (1)
𝑙 𝑙
1 2𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Where 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙 ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥 → (2)
𝑙
1 2𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥
.𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑙 ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥 → (3)
𝑙
Fourier Series Of 𝒇(𝒙) Defined In[−𝒍, 𝒍]:
Let f x be defined in l , l and be periodic with period 2l . Its Fourier
series expansion is defined as
1
n x n x
f x a0 an cos bn sin
2 n 1 l l
1 l n x 1 l n x
where an f x cos dx bn f x sin dx
l l l l l l
Fourier series for even and odd functions in[−𝒍, 𝒍]:-
n x
Let f x be defined in l , l . If f x is even f x cos is also even
l
𝑙
1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
∴ 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙
−𝑙
𝑙
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
= ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙
0
𝑛𝜋𝑥
And 𝑓(𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑙
𝑙
1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
∴ 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 0∀𝑛
𝑙 𝑙
−𝑙
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER SERIES
Hence if f x is defined in l , l and is even its Fourier series expansion is given by
1
n x
f x a0 an cos
2 n 1 l
2 l n x
where an f x cos dx
l 0 l
If f x is defined in l , l and its odd its Fourier series expansion is given by
n x 2 l n x
f x bn sin where bn f x sin dx
n 1 l l 0 l
Note:- In the above discussion if we put 2l 2 , l we get the discussion regarding
the intervals 0, 2 and , as special cases
Fourier series of 𝒇(𝒙) defined in [𝑐, 𝑐 + 2𝑙]
Problems:-
1.Express f x x2 as a Fourier series in l , l
Sol: Since 𝑓(−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥 )2 = 𝑥 2 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Therefore f x is an even function
Hence the Fourier series of f x in l , l is given by
a0
n x 2 l n x
f x an cos where an f x cos dx
2 n 1 l l 0 l
𝑙
2 𝑙 2 𝑥3 2𝑙2
Hence 𝑎0 = 𝑙 ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙 ( 3 ) =
0 3
𝑙
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙
0
l
n x n x n x
2 2 l
sin cos sin
x 2x l 2 l
l n n
2 2
n
3 3
l l 2
l 3
0
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑙
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1
= [2𝑥 𝑛2 𝜋2
]
𝑙
𝑙2 0
(Since the first and last terms vanish at both upper and lower limits)
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER SERIES
2 cos n 4l 2 cos n 1 4l
2 n
a n 2l 2 2 2
l n /l n 2 2 n 2 2
Substituting these values in (1), we get
l 2 1 4l n x l 2 4l 2 1
n n 1
n x
2
x2 2 2 cos 2 2 cos
3 n1 n l 3 n1 n l
l 2 4l 2 cos x / l cos 2 x / l cos 3 x / l
2
3 12
2 2
32
2. Obtain Fourier series for f(x) = x3 in [-1, 1].
Sol: The given function is x3 which is odd
ao=, an=0, bn= bn = =
=2
=2
f(x) = + + +
3. Find a Fourier series with period 3 to represent f x x x2 in 0,3
Sol. Let a0 n x n x
f x an cos bn sin 1
2 n 1 l l
Here 2l 3, l 3 / 2 Hence (1) becomes
a0 2n x 2n x
f x x x an cos
2
bn sin 2
2 n1 3 3
3
2 x2 x3
Where a0 f x dx x x 2 dx 9
1 2l 2 3
l 0 3 0 3 2 3 0
n x 2n x
dx x x 2 cos
1 2 2 3
and an f x cos dx
l 0 l 3 0 3
Integrating by parts, we obtain
2 3 9 2 54 9
𝑎𝑛 = [ − ]= ( )=
3 4𝑛 2𝜋2 4𝑛 2 𝜋2 3 4𝑛 2𝜋2 𝑛 2𝜋2
n x
Finally x x 2 sin 2n3 x dx n12
1 2l 2 3
f x sin
l 0 3 0
bn dx
l
Substituting the values of a’s and b’s in (2) we get
9 9
1 2n x 12 1 2n x
x x2
2 2
n
n 1
2
cos sin
3 n 1 n 3
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER SERIES
Half- Range Expansion of 𝒇(𝒙)𝒊𝒏 [𝟎, 𝒍]:-
Some times we will be interested in finding the expansion of f x defined in 0,l in
terms of sines only (or) in terms of cosines only. Suppose we want the expansion of f x in
terms of sine series only. Define f1 x f x in 0,l and f1 x f1 x n with
f1 2l x f1 x , f1 x is an odd function in l , l . Hence its Fourier series expansion is
given by
n x
f1 x bn sin dx
n 1 l
2 1
f1 x dx
l 0
where bn
The above expansion is valid for x in l , l in particular for x in 0, l ,
2 n x
dx where bn 0 f x sin
n x
l
f1 x f x and f1 x bn sin dx
n 1 l l l
This expansion is called the half- range sine series expansion of f x in 0,l . If we
want the half – range expansion of f x in 0,l , only in terms of cosines, define f1 x f x
in 0,l and f1 x f1 x for all x with
f1 x 2l f1 x .
Then f1 x is even in l , l and hence its Fourier series expansion is given by
a0 n x
f1 x an cos
2 l
l n x
where an f1 x cos dx
l 0 l
The expansion is valid in l , l and hence in particular on 0,l ,
f1 x f x hence in 0,l
1
n x
f x a 0 an cos
2 n 1 l
2 1 n x
Where an 0 f x cos dx
l l
n x
1. The half range sine series expansion of f x b sin
n 1
n
l
in (0, 𝑙 )is given by
2 n x
f x sin
1
Where bn
l 0 l
dx
2. The half range cosine series expansion of f x in 0, l is given by
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER SERIES
1
n x
f a0 an cos
x
2 n 1 l
2 l n x
where bn f x cos dx
l 0 l
Problems:-
1. Find the half- range sine series of f x 1 in 0, l
Sol: The Fourier sine series of f x in 0, l is given by f x 1
bn sin
n x
n 1 l
2 𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥 2 𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑛 = 1 ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 1 ∫0 1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥
1 1
n x
l
cos
2 n x
l
2 2 2 n1
l
cos cos n 1 1 1
l n / l n l 0 n n
0
0 when n is even
bn { 4 when n is odd
n
4 n x
Hence the required Fourier series is f x
n 1,3,5 n
sin
l
4 𝑛𝜋 1 3𝜋𝑥 1 5𝜋𝑥
𝑖. 𝑒 1 = (sin + sin + ⁄5 sin ……..)
𝜋 𝑙 3 𝑙 𝑙
2. Find the half – range cosine series expansion of f x sin x in the range
l
0 xl
Sol : The half-range Fourier Cosine Series is given by
∞
𝜋𝑥 𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos … … ───(1)
𝑙 2 𝑙
𝑛=1
2 𝑙 2 𝑙 𝜋𝑥 2 − cos 𝜋𝑥 ⁄𝑙 𝑙 −2 4
Where 𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑙 0
= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑙 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙 [ 𝜋⁄𝑙 ]
𝑙 0
= 𝜋
(cos 𝜋 − 1) =
𝜋
0
2 𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥 2 𝑙 𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙 ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑙 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙
1 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛+1)𝜋𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛−1)𝜋𝑥
= ∫ [
𝑙 0 𝑙
− 𝑙
] 𝑑𝑥
cos(n+1) 𝜋𝑥 𝑙
1 − cos(n−1) 𝜋𝑥 ⁄𝑙
= 𝑙 [− 𝑙
+ ] (𝑛 ≠ 1)
(𝑛+1)𝜋⁄𝑙 (𝑛+1)𝜋⁄𝑙
0
1 (−1) 𝑛+1 (−1)𝑛−1 1 1
= 𝑙 [− 𝑛+1 + 𝑛−1 + 𝑛+1 − 𝑛−1] (𝑛 ≠ 1)
When n is odd an 1 1 1 1 1 0
n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER SERIES
1 1 1 1 1
When n is even 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 [𝑛+1 − 𝑛−1 + 𝑛+1 − 𝑛−1]
−4
= 𝜋(𝑛+1)(𝑛−1) (𝑛 ≠ 1)
1 𝑙 𝜋𝑥 𝜋𝑥 1 𝑙 2𝜋𝑥
If 𝑛 = 1, 𝑎1 = 𝑙 ∫0 2 sin ( 𝑙 ) cos ( 𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙 ∫0 sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑙
1 1 2𝜋𝑥 𝑙 −1
= . [−𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )] = (cos 2𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0) = −1⁄2𝜋 (1 − 1) = 0
𝑙 2𝜋 𝑙 0 2𝜋
𝜋𝑥 2 4 cos(2𝜋𝑥 ⁄𝑙 ) cos(4𝜋𝑥 ⁄𝑙 )
from equation(1) we have∴ sin ( 𝑙 ) = 𝜋 − 𝜋 [ 1.3 + + − − −]
3.5
3. Obtain the half range cosine series for f(x) = x – x , 0
2
Sol:The half range cosine series for f(x) in 0 is given by
f(x) = + cos n x
Where ao = =2 =2
𝑎𝑛 = 2
=2 =2 =2
The cosine series of f(x) is given by,
+ = -
4. Obtain the half range sine series for ex in 0<x<1.
Sol: The sine series is
Where bn =
=2 = [ ]
= [ = [
∴ 2
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
UNIT-II
FOURIER TRANSFORMS
Dirichlet’s condition :
A function f(x) is said to satisfy dirichlets conditions in the interval (a,b) if
(i) f(x) defined and is single valued function except possibly at a finite number of points in
the interval (a,b) and
(ii) f(x) and f1(x) are piecewise continuous in(a,b)
Fourier Integral Theorem:
If f x is defined in l, l and satisfies Dirichlet’s condition, then
1
f x f t cos t x dt.d
0
Fourier Sine Integral:
The Fourier sine integral for f(x) is given by
2
f x sin x f t sin tdt.d
0 0
Fourier Cosine Integral:
The Fourier cosine integral for f(x) is given by
2
f x cos x f t .cos t.dtd
0 0
1. Using Fourier integral show that
2 b2 a 2 sin x
d , a 0, b 0
ax bx
e e
0 2
a 2 2 b 2
Sol. Since the integral on R.H.S contains sine term use Fourier sine integral formula.
We know that the F.S.I for f(x) is given by.
2
f x sin x f t sin t.dt.d .. 1
0 0
Here f x eax ebx ; f t eat ebt
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
sin x e at ebt sin t dt d
2
e ax ebx
0 0
2 e at sin t dt ebt sin tdt d
0 0 0
sin x
2 e at ebt
sin x 2 2 a sin t cos t 2 2 b sin t cos t d
0 a b 0
2 2 1 1
sin x 2 2 2 2 d sin x.. 2 2 2 2 d
0 a b 0 a b
2 b2 a 2
0
sin x.
2 a2 2 b2
d
2 b2 a 2 .sin x
d
ax bx
e e
0 2
a 2 2 b2
Hence proved
2. Using Fourier Integral, show that 1 cos if 0 x
.sin x d 2
0, if x
0
Sol. Since the integral on R.H.S. contains the sine term we use Fourier Sine Integral formula.
The Fourier Sine Integral for f(x) is given by.
2
f x sin x f t .sin t dt. d --------------------- (1)
0 0
Let , 0 x ----------------------------(2)
f x 2
0, x
Using (2) in (1), we get
sin x. f t sin t dt f t sin t dt d
2
f x
0 0
2 2 1
0
sin x.
0 2
.sin t dt d
0
sin x. .cos t d
2 0
sin x cos 1 d 2 sin x 1 cos d
2
0
2 2 0
f x
1 cos sin x d
or
1 cos .sin x d , 0 x
2
0 0 0, x
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 25
MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
𝟏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝝅
3. Express 𝒇(𝒙) = { as a Fourier cosine integral and hence
𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒙>𝜋
∞ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝀𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝀𝝅
evaluate∫𝟎 𝒅𝝀
𝝀
Sol:- Fourier cosine integral of f(x) is given by
2 ∞ ∞
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∫ cos 𝜆𝑥 ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) cos 𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜆
𝜋 0 0
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥>𝜋
2 ∞ 𝜋 2 ∞ sin 𝜆𝑡 𝜋 2 ∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜆𝑥 sin 𝜆𝜋
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝜋 ∫0 cos 𝜆𝑥 [∫0 cos 𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ]𝑑𝜆 =𝜋 ∫0 cos 𝜆𝑥 [ ] 𝑑𝜆= ∫0 𝑑𝜆
𝜆 0 𝜋 𝜆
𝜋
∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜆𝑥 sin 𝜆𝜋 𝜋 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
∴ ∫0 𝑑𝜆 = f(x) = { 2
𝜆 2 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥>𝜋
At x= 𝜋 which is a point of discontinuity of f(x) ,the value of the above integral
∞
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜆𝑥 sin 𝜆𝜋 𝜋 1+0 𝜋
∫ 𝑑𝜆 = ( )=
0 𝜆 2 2 4
FOURIER TRANSFORM OR COMPLEX FOURIER TRANSFORM
The Infinite Fourier Transform of f(x) :
The Fourier transform of a function f(x) is given by.
F f x F p
f x .eipx dx
The inverse Fourier transform of F(p) is given by.
f x F 1 F p
1
F p .e ipx dp
2
Fourier sine Transform:
The Fourier sine Transform of a function f(x) is given by
Fs f x Fs p f x .sin px dx
The inverse Fourier sine Transform of Fs (p) is given by
f x Fs1 Fs p
2
Fs p .sin px dp
0
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
Fourier cosine Transform:
The Fourier cosine Transform of a function f(x) is given by
Fc f x Fc p f x .cos px dx
The inverse Fourier cosine Transform of Fc(p) is given by
2
f x Fc1 Fc ( p ) Fc p .cos px dp
0
Problems:
x 2 , x a
1. Find the Fourier transform of f(x) defined by f x
0, x a
Sol. We have F f x
1
eipx f x dx
2
1 ipx
a a
1
e f x dx eipx f x dx
ipx
e f x dx
2 2 a a
a
2 eipx 2 ipx 2i ipx
F f x
1
x ip p 2 xe p 3 e
2 a
a 2 ipa ipa 2a ipa ipa 2i ipa ipa
ip e e p2 e e p3 e e
1
2
1 2a 2 sin ap 4a 4
2 cos ax 3 sin ap
2 p p p
1, x a
2. Find the Fourier transform of f(x) defined by f x and hence evaluate
0, x a
sin p sin ap.cos px
0 p
dp. and
p
dp
Sol. We have F f x eipx f x dx
a a
a
e f x dx e f x dx eipx f x dx (1)eipx dx
ipx ipx
a a a
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 27
MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
a
eipx eipa e ipa 2 eipa e ipa 2sin pa
F f x
2sin pa
. F p
ip a ip p 2i p p
We know that F p
eipx f x dx
Then by the inversion formula,
1 1 2sin pa
f x eipx .F p dp eipx . dp
2 2 p
1 2sin ap 1 sin ap i sin ap
2 p
. cos px i sin px dp
p
cos px dp
p
sin px dp
1 sin ap cos px
p
dp [Since the second integralis an odd]
or 1 sin ap cos px
1, x a
dp
p
0, x a
sin ap cos px , x a
dp
p 0, x a
If x=0 and a=1, then
sin p sin p sin p
p
dp or 2
0 p
dp or
0 p
dp
2
sin x
Note: 0 x
dx
2
1 x2 , x 1
3. Find the Fourier transform of f(x) defined by f x
0, x 1
Hence evaluate (i) x cos x 3 sin x cos x dx (ii) x cos x 3 sin x dx
0 0 x 2 x
1
Sol. We have F f x eipx f x dx eipx f x dx eipx f x dx eipx f x dx
1
1 1
1 x .e dx
1 x 2 2 x 2
1
2 2 ip 2 2 ip
1
2 ipx
2 2 3 3 eipx 2 3 e 2 3 e
1
x 1
ip i p i p p ip p ip
2 ip ip 2 ip ip 4 eip eip 4i eip eip 4
p2
e e ip3 e e p2 2 ip3 2i p2 cos p p43 sin p
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
4
sin p p cos p F p
p3
Second Part: By inversion formula, we have
1
i. f x eipx .F p dp
2
1 4 sin p p cos p 1 x 2 , x 1
2
eipx .
p3
dp
0, x 1
…………………(1)
Putting 1
x in (1), we get
2
1 3
1 i p 4 sin p p cos p 1
2
e 2
.
p 3
dp 4 4
0
1 i p 3
or
3 p cos p sin p e 2
dp
p 8
or
1
p
3 p cos p sin p cos p i sin p dp
2 2 8
3
p cos p sin p
3
or
3
.cos p dp
2 Equating real parts
p 8
p cos p sin p 3
or 2 .cos p dp [since integral is even]
0 p 3 2 8
x cos x sin x x 3
or cos dx
0 x3 2 16
ii. Putting x 0 in (1), we get
sin p p cos p
dp
1 4
sin p p cos p dp 1 or 3
2 p3 p 2
sin p p cos p p cos p sin p
or 2 3
dp [ Integral is even] or 3
dp
0 p 2 0 p 4
x cos x sin x
or 3
dx
0 x 4
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
𝟎 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≤ 𝒂
4. Find the Fourier Transform of f(x)={𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒂 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
𝟎 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝒃
b
1 eipx
b
By definition F f x
1 1
f x .e dx ipx
a e ipx
dx
2 2 2 ip a
1 eibx eiax
=
2 ip
x2
5. Find the Fourier Transform of f(x) defined by f x e , x
2
or,
x2
2
Show that the Fourier Transform of e is reciprocal.
x2
f x .e
Sol. We have F f x dx e . eipx dx
ipx 2
1 1
x ip p x ip 2
2 2 2
p
e 2
e2
dx e 2
e 2
dx
1 1
x ip t sothat x ip t 2 and dx 2dt
2
Put
2 2
2 2
F f x e
p p
t 2
2dt 2.e et dt
2
2 2
e
2 p2
Q et dt 2 .e
p
2.e
2
2 2
6. Find the Fourier Transform of f(x) defined by
eiqx , x eikx , a xb
f x or f x
0, x and x 0, x a and x b
Sol. We have F f x eipx f x dx
eipx f x dx eipx f x dx eipx f x dx
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 30
MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
1 i p q x e e
i pq i pq
eipx .eiqx dx
i ( pq ) x
dx e i p q F p
i p q
e
The finite Fourier sine and cosine Transforms:
The finite Fourier sine transform of f(x) when 0<x<l, is defined as
n x
Fs f x f x .sin
l
dx Fs (n)
0
l
Where n is an integer.
The inverse Fourier sine transform of Fs (n) is given by
2 n x
f x Fs n .sin
l n 1 l
The finite Fourier cosine transform of f(x), when 0<x<l, is given by
n x
Fc f x f x .cos
l
dx Fc (n)
0
l
Where n is an integer.
The inverse Fourier sine transform of Fc (n) is given by
2 n x
f x Fc n .cos
l n 1 l
1 2 n x
f x Fc 0 Fc n .cos
l l n 1 l
PROBLEMS RELATED TO INFINITE FOURIER
SINE AND COSINE TRANSFORMS:
1. Find the Fourier cosine transform of the function f(x) defined by f x cos x, 0 x a
0, xa
Sol. We have Fc f x f x .cos px dx f x cos px dx f x cos px dx
a
0 0 a
1 a
cos x.cos px dx
a
2 0
2 cos px.cos xdx 1 cos p 1 x cos p 1 x dx
a
0 2 0
1 sin p 1 a sin p 1 a
a
1 1 1
sin p 1 x sin p 1 x
2 p 1 ( p 1) 0 2 p 1 p 1
2. Find the Fourier sine transform of f(x) defined by f x sin x, 0 xa
0, xa
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 31
MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
Sol. We have Fs f x f x .sin px dx
a 1 a
f x .sin px dx f x sin px dx 0 sin x sin pxdx
2 0
a
2sin x.sin px dx
0 a
1 sin 1 p x sin 1 p x
a
1 a
2 0
cos 1 p x cos 1 p x
dx
2 1 p 1 p 0
1 sin 1 p a sin 1 p a
2 1 p 1 p
3 x 2 x
3. Find the Fourier cosine transform of 2e 3e
We have Fc f x f x cos px dx 2e3x 3e2 x cos px dx
0 0
2 e3xcos pxdx 3 e2 x cos pxdx
0 0
e 3 x e 2 x
2 2 2cos px p sin px
2 3cos px p sin px 3
9 p 0 4 p 0
1 1
2 3 3 2 2 6 26
9 p 2
4 p2 p 25 p 4
4. Find Fourier cosine and sine transforms of e ax , a 0 and hence deduce the inversion
cos px p sin px
formula (or) deduce the integrals i. dp ii. 2 dp
0 a p
2 2 0 a p2
Sol. Let f x e
ax
We have Fc f x f x cos px dx
e ax
2
e ax
.cos px dx 2 a cos px p sin px
0
a p 0
f x sin pxdx
a(1) p(0) 2 2 Fc p and Fs f x
1 a
2
a p
2
a p 0
e ax
e .sin px dx 2 2 a sin px p cos px 2 2 a 0 p 1 2 2 Fs p
1 p
ax
0
a p 0 a p a p
Deduction: i. Now by the inverse Fourier cosine Transform, we have
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 32
MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
2
f x Fc p .cos px dp
0
2 a cos px
e ax
0 p a
2 2
cos px dp
2a cos px or
0 a 2 p 2
dp 0 a p
2 2
dp e ax
2a
ii. Now by the inverse Fourier sine transform, we have
2
f x Fs p .sin px dp.
