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PREFACE

CpE 3 (Computer Technology) this course is an introduction to the computer

systems. Basic hardware concepts are covered. Main topics include an overview of
components of a computer, the components of system unit, operating systems and
utility programs, communications and networks, the Internet and World Wide Web,
web development programs, e-commerce, and system maintenance. The course is
designed for students who have some basic familiarity with Microsoft Office
application. This course satisfies the required core computer competency for general
education.

The course is divided into four (4) learning packets which includes the
following topics:

Learning Packet (LP) 1

Unit 1. Inside the Computer

1.1 Anatomy of a Digital Computer
1.2. Computer Architecture
1.3 Number System
1.4 Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits
1.5 Memory Units

Unit 2. Input / Output Concepts and Methods

2.1 Input Devices
2.2 Output Devices

Learning Packet 2

Unit 3. Computer Software & Software Development

3.1 Introduction to Computer Software
3.2 Operating System
3.3 Programming Languages
3.4 Introduction to Basic, C, C++, Pascal and Java
3.5 Introduction to Software Development

Unit 4. Data Processing and Networking

4.1 Data Processing
4.2 Processing Data / CPU
4.3 CPU
4.4 Computer Networks
4.5 Distributed Data Processing
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Learning Packet 3

Unit 5. Storage Devices

5.1 Storage Devices
5.2 Auxiliary Storage Devices

Unit 6. Introduction to Word Processing

6.1 Word Processing
6.2 Desktop Publishing
6.3 Introduction to Electronic Spreadsheets
6.4 Introduction to Multimedia Presentation
6.5 Multimedia Processing
6.6 Database Management
6.7 Introduction to Virtual Reality

Learning Packet 4

Unit 7. Computer Maintenance, Security and Internet

7.1 Introduction to Computer Security
7.2 Internet and Intranets
7.3 Electronic Mail

Unit 8. Computer in Business

8.1 Computer in Office Automation
8.2 Computers as Information Tools for Management Control
8.3 Computer in Engineering
8.4 Mobile Computing

Unit 9. Personal Computer Troubleshooting

This course aims to 1. Identify the major hardware and software components
of a computer system, their relationship to one another, and the roles of these
components, 2. Develop an understanding of different between application and
system software, 3. Develop an understanding of how various electronic media are
used in real-life situations and 4. Demonstrate an understanding of the necessary
criteria for the selection of microcomputer hardware.

This learning packets may serve as reference material for the faculty teaching
Computer Technology in BSCpE (Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering) of
Samar State University, which may be used as instructional materials for the students.
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UNIT 1: INSIDE THE COMPUTER

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson packet, the students are expected to attain the
following intended learning outcomes:
1. Explain the different units of computer and how these units are
interconnected to each other – input, memory, control unit (CU), arithmetic
and logic unit (ALU) and output;
2. Discuss the two basic computer architecture, Von Neumann and Harvard
architecture;
3. Convert common number system to other base system.
4. Design simple logic circuits;

1.1 Introduction

Inside the Computer

People of today’s world rely on digital machines and one of

these is computer. Computers uses in different fields of work.
Engineers, architects, scientists, and government personnel. We can
use computers for word processing, internet and communications,
digital and audio compositions and desktop publishing. They make
human lives simpler and happier. Everyone uses computers but the
average person does not understand how a computer functions. In
this module students will be able to learn the basic structures of
computer, its architecture, the number system, boolean algebra and
logic circuits which is essential in studying computers.

1.2 Topics and Discussion

1.2.1 Anatomy of a Digital Computer

The computer receives input, process it and delivers output. To perform

this task it has different units and each unit is responsible for a specific task.
The basic structure of computer consist of the following units:
 Input. It is used for transferring data from the users’ end to the computer.
The data representation to the computer system is in the form of binary
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language after that the processor process the converted data. Some
example of input devices are keyboard, microphone, mouse, joystick,
touchpad, graphic tablet, scanner, touch screen, digital camera and
webcam.
 Memory. It stores instruction and data and provides them to the various
other units as and when required. It is basically the working memory of
the computer system. This memory unit is volatile, i.e. it is temporary
memory and nothing can be stored in the main memory as long the
computer is switched on or as long as it is required by the computer.

There are two types of memory:

1. Primary or also known as main memory. One of the very important parts of computer.
Without this computer will not run as all the programmes to start your computer are
installed in the primary memory. It is volatile in nature i.e. it will store information
till it is on, then after switching off, it forgets everything. There are two types of main
memories: Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memories (ROM).

RAM stores data temporarily, it is volatile in nature and stores initial,

intermediate and final data of the process. There are two types of RAM. The Static
RAM (SRAM), which refreshes on the command of user. It contains the command
until it is commanded to refresh itself, it do not cause any type of delay in the process
by refreshing itself. It is used in launching of rockets, where there is no place for even
a fraction of delay in process. The other type of RAM is the dynamic RAM (DRAM) it
refreshes itself in every few milliseconds, to arrange all the data and to make the full
use of the processor and process the data as fast as possible and also to utilize all the
memory of the computer. It is comparatively cheaper in price. It is used in common
Personal Computers (PC).

The other type of primary memory is ROM which stores data permanently. It is
non-volatile in nature and stores the code to run the computer, BIOS code (Basic Input
Output System). There are three types of ROM: Programmable ROM (PROM), Erasable
PROM (EPROM) and Electronically EPROM (EEPROM).