0
2 p
0 a 2 p 2
e ax sin px dp
p sin px
or
0 a p
2 2
dp e ax
2
5 x
5. Find the Fourier sine and cosine transform of 2e 5e2 x
Sol. Let f x 2e5 x 5e2 x
i. The Fourier sine transform of f(x) is given by
Fs f x f x sin px dx 2e5 x 5e2 x sin px dx
0 0
2. e5 x .sin px dx 5 e2 x .sin px dx
0 0
e5 x e2 x
2 2 2sin px p cos px
2. 5sin px p cos px 5
25 p 0 4 p 0
2p 5p
p 2 2
1 1
2
2. p 5 2
25 p 4 p p 25 p 4
f x cos pxdx 2e 5e2 x cos pxdx
We have Fc f x
5 x
ii.
0 0
2 e5 x cos px dx 5 e2 x cos px dx
0 0
e5 x e2 x
2
2 5cos px p sin px 5 2
2cos px p sin px
25 p 0 4 p 0
1 1 10 10
2 2
2 5 5 2 2 2
25 p 4 p p 25 p 4
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 33
MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
x sin mx
6. Find the Fourier sine Transform of e x and hence evaluate
0 1 x2
dx
Let f x e
x
Sol.
We have
Fs f x f x sin pxdx e x sin px dx
0 0
e x sin pxdx Q x xin 0,
0
1 p
e x
2
sin px p cos px p Fs p
1 p 0 1 p2 1 p 2
Now by the inverse Fourier sine transform, we have
2
f x Fs p sin px dp e x 2 p 2 sin px dp
0 0 1 p
Chang x to m on both sides
2 p sin pm 2 x sin mx
e
m
0 1 p 2
dp
0 1 x2
dx, where pis replaced by x
x sin mx m
dx e
0 1 x2 2
7. Show that the Fourier sine transform of
x,
for 0 x 1
is 2sin p. 1 cos p
f x 2 x, for 1 x 2 p2
0, x2
for
By definition, Fs f x f x sin px dx
Sol.
0
f x .sin pxdx f x sin pxdx f x sin pxdx
1 2
0 1 2
x.sin pxdx 2 x .sin pxdx
1 2
0 1
2 x 1
1 2
x 1
cos px 2 sin px cos px 2 sin px
p p 0 p p 1
cos p 1 1 cos p 1
2 sin p 2 sin 2 p 2 sin p
p p p p p
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
2sin p sin 2 p 2sin p 2sin p cos p 2sin p 1 cos p
p2 p2 p2
x, 0 x 1
8. Find the Fourier cosine transform of f x defined by
f x 2 x, 1 x 2
0, x2
Fc f x f x cos pxdx
By definition,
0
f x .cos px dx f x cos px dx f x cos px dx
1 2
0 1 2
x.cos px dx 2 x .cos px dx
1 2
0 1
2 x 1
1 2
x 1
sin px 2 cos px sin px 2 cos px
p p 0 p p 1
sin p cos p 1 sin p 1 sin p cos p 1 2 p2 sin p 2cos p cos2 p
2 2 cos2 p cos p 2 2 2 2 cos2 p
p p p p p2 p p p p2
9. Find the inverse Fourier cosine transform f x of
1 p
a , p 2a
Fc p 2a
when
2
p 2a
0, when
Sol. From the inverse Fourier cosine transform, we have
2
f x Fc p .cos px dp
0
2 2a 1 p
a cos px dp 0.cos px dp
0 2a 2 2a
2a
p
1 a 2
2 1 2a p
.sin px 2 cos px
1
a cos px dp .
2a 2
0 a x 2x
p 0
2 2
1 1 sin ax sin ax
0 2 x 2 cos 2ax 2 x 2 2a x 2 1 cos 2ax 2 2a x 2 a x 2
1 1
a
10. Find the Fourier cosine transform of (a) e ax cos ax (b) e ax sin ax
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 35
MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
Sol. (a). Let f x eax cos ax. Then
Fc f x f x .cos px dx
1 ax
a ax cos ax cos px dx
2 0
e .2cos px.cos ax dx
0
1 ax
e cos p a x cos p a x dx
2 0
e ax cos p a x e ax cos p a x dx
1
2 0 0
1 eax eax
2
2 a p a 2
a cos p a x p a sin p a x 2 2
a cos p a x p a sin p a x
0 a p a 0
1 1 1
2 a.1 a 1
2 a p a 2 a2 p a
2
1 a a a a 2 p a 2 a 2 p a 2
2
2 a p a 2 a 2 p a 2 2 a 2 p a 2 . a 2 p a 2
a 2a 2 2 a 2 p 2 a 2a 2 p 2
2 a 2 p a 2 . a 2 p a 2 a 2 p a 2 . a 2 p a 2
Let f x e sin ax Then
ax
b.
Fc f x f x cos pxdx
1 ax
e ax .sin ax cos px dx e 2cos px sin ax dx
0 2 0
1 ax
e sin p a x sin p a x dx
2 0
1 eax eax
2
2 a p a 2
a sin p a x p a cos p a x 2 2
a sin p a x p a cos p a x
a p a 0
0
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 36
MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
1 pa
2 2
p a 1 p
2
p 1
2
a
2
a
2
2 a p a a p a 2 p p a p p a 2 p p a a p a
2 2 2 2 2 2
p
4ap a
2 p 2 2a 2
2 p 2 p a 2 . p 2 p a 2 2 p 2 p a 2 p 2 p a 2
2ap 2 a p 2 2a 2
p p a . p p a p p a . p p a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Note: (i) Fs x. f x Fc p
d
dp
(ii) Fc x f x Fs p
d
dp
𝟏
11. Find the fourier sine transform of 𝒙
𝟏
Sol:the fourier sine transform of the given function f(x)= 𝒙
𝑑𝑡 2 ∞ sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Fs f x
2 2 1
f x .sin px dx
0 x
.sin px dx put px=t dx= 𝑝 = √𝜋 ∫0 𝑡 .
0
𝑝
𝑝
2 ∞ sin 𝑡 2 𝜋 𝜋 ∞ sin 𝑡 𝜋
√𝜋 ∫0 . 𝑑𝑡 = √𝜋 . 2 =√ 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∫0 . 𝑑𝑡 = 2 )
𝑡 𝑡
12. Find the Fourier sine and cosine transform of xe ax
Sol. Let f x e ax
Fourier sine Transform:
d d
We know that Fs x f x dp
Fc p
dp
Fc f x
d
Fs x.e ax Fc e ax d a 2ap
1
dp 2 2 a 2 2 2 .2 p
p2 a2
2
dp p a p a
Fourier cosine Transform:
We know that Fc x. f x d
dp
Fs p Fs f x
d
dp
d p
Fc x.e ax Fs e ax 2 2 = p a .1 p. 2 p a 2 p 2
d 2 2
dp dp p a
p2 a2
2
p2 a2
2
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MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
13. Find the Fourier sine transform of x and Fourier cosine transform of 1
a2 x2 a2 x2
Sol. Fourier sine transforms:
We have Fs e a p p
ax
2 2
Fs p
2 2 p
e ax
0 0 a2 p2
ax
The inverse Fourier sine transforms of is e Fs p .sin pxdp sin pxdp
p sin px
or
0 a p
2 2
dp e ax
2
Changing p to x and x to p, we get
x ap
0 a 2 x2 sin xp dx
2
e
x ap
Hence Fs 2 2
e
a x 2
Fourier cosine Transform:
We have Fc e p a a
ax
2 2
Fc p
The inverse Fourier cosine transform of e ax is
2 ax
2 a
0
1
e ax
0 p 2 a 2 0 p2 a2
Fc p .cos px dp cos px dp or cos px dp e
2a
Changing p to x and x to p
1
0x a 22
cos xp.dx .e ap
2a
1 ap
Hence Fc 2 2
.e
x a 2a
e ax
14. Find the Fourier sine and cosine transform of f x and deduce that
x
e ax ebx s s
0 x
sin sx dx Tan1 Tan1
a b
Sol. Fourier Sine Transforms:
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 38
MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
f x .sin px dx
We have Fs f x
0
e ax
.sin px dx
0 x
ax
Fs f x
e
.sin px dx
0 x
Differentiation w.r.t ‘p’, we get
d e ax
Fs f x
d
sin px dx
dp dp 0 x
e ax e ax
.sin px dx .x.cos px dx
0 p x
0 x
ax
e .cos pxdx 2e 2 a cos px p sin px
ax
0
a p 0
Fs f x 2 2
d a
dp p a
Integrating w.r.t. p
p
Fs f x
a
dp Tan1 c
0 p a2
2
a
If p=0 then Fs f x 0 and c 0
a if p 0
Fs f x Tan 1 p
Tan a . if p 0
e p
ax
1
or F s ………………. (1)
x
Deduction: We know that the Fourier sine transform of f(x) is given by
Fs f x 0
f x sin px dx ……………….(2)
e ax ebx
Suppose let f x ……………….(3)
x
Using (3) in (2), we get
e ax ebx e
ax
e
bx
0 x
sin px dx
0 x
.sin px dx
0 x
.sin px dx
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 39
MATHEMATICS-III FOURIER TRANSFORMS
e ax
Fs
x
sF
ebx
x
Tan
1 p
a
Tan1 p
b using (1)
e ax ebx
or sin sx dx Tan 1 s Tan 1 s
0 x a b
Fourier Cosine Transform:
We have Fc e
ax
a
p a2
Fc p
2
The inverse Fourier cosine transform of e ax is
2
Fc p .cos px dp cos px dp or 2 1 2 cos px dp e ax
2 a
e ax
0 0 p a
2 2 0 p a 2a
Changing p to x and x to p
1 ap
0 x2 a2
cos xp.dx
2a
.e
1 ap
Hence Fc 2
.e
x a 2a
2
15. Find the finite Fourier sine & cosine transform of f(x),
defined by f(x)=2x, where o x 2
n x dx
We have Fs f x f x .sin
l
Sol.
0 l
2
2 nx 2 nx 4 nx 4 4 8
2 x.sin dx 2 .x.cos 2 sin 2 cos n 2 sin n cos n
0
2 n 2 n 2 0 n n n
8
1 Fs (n)
n 1
n
n x
Also Fc f x f x .cos
l
dx
0
l
2
2 nx 2 nx 4 nx
2 x.cos dx 2 .x.sin 2 cos
0
2 n 2 n 2 0
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4 8
2 sin n 2 cos n 2 2 2 cos n 1 2 1 1 Fc n
4 4 4 n
n n n n n
16. Find the finite Fourier sine transform of f(x), defined by f(x) =2x, where o x 4
Sol:-The finite fourier sine transform of f(x) in 0<x<l
Fs f x f x .sin
l n x dx
Here f(x) = 2x and l=4
0 l
n x 4
dx 2 x 4 cos n x 2 4 cos n x dx
4
2 x.sin
4
0
4
n
4 0 0 n 4
n x n x
4 4
8 32 32 32
2 2 sin 4 n (cos n 0) 0 n ( 1)
n
x cos
n 4 0 n 0
1 cos n
17. Find the inverse finite sine transform f(x) if Fs n where 0 x
n2 2
Sol. From the inverse finite sine transform, we have
n x 2 1 cos n sin nx 2 1 cos n sin nx
2
f x Fs n .sin
l n1
2 2
l n 1 n
3 n1 n2
18. Find the inverse finite cosine transform f(x), if
2n
cos
Fc n 2 , where 0 x 4
3
2n 1
Sol. From the inverse finite cosine transform, we have
1 2 n x
f x Fc 0 Fc n cos
l l n 1 l
2n
1 2 n x 1 1 cos 3 n x
.1 Fc n .cos
l 4 2
cos
n 1 2n 1
4 4 n1 2
4
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MATHEMATICS-III ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
UNIT – III
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
Introduction: Complex analysis is the branch of mathematical analysis that investigates
functions of complex numbers. It is useful in many branches of mathematics, including
algebraic geometry, number theory, in physics, thermodynamics, and also in engineering
fields such as aerospace, mechanical and electrical engineering. Complex analysis is widely
applicable to two dimensional problems in physics. In this unit we discuss about limit,
differentiation and continuity of complex function and analyticity of a function and also
complex integration.
We are familiar with the concepts of limit, continuity,differentiation and integration
of function of real variable. Similar concepts can be defined with reference to complex
variables also and their study constitutes “Complex analysis”. A basic understanding of
complex variable theory will be useful in diverse branches of science and engineering.
Definitions:
Complex number: A number which is in the form of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 where 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 and i2 = -
1 is called complex number. Here 𝑥 is real part and 𝑦 is imaginary part of 𝑧.
(or)
A complex number 𝑧 is defined as the ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) of real numbers. i.e., 𝑧 = (𝑥, 𝑦)
Set of complex numbers: The complex number set is denoted by ℂ and
ℂ = {z / z = x+iy, x,y𝜖ℝ, 𝑖 2 = −1}
ℂ = {(x,y), x,y𝜖ℝ, 𝑖 2 = −1}
Argand plane: We have seen that complex numbers are represented by points (𝑥, 𝑦)𝜖 ℝ2 and
conversely. After this representation ℝ2 is called the Argand plane where (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
After this representation the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes are called real and imaginary axes.
Modulus of a complex number:The modulus or absolute value of complex number 𝑧 is
denoted by |𝑧| and it is defined as its distance from the origin.
i.e.,|𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
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Now x ≤ |𝑥 | ≤ √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , y ≤ |𝑦| ≤ √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
i.e., Rez≤ |𝑧| i.e.,Img z ≤ |𝑧|
Conjugate of a complex number:The conjugate of a complex number𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦is
denoted by 𝑧̅ and it is defined as the mirror image of 𝑧 in the real axis.
i.e., 𝑧̅ = x – iy [i.e., 𝑧̅ = (x,-y) ]
Properties of conjugate:
𝑧̿ = z, ∀ 𝑧𝜖ℂ
𝑧̅ = 𝑧 ⟺ 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1 + 𝑧̅2
𝑧1 𝑧2 = ̅̅̅𝑧
̅̅̅̅̅̅ 𝑧1 ̅2
𝑧+𝑧̅
z +𝑧̅ = 2 Rez ⇒ Rez =
2
𝑧−𝑧̅
z - 𝑧̅ = 2 Imgz ⇒ Imgz = 2𝑖
𝑧̅1 𝑧1
̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅ , provided 𝑧2 ≠ 0
𝑧2 𝑧2
Properties of modulus:
|𝑧| ≥ 0 i.e., |𝑧| is always non-negative
|𝑧| = |𝑧̅| = |−𝑧| = |−𝑧
̅̅̅̅ | also Rez ≤ |𝑧|, Imgz ≤ |𝑧|
𝑧 |𝑧1 |
| 1| =
|𝑧2 |
, where 𝑧2 ≠ 0
𝑧2
|𝑧|2 = 𝑧 𝑧̅
|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |
||𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 || ≤ |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |
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The Polar form or Exponential form of complex number:
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = (𝑥, 𝑦) be complex number
𝑦
Here sin 𝜃 = 𝑟 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑥
cos 𝜃 = ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑟
∴ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑧 = 𝑟 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)
𝑍 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , which is a complex number in polar form
𝑦 𝑦
Here 𝑟 = |𝑧| and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥 ⟹ 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝑥 )
(𝑟, 𝜃) are called polar coordinates of a point P
Here 𝜃 is called the argument or amplitude of 𝑧 and denoted by 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧) or 𝑎𝑚𝑝(𝑧)
𝑦
i.e.,𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥
The Specific value of 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧, satisfying −𝜋 < 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧 < 𝜋 is called the principle value of
𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧
For any two complex numbers 𝑧1, 𝑧2 we have
𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 . 𝑧2 ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2
𝑧1 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧1
𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( ) =
𝑧2 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧2
|𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = 𝑟 represents a circle with centre at 𝑧0 and radius 𝑟
Let 𝑧 = (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑧0 = (𝑎, 𝑏)
|𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟
⟹ (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
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|𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = 𝑟 ⇔ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = r𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
⇔ 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + r𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
|𝑧| = 𝑟 represents a circle with centre at origin and radius 𝑟
|𝑧| = 𝑟 ⇔ Z = r𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
Neighbourhood (or) 𝜹 – Disc around = 𝒛𝟎 :
Let 𝑧0 𝜖 ℂ and 𝛿 >0
𝑁𝛿 (𝑧0 ) = {𝑧𝜖ℂ|𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿 } is called the 𝛿 – neighbourhood of 𝑧0
Deleted 𝜹 – neighbourhood of 𝒛𝟎 :
𝑵𝜹 ∗ (𝒛𝟎 ) = 𝑁𝛿 (𝑧0 ) - {𝒛𝟎 }
= {z𝜖ℂ/0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿}
It is known as deleted 𝛿 – neighbourhood of 𝑧0 .
Pathwise connected: A non-empty subset ‘S’ of ℂ is said to be pathwise connected or
arcwise connected, if every pair of points in ‘S’ can joined by a polygond arc which is
entirely in ‘S
i.e., for each pair of points in‘S’ there exists a path joining than which entirely lies
inside ‘S’.
Domain:A non-empty open connected set in ℂ is said to be a domain.
Function of a complex variable: Let ‘S’ be a non-empty subset of the argandplane ℂ. A
function 𝑓: 𝑆 → ℂ is a rule which assigns a unique value 𝑓(𝑧)𝜖 ℂ for each 𝑧 𝜖 S, then we write
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑤, 𝑧 𝜖 𝑆 and we say that ‘𝑓’ is a complex valued function at complex variable 𝑧.
(or)
Let S ⊆ ℂ, a rule 𝑓:S→ ℂ is called complex function if for every 𝑧 𝜖 S, there exist a
unique image 𝑓(𝑧) 𝜖 ℂ, we write it as 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑤, for 𝑧 𝜖 S
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Range: The set {𝑓(𝑧) /𝑧 𝜖 𝑆} is called the range of ‘𝑓’
𝑓(𝑧)can be written as 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
Here 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) are real valued functions of 𝑥, 𝑦
Definition of limit of a complex function: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a complex function, a complex
number 𝑙𝜖ℂ is said to be a limit of a function 𝑓(𝑧) as 𝑧 tends to 𝑧0 . If for every 𝜖 > 0 there
exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑙 | < 𝜖 whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿
Symbolically we write lim 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑙
𝑧→𝑧0
Continuity of complex function:A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0
If lim 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓( 𝑧0 )
𝑧→𝑧0
Derivative of 𝒇(𝒛): Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a given function defined on a nbd of 𝑧0 then 𝑓(𝑧) is said to
𝑓(𝑧0 +∆𝑧)−𝑓(𝑧0)
be differentiable at 𝑧0 if lim exists and it is denoted by 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 )
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧
𝑓(𝑧0+∆𝑧)−𝑓(𝑧0 )
i.e.,𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧
Taking 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = ∆𝑧
𝑓(𝑧)−𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim
∆𝑧→0 𝑧−𝑧0
Analytic function:A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic at a point 𝑧0 , if 𝑓(𝑧) is differentiable
at every point 𝑧 in the 𝜖 - neighbourhood of 𝑧0 .
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i.e., 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) exist for all 𝑧 such that |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝜖, where 𝜖 > 0 then 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic
at 𝑧0 .
Note:𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at 𝑧0 means
(i) 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) exists
(ii) 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)exist at every point 𝑧 in a neighbourhood of 𝑧0 .
Definition: Let 𝐷 be a domain of complex numbers, if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at every 𝑧𝜖𝐷, then
𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic in the domain 𝐷.
Definition:If𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at every point 𝑧 on the complex plane then 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be an
entire function.
Properties of analytic function:
𝑓
If 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are analytic then 𝑓 ± 𝑔, 𝑓. 𝑔, 𝑔 (𝑔 ≠ 0) are also analytic function.
Analytic function of an analytic function is analytic
An entire function of an entire function is entire
Derivative of an analytic function is itself analytic
Cauchy – Riemann (C-R) Equations:
C-R equations are used to test the analyticity of a complex function.
Statement:The necessary and sufficient condition for the derivative of the function
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) to exist for all values of 𝑧 in domain ℝ are
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
(i) , 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑥 , 𝜕𝑦 are continuous functions of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in ℝ
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
(ii) = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 = - 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥
These two are called C-R equations.
Note: The converse of above theorem is need not be true.
i.e., even though C-R equations are satisfied by 𝑓(𝑧) but 𝑓(𝑧) may not be differentiable.
Eg: 𝑓(𝑧) = √|𝑥𝑦| satisfies C-R equations at (0,0) but it is not differential at (0,0)
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Laplace operator: The Laplace operator is denoted by ∇2 and defined as
𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅
⟹ ∇2 ∅ = +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Result: If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) is analytic in a domain D, then 𝑢 and 𝑣 satisfy laplace
equation.
i.e.,∇2 𝑢 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇2 𝑣 = 0
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕 2𝑣
i.e.,
𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0 and 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2
=0
and𝑢 and 𝑣 have continuous second order partial derivatives in D.
Harmonic function:The function which satisfy the Laplace equation is called harmonic
function.
i.e., funtion ∅ is said to be Harmonic if ∇2 ∅ = 0
𝜕 2∅ 𝜕2∅
i.e.,𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0
Note:If𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) is analytic in a domain D, the 𝑢 and 𝑣 satisfy the
Laplacce equation
i.e., ∇2 𝑢 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇2 𝑣 = 0 and we have continuous second order partial derivatives in D.
Conjugate Harmonic function:Two harmonic funtions𝑢 and 𝑣 are said to be harmonic
conjugate to each other if
(i) 𝑢 and 𝑣 satisfy the C-R equations
(ii) 𝑢 and 𝑣 are real and imaginary parts of analytic function 𝑓(𝑧)
i.e.,𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Polar form of C-R equations:If𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑢(𝑟, 𝜃) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑟, 𝜃) and 𝑓(𝑧) is derivable
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
at 𝑧0 = 𝑟0 𝑒 𝑖𝜃0 then 𝜕𝑟 = 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 and 𝜕𝑟 = − 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
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Problems:
1. Show that 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒊𝒚 is everywhere continuous but it is not analytic.
Sol. To prove 𝑓 is continuous it is enough to prove that lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓( 𝑧0 )
𝑧→𝑧0
Let 𝑧0 is any point in the domain
Now lim 𝑓(𝑧) = lim 𝑥0 𝑦0 + 𝑖𝑦0
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑍→𝑧0
Now f(𝑧0 ) = 𝑥0 𝑦0 + 𝑖𝑦0
∴ lim 𝑓 (𝑧) =f(𝑧0 )
𝑧→𝑧0
Therefore 𝑓 is continuous every where
Verification of Analyticity of 𝑓(𝑧):
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
Now 𝜕𝑥 = y,𝜕𝑦 = 𝑥 ,𝜕𝑥 = 0 , 𝜕𝑦 = 1
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Clearly 𝜕𝑥 ≠ 𝜕𝑦 and 𝜕𝑦 ≠ − 𝜕𝑥
Here 𝑓(𝑧) is not satisfying the C-R equations
Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic.
2.Show that 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛 + 𝟐𝒛̅ is not analytic anywhere in the complex plane?
Sol. Given𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 + 2𝑧̅ = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 2(𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦) = 3𝑥 – 𝑖𝑦
But 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Therefore 𝑢 = 3𝑥 and 𝑣 = −𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= 3,𝜕𝑦 = 0 ,𝜕𝑥 = 0 , 𝜕𝑦 = −1
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Therefore ≠ 𝜕𝑦and 𝜕𝑦 ≠ − 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥
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C-R equations are not satisfied.
Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic anywhere.
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
3.Prove that (𝝏𝒙𝟐 + 𝝏𝒚𝟐 )|𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒇(𝒛)|𝟐 = 2|𝒇, (𝒛)|𝟐 where 𝒘 = 𝒇(𝒛) is analytic?
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Real part of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢
|𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑓(𝑧)| = |𝑢| = 𝑢 ⟹ |𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑓(𝑧)|2 = 𝑢2
𝜕2 𝜕2
Now L.H.S = (𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 )|𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑓(𝑧)|2
𝜕2 𝜕2
= (𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 ) 𝑢2
𝜕2 𝑢2 𝜕 2𝑢 2
= + ……………….(1)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕 𝜕𝑢
Now 𝜕𝑥 (𝑢2 ) = 2u 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕2𝑢
( 2) =
2 𝑢
[ (𝑢2 )] = 𝜕𝑥 [2u ] = 2 [( ) + 𝑢 2 ] ………..(2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕2𝑢
(𝑢 2 ) = [ (𝑢2 )] = 𝜕𝑦 [2u ] = 2 [( ) + 𝑢 2 ] ………..(3)
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Substitute equation (2) and (3) in (1)
𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
Then L.H.S = 2 [𝑢 (𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 ) + (𝜕𝑥 ) + (𝜕𝑦 ) ]
Since 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic
𝑢is a real part of analytic function 𝑓(𝑧)
Therefore 𝑢 is Harmonic function
𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢
i.e., 𝑢 satisfies Laplace equation⟹ 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
Therefore L.H.S = 2 [(𝜕𝑥 ) + (𝜕𝑦 ) ]
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Now R.H.S = 2|𝑓 , (𝑧)|2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
And 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 ⟹ 𝑓 , (𝑧) = + 𝑖 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥
Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic ⟹ it will satisfy C-R equations
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
i.e., 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 = - 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
Therefore 𝑓 , (𝑧) = −i𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥
,(
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
⟹ |𝑓 𝑧)| = √( ) + ( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
⟹ |𝑓 , (𝑧)|2 = ( ) +( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
Therefore R.H.S = 2 (𝜕𝑥 ) + (𝜕𝑦 )
Therefore L.H.S = R.H.S
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
4. Show that (𝝏𝒙𝟐 + 𝝏𝒚𝟐 )𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒇, (𝒛)|= 0, where 𝒇(𝒛) is an analytic function?
Sol: Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
𝑧 + ̅𝑧
We know that 𝑧 + ̅𝑧 = 2𝑥 ⟹ 𝑥 = 2
𝑧 − ̅𝑧 𝑖
𝑧 − ̅𝑧 = 2𝑖𝑦 ⟹ 𝑦 = = − (𝑧 − ̅𝑧)
2𝑖 2
Let 𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ⟹ 𝑓(𝑧 , 𝑧̅)
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕𝑓 −𝑖 1 𝜕 𝜕
Now = ( )+ ( )= ( )+ ( )= ( −𝑖 )𝑓
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕𝑓 𝑖 1 𝜕 𝜕
= + 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧̅ = 𝜕𝑥 (2)+ 𝜕𝑦 (2) = 2 (𝜕𝑥 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑦) 𝑓
𝜕𝑧̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧̅
𝜕 2𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕2 𝜕2
= 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧̅ = ( − 𝑖 𝜕𝑦) . 2 (𝜕𝑥 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑦) = 4 (𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2)f
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅ 2 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
⟹ (𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2) = 4 …………….(1)
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅
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𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
Hence (𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 )𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑓 , (𝑧)| = 4 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅ 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑓 , (𝑧)| [from equation (1)]
𝜕2 1
= 4 . . 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑓 , (𝑧)|2
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅ 2
𝜕2
= 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑓 ′ (𝑧)𝑓 ′ (𝑧))
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅
𝜕2
= 2 [log 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) + log 𝑓 ′ (𝑧̅)]
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅
𝜕 𝑓 ′′ (𝑧̅) 𝜕 𝑓 ′′ (𝑧)
= 2[ ]
̅ + 𝜕𝑧̅ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
= 2 (0 + 0) = 0
5. Show that the function 𝒖(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 is harmonic and find its harmonic
conjugate 𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) and the analytic function 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗?
Sol: Given 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 and 𝜕𝑦 = −6𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= 6𝑥and = −6𝑥
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢
+ 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2
Therefore 𝑢 is Harmonic function.
𝜕𝑢
Milne – Thomson’s method:Given𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 ⟹ 𝜕𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 and
𝜕𝑢
= −6𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑦
Let 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be the harmonic conjugate of 𝑢
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Differentiate with respect to 𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = + 𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
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𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= – 𝑖 (from C-R equations , we have𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 = − )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
= (3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 ) – i (−6𝑥𝑦)
= (3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 ) + i (6xy)
Now replace 𝑥 by 𝑧 and 𝑦 by 0
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 3𝑧 2
Integrate on both sides,
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 3 + 𝑐
= (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)3 + 𝑐
= 𝑥 3 − 𝑖𝑦 3 + 3𝑥 2 (𝑖𝑦) − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖 (3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 ) + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Therefore 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 and 𝑣 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3
Hence 𝑣 is the Harmonic conjugate of 𝑢.
Constuction of analytic function whose real (or) imaginary part is known:
Let 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) be a harmonic function then there exists a harmonic conjugate 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) and
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) such that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic
Problems:
1.Find most general analytic (regular) function whose real part is
𝒖 = 𝒆𝒙 [(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚]
Sol: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 be analytic function
Differentiate with respect to 𝑥,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = +i
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝜕𝑥 – i (from C-R equations , 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 = - 𝜕𝑥 )
𝜕𝑦
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𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) cos 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦] + 𝑒 𝑥 [2𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 2𝑦 sin 𝑦]
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒 𝑥 [−2𝑦 cos 𝑦 + (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )(− sin 𝑦) − 2𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 cos 𝑦]
𝜕𝑦
∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) cos 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 2𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 2𝑦 sin 𝑦]
− 𝑖 𝑒 𝑥 [−2𝑦 cos 𝑦 + (𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 ) sin 𝑦 − 2𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 cos 𝑦]
By Milne’s Thomson method, replace 𝑥 by 𝑧 and 𝑦 by 0
Hence 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 [𝑧 2 + 2𝑧]
Now integrate on both sides,
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑧 2 + 𝑐
= 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦]
= 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦)[(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦]
= 𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) cos 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦] + 𝑖𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) sin 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 cos 𝑦]
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Where 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) cos 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦] and 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) sin 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 cos 𝑦]
Therefore 𝑣 is harmonic conjugate of 𝑢
2.Find the analytic function 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗 if 𝒖 = 𝒂(𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)?
Sol: Given 𝑢 = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃 )
Differentiate with respect to 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟, we get
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑢𝜃 = −𝑎 sin 𝜃, = 𝑢𝑟 = 0
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
The Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar coordinates are 𝜕𝑟 = 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 and 𝜕𝑟 = − 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
⟹𝑟 = − = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑣 1
Therefore 𝜕𝑟 = 𝑟 (𝑎 sin 𝜃 )
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Integrating with respect to 𝑟,
𝑣 (𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑎 sin 𝜃. log 𝑟 + 𝑐(𝜃) ……………(1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. 'θ’, we get
𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑐 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑐
= 𝑎 cos 𝜃 . log 𝑟 + 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 = 𝑟.0 ⟹ = − 𝑎 cos 𝜃 . log 𝑟
𝜕𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Again integrating, we get
𝑐 (𝜃) = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 log 𝑟 + 𝑐1 , Where 𝑐1 is a constant.
Substituting 𝑐 (𝜃) in equation (1), we get
𝑣 (𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑎 sin 𝜃. log 𝑟 + 𝑎 sin 𝜃 log 𝑟 + 𝑐1 = 2𝑎 sin 𝜃 log 𝑟 + 𝑐1
Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃 + 2 sin 𝜃 log 𝑟) + 𝑐1
3.If𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗 is an analytic function of 𝒛 and if 𝒖 – 𝒗 = 𝒆𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚) then
find 𝒇(𝒛) in terms of 𝒛?
Sol: Given 𝑢 – 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦) ……………(1)
Differentiate equation (1) partially w.r.to 𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
− 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦) ……………………(2)
𝜕𝑥
Again differentiate equation (1) partially w.r.to 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
− 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (−cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦) = −𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + sin 𝑦) ……….(3)
𝜕𝑦
Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic
Therefore it satisfies C-R equations
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
i.e., 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
equation (3) ⟹ + = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + sin 𝑦) ………….(4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
equation (2) + equation (4) ⟹ 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑣
equation (4) – equation (2) ⟹ 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
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𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Now 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑖 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧 by integrating we get 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐
COMPLEX INTEGRATION
Introduction: Here we discuss the idea of line integral of a complex valued function 𝑓(𝑧) of
a complex variable 𝑧 in a simple way. It is intresting to note that some definite integrals
involving real variables can be evaluated simply using the integral theory of complex
variables and also we discuss Cauchy’s integral theorem and their applications.
Piecewise continuous : real valued function ‘ 𝑓 ’ is said to be piecewise continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏],
if [𝑎, 𝑏] can be divided into a finite number of subintervals in which the function is
continuous.
Continuous Arc: A set of points (𝑥, 𝑦) , 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡)(𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏)where 𝑥 (𝑡),
𝑦(𝑡)continuous functions of the real variable are‘𝑡’ is called a continuous arc.
Path:A continuous complex valued function ′𝛾′ defined on [𝑎, 𝑏] is called a path (or) arc in
the argand plane
Where 𝛾(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏
Note:A path is closed if 𝛾 (𝑎) = 𝛾 (𝑏)
Simple Path (Zordan Arc):A path is said to be simple if it does not intersect itself
i.e., 𝛾 (𝑡1 ) ≠ 𝛾(𝑡2 ) for any 𝑡1 , 𝑡2 𝜖 (𝑎, 𝑏)
Smooth Path:The path 𝛾(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑡𝜖 (𝑎, 𝑏) is said to be smooth, if 𝑥 ′ (𝑡), 𝑦 ′ (𝑡)
are continuous and donot vanish simultaneously for any value of ‘𝑡’.
Piecewise smooth:A path 𝛾 is said to be piecewise smooth if thereexists a partition ‘P’ of
[𝑎, 𝑏] thereexists 𝑎 = 𝑡1 < 𝑡2 < ⋯ … … < 𝑡𝑛−1 < 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑏 and 𝛾 is smooth on each
subinterval [𝑡𝑖−1 , 𝑡𝑖 ], 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛.
Note:For a piecewise smooth 𝛾 ′ (𝑡) exist at 𝑡0, 𝑡1,………… 𝑡𝑛 also at 𝑡0, 𝑡1,………… 𝑡𝑛 the right and left
derivative exist but may not be equal at these points, we define 𝛾 (𝑡𝑖 ) = 0, 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛
Contour: A piecewise smooth curve is called contour. If a contour is closed and does not
intersect itself, it is called a closed contour.
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Note: The length of the contour is sum of lengths of the smooth arcs constituting the contour.
Contour integration: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a piecewise continuous function defined on a contour
𝛾 (𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏 then the integral of 𝑓(𝑧) along 𝛾 (𝑡) is define by
𝑏
∫𝛾 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 [𝛾(𝑡)]. 𝛾 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
This integral is called a contour (or) complex integral
Note: Re∫𝛾 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 ≠ ∫𝛾 𝑅𝑒 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧
Line integral: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a function of complex variable defined in a domain D. Let C be
an arc in the domain joining from 𝑧 = 𝛼to 𝑧 = 𝛽. Let C be defined by 𝑥 =
𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑎≤𝑡≤𝑏
Where 𝛼 = 𝑥(𝑎) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑎)and 𝛽 = 𝑥(𝑏) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑏).
Let 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) be having continuous first order derivatives in [𝑎, 𝑏]. We define
∮ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓[𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑡)][𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑡)]𝑑𝑡
𝑎
Problems:
1. Evaluate ∫(𝟐𝒚 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝒅𝒙 + (𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚)𝒅𝒚 along the parabola 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒕, 𝒚 = 𝒕𝟐 + 𝟑
joining (𝟎, 𝟑) and (𝟐, 𝟒).
Sol: At 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 3, 𝑡 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 4, 𝑡 = 1
Substituting for 𝑥 and 𝑦 in terms of 𝑡, we get
1 1
𝐼 = ∫[2(𝑡 2 + 3) + 4𝑡 2 ] 2𝑑𝑡 + ∫[6𝑡 − 𝑡 2 − 3]2𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑡=0 𝑡=0
= ∫(24𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 + 12)𝑑𝑡
0
1
24𝑡 3 2𝑡 4 6𝑡 2 1 33
=[ − − + 12𝑡] = 8 + 12 − 2 − 3 = .
3 4 2 0 2
2. Evaluate ∮(𝒙 + 𝒚)𝒅𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒅𝒚 along 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙 between (𝟎, 𝟎) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟑, 𝒂)?
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Sol: Let 𝐼 denote the given integral
Since 𝑦 = 3𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑑𝑥
Substituting for y and dy in terms of 𝑥, we have
3 3 3
2(
𝑥2 𝑥4 3)
𝐼 = ∫(𝑥 + 3𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 3𝑥 )(3𝑑𝑥) = ∫(4𝑥 + 9𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (4. + 9. )
2 4 0
0 0
9
= 2(9) + (81)
4
729 801
= 18 + =
4 4
𝟏+𝒊
3. Evaluate ∫𝟎 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒊𝒚)𝒅𝒛 along the paths (𝒊)𝒚 = 𝒙 (𝒊𝒊)𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐
Sol: (𝑖) Along OB whose equation is 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑥 varies from 0 to 1
1+𝑖 (1,1)
Therefore ∫0 (𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦)𝑑𝑧 = ∫(0,0) (𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
1
Therefore ∫𝑂𝐵(𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑥=0(𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑥 )(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑥)
1 1
𝑥3 𝑥2
= (1 + 𝑖 ) ∫(𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = (1 + 𝑖) [ − 𝑖 ]
3 2 0
0
1 𝑖
= (1+i) [3 − 2]
(𝑖𝑖)Along the parabola whose equation is 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥
1+𝑖 (1,1)
Now ∫0 (𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦)𝑑𝑧 = ∫(0,0) (𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
1
Therefore ∫𝑂𝑐(𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑥=0(𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑥 2 )(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑑𝑥)
= (1 − 𝑖 ) ∫ 𝑥 2 (1 + 2𝑖𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑥=𝑜
= (1 − 𝑖 ) ∫ (𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥
𝑥=𝑜
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1
𝑥3 𝑥4 1 𝑖
= (1 − 𝑖 ) [ 3 + 𝑖 ] = (1 − 𝑖 ) [ + ]
2 0 3 2
𝟐+𝒊
4. Evaluate ∫𝟏−𝒊 (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 + 𝒊𝒚)𝒅𝒛 along the straight line joining (𝟏, −𝒊) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟐, 𝒊)?
Sol: We have 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦
Equation of the line joining the two points (1, −1) and (2,1) is
1 − (−1)
𝑦+1 = (𝑥 − 1)
2−1
i.e., 𝑦 + 1 = 2(𝑥 + 1) or 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3
Therefore 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑖(2𝑥 − 3) = (1 + 2𝑖)𝑥 − 3𝑖
⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = (1 + 2𝑖 )𝑑𝑥
Also 𝑥 varies from 1to 2.
2+𝑖 2
Hence ∫1−𝑖 (2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑖𝑦)𝑑𝑧 = ∫1 [2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑖 (2𝑥 − 3)](1 + 2𝑖 )𝑑𝑥
= (1 + 2𝑖 ) ∫[2(1 + 𝑖 )𝑥 + (1 − 3𝑖 )𝑑𝑥]
1
= (1 + 2𝑖 )[(1 + 𝑖 )𝑥 2 + (1 − 3𝑖 )𝑥 ]12
= (1 + 2𝑖 )[(1 + 𝑖 )4 + (1 − 3𝑖 )2 − (1 + 𝑖 ) − (1 − 3𝑖 )]
= (1 + 2𝑖 )(4) = 4 + 8𝑖
The Cauchy-Goursat Theorem:If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at all points interior to and on
a simple closed curve C, then ∮ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.
This is called Cauchy-Goursat theorem.
Cauchy’s (Integral) Theorem: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be analytic on and within a
simple closed contour c and let 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) be continuous there. Then
∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.
Proof:We have 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦
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Therefore 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦) = (𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖(𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦)
Hence ∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∮(𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖 ∮(𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦)
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= ∬ [− − ] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∬ [ − ] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 … … … (1)
𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) is continuous, the four partial derivatives , , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 are also continuous
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
in the region R enclosed by C. Hence we can apply Green’s theorem.
Using Green’s theorem in plane, assuming that R is the region bounded by C.
It is given that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic on and within c.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Hence 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑥 …………………………(2)
Therefore Using (2) in (1), we have
∮ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∬ 0𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∬ 0𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑅 𝑅
Hence the theorem follows.
Simple connected domain: A domain D is said to be simply connected if every simple
closed curve that is in D can be shrink to a point without leaving the domain.
(or)
A simply connected domain is a domain without holes
Note: Every disc is simple connected domain
Eg: 𝐴 = {𝑧𝜖ℂ/|𝑧| < 1}, Disc with centre(0,0) and radius 𝑟 = 1
Multiply connected domain: A domain D is said to be multiply connected if it is not simply
connected.
(or)
A multiply connected domain is a domain with holes.
Eg: The region between two concentric circles is a multiply connected
T = {𝑧𝜖ℂ/1 < |𝑧| < 2}
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Cauchy-Goursat Theorem For A Multiply Connected Region:
Statement: Let c denote a closed contour and 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … … … 𝑐𝑘 be a finite number of closed
contours interior to c such that the interiors of the 𝑐𝑗′ 𝑠 do not have any points in common.
Let R be the region consisting of points on and within c except the interior points of
𝑐𝑗 . If B denotes the positively oriented boundary of the region R, then
∫𝐵 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 , where 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the region 𝑅.
Result:The above theorem can also be stated as
If ‘c’ is a simple closed contour and 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … … … 𝑐𝑛 are closed contours within 𝑐
and if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within c but on and outside the 𝑐𝑖′ 𝑠 then
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ⋯ … … … … . ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐𝑛
Where the integrals are all taken in the anticlockwise sense around the curves.
Result:Let ‘𝑐’ be a simple closed curve. Let 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic on and within ‘𝑐’ everywhere
except at 𝑧 = 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑐1
Cauchy’s Integral Formula:
Statement: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be an analytic function everywhere on and within a closed contour 𝑐.
If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is any point within 𝑐, then
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧−𝑎)
Where the integral is taken in the positive sense around 𝑐.
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Proof:Let 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic within a closed contour. Let 𝑧 = 𝑎 be within 𝑐. Choose a suitably
small positive number 𝑟0 and describe a circle 𝑐0 with centre at a and radius 𝑟0 so that this
𝑓(𝑧)
circle 𝑐0 is entirely within 𝑐.Then is analytic within 𝑐 except at 𝑧 = 𝑎.
𝑧−𝑎
𝑓(𝑧)
Therefore 𝑧−𝑎 is analytic in the region between 𝑐and 𝑐0 .
c
𝑐0
.a
o x
Therefore by generalization to cauchy’sthorem, we get
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
(𝑧 − 𝑎 ) (𝑧 − 𝑎 )
𝑐 𝑐0
[𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑎)] + 𝑓(𝑎)
= ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−𝑎
𝑐0
𝑑𝑧 𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑎)
= 𝑓(𝑎) ∫ +∫ 𝑑𝑧 … … … . . (1)
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎 𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
Where the integrals around 𝑐0 are all taken in the positive sense,
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on 𝑐0 : 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟0 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 and 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑟0 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃.
𝑑𝑧 2𝜋 𝑖𝑟0 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 2𝜋
Hence, ∫𝑐 = ∫𝜃=0 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑖 ∫0 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋𝑖 … … … … … … … … … . (2)
0 𝑧−𝑎 𝑟0𝑒 𝑖𝜃
For every positive 𝑟0 .
Also 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous at 𝑎. Hence, to each 𝜖 > 0, there corresponds a positive 𝛿 such that
|𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑎)| < 𝜖 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝛿.
Let us take 𝑟0 = 𝛿. Then 𝑐0 is |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = 𝛿.
𝑓(𝑧)−𝑓(𝑎) |𝑓(𝑧)−𝑓(𝑎)| 𝜖
Hence, |∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧| ≤ ∫𝑐 |𝑑𝑧| < ∫𝑐 |𝑑𝑧|
0 𝑧−𝑎 0 |𝑧−𝑎| 𝛿 0
𝜖
< (2𝜋𝛿 ) 〈∫ |𝑑𝑧| = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑐0 〉
𝛿 𝑐0
< 2𝜋𝜖
Hence, the second integral on the R.H.S of (1) can be made arbitrarily small by taking
𝑟0 sufficiently small. Thus,
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑎)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑎) + ∫ 𝑑𝑧
(𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑐0 𝑧−𝑎
𝑐
L.H.S and the first term on the R.H.S are independent of 𝑟0 and the second integral on the
R.H.S can be made arbitrarily small. Further the second integral must also be independent of
𝑟0 .
Hence, it must be 0. Thus,
𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑎)
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )
𝑐
1 𝑓(𝑧)
i.e., (𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝑐 (𝑧−𝑎)
𝑑𝑧 .
Hence the theorem follows.
Generalization Of Cauchy’s Integral Formula:
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Statement: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and within a simple closed curve 𝑐 and if 𝑎 is any point
within 𝑐, then
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1
Morera’s Theorem:
If a function 𝑓 is continuous throughout a simply connected domain 𝐷 and if
∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 for every closed contour 𝑐in 𝐷, the 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in 𝐷.
Problems:
𝒛𝟐 −𝒛+𝟏 𝟏
1.Evaluate ∫𝒄 𝒅𝒛 where 𝑪: |𝒛| = 𝟐 taken in anticlockwise sense.
𝒛−𝟏
𝑧 2−𝑧+1
Sol: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧−1
Since 𝑧 = 1 is outside 𝑐, 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside 𝑐.
By Cauchy’s theorem, ∫𝑐 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.
𝟏
2.Prove that ∫𝒄 𝒅𝒛 = 𝟐𝝅𝒊, where C is |𝒛 − 𝒂| = 𝒓.
𝒛−𝒂
Sol: Let 𝐴 be the fixed complex number ‘𝑎’ and P a variable point 𝑧 on the circle.
Then 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑧 − 𝑎. Let AP make an angle 𝜃 with x-axis. Then 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 .
Therefore 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
This is the parametric equation to the circle C and 𝜃 varies from 0 to 2𝜋, 𝑟 being
constant.
y Z plane
P
r 𝜃
A
a
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𝑑𝑧 2𝜋 𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Hence ∫𝑐 = ∫0 𝑑𝜃
𝑧−𝑎 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
2𝜋
= ∫0 𝑖𝑑𝜃
= 𝑖(𝜃)2𝜋
0
= 2𝜋𝑖.
3.Consider the region 𝟏 ≤ |𝒛| ≤ 𝟐. If B is the positively oriented boundary of this region
𝒅𝒛
then show that ∫𝑩 = 𝟎.
𝒛𝟐 (𝒛𝟐 +𝟏𝟔)
1
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 (𝑧 2+16)
|𝑧| = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑧| = 2are two circles with centre at (0,0) and radii equal to 1 and 2
respectively
The singular points of 𝑓(𝑧) are obtained by equating 𝑧 2 (𝑧 2 + 16) = 0
⟹ 𝑧 = 0 (𝑜𝑟)𝑧 2 + 16 = 0
⟹ 𝑧 = 0 (𝑜𝑟)𝑧 = ±4𝑖
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𝑧 = 0,4𝑖, −4𝑖are called singular points, which are outside of the region.
By Cauchy’s integral therorem,
𝑑𝑧
∫𝐵 = 0.
𝑧 2 (𝑧 2+16)
4.If 𝑩 is the positively oriented boundary of the region between the circle |𝒛| = 𝟒 and
𝒛+𝟐
the square with sides along the lines 𝒙 = ±𝟏 and 𝒚 = ±𝟏, then evaluate ∫𝑩 𝒛 𝒅𝒛?
𝐬𝐢𝐧( )
𝟐
𝑧+2
Sol: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧
sin( )
2
The given region is between |𝑧| = 4 and the square = ±1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = ±1,
|𝑧| = 4is the circle with centre (0,0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 4
𝑧
The singular points of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by sin (2) = 0
𝑧
⟹ 2 = 𝑛𝜋, n is an integer
i.e. , 𝑧 = 2𝑛𝜋
𝑧 = 0,±2𝜋, ±4𝜋, … … … ….
Which are called singular points.
Here 𝑧 = 0 lies inside of the square and all remaining points lies outside of the circle.
Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within 𝐵.
By Cauchy’s theorem,
𝑑𝑧
∫ = 0
𝐵 𝑧 2 (𝑧 2
+ 16)
𝒛𝟐 +𝟒
5.Evaluate∫𝒄 𝒅𝒛 where 𝒄 is (𝒂)|𝒛| = 𝟓 (𝒃)|𝒛| = 𝟐 taken in anticlockwise?
𝒛−𝟑
Sol: (𝑎)|𝑧| = 5 is the circle with centre at (0,0) and radius 5 units.
Given function is analytic everywhere except at 𝑧 = 3 and it lies inside 𝐶.
𝑧2 + 4 𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑧−3 𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
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Where (𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 4, 𝑎 = 3 and 𝑐 is |𝑧| = 5 taken in anticlockwise sense.
Using Cauchy’s integral formula
𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖[𝑧 2 + 4]𝑧=𝑎=3
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
= 2𝜋𝑖(9 + 4) = 26𝜋𝑖
(𝑏)|𝑧| = 2is the circle with centre at (0,0) and radius equal to 2. The point 𝑧 = 3 is outside
this curve.
𝑧 2 +4
Therefore the function is analytic on and within 𝑐: |𝑧| = 2.
𝑧−3
𝑧 2 +4
Hence by Cauchy’s theorem ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑧−3
𝒆𝟐𝒛
6.Evaluate∫𝒄 (𝒛−𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐)
𝒅𝒛 where 𝒄 is the circle |𝒛| = 𝟑.
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 2𝑧
1 1 1
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
= 𝑧−2 − 𝑧−1using partial fractions.
𝑒 2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧
Therefore ∫𝑐 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧 − ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−2 𝑧−1
The points 𝑧 = 1,2 lies inside 𝑐.
Because 𝑒 2𝑧 is analytic everywhere, according to Cauchy’s integral formula,
𝑒 2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧
∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = [2𝜋𝑖𝑒 2𝑧 ]𝑧=2 − [2𝜋𝑖𝑒 2𝑧 ]𝑧=1 = 2𝜋𝑖[𝑒 4 − 𝑒 2 ]
𝑐 𝑧 − 2 𝑐 𝑧 − 1
𝒆𝒛
7.Use Cauchy’s integral formula to evaluate ∫𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒛 where C is the circle |𝒛| = 𝟒.
(𝒛𝟐 +𝝅𝟐 )
𝑒𝑧 𝑒𝑧
Sol:(𝑧 2 +𝜋2 )2 = (𝑧+𝜋𝑖)2(𝑧−𝜋𝑖)2
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 is analytic within the circle |𝑧| = 4 and the two singular points 𝑧 = ±𝜋𝑖 lies inside
𝐶.
1 1
Let (𝑧 2+𝜋2 )2 = (𝑧+𝜋𝑖)2 (𝑧−𝜋𝑖)2
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𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
= 𝑧+𝜋𝑖 + (𝑧+𝜋𝑖)2 + 𝑧−𝜋𝑖 + (𝑧−𝜋𝑖)2
Solving for 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷, we get
7 −1 −7 −1
𝐴 = , 𝐵 = 4𝜋2 , 𝐶 = 2𝜋3 𝑖 , 𝐷 = 4𝜋2
2𝜋3 𝑖
𝑒𝑧 7 𝑒𝑧
∫ 2 2 2
𝑑𝑧 = 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 (𝑧 + 𝜋 ) 2𝜋 𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 + 𝜋𝑖 )
1 𝑒𝑧 7 𝑒𝑧 1 𝑒𝑧
− 2∫ 𝑑𝑧 − 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑧 − 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑧
4𝜋 𝑐 (𝑧 + 𝜋𝑖 )2 2𝜋 𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝜋𝑖 ) 4𝜋 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝜋𝑖 )2
Therefore by Cauchy’s integral formula,
𝑒𝑧 7 1 7
∫ 2 2 2
𝑑𝑧 = 3 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (−𝜋𝑖 ) − 2 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 ′ (−𝜋𝑖 ) − 3 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝜋𝑖 )
𝑐 (𝑧 + 𝜋 ) 2𝜋 𝑖 4𝜋 2𝜋 𝑖
1
− 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 ′ (𝜋𝑖 )
4𝜋 2
7 −𝑖𝜋 𝑖 −𝑖𝜋 7 𝑖 𝑖𝜋 𝑖
= 2
𝑒 − 𝑒 − 2 𝑒 𝑖𝜋 − 𝑒 =
𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
(𝟐𝒛𝟐 −𝒛−𝟐)
8.Find𝒇(𝟐) and 𝒇(𝟑) if 𝒇(𝒂) = ∫𝒄 𝒅𝒛 where 𝑪 is the circle |𝒛| = 𝟐. 𝟓 using
𝒛−𝒂
Cachy’s integral formula?
(2𝑧 2−𝑧−2)
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑎) = ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−𝑎
(𝑖)𝑎 = 2lies inside the circle 𝐶: |𝑧| = 2.5
Let ∅(𝑧) = 2𝑧 2 − 𝑧 − 2
1 ∅(𝑧)
By Cauchy’s integral formula, ∅(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−𝑎
∅ (𝑧 )
⟹ 2𝜋𝑖∅(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎
⟹ 𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖∅(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖(2𝑎2 − 𝑎 − 2)
Therefore 𝑓(2) = 2𝜋𝑖(8 − 2 − 2) = 8𝜋𝑖
(2𝑧 2−𝑧−2)
(𝑖𝑖)Taking 𝑎 = 3, we get, 𝑓 (3) = ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−3
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Now, the point 𝑧 = 3 lies outside 𝐶. Hence the integrand is analytic within and on 𝐶.
(2𝑧 2 −𝑧−2)
Therefore by Cauchy’s theorem, 𝑓(3) = ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧 = 0.
𝑧−3
𝒛𝟑 𝒆−𝒛 𝟏
9. Evaluate using Cauchy’s theorem ∫𝒄 (𝒛−𝟏)𝟑
𝒅𝒛 where 𝑪 is |𝒛 − 𝟏| = 𝟐.
1
Sol: Given curve is |𝑧 − 1| = 2.
This is clearly a circle 𝐶 with centre at 1 and radius 0.5 units.
The integrand has only one singular point at 𝑧 = 1 and it lies inside 𝐶.
Consider the function 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 3 𝑒 −𝑧
This function is analytic at all points inside 𝐶.
Hence by Cauchy’s integral formula,
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1
In this, take 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑛 = 2.
Then
′′ (
2! 𝑧 3 𝑒 −𝑧
𝑓 1) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 1)3
𝑧 3 𝑒 −𝑧
∴∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜋𝑖𝑓 ′′ (1)
𝑐 (𝑧 − 1)3
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𝑑 2 3 −𝑧
= 𝜋𝑖 { [𝑧 𝑒 ]}
𝑑𝑧 2 𝑧=1
𝑑
= 𝜋𝑖 { [3𝑧 2 𝑒 −𝑧 − 𝑧 3 𝑒 −𝑧 ]}
𝑑𝑧 𝑧=1
= 𝜋𝑖[6𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 − 3𝑧 2 𝑒 −𝑧 − (3𝑧 2 𝑒 −𝑧 − 𝑧 3 𝑒 −𝑧 )]𝑧=1
= 𝜋𝑖[𝑧 3 𝑒 −𝑧 − 6𝑧 2 𝑒 −𝑧 + 6𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 ]𝑧=1
= 𝜋𝑖[𝑒 −1 − 6𝑒 −1 + 6𝑒 −1 ] = 𝜋𝑖𝑒 −1
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒛𝟐 +𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝅𝒛𝟐
10. Evaluate ∫𝒄 (𝒛−𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐)
𝒅𝒛, where 𝒄 is the circle |𝒛| = 𝟑 using Cauchy’s integral
formula.
Sol: 𝑓 (𝑧) = sin 𝜋𝑧 2 + cos 𝜋𝑧 2 is analytic within the circle |𝑧| = 3 and the singular points
𝑎 = 1,2 lie inside 𝑐.
𝑓(𝑧) 1 1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
∴∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ [ − ] 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) 𝑐 𝑧−2 𝑧−1 𝑐 𝑧−2 𝑐 𝑧−2
= 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(2) − 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(1) (using Cauchy’s integral formula)
= 2𝜋𝑖[(sin 4𝜋 + cos 4𝜋) − (sin 𝜋 + cos 𝜋)]
= 2𝜋𝑖[1 − (−1)] = 4𝜋𝑖
sin 𝜋𝑧 2 +cos 𝜋𝑧 2
i.e., ∫𝑐 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
𝑑𝑧 = 4𝜋𝑖
Assignment questions:
𝑥−𝑖𝑦
1.Find whether 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥 2+𝑦 2 is analytic or not.
2.Show that the real and imaginary parts of the function 𝑤 = log 𝑧 satisfy the C-R equations
when 𝑧 is not zero.
3.Prove that the function 𝑓(𝑧) defined by
𝑥 3 (1 + 𝑖 ) − 𝑦 3 (1 − 𝑖 )
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = { 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , (𝑧 ≠ 0)
0, (𝑧 = 0)
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Is continuous and the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at the origin, yet 𝑓 ′ (0) does
not exist.
4.Find 𝑘 such that 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑘𝑥𝑦 2 may be harmonic and find its conjugate.
5.Evaluate ∫𝑐 (𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 where 𝐶 is the boundary of the first quadrant of
the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4.
6.Verify Cauchy’s theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 3𝑧 2 + 𝑖𝑧 − 4 if 𝑐 is the square with the
vertices at 1 ± 𝑖, −1 ± 𝑖.
𝑧 3 −sin 3𝑧
7.Evaluate ∫𝑐 𝜋 3
𝑑𝑧 with 𝐶: |𝑧| = 2 using Cauchy’s integral formula.
(𝑧− )
2
log 𝑧 1
8.Evaluate ∫𝑐 (𝑧−1)3
𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶: |𝑧 − 1| = 2 using Cauchy’s integral formula.
𝑧4
9.Using Cauchy’s integral formula, evaluate ∫𝑐 (𝑧+1)(𝑧−𝑖)2
𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶 is the ellipse
9𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 36.
𝑑𝑧
10.Evaluate ∫𝑐 (𝑧 2+4)2
where 𝐶: |𝑧 − 𝑖 | = 2.
𝑒𝑧
11.Evaluate ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶: |𝑧 − 1| = 3.
𝑧(𝑧+1)
𝑧 2 −𝑧+1 1
12.Evaluate ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧 where 𝑐 is (𝑖) |𝑧| = 1(𝑖𝑖)|𝑧| = 2 taken in anticlockwise sense.
𝑧−1
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UNIT –IV
Singularities and Residues
Introduction: In this unit, we discuss the method of expanding a given function about a point
‘𝑎’ in powers of ‘𝑧 − 𝑎’, as we proceed, we recognize that this theory enables us in
evaluating certain real & complex integrals easily. Here we discuss Taylor’s series & Laurent
series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧)about point ‘a’.
In this unit we also discuss about Residue Theorem which is useful to evaluate certain
real integrals.
Sequence: A sequence {𝑍𝑛 } is a function from 𝑁 𝐶 i.e., 𝑍𝑛 : 𝑁 𝐶
Series: Let {𝑍𝑛 }∞𝑛=1 be a sequence, the nth partial sum of sequence is called series and it is
denoted by ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑍𝑛
Power Series: Let {𝑍𝑛 }∞𝑛=1 be a sequence of complex no’s the series ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛 is
called a power series of 𝑧0 .
The Series ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is a power series about the origin.
If a series ∑∞𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 converges at every point of circle ‘C’ & diverges at every point
outside the circle ‘C’, then such a Circle ‘C’ is said to be circle of convergence of the
series ∑∞𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 . The Radius R of the Circle ’C’ called the radius of convergence of the
series ∑∞𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 .
1 𝑎𝑛+1 1
The formula to find radius of convergence (R) is = 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑢𝑝 | | (or) =
𝑅 𝑎𝑛 𝑅
1⁄
𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑢𝑝|𝑎𝑛 | 𝑛.
1. Find the circle of convergence of the series ∑∞𝒏=𝟏(𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒛)𝒏 𝒛𝒏
Sol. We have ∑∞𝑛=1(log 𝑧) 𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 = ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
on comparing 𝑎𝑛 = (log 𝑧) 𝑛
1 1⁄
we know that 𝑅 = 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑢𝑝|𝑎𝑛 | 𝑛
1⁄
= 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑢𝑝|(log 𝑧) 𝑛 | 𝑛
1
=∞
𝑅
𝑅=0
Radius of Convergence =0
i.e., Circle with zero radius.
Hence the circle of convergence is |𝑧| = 0
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(−𝟏)𝒏−𝟏𝒛𝟐𝒏−𝟏
2. Find the circle of convergence of the series ∑∞𝒏=𝟏 (𝟐𝒏−𝟏)!
(−1)𝑛−1 (−1)𝑛
Sol. We have 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛+1 =
(2𝑛−1)! (2𝑛+1)!
1 𝑎𝑛+1
= 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑢𝑝 | |
𝑅 𝑎𝑛
(2𝑛−1)!
= 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑢𝑝 |(2𝑛+1)(2𝑛)(2𝑛−1)!|
1
= 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ |(2𝑛+1)(2𝑛)|
=0
∴ 𝑅 → ∞, Circle with ∞ radius
∴The given series is convergent everywhere in the complex plane.
Taylor’s Theorem:
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic at all points within a circle C with center at ‘a’ & radius r. then at each
point ‘z’ within ‘C’.
𝑓′′ (𝑎) 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑧 − 𝑎) + (𝑧 − 𝑎 )2 + (𝑧 − 𝑎)3 + … … .. _(1)
2! 3!
𝑖.e., the series on the right hand side in (1) converges to f(z) whenever |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑟
- The expansion in (1) on the R.H.S is called the Taylor’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) in
power of (𝑧 − 𝑎) (or) Taylor’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) about z =a (around z = a)
Maclaurin’s Series:
Taylor’s series expansion about a=0 is called Macluarin’s Series i.e.,
𝑓′′ (0) 𝑓′′′ (0)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)(𝑧) + (𝑧 )2 + (𝑧)3 + … … .. _(2)
2! 3!
which is called Maclaurin’s Theorem.
Note: Suppose we want Taylor’s Series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) around 𝑧 = 𝑎. Then 𝑓(𝑧) must be
analytic at 𝑧 = 𝑎 & within circle C: |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑅, where 𝑅 is as large as possible.
Expansion of some standard functions:
𝑧2 𝑧3 𝑧4 𝑧𝑛
1. 𝑒 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑧 + + + +……………= ∑∞𝑛=1 ∀ 𝑧 i.e., |𝑧| < ∞
2! 3! 4! 𝑛!
𝑧3 𝑧5
2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 𝑧 − 3! + 5! − … … … ..
𝑧2 𝑧4
3. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = 1 − 2! + 4! − … … … ..
𝑧 2𝑛+1
4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧 = ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛+1)!
Important Note: To obtain Taylor’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) around about 𝑧 = 𝑎, then put
𝑧 − 𝑎 = 0. Then
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𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑤 + 𝑎) = 𝜙(𝑤) (say)
now write the Maclaurin’s series expansion of 𝜙(𝑤).
Finally substitute𝑤 = 𝑧 − 𝑎, then we get required Taylor’s Series.
Problems on Taylor’s Series Expansion of 𝒇(𝒛):
1. Expand 𝒆𝒛 as Taylor’s series about 𝒛 = 𝟏
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 , 𝑧 = 1
Let 𝑧 − 1 = 𝑤 ⇒ 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑤
Now, write Maclaurin’s series for 𝜙(𝑤)
𝜙 ′′ (0) 𝜙 ′′′ (0)
i.e., 𝜙(𝑤) = 𝜙(0) + 𝜙 ′ (0)(𝑤) + (𝑤 )2 + (𝑤 ) 3 + … … … …
2! 3!
𝜙(𝑤) = 𝑒. 𝑒 𝑤 𝜙′(𝑤) = 𝑒. 𝑒 𝑤 𝜙′′(𝑤) = 𝑒. 𝑒 𝑤
𝜙 (0) = 𝑒 𝜙′(0) =e 𝜙 ′′(0) = 𝑒
𝑤2
∴ 𝜙(𝑤) = 𝑒 + 𝑒𝑤 + 𝑒 + …………
2!
𝑤2
𝜙(𝑤) = 𝑒[1 + 𝑤 + + … … … …]
2!
Now replace 𝑤 by 𝑧 − 1
(𝑧−1)2
𝜙(𝑧 − 1) = 𝑒[1 + (𝑧 − 1) + + … … … …]
2!
which is the Taylor’s series of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 about 𝑧 = 1.
𝟏
2. Find Taylors series of 𝒇(𝒛) = (𝟏+𝒛)𝟐 about 𝒛 = −𝒊
Sol: We know that Taylor’s Theorem for 𝑓(𝑧) is
𝑓′′ (𝑎) 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑧 − 𝑎) + (𝑧 − 𝑎 )2 + (𝑧 − 𝑎)3 + … … .. _(1)
2! 3!
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎 = −i
𝑓 ′′ (−𝑖 ) 𝑓 ′′′ (−𝑖 )
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓 (−𝑖 ) + 𝑓 ′ (−𝑖 )(𝑧 + 𝑖 ) + (𝑧 + 𝑖 )2 + (𝑧 + 𝑖 )3 +
2! 3!
1 𝑖
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ⇒ 𝑓 (−𝑖 ) = 2
(1+𝑧)2
−2 −1 .2!
𝑓′(𝑧) = ⇒ 𝑓′(−𝑖 ) = (1−𝑖)3
(1+𝑧)3
6 3!
𝑓′′(𝑧) = ⇒ 𝑓′′(−𝑖 ) =
(1+𝑧)4 (1−𝑖)4
Sub. All above in (1) then
𝑖 −1 .2! 3!
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = + (1−𝑖)3 (𝑧 + 𝑖 ) + (1−𝑖)4 (𝑧 + 𝑖 )2 + ………………….
2
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𝒛
3. Expand (𝒛+𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐) about 𝒛 = 𝟏 (or)
𝒛
Write the Taylor’s series expansion of (𝒛+𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐) about 𝒛 = 𝟏
𝑧
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+1)(𝑧−2) & a=1
𝑧 𝐴 𝐵
=
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2) 𝑧+1
+ 𝑧−2 (by partial fractions)
𝑧 𝐴(𝑧−2)+𝐵(𝑍+1)
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
= (𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
⇒ 𝑧 = 𝐴(𝑧 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑍 + 1)
on solving it 𝐴 = 1/3 , 𝐵 = 2/3
𝑧 2 1
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
= 3(𝑧+1) + 3(𝑧−2)
2 1
∴ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 3(𝑧+1) + 3(𝑧−2)
Now let 𝑧 − 1 = 𝑤 ⇒ 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑤
2 1
= 3(𝑤+2) + 3(𝑤−1)
1 𝑤 −1 1
=3 [1 + 2 ] − [1 + 𝑤]−1
3
1 𝑤 𝑤2 𝑤3 1
= 3 [1 − + − + … … … . . ]- 3 [1 + 𝑤 + 𝑤 2 + 𝑤 3 + ⋯ ]
2 4 8
𝑤
( if | 2 | < 1 ⇒ |𝑤| < 1 ; |𝑤| < 2 ⇒ |𝑤| < 1 )
1 𝑧−1 (𝑧−1)2 (𝑧−1)3 1
𝑓 (𝑧) = 3 [1 − + − + … . . ]- 3 [1 + (𝑧 − 1) + (𝑧 − 1)2 + … . . ]
2 4 8
i.e., this series is valid in the region |𝑧 − 1| < 1
Assignment Questions:
𝑧
1. Find the Taylor’s series for 𝑧+2 above 𝑧 = 1. Also find the region of convergence.
2. Expand log 𝑧 by Taylor’s Series about 𝑧 = 1
1
3. Obtain the expansion of (𝑧−1)(𝑧−3) in a Taylor’s series in power of (𝑍 − 4) and determine
the region of convergence.
1
4. Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 −𝑧−6 about (𝑖) 𝑧 = −1 (𝑖𝑖) 𝑧 = 1
2𝑧 3 +1
5. Find the Taylor’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) = about point (𝑖) 𝑧 = −𝑖 (𝑖𝑖) 𝑧 = 1
𝑧 2 +𝑧
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Laurent’s series Expansion: we have seen under Taylors series that if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at
𝑧 = 𝑎, we can have a series expansion of 𝑓 (𝑧) in non-negative powers of (𝑧 − 𝑎) which is
valid in a region given by |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑅 for suitable 𝑅.
Laurent’s theorem gives a procedure to expand a given function in powers of (𝑧 − 𝑎).
The series expansion may have positive as well as negative powers.
Laurent’s Theorem:
Let C1 and C2 be two circular given by |𝑧′ − 𝑧0 | = 𝑟 and |𝑧′ − 𝑧0 | < 𝑅 respectively
where 𝑟 < 𝑅.
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic on C1 and C2 throughout the region between the two circles. Let Z
be any point in the ring shaped region between the two circles C 1 and C2 .
then
𝑏
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + ∑𝑛=1 (𝑧−𝑧 )𝑛
0
which is called Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) about z=𝑧0 .
1 𝑓(𝑧 ′)
where 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝑐 𝑑𝑧′
1 (𝑧 ′−𝑧0)𝑛+1
1 𝑓(𝑧 ′ )
and 𝑏𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝑐 𝑑𝑧′
2 (𝑧 ′−𝑧0)−𝑛+1
where integrals are taken around C1 and C2 in the anti clockwise direction.
Problems:
𝟏
1. Find Laurent’s series for 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛𝟐 (𝟏−𝒛) & Find the region of convergence (or) Find
𝟏
two Laurent’s series expansion in powers of 𝒛 for 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛𝟐 (𝟏−𝒛) & specify the
regions in which these expansions are valid.
1
Sol: Given 𝑓 (𝑧) =
𝑧 2 (1−𝑧)
The singular points are z=0 and z=1
1 1
Now 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 (1−𝑧) = 𝑧 2 (1 − 𝑧)−1
1
=𝑧 2[1+z+𝑧 2 + ……….] valid only if 𝑧 ≠ 0 & |𝑧| < 1
1 1
= 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1 + z + 𝑧 2 + … … …. is valid only if 0 < |𝑧| < 1
= ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑧
𝑛−2
if 0 < |𝑧| < 1
which is one Laurents series expansion in powers of Z.
1 −1
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2(1−𝑧) = 𝑧 2 (𝑧−1)
−1 −1 −1 1 −1
= 1 = 1 = (1 − 𝑧 )
𝑧 2 .𝑧 (1− ) 𝑧 3 (1− ) 𝑧3
𝑧 𝑧
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1 1 1
= − (𝑧 3 + 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 5 + … … … … . . ) if |𝑧| > 1
= - ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑧
−𝑛−3
if |𝑧| > 1
= - ∑∞
𝑛=0(𝑧 − 0)
−𝑛−3
if |𝑧| > 1
Only principal part analytic part is not there
This is the another Laurent’s series expansion in powers of z.
𝟏
2. Expand 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛𝟐 −𝟑𝒛+𝟐 in the region (i) 𝟏 < |𝒛| < 2 (ii) 𝟎 < |𝒛 − 𝟏| < 1
1 𝟏 𝑨 𝑩
Sol: 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2−3𝑧+2 = (𝒛−𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐) = 𝒛−𝟏 + 𝒛−𝟐
A=-1, B=1
−𝟏 𝟏
∴ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝒛−𝟏 + 𝒛−𝟐
The singular points of f(z) are Z=1,2
(i) Consider 1 < |𝑧| < 2
i.e., 1 < |𝑧| , |𝑧| < 2
1 𝑧
| |<1 , | |<1
𝑧 2
1 1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = − 𝑧−1
𝑧−2
1 1
= 𝑧 − 1
−2(1− ) 𝑧(1− )
2 𝑧
1 𝑧 −1 1 1 −1
= −2 (1 − 2) − 𝑧 (1 − 𝑧)
1 𝑧 𝑧 2 𝑧 3 1 1 1 2
= −2 (1 + 2 + (2) + (2) + … … . ) − 𝑧 (1 + 𝑧 + (𝑧) + … … … . )
1 𝑧
valid only if |𝑧 | < 1 , |2| < 1
1 𝑧 𝑛 1 𝑛+1
= ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=0 ( ) - ∑𝑛=0 ( ) if 1 < |𝑧| < 2
−2 2 𝑧
This is the Laurent’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) about z=0 (or) in powers of Z in the region
1 < |𝑧 | < 2
(ii) Consider 0 < |𝑧 − 1| < 1
−𝟏 𝟏
We have 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝒛−𝟏 + 𝒛−𝟐
The function 𝑓 (𝑧) is analytic
in the ring shaped region 0 < |𝑧 − 1| < 1
−𝟏 𝟏
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝒛−𝟏 + (𝒛−𝟏)−𝟏
−𝟏
= − (𝟏 − (𝒛 − 𝟏))−𝟏
𝒛−𝟏
−𝟏
= − ( 𝟏 − ( 𝒛 − 𝟏) + ( 𝒛 − 𝟏) 𝟐 + … … … )
𝒛−𝟏
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= −(𝟏 − 𝒛)−𝟏 − ∑∞
𝑛=0(𝑧 − 1)
𝑛
Principal part + Analytic part
This is the Laurent’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) about 𝑧 = 1 (or) in powers of (𝑧 − 1) in the
region 0 < |𝑧 − 1| < 1
𝟏
3. Expand (𝒛𝟐 +𝟏)(𝒛𝟐 +𝟐) in positive & negative powers of z if 1 < |𝑧| < √2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Sol. Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝒛𝟐 +𝟏)(𝒛𝟐 +𝟐) = (𝒛𝟐 +𝟏) − (𝒛𝟐 +𝟐)
Given region is 1 < |𝑧| < √2
i.e., 1 < |𝑧| , |𝑧| < √2
1 𝑧
| |<1 , | |<1
𝑧 2 √
1 𝑧2
| 2| < 1 , | | < 1
𝑧 2
1 1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = − 2
(𝑧 2 + 1) (𝑧 + 2)
1 1
= 1 − 𝑧2
𝑧 2(1+ 2 ) 2(1+ )
𝑧 2
−1 −1
1 1 1 𝑧2
= 𝑧 2 (1 + 𝑧 2 ) − 2 (1 + )
2
1 1 1 1 1 𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧6
= 2
[1 − + 𝑧4 − + … … … . ] − 2 [1 − + 22 − + …………..]
𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧6 2 23
1 2𝑛+2 𝑧 2𝑛
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0(−1) (𝑧 ) + ∑∞
𝑛=0(−1)
𝑛+1
2𝑛+1
Principal part of Laurent’s series Analytic part of Laurent’s series
Assignment Problems:
7𝑧−2
1. Obtain all the Laurent’s series of the function (𝑧+1)𝑧(𝑧−2) about 𝑧 = −1
1
2. Expand 𝑧(𝑧 2−3𝑧+2) in the region (a) 1 ≤ |𝑧| ≤ 2 (b) 0 ≤ |𝑧| ≤ 1 (c) |𝑧| ≥ 2
𝑧 2−6𝑧−1
3. Find the Laurent’s series expansion of the function 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)(𝑧−3)(𝑧+2)
in the
region 3 ≤ |𝑧 + 2| ≤ 5
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Contour Integration
We have studied the functions which are analytic in a given region. But there are
several functions which are not analytic at certain points of its domain. Such exceptional
points are called the ‘singularities’ of the function & a type of a singular point is called a
‘Pole’. Now we study above different types of singularities & finding residues of a function
at a pole. Also we prove Residue theorem which is useful to evaluate certain real integrals.
Definition:
Zero (or) root of analytic function: It is a value of Z such that 𝑓 (𝑧) = 0 (or) A point ‘a’ is
called a zero of an analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) if 𝑓(𝑎) = 0.
Ex: 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 − 1, here 𝑓(1) = 0 ∴ ‘1’ is called zero (or) root of 𝑓(𝑧)
Zero of nth order : Let 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic function, if the root ‘a’ of 𝑓 (𝑧) repeated ‘n’ times
then ‘𝑎’ is called root (or) zero of the nth order. & we write it as 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 𝜙(𝑧) where
𝜙(𝑧) ≠ 0.
Examples:
1. 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧 − 1)3 , 𝑓(1) = 0, Hence ‘1’ is called zero of 3rd order.
1
2. 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1−𝑧, then 𝑓(∞) = 0, Hence ‘∞’ is called zero of order 1, it is a simple pole.
3. 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧, the zeros of f(z) are z=0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±4𝜋 … … … ..
4. 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑧 has no zeros (∵ 𝑒 𝑧 ≠ 0)
Singular Point: A singular point of a function 𝑓(𝑧) is the point at which the function 𝑓(𝑧) is
not analytic.
(or)
A point ‘𝑎’ is said to be a singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) if 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic at ‘𝑎’
Singularities are classical into two types:
(i) Isolated Singularity
(ii) Non- isolated singularity
Isolated singularity: A point 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called an isolated singularity of an analytic function
𝑓(𝑧) if (i) 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic at ‘𝑎’
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the deleted neighborhood of 𝑧 = 𝑎
𝟏
Ex.1. 𝒇(𝒛) =
𝒛−𝟏
Here 𝑧 = 1 is a singularity of 𝑓(𝑧)
Further 𝑧 = 1 is a isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the deleted
neighborhood of 𝑧 = 1.
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𝟏
Ex. 2. 𝒇(𝒛) =
(𝒛−𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐)
Here 𝑧 = 1, 2 are singularities of 𝑓(𝑧)
Further 𝑧 = 1,2 are isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the deleted
neighborhood of 𝑧 = 1,2.
𝒆𝒛
Ex.3. 𝒇(𝒛) =
𝒛𝟐 +𝟏
Here 𝑧 = ±𝑖 are two isolated singular points of 𝑓(𝑧)
𝟐
Ex.4. 𝒇(𝒛) =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛
The isolated singular points are z = ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±4𝜋 … … … ..
Non-Isolated Singularity: A Singularity which is not isolated is called a non isolated
singularity.
i.e., A singularity ‘𝑎’ of 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be a non-isolated singularity if every neighborhood of
‘𝑎’ contains a singularity other than‘𝑎’.
𝟏
Ex. 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧( )
𝒛
1 1 1
sin (𝑧) = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = ±𝑛𝜋 ⇒z=𝑛𝜋 , n=±1, ±2, ±3, ±4 … … … ..
1
The singularities of 𝑓 (𝑧) are 𝑛𝜋 , n=±1, ±2, ±3, ±4 … … … ..
1
It may be noted that 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝜋 = 0
i.e., z=0 is the limit sequence of singularity.
1
∴ Every neighborhood of ‘0’ contains a singularity 𝑛𝜋 for sufficiently large ‘n’
∴ z=0 is a non- isolated singularity.
Note: If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧), then f(z) is analytic in deleted
neighborhood say 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑅, R > 0
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) has Laurent’s expansion which is valid in the annulus 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑅
We know that the Laurent’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) is
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𝑏
𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + ∑𝑛=1 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛 valid in 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑎 | < 𝑅
𝑏
In this expansion ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) is called the analytic part and ∑𝑛=1 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛 is called the
Principal part of the expansion.
1. Removable Singularity: If the principle part of the Laurent’s expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) around
the singular point 𝑧 = 𝑎contains no terms. Then singularity is said to be a ‘Removable
Singularity” of 𝑓(𝑧).
In this case 𝑓(𝑧)= ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
𝑛
In this case the singularity can be removed by appropriately defining the function 𝑓(𝑧) at
𝑧 = 𝑎 in such a way that it becomes analytic at 𝑧 = 0, such a singularity is called removable
singularity.
Note: If 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a removable singularity.
𝟏−𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝒛
Ex.1: If 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛
Hence 𝑧 = 0 is isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧)
1−𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑧 0
𝐿𝑡𝑧→0 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→0 ( 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚)
𝑧 0
sin 𝑧
= 𝐿𝑡𝑧→0 (𝐿 ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒)
1
= 0 (finite)
∴ 𝑧 = 0 is called removable singularity of 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒛
Ex.2: If 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛
z=0 is removable singularity
2. Pole: If the principal part of Laurent’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) around singular point 𝑧 =
𝑎. Then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called a pole.
- If 𝑏𝑚 ≠ 0 & 𝑏𝑘 = 0 for 𝑘 = 𝑚 + 1, 𝑚 + 2, … … … …
Then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called a ple of order ‘𝑚’
- A pole of order 1 is called a simple pole.
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𝒛𝟐
Ex: 𝒇(𝒛) = (𝒛−𝟏)(𝒛+𝟐)𝟐
Here, 𝑧 = 1 , −2 are isolated singular points
Hence 𝑧 = 1 is a simple pole
𝑧 = −2 is a pole of order 2
Essential Singularity: If the principle part of the Laurent’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧)around
𝑧 = 𝑎 (Singular point) contains infinitely many terms then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called an Essential
singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
Example for Removable singularity, pole, Essential singularity:
𝐳𝟐 −𝟐𝐳+𝟑 z(z−2)+3 3
Ex 1: 𝐟(𝐳) = = =𝑧+
𝐳−𝟐 z−2 𝑧−2
Hence 𝑧 = 2 is a singular point & it is Isolated
f(z) = 𝑧 + 3(𝑧 − 2)−1
which is Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) around 𝑧 = 2. It contains only one –ve
power of order one.
∴ 𝑧 = 2 is called a simple pole.
𝟏⁄ 𝟏
Ex 2: 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒆 𝒛 = −𝟏
𝒆 ⁄𝒛
−1⁄
The singular point are given by 𝑒 𝑧 =0
1
⇒𝑧=∞
⇒𝑧=0
𝑧 = 0 is the Singular point of 𝑓(𝑧) & it is Isolated.
1⁄ 1 1 1 2 1 1 3
Now 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧= 1 + 𝑧 +2! (𝑧) + 3! (𝑧) + … … … … .. if 0 < |𝑧| < ∞
1
= ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑛! (𝑧 − 0)
−𝑛
which is Laurent’s Series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) above 𝑧 = 0 & It contains infinitely
many –ve powers of (𝑧 − 0) (principle part contains Infinite no. of terms)
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∴ 𝑧 = 0 is called Essential Singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
Singularity at Infinity: Let the function is f(z), to find the singularitites of f(z) at z=∞ then
1
put 𝑧 = in 𝑓(𝑧).
𝑡
1
Then 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓 ( 𝑡 ) = 𝐹(𝑡) [say]
Now the singularity of 𝐹(𝑡) at 𝑡 = 0 is the singularity of 𝐹(𝑧) at 𝑧 = ∞
Laurent’s Theorem:
Let C1 and C2 be two circular given by |𝑧′ − 𝑎| = 𝑟1 and |𝑧′ − 𝑎| < 𝑟2 respectively
where 𝑟2 < 𝑟1 .
Let f(z) be analytic on C1 and C2 throughout the region between the two circles. Let Z
be any point in the ring shaped region between the two circles C 1 and C2 . then
𝑏
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + ∑𝑛=1 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛 which is called Laurent’s series expansion of f(z)
about z=a.
1 𝑓(𝑧 ′) 1 𝑓(𝑧 ′)
where 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝑐 𝑑𝑧′ and 𝑏𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝑐 𝑑𝑧′
1 (𝑧 ′−𝑎)𝑛+1 2 (𝑧 ′−𝑎)−𝑛+1
where the integrals are taken around C1 and C2 in the anti clockwise direction.
Residue at a pole: Let 𝑧 = 𝑎 be the pole of a function 𝑓(𝑧) then residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is
1
denoted by 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎 [𝑓(𝑧)] and it is defined as the coefficient of 𝑧−𝑎 in the Laurent’s series
expansion i.e., 𝑏1 is the residue
1
i.e., 𝑏1 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐
∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑏1 =2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎 [𝑓 (𝑧)]
- if 𝑧 = 𝑎 is the simple pole of 𝑓(𝑧)
then 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓 (𝑧)
- if 𝑧 = 𝑎 is the pole of order ‘𝑚’ of 𝑓(𝑧)
1 𝑑𝑚
then 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎 [𝑓(𝑧)] = (𝑚−1)! 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎 [𝑑𝑧 𝑚−1 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 . 𝑓(𝑧)]
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Cauchy’s Residue Theorem
Statement: Let C be any positively oriented simple closed contour. Let f(z) is analytic on &
with in ‘C’ except at a finite number of poles 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … … 𝑧𝑛 within ‘c’ and 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , … … 𝑅𝑛 be
the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at these poles, then ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 [𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + … … +𝑅𝑛 ]
(or)
∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖[ 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝐶]
𝑐
Proof: Let 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … … 𝑐𝑛 be the circles with center at 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … … 𝑧𝑛 respectively
The raddi so small therefore all circle 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … … 𝑐𝑛 are entirely lie in C
and They do not overlap.
Now f(z) is analytic within the region enclosed by the curve ‘c’ between these circles.
∴ By Cauchy’s theorem for multiply connected regions we have
∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑐1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝑐2 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ⋯ … … … . . + ∫𝑐2 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 ________ (1)
But by definition we have
1
2𝜋𝑖
∫𝑐1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧1 [𝑓(𝑧)]
.
.
.
.
1
2𝜋𝑖
∫𝑐𝑛 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧𝑛 [𝑓(𝑧)]
∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧1 [𝑓(𝑧)] + 2𝜋𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧2 [𝑓(𝑧)]+ …………..+ 2𝜋𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧𝑛 [𝑓(𝑧)]
= 2𝜋𝑖 {𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧1 [𝑓(𝑧)] + 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧2 [𝑓(𝑧)] + … … … … . . + 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧𝑛 [𝑓(𝑧)]}
= 2𝜋𝑖 [𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + … … +𝑅𝑛 ]
= 2𝜋𝑖[ 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝐶]
Hence Proved
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Problems related to poles & Residues:
𝒆𝒛
1. Expand 𝒇(𝒛) = (𝒛−𝟏)𝟐 as a Laurent’s series about 𝒛 = 𝟏 & hence find the residue at
that point.
𝑒𝑧
Sol: Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧−1)2 & 𝑧 = 1
It is required to find Laurent’s series expansion around 𝑧 = 1
(i.e., in powers of ( 𝑧 − 1))
𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 − 1)−2 𝑒 (𝑧−1)+1 = (𝑧 − 1)−2 𝑒 (𝑧−1) . 𝑒
(𝑧−1)2
= 𝑒. (𝑧 − 1)−2 [1 + (𝑧 − 1) + + …………]
2!
𝑒 (𝑧−1)2
= (𝑧−1)2 [1 + (𝑧 − 1) + + …………]
2!
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒(𝑧−1)
= + (𝑧−1) +2!+ + …………
(𝑧−1)2 9
𝑒 𝑒(𝑧−1) 𝑒 𝑒
= [2! + + … … … … . . ] + [(𝑧−1) + (𝑧−1)2 + ⋯ … … … … ]
9
+𝑣𝑒 powers of (𝑧 − 1) −𝑣𝑒 powers of (𝑧 − 1)
Analytical part Principle part
𝑒𝑧
Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧−1)2 , 𝑧 = 1 is a pole order 2
1
& Residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 1 is coefficient of in Laurent’s series expansion
(𝑧−1)
i.e., 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=1 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝑒
𝒛 𝒛
2. Find the poles of the function (i) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛 (ii) 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒛 (iii) 𝒛𝟐 −𝟑𝒛+𝟐
𝒛
Sol. (i) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛
Poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by denominator = 0
i.e., cos 𝑧 = 0
𝜋
i.e., = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 , 𝑛 = 0 ± 1, ±2 … … ..
𝜋 3𝜋
∴ The poles are 𝑧 = ± 2 ,± , …..,which are poles of order 1( simple poles).
2
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(ii) 𝑓(𝑧) = cot 𝑧
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧
𝑓(𝑧) = cot 𝑧 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
Poles are given by 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 0
i.e., 𝑧 = 𝑛𝜋 where 𝑛 = 0 ± 1, ±2 … … ..
∴ The poles are 𝑧 = 0, ±𝜋,± 2𝜋, ,± 3𝜋 ………., which are poles of order 1( simple poles).
𝒛
(iii) 𝑓(𝑧)=𝒛𝟐 −𝟑𝒛+𝟐
Poles are given by 𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 + 2 = 0
𝑧 = 1,2 are called poles, which are simple poles.
𝒛𝟑
3. Find the poles of the function 𝒇(𝒛)=(𝒛−𝟏)𝟒 (𝒛−𝟐)(𝒛−𝟑) and residues at the poles.
𝑧3
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑧)=(𝑧−1)4 (𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)
The poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by (𝑧 − 1)4 (𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 − 3) = 0
⇒ 𝑧 = 1, 2, 3
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 1 is a pole of order 4, 𝑧 = 2, 3 are poles of order 1.
i) Residue at pole 𝑧 = 2
w.k.t If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is apole of order 1 then
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓 (𝑧)
𝑧3 8
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=2 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→2 (𝑧 − 2)𝑓(𝑧)= 𝐿𝑡𝑧→2 (𝑧 − 2) (𝑧−1)4(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)=1(−1) = −8
ii) Residue at pole 𝑧 = 3
𝑧3 27 27
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=3 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→3 (𝑧 − 3)𝑓(𝑧)= 𝐿𝑡𝑧→3 (𝑧 − 3) (𝑧−1)4(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)= 16.1 = 16
iii) Residue at pole 𝑧 = 1
Here z=1 is apole of order ‘4’
w.k.t if 𝑧 = 𝑎 is pole of order ‘m’ then
1 𝑑𝑚
then 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎 [𝑓(𝑧)] = (𝑚−1)! 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎 [𝑑𝑧 𝑚−1 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 . 𝑓(𝑧)]
here 𝑚 = 4, 𝑎 = 1
1 𝑑3 𝒛𝟑
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=1 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 3! 𝐿𝑡𝑧→1 [𝑑𝑧 3 (𝑧 − 𝑎)4 . (𝒛−𝟏)𝟒 (𝒛−𝟐)(𝒛−𝟑)]
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1 𝑑3 𝒛𝟑
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=1 [𝑓 (𝑧)] = 6 𝐿𝑡𝑧→1 [𝑑𝑧 3 . (𝒛−𝟐)(𝒛−𝟑)] _______ (1)
𝑑3 𝒛𝟑
Let us find out 𝑑𝑧 3 [(𝒛−𝟐)(𝒛−𝟑)]
𝑧3 𝐶 𝐷
(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)
= 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵 +𝑧−2 + 𝑧−3
Hence 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = 5, 𝐶 = −8, 𝐷 = 27
𝑧3 8 27
(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)
= 𝑧 + 5 - 𝑧−2 + 𝑧−3
𝑑3 𝒛𝟑 48 162
By solving 𝑑𝑧 3 [(𝒛−𝟐)(𝒛−𝟑)] = − _______ (2)
(𝑧−2)4 (𝑧−3)4
Sub. (2) in (1)
1 48 162
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=1 [𝑓 (𝑧)] = 6 𝐿𝑡𝑧→1 (𝑧−2)4 − (𝑧−3)4
1 162
= 6 [48 − ]
16
101
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=1 [𝑓(𝑧)] =
16
𝟏
4. Find the Residues of 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛(𝒆𝒛 −𝟏)
1
Sol. Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧(𝑒 𝑧−1)
The poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by 𝑧(𝑒 𝑧 − 1) = 0
𝑧 = 0 or 𝑒 𝑧 − 1 = 0
𝑒 𝑧 = 1 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 2𝑛𝜋𝑖 , 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2 … ….
𝑧 = 2𝑛𝜋𝑖
∴ The poles are = 0, 2𝑛𝜋𝑖 , 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2 … ….
When 𝑛 = 0 then 𝑧 = 0,0
∴ 𝑧 = 0 is apole of order 2
1 1
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧(𝑒 𝑧 −1) = 𝑧2 𝑧3
𝑧[(1+𝑧+ + + ……………….)−1]
2 3!
1
= 𝑧 𝑧2
𝑧×𝑧[1+ + +⋯…………….]
2 3!
−1
1 𝑧 𝑧2
= 𝑧 2 [1 + (2 + + ⋯ … … … … … )]
3!
2
1 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧 𝑧2
= 𝑧 2 [1 − (2 + 3! + ⋯ … … … … … ) + (2 + 3! + ⋯ … … … ) … … … . . ]
1 𝑧 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑧 2 [1 − 2! + (4 − 6) 𝑧 2 + (− 24 + 6 − 8) 𝑧 3 + … … . . ]
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1 1 1 1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = − 2𝑧 + 12 + 360 𝑧 2 + ………….
𝑧2
Which is a Laurent’s series Expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) in powers of 𝑧.
1 1
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=0 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 = −2
𝑧
Assignment Questions:
Find the poles & the corresponding residues of
𝑒𝑧
(1) 𝑓 (𝑧) = (1+𝑧)2
𝑧2
(2) 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 4 −1
𝑧 2 +2𝑧
(3) 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧+1)2(𝑧 2 +4)
𝑧𝑒 𝑧
(4) 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧−1)3
𝑧2
(5) 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+1)2 (𝑧+2)
Problems related to evaluation of integrals using residue theorem:
𝟒−𝟑𝒁
1.Evaluate ∮ dz where ‘C’ is the circle|𝒛| = 𝟑/𝟐 using residue theorem.
𝒁(𝒁−𝟏)(𝒁−𝟐)
4−3𝑍
Sol: let f(z) = 𝑍(𝑍−1)(𝑍−2)
The poles of f(z) are given by 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 0,1,2
𝑧 = 0,1,2 are the poles of order 1.
3 3
The given curve 𝑐 is |𝑧| = 2 ⇒ |𝑧 − 0| = 2
⇒ |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 0| = 3/2
⇒ |(𝑥 − 0) + 𝑖𝑦|=3/2
⇒ √(𝑥 − 0)2 + 𝑦 2 =3/2
⇒ (𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 =1.5
which is a circle with center (0,0) & 𝑟 = 1.5
The poles 𝑧 = 0,1 are only lies inside the curve ′𝑐′
We required to find the residues at the poles 𝑧 = 0, 1
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Residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 0 :
w.k.t 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧=𝑎 = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓(𝑧)
4−3𝑍
𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧=0 = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→0 (𝑧 − 0) 𝑍(𝑍−1)(𝑍−2) = 4/2 = 2 ⇒ 𝑅1 = 2
Residue of f(z) at z=1 :
4−3𝑍
𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧=1 = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→1 (𝑧 − 1) 𝑍(𝑍−1)(𝑍−2) =1/1(-1) = -1 ⇒ 𝑅2 = −1
∴ By Cauchy Residue theorem:
4 − 3𝑍
∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
𝑍(𝑍 − 1)(𝑍 − 2)
= 2𝜋𝑖(2 − 1)
= 2𝜋𝑖
Note: ∫ f(z)dz = 2πi(sum of residues )
𝟏 𝒅𝒛
2. Obtain the Laurent’s Series for the function 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒛 & evaluate ∫ 𝒛𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒛
where ‘C’ is the circle |𝒛 − 𝟏| = 𝟐
𝟏
Sol : Given 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒛
𝟏 𝑧3 𝑧5
= 𝒛 𝟑 𝒛𝟓
( since 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧 = 𝑧 + + + ⋯)
𝒛𝟐 (𝒛+ + +⋯…… ) 3! 5!
𝟑! 𝟓!
𝟏
= 𝑧2 𝑧4
𝑧 3 [1+( + +⋯ )]
3! 5!
−1
1 𝑧2 𝑧4
= [1 + ( + 5! + ⋯ )]
𝑧3 3!
1 𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧2 𝑧4
= 𝑧 3 [1 − ( + 5! + ⋯ ) + ( 3! + 5! + ⋯ )2 … . ]
3!
[since (1 + 𝑥)−1 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 …]
1 𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧4
= 𝑧 3 [1 − − 120 + 36 … . ]
6
1 𝑧2 1 1
= 𝑧 3 [1 − + (36 − 120)𝑧 4 … . ]
6
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1 1 7
f(z) = 𝑧 3 − 6𝑧 + 360 𝑧 4 … is called L.S exp of f(z) about 0
The highest power of (z-0) is 3
Therefore 𝑧 = 0 is a pole of circle 3
The given circle c is |𝑧 − 1| = 2; |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 1| = 2;
|𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖𝑦| = 2; √(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑦 2 =2 at (1,0) 𝑟 = 2
The pole 𝑧 = 0 lies inside 𝑐
1
𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧=0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝐿. 𝑆 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = −1/6
𝑧
By residue theorem ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 )
𝑑𝑧 1 𝜋𝑖
∫ = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑅1 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 (− ) = −
𝑧2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧 6 3
𝒅𝒛
3. Evaluate ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒛 , where c is the circle |𝒛| = 𝟒 using residue theorem .
1
Sol: Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧
The poles of 𝑓 (𝑧) are given by 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧 = 0
Z = ± nπi , n= 0, ±1, ±2,…..
Z = 0, πi, -πi, 2πi, -2πi …..
Which are the poles of order 1
[(0,0) (0, 𝜋), (0, −𝜋), (0,2𝜋), (0, −2𝜋) … . ]
The given curve ‘C’ is |z| = 4 which is a circle with center (0,0) & 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 = 4
Here the only poles lies inside the curve “c” are z=0, πi, -πi,
Residue at z=0:
𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧=0 = 𝑙𝑡 𝑧→0 (𝑧 − 0)𝑓(𝑧)
1
= 𝑙𝑡 𝑧→0 𝑧. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧
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0
= 0 is indeterminant form
1
= 𝑙𝑡 𝑧→0 (L-hospital rule )
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑧
1 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1
𝑅1 = 1
Residue at z= πi
𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧=𝜋𝑖 = 𝑙𝑡 𝑧→𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝜋𝑖)𝑓(𝑧)
1
= 𝑙𝑡 𝑧→𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝜋𝑖 ). (𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧)
(𝜋𝑖−𝜋𝑖) 0
= = 0 (indeterminant form )
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝜋𝑖)
= 𝑙𝑡𝑧→𝜋𝑖 ( 1
)=(
1
)=
1
= −1
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝜋𝑖) −1
𝑅2 = −1
Similarly Residue at z= -πi is 𝑅3 = −1
By residue theorem ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 )
1
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(1 − 1 − 1 ) = −2𝜋𝑖
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧
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Evaluation of Real Definite Integrals by Contour Integration:
In this section, we consider the evaluation of certain types of real definite integrals. These
integrals often arise in physical problems. To evaluate these integrals, we apply Residue
theorem which is simple than the usual methods of integration. The process of evaluating a
definite integral by making the parts of integration about a suitable contour (curve) in the
complex plane is called contour integration.
𝟐𝝅
Type I: Integrals of the type ∫𝟎 𝑭(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)𝒅𝜽
Procedure: put 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Differentiate on both sides w.r.t ′𝜃 ′
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ⇒ 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑑𝜃 𝑖𝑧
1
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑧+
𝑧
We know that 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = =
2 2
1
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 −𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑧−
𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =
2𝑖 2𝑖
Also since 0≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 ⇒ 𝜃 travels on the entire unit circle & |𝑧| = |𝑒 𝑖𝜃 | = 1
2𝜋 1 1 1 1 𝑑𝑧
∴ ∫0 𝐹 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑑𝜃= ∫𝐶 𝐹 [2 (𝑧 + 𝑧 ) , (𝑧 − 𝑧 )] 𝑖𝑧 = ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 (say) ____ (1)
2𝑖
Where ‘C’ is the unit circle |𝑧| = 1
By Residue Theorem : ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2πi×[𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 ] ______ (2)
From (1) & (2)
2𝜋
∴ ∫0 𝐹 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = 2πi×[𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 ]
Problems:
𝝅 𝒅𝜽 𝝅
1. Show by the method of residues ∫𝟎 = (a>b>0)
𝒂+𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 √𝒂𝟐−𝒃𝟐
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝜽 𝟐𝝅
Show that ∫𝟎 =
𝒂+𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 √𝒂𝟐 −𝒃𝟐
𝜋 𝑑𝜃 1 2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
Sol: we can write ∫0 = ∫ _______ (1)
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 0 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Let C be the unit circle i.e., C: |𝑧| = 1
Put 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Differentiate on both sides
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𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑖𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑑𝜃 𝑖𝑧
1
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑧+
𝑧 𝑧 2 +1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = =
2 2 2𝑧
Substitute all above values in equation (1) than
𝜋
𝑑𝜃 1 2𝜋 𝑑𝜃 1 1 𝑑𝑧
∫ = ∫ = ∫ 2
0 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 0 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 𝐶 𝑧 + 1 𝑖𝑧
𝑎 + 𝑏 [ 2𝑧 ]
1 2
= 2𝑖 ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧 ______ (2)
𝑏𝑧 2+2𝑎𝑧+𝑏
1
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑏𝑧 2+2𝑎𝑧+𝑏
The poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by 𝑏𝑧 2 + 2𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏 = 0
−𝑎±√𝑎 2 −𝑏2
∴ The poles of f(z) are 𝑧 = 𝑏
Which are poles of order ‘1’.
−𝑎+√𝑎 2 −𝑏2 −𝑎− √𝑎 2−𝑏2
Let α = and β =
𝑏 𝑏
1 1
Since a>b>0 ⇒ |β| > 1 ⇒ 1 > |β| ⇒ |β| < 1
𝑐 𝑏
But we know that product of the roots 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 1
i.e., α.β=1
⇒ |α. β| = 1
1
⇒ |α | = <1
|𝛽 |
⇒ |α | < 1
∴ ′𝛼′ lies inside the unit circle ‘c’
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝛼:
𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝛼 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧 − 𝛼 )𝑓(𝑧)
1
= 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧 − 𝛼 ) 𝑏𝑧 2+2𝑎𝑧+𝑏
1
= 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧 − 𝛼 ) 𝑏(𝑧−𝛼)(𝑧−𝛽)
1
= 𝑏(𝛼−𝛽)
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1 2√𝑎 2 −𝑏2
= ((∵ 𝛼 − 𝛽 = )
2√𝑎 2 −𝑏2 𝑏
By Residue theorem
1
∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑐 = 2πi×[𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 ]
𝑏𝑧 2+2𝑎𝑧+𝑏
1
= 2πi × __________ (3)
2√𝑎 2 +𝑏2
Sub. (3) in (2)
𝜋 𝑑𝜃 1 1 1 1 𝜋
∫0 = 𝑖 ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧= 𝑖 ×πi × 2πi × =
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑏𝑧 2 +2𝑎𝑧+𝑏 2√𝑎 2 +𝑏 2 √𝑎 2 +𝑏2
∞ 𝒙𝟐
2. Evaluate ∫−∞ (𝒙𝟐 +𝟏)(𝒙𝟐 +𝟒) 𝒅𝒙 using Residue theorem.
Sol: To evaluate the given integral, we consider
𝑧2
∫𝑐 (𝑧 2+1)(𝑧 2+4)
𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑐 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧
Where 𝐶 is the contour consisting of the semi-circle 𝐶𝑅 of radius 𝑅 together with the
part of the real axis from – 𝑅 to 𝑅.
Observe that the integrand has simple poles at 𝑧 = ±𝑖, 𝑧 = ±2𝑖.
But 𝑧 = 𝑖, 𝑧 = 2𝑖 are the only two poles lie inside 𝐶.
The residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑖 is given by
𝑧2
lim[(𝑧 − 𝑖 )𝑓(𝑧)] = lim [(𝑧 − 𝑖 ) ]
𝑧→𝑖 𝑧→𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑖 )(𝑧 + 𝑖 )(𝑧 2 + 4)
𝑧2 −1 −1
= lim (𝑧+𝑖)(𝑧 2+4) = (2𝑖)(3) =
𝑧→𝑖 6𝑖
The residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 2𝑖 is given by
𝑧2
lim [(𝑧 − 2𝑖 )𝑓(𝑧)] = lim [ ]
𝑧→2𝑖 𝑧→2𝑖 (𝑧 + 2𝑖 )(𝑧 2 + 1)
−4 1
= (−4+1)(4𝑖) = 3𝑖
Thus by Residue theorem,
∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐶 )
𝑐
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−1 1 1 1 2𝜋 𝜋
= 2𝜋𝑖 ( + ) = 2𝜋 ( − ) = =
6𝑖 3𝑖 3 6 6 3
𝑅 𝜋
i.e., ∫−𝑅 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = (since on real axis 𝑧 = 𝑥) ____(1)
𝑅 3
Hence by making 𝑅 → ∞, equation (1) becomes
∞ 𝜋
∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + lim ∫𝑐𝑅 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 3 ____(2)
𝑧→∞
When 𝑅 → ∞, |𝑧| → ∞
∴ ∫𝑐 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 _____(3)
𝑅
From (2) and (3), we have
∞
𝜋
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 =
−∞ 3
∞ 𝑥2 𝜋
i.e., ∫−∞ (𝑥 2+1)(𝑥 2+4) 𝑑𝑥 = 3
Assignment Questions
2𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2𝜋
1. Prove that ∫0 = [𝑎 − √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ] where a > b > 0
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑏2
2𝜋 𝑑𝜃 2𝜋
2. Show that∫0 = , a>b>0 using Residue theorem.
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 √𝑎 2 −𝑏2
2𝜋 cos 2𝜃
3. Evaluate ∫0 𝑑𝜃 using Residue theorem.
5+4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2𝜋 1+4 cos 𝜃
4. Show that ∫0 𝑑𝜃 = 0
17+8 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2𝜋 1
5. Evaluate ∫0 𝑑𝜃 using Residue Theorem.
5−3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
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∞
Type II: Integrals of the type ∫−∞ 𝒇(𝒙)dx [Integration around semi circle]
∞ ∞
To solve the integrals of the type ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)dx, we consider ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)dz
Where ‘C’ is the closed contour.
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑅 𝑈 real axis from –R to R [𝐶𝑅 is the semi circle in upper half plane with radius R]
If 𝑓(𝑧) has no poles on real axis &on circumference of a circle. But 𝑓(𝑧) has some poles
Inside curve ‘C’. Then by Residue theorem
∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)dz = 2𝜋𝑖 × [𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 Interior poles]
𝑅
∫𝐶𝑅 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫−𝑅 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑖 × [𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 Interior poles]
Here we show that ∫𝐶 |𝑓 (𝑧)|𝑑𝑧 → 0 as 𝑅 → ∞
𝑅
∞
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑖 × [𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 Interior poles]
−∞
Note: Radius 𝑅 is taken so large these are the singularities of 𝑓(𝑧) lie within semicircle 𝐶𝑅 .
∞ 𝒅𝒙
1. Evaluate ∫𝟎 𝟐
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )
𝟏
Sol: Here 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝟐
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )
𝟏 𝟏
𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 𝟐 = 𝟐 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
((−𝒙) 𝟐+𝒂𝟐 ) (𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function
∞ 1 ∞
∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
∞ 𝟏 1 ∞ 𝟏
∫0 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫−∞ 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 ___________(1)
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 ) (𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )
∞ 𝟏 𝟏
Now let ∫−∞ 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)dz where 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝟐
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 ) (𝒛𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )
& C is the contour consisting of the semi circle 𝐶𝑅 of radius R together with the real
axis from –R to R.
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The poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by (𝒛𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐 =0
⇒ 𝑧 = ±𝑎𝑖 , ±𝑎𝑖
The poles are 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑧 = − 𝑎𝑖 of order 2
The only pole 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖 lies inside semi circle 𝐶𝑅
Residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖
Since 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖 is a pole of order 2
1 𝑑
𝑅𝑖 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎𝑖 [𝑓 (𝑧)]]= 1! 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎𝑖 [𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 − 𝑎𝑖 )2 . 𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑑 𝟏
=𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎𝑖 [𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 − 𝑎𝑖 )2 . 𝟐 ]
(𝒛𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )
𝑑 𝟏
= 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎𝑖 [ (𝑧 − 𝑎𝑖 )2 . (𝑧+𝑎𝑖)2 (𝑧−𝑎𝑖)2 ]
𝑑𝑧
𝑑 𝟏
=𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎𝑖 [𝑑𝑧 . (𝑧+𝑎𝑖)2 ]
−𝟐
=𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎𝑖 [ (𝑧+𝑎𝑖)3 ]
1
𝑅𝑖 = 4𝑎3 𝑖
Hence by Residue Theorem, ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)dz = 2𝜋𝑖 × [𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 Interior poles]
1
= 2𝜋𝑖 × 4𝑎 3 𝑖
𝜋
=2𝑎3
𝑅 𝜋
∫𝐶𝑅 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫−𝑅 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎3 _________ (2)
We know that ∫𝐶 |𝑓(𝑧)|𝑑𝑧 → 0 as 𝑅 → ∞
𝑅
∞ 𝜋
Hence, ∫−∞ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎3 ____ (3)
Sub. (3) in (1)
∞ 𝟏 1 ∞ 𝟏 1 𝜋 𝜋
∫0 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫−∞ 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 = = 4𝑎3
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 ) (𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 ) 2 2𝑎 3
∞ 𝟏
Note: Evaluate ∫0 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 using Residue Theorem
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )
Put a=1 in the above problems then we get
∞
𝟏 𝜋
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
0 (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐 4
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Assignment Questions:
∞ 𝟏 𝜋
1. Using the method of contour integration prove that ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = (or) Evaluate
𝒙𝟔 +𝟏 3
∞ 𝟏
∫0 𝑑𝑥 using the Residue theorem.
𝒙𝟔 +𝟏
∞ 𝒙𝟐
2. Evaluate by contour Integration ∫−∞ (𝒙𝟐 +𝟏)(𝒙𝟐 +𝟒) 𝑑𝑥
∞ 𝟏
3. Evaluate by contour Integration ∫0 𝑑𝑥
(𝒙𝟐 +𝟏)
∞ 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙
4. Evaluate ∫0 𝑑𝑥
(𝒙𝟐 +𝟏)
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UNIT-V
CONFORMAL MAPPINGS
Introduction : In this unit we deal the special type of mappings 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) , which are called
conformal mapping. These mappings are important in engineering mathematics in solving
various problems in two dimensional potential theory.
Basic Defintions:
Mapping or transformation from Z-plane to W-plane :
The correspondence defined by the equation 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) between the points in the Z-plane
and W-plane is called “Mapping” from Z-plane to the W-plane.
Conformal mapping :
Suppose under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧), the poinrt 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) of the Z-plane is mapped
in to the point 𝑃′ (𝑢0 , 𝑣0 ) of the W-plane. Suppose 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are any two curves intersecting
at the point 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ). Suppose the mapping 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) takes 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 in to the curves 𝑐1′
and 𝑐2′ which are intersecting at 𝑃′ (𝑢0 , 𝑣0 ) . If the transformation is such that the angles
between 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is equal both in magnitude and direction to the angel between
𝑐1′ and 𝑐2′ at (𝑢0 , 𝑣0 ) ,then it is said to be conformal transformation at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) .
Definition : A mapping w=f(z) is said to be conformal in a domain D if it is conformal at
every point of D.
Isogonal Transformation :
If the transformation preserves the only magnitude but not necessarily sense (direction) then
it is called isogonal mapping.
Sufficient conditions for w=f(z) to represent a conformal mapping :
Theorem : A map w=f(z) is conformal at a point 𝑧0 if f(z) is analytic at 𝑧0 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) ≠ 0.
Critical point : the points where 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 0 are called critical points.
Ordinary point : the points where 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) ≠ 0 are called ordinary points.
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Ex: Find the critical points of 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2
Sol: 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 0
⇒ 2𝑧 = 0
⇒𝑧=0
∴ 𝑧 = 0 is called critical points.
Ex 2: Find the critical points of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 0
𝑧 = 𝑛𝜋 where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2 − − − −
𝑧 = 𝑛𝜋 are called critical points of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧
Examples for conformal mappings
1.𝒘 = 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒆𝒛
We know that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 is analytic everywhere and 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 ≠ 0 ∀𝑧
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) is conformal at every point
2.𝒘 = 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛 + 𝟏 is conformal mapping because it is a polynomial.
3.𝒘 = 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒆𝟐𝒛 − 𝟐𝒊𝒛 + 𝟑 is conformal mapping.
Standard Transformations :
1. Translation
2. Expansion or Contraction
3. Inversion
1.Translation : the mapping 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝑐 where 𝑐 is any complex constant, is called a
translation.
Note : Circles are mapped onto circles under this transformation.
2.Expansion (or) contraction and rotation(Magnification) : The mapping 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧 is called
contraction and rotation (or ) expansion. Under this transformation, any figure in Z-plane is
transformed into, geometrically, a similar figure in the W-plane.
Note : if |𝑐 | = 1 then 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧 is called a pure rotation, since in this case there is no expansion
or contraction, but just a rotation through an angle of 𝛼.
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Example
Prove that circles are invariant under the linear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑐 (or) prove that
circles are mapped to circles under 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑐.
Sol: Given the linear transformation = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑐 , where 𝑎 & 𝑐 are complex constants.
Consider the circle in Z-plane is 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐷 = 0 -------(1)
We have transformation 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑐
⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 𝑐1 + 𝑖𝑐2
Comparing real and imaginary parts
⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐1 , 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑐2
𝑢−𝑐1 𝑣−𝑐2
⇒ 𝑥= ,𝑦 = -------------------- (2)
𝑎 𝑎
Substitute (2) in (1) then we get
𝑢−𝑐1 2 𝑣−𝑐2 2 𝑢−𝑐1 𝑣−𝑐2
⇒ 𝐴 [( ) +( ) ]+𝐵( )+𝐶( )+𝐷 = 0
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
⇒ 𝐴′ (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 ) + 𝐵′ 𝑢 + 𝐶 ′ 𝑣 + 𝐷′ = 0
Which is a circle in the W-plane.
𝐴 𝐵−2𝐴𝑐1 𝐶−2𝐴𝑐2
Where 𝐴′ = 𝑎2 , 𝐵′ = , 𝐶′ = ,
𝑎 𝑎
′
𝑐12 + 𝑐22 𝐵𝑐1 𝑐𝑐2
𝐷 = 𝐷 + 𝐴( ) − −
𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎
Therefore, circles are mapped on to the circles under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑐.
1
3.Inversion : The mapping 𝑤 = 𝑧 is called inversion mapping.
1
Example : the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 maps every straight line or circle onto a circle or
straight line.
Proof : let 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐷 = 0 -----------(1) is a circle (or) straight line (if A=0)
in Z-plane.
Here A,B,C,D are real numbers.
If A=0, & B & C≠ 0 (at least one) then equation (1) represents straight line.
If 𝐴 ≠ 0 then equation (1) represents straight line.
We have 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
𝑧. 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
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𝑧+𝑧̅ 𝑧−𝑧̅
𝑥= , 𝑦= --------------------(2)
2 2𝑖
Substitute (2) in (1) then
𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅
𝐴𝑧𝑧̅ + 𝐵 ( )+𝐶( )+𝐷 = 0
2 2𝑖
1 1
Substitute 𝑤 = 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑤
1 1 1 1
1 +𝑤 −𝑤
⇒𝐴 +𝐵(𝑤 ̅ )+𝐶(𝑤 ̅) + 𝐷 = 0
𝑤𝑤̅ 2 2𝑖
Now multiply the above equation by 𝑤𝑤
̅
𝑤+𝑤̅ 𝑤−𝑤 ̅
⇒ 𝐴+𝐵( )+𝐶( ) + 𝐷𝑤𝑤
̅=0
2 2𝑖
⇒ 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑢 − 𝐶𝑣 + 𝐷(𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 ) = 0--------(3)
𝑤+𝑤
̅ 𝑤−𝑤
̅
Where = ,𝑣 = , 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑤𝑤
̅
2 2𝑖
Equation (3) represents a circle in W-plane if 𝐷 ≠ 0
Equation (3) represents a straight line in W-plane if 𝐷 = 0 and 𝐵 & 𝐶 ≠ 0 (at least one )
Therefore general equation of circle or straight is transformed to general equation of straight
1
line or circle under the transformation 𝑤 = .
𝑧
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Some special conformal Transformations :
1. 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 2. 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧 3. 𝑤 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧
Problems :
1.Find the points at which 𝒘 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒛 is not conformal.
Sol : given 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑧
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧
𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧 = 0
𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧
=0
2
⇒ 𝑒 2𝑧 − 1 = 0
⇒ 𝑧 = ±𝑛𝜋𝑖 where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2 − − − − −
Therefore critical points of 𝑓 (𝑧) are 𝑧 = ±𝑛𝜋𝑖, 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2 − − − − −
Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) is not conformal at 𝑧 = ±𝑛𝜋𝑖.
2.Find the image of |𝒛| = 𝟐 under the transformation 𝒘 = 𝟑𝒛.
Sol: given |𝑧| = 2
⇒ |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| = 2
⇒ √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 4 which is a circle with center (0,0) & r=2.
It is required to find the image of circle |𝑧| = 2 i.e 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 ------(1)
under the mapping 𝑤 = 3𝑧.
Let 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 and 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
Given transformation is 𝑤 = 3𝑧
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 3(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
Comparing real and imaginary parts then
𝑢 = 3𝑥 &𝑣 = 3𝑦
𝑢 𝑣
𝑥= and 𝑦 = 3
3
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Substitute 𝑥 & 𝑦 values in (1) then
𝑢 2 𝑣 2
( ) +( ) = 4
3 3
𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 36
Which is a circle in the W-plane with center at (0,0) & r=6.
𝟏
3.under the transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛 ,find the image of the circle |𝒛 − 𝟐𝒊| = 𝟐.
1
Sol : 𝑤 = 𝑧
1
𝑧=𝑤
1 𝑢−𝑖𝑣
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑢+𝑖𝑣 = 𝑢2+𝑣 2
𝑢 −𝑣
𝑥 = 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 𝑦 = 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 -----------(1)
|𝑧 − 2𝑖 | = 2.
|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2𝑖 | = 2.
𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 4--------------(2)
Which is a circle with center (0,2) and 𝑟 = 2.
Substitute (1) in (2)
⇒ 1 + 4𝑣 = 0
−1
⇒𝑣=
4
Which is a straight line parallel to X-axis in the W-plane.
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𝟏 𝟏
4.Find the image of the infinite strip 𝟎 < 𝑦 < 𝟐 under the transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛 .
𝟏
Sol: here it is required to find the image of infinite strip 𝟎 < 𝑦 < 𝟐 in Z-plane under the map
1
𝑤 = 𝑧.
1
Given transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧
𝟏
𝒛=
𝒘
1 𝑢−𝑖𝑣
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑢+𝑖𝑣 = 𝑢2 +𝑣 2
Comparing real and imaginary parts
𝑢 −𝑣
𝑥 = 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 𝑦 = 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 ----------------------(1)
𝟏
Given strip in Z-plane is 𝟎 < 𝑦 < 𝟐
If 𝑦 = 0 then 𝑣 = 0 (from (1))
1
If 𝑦 = 2 then 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 2𝑣 = 0
𝑢2 + (𝑣 + 1)2 = 1
Which is a circle with center (0,-1) & r=1
1
Therefore under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧
The straight 𝑦 = 0 is transformed to line 𝑣 = 0 and
1
The straight 𝑦 = 2 is transformed to a circle 𝑢2 + (𝑣 + 1)2 = 1
𝟏
Hence the infinite strip 𝟎 < 𝑦 < 𝟐 in Z-plane is mapped in to the region between line V=0
1
and the circle 𝑢2 + (𝑣 + 1)2 = 1 in W-plane under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧.
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𝟏
5.show that the image of the hyperbola 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏 under the transformation 𝒘 = is
𝒛
the lemniscate 𝝆𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐∅.
Sol: It is required to find the image of hyperbola 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏 under the transformation 𝒘 =
𝟏
𝒛
𝟏
given transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛
let 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑤 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅
1
𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅ =
𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
1 −𝑖𝜃
𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅ = 𝑒
𝑟
1
𝑅 = 𝑟 ,∅ = −𝜃
Given hyperbola is 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏
𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1
𝑟 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) = 1
𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 1
1 1
cos(−2∅) = 1 ( 𝜌 = 𝑟 ,∅ = −𝜃)
𝜌2
𝜌2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2∅
Therefore hyperbola 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏 in the Z-plane is mapped in to lemniscates
𝜌2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2∅ in the W-plane.
6.Find and plot the image of the traingularregion with vertices at (0,0) (1,0)(0,1) under
the transformation 𝒘 = (𝟏 − 𝒊)𝒛 + 𝟑.
Sol: Given transformation is 𝒘 = (𝟏 − 𝒊)𝒛 + 𝟑
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (1 − 𝑖 )(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 3
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3) + 𝑖(𝑦 − 𝑥)
𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3 and 𝑣 = 𝑦 − 𝑥 ---------------------(1)
When (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0) then (𝑢, 𝑣) = (3,0) in W-plane
When (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0) then (𝑢, 𝑣) = (4, −1) in W-plane
When (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,1) then (𝑢, 𝑣) = (4,1) in W-plane
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7.Find and plot the rectangular region 𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟐, 𝟎 ≤ 𝒚 ≤ 𝟐 under transformation 𝒘 =
𝒊𝝅
√𝟐𝒆 𝟒 𝒛 + (𝟏 − 𝟐𝒊).
𝑖𝜋
Sol: Given transformation is 𝑤 = √2𝑒 4 𝑧 + (1 − 2𝑖)
𝜋 𝜋
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = √2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + (1 − 2𝑖)
4 4
1 1
= √2 ( +𝑖 ) (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + (1 − 2𝑖)
√2 √2
= (1 + 𝑖)(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + (1 − 2𝑖)
= (𝑥 − 𝑦) + 𝑖 (𝑥 + 𝑦) + (1 − 2𝑖)
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 1) + 𝑖(𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2)
𝑢 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 1 and 𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2 ----------(1) which is a given transformation
Under this transformation we have to find the image of rectangular region 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, 0 ≤
𝑦 ≤ 2 in Z-plane.
Put 𝑥 = 0 in (1) then 𝑢 = −𝑦 + 1 , 𝑣 = 𝑦 − 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2 + 𝑣
𝑢 = −(2 + 𝑣) + 1 ⇒ 𝑣 = −𝑢 − 1
Put 𝑥 = 2 in (1) then 𝑢 = 2 − 𝑦 , 𝑣 = 𝑦 − 1 ⇒ 𝑣 = 1 − 𝑢
Put 𝑦 = 0 in (1) then 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1 , 𝑣 = 𝑥 − 2 ⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 3
Put 𝑦 = 2 in (1) then 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 1 , 𝑣 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 1
Thus the region is a rectangle bounded by the lines , 𝑣 = −𝑢 − 1 ⇒ 𝑣 = 1 − 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 3 &
𝑣 =𝑢+1
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8.Find the image of the region in the Z-plane between the lines 𝒚 = 𝟎 & 𝑦 = 𝜋/2 under
the transformation 𝒘 = 𝒆𝒛 .
Sol: Given transformation is 𝒘 = 𝒆𝒛
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and 𝑤 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅
𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅ = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦
𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅ = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑖𝑦
𝑅 = 𝑒 𝑥 and ∅ = 𝑦 -----(1) which is a given transformation
If 𝑦 = 0 then ∅ = 0 (fom (1)) represents radial line making an angle of zero radius with the
x-axis .
If 𝑦 = 𝜋/2 then ∅ = 𝜋/2 represents radial line making angle of 𝜋/2 radius with the X-axis.
As 𝑥 increases from −∞ to ∞ then 𝑅 = 𝑒 𝑥 (i.e radius) increases from 0 to ∞
𝑦 = 𝜋/2 in Z-plane is mapped onto the ray ∅ = 𝜋/2 excluding origin in W-plane.
Hence the infinite strip bounded by the lines 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑦 = 𝜋/2 is mapped on to the upper
quadrant of W-plane.
Assignment questions :
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1
1.For the mapping 𝑤 = ,Find the image of the family of circles 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎𝑥 where 𝑎 is
𝑧
real.
1
2.Show that the transformation 𝑤 = maps a circle to a circle or to a straight line if the
𝑧
former goes through the origin.
3.Find the image of the domain in the Z-plane to the left of the line 𝑥 = −3 under
transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 .
4.Find and plot the image of the regions
i) 𝑥 > 1 ii) 𝑦 > 0 iii)0 < 𝑦 < 1/2 under transformation 𝑤 = 1/𝑧.
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BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION OR MOBIUS TRANSFORMATION
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Bilinear transformation : The map 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℂ and 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0
is called bilinear transformation (or) linear fractional transformation or mobius
transformation.
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Note :The map 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 -----(1) where 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 is bilinear transformation
⇒ 𝑤𝑐𝑧 + 𝑤𝑑 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
⇒ 𝑤𝑐𝑧 − 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑑𝑤 − 𝑏 = 0
⇒ 𝐴𝑧𝑤 + 𝐵𝑧 + 𝐶𝑤 + 𝐷 = 0 -----(2)
Where 𝐴 = 𝑐, 𝐵 = −𝑎, 𝐶 = 𝑑, 𝐷 = −𝑏
Note that 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑐 (−𝑏) − (−𝑎)𝑑 = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0
Equation (1) can be written in the form 𝐴𝑧𝑤 + 𝐵𝑧 + 𝐶𝑤 + 𝐷 = 0 and 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 ≠ 0
Therefore the form 𝐴𝑧𝑤 + 𝐵𝑧 + 𝐶𝑤 + 𝐷 = 0 is also called bilinear transformation
i.e equations (1) and (2) represents bilinear transformation.
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
The necessary condition to say that 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 ---(1) is bilinear transformation is 𝑎𝑑 −
𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
The bilinear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 , 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 is a bijective from 𝐶∞ to 𝐶∞ .
The inverse of a bilinear is also bilinear.
The composition of any two bilinear transformation is also bilinear.
The identity transformation 𝐼 (𝑧) = 𝑧 is also bilinear
Properties of Bilinear Transformation
1.A Bilinear transformation is conformal
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Proof:Consider the bilinear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑
Differentiate with respect to 𝑧
𝑑𝑤 (𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 )(𝑎) − (𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏)𝑐 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
= 𝑇 ′ (𝑧 ) = =
𝑑𝑧 (𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑)2 (𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑)2
Since 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0
𝑑𝑤
⇒ ≠0
𝑑𝑧
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
⇒ 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 is conformal transformation.
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𝑑𝑤
If 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 0 then =0 ∀𝑧
𝑑𝑧
Then we say that every point of 𝑧 −plane is critical.
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Note : Let the bilinear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑
For different choices of constants a,b,c,d we get different bilinear transformation as
(i) 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝑏 (if 𝑎 = 1, 𝑐 = 0, 𝑑 = 1) (translation)
(ii) 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏(if 𝑐 = 0 &𝑑 = 1) (Linear translation)
(iii) 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 (if 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 = 0, 𝑑 = 1) (Rotation)
1
(iv) 𝑤 = 𝑧 (if 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 1, 𝑐 = 1, 𝑑 = 0) (Inversion)
2.There is a one-one correspondence between all points in two planes.
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Proof: Let 𝑤 = -------(1) 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 be a conformal mapping
𝑐𝑧+𝑑
−𝑑𝑤+𝑏
From (1) 𝑧 = --------(2) is inverse mapping
𝑐𝑤−𝑎
Since 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 therefore equation (2) is also represents a bilinear transformation.
−𝑑
From (1) , it is clear that to each point in the Z-plane except 𝑧 = there corresponds a
𝑐
unique point in the W-plane.
Invariant or Fixed point : A point 𝑧0 is said to be a fixed point of a bilinear transformation
𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) if 𝑇(𝑧0 ) = 𝑧0 .
Ex 1: For the map 𝑊 = 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑧
Every point is a fixed point
1
Ex2: For the map 𝑊 = 𝑧
the fixed point are obtained by 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑧
1
⇒ =𝑧
𝑧
⇒ 𝑧2 − 1 = 0
⇒ 𝑧 = ±1 ,therefore 𝑧 = ±1 are fixed points
Finding the Bilnear Transformation whose fixed point are 𝜶 and 𝜷 are given by 𝒘 =
𝜸𝒛−𝜶𝜷
𝒛−(𝜶+𝜷)+𝜸
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Prop 3. Every bilinear transformation maps the totality of circles and straight lines in
Z-plane onto the totality of circles and straight lines the W-plane.
OR
Every bilinear transformation maps circles and straight lines into circles and straight
lines
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Proof: Let the bilinear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 where 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
(i). If 𝑐 = 0 then 𝑇(𝑧) = (𝑑 ) 𝑧 + (𝑑 ) = 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵 where = 𝑑 ,𝐵 = 𝑑
Clearly T is linear.
We know that image of any region in the Z-plane under the linear transformation has the
same.
i.e the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) transforms circles & straight lines in to circles and straight
lines.
(ii). If 𝑐 ≠ 0 then
𝑎 𝑏𝑐−𝑎𝑑 1
𝑇 (𝑧 ) = ( 𝑐 ) + ( ). 𝑑
𝑐2 𝑧+
𝑐
𝑑 1 𝑏𝑐−𝑎𝑑 𝑎
Let 𝑇1 (𝑧) = 𝑧 + 𝑐 , 𝑇2 (𝑧) = 𝑧 , 𝑇3 (𝑧) = . 𝑧 , 𝑇4 (𝑧) = 𝑐 + 𝑧
𝑐2
Therefore 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑇4 𝑜𝑇3 𝑜𝑇2 𝑜𝑇1
We know that (i) the inversion transformation maps circles and straight lines in to circles
and straight lines.
(i)The translation and rotation are linear transforms.
Therefore the transformation transforms circles and straight lines into circles and straight
lines.
Since every bilinear transformation is a composition of translation,rotation and inversion.
Hence bilinear transformation 𝑇(𝑧) is a of translation,rotation and inversion.
Therefore bilinear transformation 𝑇(𝑧), circles and straight lines into circles and straight
lines.
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Cross Ratio :
For three distinct points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 in 𝐶∞ then the cross ratio of 𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 is denoted
by
(𝑧−𝑧1)(𝑧2−𝑧3 )
(𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 ) and defined by (𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 ) = (𝑧
1−𝑧2 )(𝑧3−𝑧)
Prop4: The cross ratio is invariant under a bilinear transformation
(or)
A bilinear transformation preserves cross ratio property of four points.
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Proof : Let the bilinear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 where 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 where
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℂ
Let 𝑇(𝑧𝑘 ) = 𝑤𝑘 for 𝑘 = 1,2,3
It is required to prove that (𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2, 𝑧3 ) = (𝑇(𝑧), 𝑇(𝑧1 ), 𝑇(𝑧2 ), 𝑇(𝑧3 ))
i.e (𝑤, 𝑤1 , 𝑤2, 𝑤3 ) = (𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2, 𝑧3 )
now 𝑤 − 𝑤𝑘 = 𝑇(𝑧) − 𝑇(𝑧𝑘 ) where 𝑘 = 1,2,3
𝑎𝑧+𝑏 𝑎𝑧 +𝑏
= 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 − 𝑐𝑧 𝑘+𝑑
𝑘
(𝑎𝑧+𝑏)(𝑐𝑧𝑘 +𝑑)−(𝑎𝑧𝑘 +𝑏)(𝑐𝑧+𝑑)
= (𝑐𝑧+𝑑)(𝑐𝑧𝑘 +𝑑)
(𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧−𝑧𝑘 )
𝑤 − 𝑤𝑘 = (𝑐𝑧+𝑑)(𝑐𝑧
𝑘 +𝑑)
(𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧 −𝑧 )
𝑤𝑖 − 𝑤𝑗 = (𝑐𝑧 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧𝑖 +𝑑)
𝑗
𝑖 𝑗
Let the cross ratio of 𝑤, 𝑤1 , 𝑤2, 𝑤3
(𝑤 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 )
(𝑤, 𝑤1 , 𝑤2, 𝑤3 ) =
(𝑤1 − 𝑤2 )(𝑤3 − 𝑤)
(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )(𝑧 − 𝑧1 ) (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )(𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )
(𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑) . (𝑐𝑧2 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧3 + 𝑑)
=
(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )(𝑧3 − 𝑧1 )
(𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧2 + 𝑑) . (𝑐𝑧3 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑)
(𝑧−𝑧1 )(𝑧2−𝑧3)
= (𝑧
1 −𝑧1 )(𝑧3−𝑧)
= (𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2, 𝑧3 )
Therefore (𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2, 𝑧3 ) = (𝑇(𝑧), 𝑇(𝑧1 ), 𝑇(𝑧2 ), 𝑇(𝑧3 ))
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Note1: To find the bilinear transformation = 𝑇(𝑧) , we can use the condition
(𝑤−𝑤1 )(𝑤2−𝑤3 ) (𝑧−𝑧1 )(𝑧2−𝑧3 )
(𝑤1−𝑤2 )(𝑤3
= (𝑧
−𝑤) 1−𝑧2 )(𝑧3−𝑧)
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Note 2: To find the bilinear transformation we can also use the formula 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑
∞−𝑖 𝑛−𝑖 ∞−𝑤
Note 3: ∞−𝑤 = log𝑛→∞ 𝑛−𝑤 = 1 ,similarly =1
∞−𝑖
𝑖−∞ ∞−𝑖
Note 4: ∞−𝑤 = −1 , 𝑤−∞ = −1
Problems:
1: Find the Bilinear transformation which maps the point (-1,0,1) in to the points (0,i,3i)
Soln: let 𝑧1 = −1, 𝑧2 = 0, 𝑧3 = 1
𝑤1 = −1, 𝑤2 = 0, 𝑤3 = 1
(𝑤−𝑤1 )(𝑤2−𝑤3 ) (𝑧−𝑧1 )(𝑧2−𝑧3)
we know that (𝑤1−𝑤2 )(𝑤3−𝑤)
= (𝑧
1−𝑧2 )(𝑧3−𝑧)
( 𝑤−0 )(𝑖−3𝑖 ) (𝑧+1)( 0 − 1 )
(0− 𝑖 )(3𝑖−𝑤)
= (−1−0)(1− 𝑍 )
( 𝑤 )(𝑖−3𝑖 ) (𝑧+1)
(− 𝑖 )(3𝑖−𝑤)
= (1− 𝑍 )
( 2𝑤 ) (𝑧+1)
=
(3𝑖−𝑤) (1− 𝑍 )
( 2 w )(1 − Z) = (z + 1)(3i − w)
2w − 2wZ = 3i z − w z + 3i − w
w[2 − 2z + z + 1] = 3i[z + 1]
w(−z + 3) = 3i[z + 1]
3i[z+1]
w = 3−z
3i[z+1]
w = T (z) = 3−z
Which is the required bilinear transformation
2.Find the fixed points (Invariant points) of the transformation
𝟐𝒊−𝟔𝒛
(i) 𝒘 = 𝒊𝒛−𝟑
𝒛−𝟏
(ii) 𝒘 = 𝒛+𝟏
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Soln : The fixed point of transformations are obtained by 𝑤 = 𝑧
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧
2𝑖−6𝑧
(i) 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑖𝑧−3
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧
2i−6z
= 𝑧
iz−3
2𝑖 − 6𝑧 = 𝑖𝑧 2 − 3𝑧
𝑖𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 − 2𝑖 = 0
𝑧 2 − 3𝑖𝑧 − 2 = 0
It is a quadratic equation
3i± √9i2 −4.1.(−z)
𝑍 = 2
𝑍 = 𝑖, 2𝑖
Fixed points are 𝑖, 2𝑖
3. find the bilinear transformations which maps 𝒁 = 𝟎, −𝒊, 𝟐𝒊 in to
𝒘 = 𝟓𝒊, ∞, −𝒊/𝟑.
az+b
soln: let the bilinear transformation be 𝑤 = cz+d -----(1)
Given 𝑍 = 0, −𝑖, 2𝑖 & 𝑤 = 5𝑖, ∞, −𝑖/3
sub above values in (1)
b
5i = ; b = 5id ------ (2)
d
−ai+b 1 −ai+b
∞ = −ci+d ; 0 = −ci+d ;−ci + d = 0 ------(3)
−i 2ai+b
= 2ci+d ; 2c − id = 6𝑖𝑎 + 3𝑏 ------- (4)
3
Solving (2) (3) & (4) for 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 , 𝑑
From (2) 𝑏 = 5𝑖𝑑
From (3) 𝑐 = −𝑖𝑑
Sub 𝑏 , 𝑐 values in (4)
2(−𝑖𝑑) – 𝑖𝑑 = 6𝑖𝑎 + 15 𝑖𝑑
𝑎 = −3𝑑
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Sub 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 in (1)
−3𝑑𝑧 + 5𝑖𝑑
𝑤 =
−𝑖𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑
−3𝑧+5𝑖
𝑤 = −𝑖𝑧+1
Multiply & divide by 𝑖
−(3iz+5)
𝑤 =
z+1
Prob4. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points (∞, 𝒊, 𝟎) into the points
(𝟎, 𝒊, ∞).
(𝑤−𝑤1 )(𝑤2 −𝑤3 ) (𝑧−𝑧1 )(𝑧2−𝑧3 )
Sol: we know that (𝑤 = (𝑧
1 −𝑤2 )(𝑤3 −𝑤) 1 −𝑧2)(𝑧3−𝑧)
(𝑤−0)(𝑖−∞) (𝑧−∞)(𝑖−0)
(0−𝑖)(∞−𝑤)
= (∞−𝑖)(0−𝑧)
1
𝑤=−
𝑧
𝒛−𝒊
Prob 5. Show that transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛+𝒊 maps the real axis in the Z-plane in to the
unit circle |𝒘| = 𝟏 in the W-plane.
𝒛−𝒊
Sol:Given transformation is 𝒘 = 𝒛+𝒊
Unit circle in w-plane is |𝑤| = 1
𝒛−𝒊
| |=1
𝒛+𝒊
|𝒛 − 𝒊 | = |𝒛 + 𝒊 |
|𝒙 + 𝒊(𝒚 − 𝟏)| = |𝒙 + 𝒊(𝒚 + 𝟏)|
x 2 + (y − 1)2 = x 2 + (y + 1)2
x 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2y + 1 = x 2 + y 2 + 2y + 1
4𝑦 = 0
𝑦 = 0 which is a real axis in Z-plane.
𝒛−𝒊
Prob6. Show that the transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛+𝒊 transforms |𝒘| ≤ 𝟏 into upper half plane
(i.e img(z)>0)
𝑧−𝑖
Sol: consider the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧+𝑖
𝑧̅ +𝑖
𝑤
̅ = 𝑧̅ −𝑖
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𝑧−𝑖 𝑧̅ +𝑖
𝑤𝑤
̅ − 1 = 𝑧+𝑖 . 𝑧̅ −𝑖 − 1
̅ +𝑖)(𝑧−𝑖)−(𝑧+𝑖)(𝑧̅ −𝑖)
(𝑧
= ̅ −𝑖)(𝑧+𝑖)
(𝑧
2𝑖(𝑧−𝑧̅ )
= |𝑧+𝑖|2
−4𝑦
𝑤𝑤
̅ − 1 = |𝑧+𝑖|2
−4𝑦
|𝑤 |2 − 1 = --------------(1)
|𝑧+𝑖|2
Given |𝒘| ≤ 𝟏
if |𝑤| = 1 then |𝑤|2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = 0 (form (1)) which is a real axis in Z-plane.
therefore circle |𝑤| = 1 in W-plane transformed straight line 𝑦 = 0 in Z-plane.
If |𝑤| < 1 then 𝑦 > 0 (form (1))
i.e img(z)>0
i.e Upper half of Z-plane.
Hence |𝑤| ≤ 1 is transformed into upper half plane (i.e img(z)>0 ) unde
𝑧−𝑖
transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧+𝑖.
𝟓−𝟒𝒛
Prob7. Show that the relation 𝒘 = 𝟒𝒛−𝟐 transforms the circle |𝒛| = 𝟏 into a circle of
radius unity in the W-plane.
5−4𝑧
Sol: Given transformation is 𝑤 = 4𝑧−2 -------(1)
solving (1) for 𝑧
𝟓+𝟐𝒘
𝒛 = 𝟒(𝒘+𝟏)
| 𝒛| = 𝟏
𝟓+𝟐𝒘
| |=1
𝟒(𝒘+𝟏)
|𝟓 + 𝟐𝒘| = |𝟒(𝒘 + 𝟏)|
𝒘 = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗
|𝟓 + 𝟐𝒖 + 𝟐𝒊𝒗| = |𝟒𝒖 + 𝟒𝒊𝒗 + 𝟏|
|(𝟓 + 𝟐𝒖) + 𝟐𝒊𝒗| = |(𝟒𝒖 + 𝟏) + 𝟒𝒊𝒗|
√(𝟓 + 𝟐𝒖)𝟐 + 𝟒𝒗𝟐 = √(𝟒𝒖 + 𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝒗𝟐
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 117
MATHEMATICS-III CONFORMAL MAPPINGS
𝟑
𝒖𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐 + 𝒖 − 𝟒 = 𝟎
it is the circle with center 𝐶 = (−1/2,0) and 𝑟 = 1 in W-plane.
3
The Image of a circle |𝑧| = 1 in Z-plane is a circle 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑢 − 4 = 0 in W-plane under
5−4𝑧
the transformation 𝑤 = 4𝑧−2.
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 118
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