PROM it is a use and throw ROM chip. If the programme written in the chip is
in use, it’s will work but soon as there need a change in the programme, a new
programme will have to be written on other chip which creates a lot of pollution as it
cannot be recycled. To avoid all the scrap produced by PROM, EPROM was invented.
The programme written in it can be erased by the action of ultra violet rays on the
chip. The problem with it was that, by the action of UV rays on it, the chip was
damaged, and could not be used after 2-3 times of erases. And also, if you want erase
a little part of the programme, it will remove all the data and you will have to start
from the starting point. To resolve the problem of EPROM, EEPROM was invented,
which can erase the data electronically, then rewriting the programme in it. If there
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has to be a little change in chip, the whole data is not to be erased, only the effective
part can erased and rewritten on it.

2. Secondary memory. Since, primary memory has a limited storage capacity and it is
not permanent, secondary storage devices are used to store large amounts of data
permanently. It is not non-volatile in nature thus it stores all the data permanently in
it after the computer is off.

There are various type of secondary memory devices available nowadays.

Random memory consists of two types: magnetic form/magnetic storage (or magnetic
recording) is the storage of data on a magnetized medium. Magnetic storage uses
different patterns of magnetization in a magnetizable material to store data and is a
form of non-volatile memory. The information is accessed using one or more
read/write heads e.g. hard disk, recording studios etc. Another type of random
memory is in optical form, compact disks or CDs are optical way of storing the
information. The CDs are relatively very cheap and handle up to huge sum of input.
i.e. 700 mb up to100gb (blue ray). There are three types of CDs: CD-ROM (compact disk
read only memory), CD-R (recordable) and CD-RW (rewritable).

Below (Figure 1) summarizes the different types of memories

Memory

Primary Secondary

RAM ROM Sequential Random

PROM, EPROM and magnetic and
SRAM and DRAM e.g. magnetic, tape
EEPRO optical
M

Figure 1: Types of Memories

 Control Unit (CU). It controls the various operations within a computer. It basically
manages all other units and devices of the computer system. It does so by
transmitting timing and control signals to the various devices and units. When the
CU receives an instructions set or information, it converts the instruction set to
control signals then; these signals are sent to the central processor for further
processing. The control unit understands which operation to execute, accurately,
and in which order.
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU). It performs the various arithmetic and logical
operations on the data stored in memory, as dictated by the instruction. The
outputs of ALU will change asynchronously in response to the input.
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 Output. It is used to transfer processed information from the computer to the user
in a way required by the user. Output devices convert the data into a human-
readable form from binary code. The primary examples of output devices are
monitor, GPS (Global Positioning System), printer, sound card, headphones, video
card, computer speakers, braille reader, projector and speech generating device.

The ALU and CU together are called Central Processing Unit (CPU). The
computer is nothing without the CPU so, it is also known as the brain of computer.
There are set of connecting wires used for setting interconnection between the various
devices in the system called bus. Each set of bus has a specific function to perform like
carrying data, carrying control signals and addresses. Another important component
of a computer is the secondary storage, it stores various data, information and programs
permanently for future retrieval. The information is organised in such a way to
retrieve it in minimum time whenever required. The stored information remains as
long as the user wants it.

Below diagram shows how the different computer units interconnected to each other.

Figure 2. Block Diagram of Computer

Secondary
Storage
Input Unit
Output
Memory U
Unit

Control
Unit

Arithmetic Data flow

Logic Unit Control flow
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1.2.2 Computer Architecture

Below are the two common computer architecture: Von Neumann and Harvard
Architecture.

 Memory holds data and instructions.

 Central processing unit (CPU) fetches instructions from memory.
 Separate CPU and memory distinguishes programmable computer.
 CPU registers help out: program counter (PC), instruction register (IR),
generalpurpose registers, etc.

 Harvard can’t use self-modifying code.

 Harvard allows two simultaneous memory fetches.
 Most DSPs (e.g Blackfin from ADI) use Harvard architecture for streaming
data:
o Greater memory bandwidth.
o Different memory bit depths between instruction and data.
o More predictable bandwidth.

Three Major Components of CPU (Central Processing Unit)

• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) – Performs calculations and comparisons (data
changed)
• CU (Control Unit): performs fetch/execute cycle – Functions:
o Moves data to and from CPU registers and other hardware comp onents
(no change in data)
o Accesses program instructions and issues commands to the ALU –
Subparts:
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o Memory management unit: supervises fetching instructions

and data
o I/O Interface: sometimes combined with memory management
unit as Bust Interface Unit
• Registers – Example: Program Counter (PC) or instruction pointer determines next
instruction for execution

1.2.3 Number System

The number system is the system of naming or representing numbers. There are
various types of number systems in mathematics like binary, decimal, octal and
hexadecimal. This lesson covers the entire concepts of the number system with their
types, conversions and questions.

Common Number System

System Base Symbols Used by Used in
humans computers
Decimal 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Yes No
Binary 2 0, 1 No Yes
Octal 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 No No
Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, No No
A, B,C, D, F
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Quantities/Counting
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

Conversion among bases

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers
from one base to another. We’ll demonstrate here the following:
 Other base system to decimal
o Binary to Decimal
o Octal to Decimal
o Hexadecimal to Decimal
 Other base system to binary
o Decimal to Binary
o Octal to Binary
o Hexadecimal to Binary
 Other base system to Hexadecimal
o Decimal to Hexadecimal
o Binary to Hexadecimal
o Octal to Hexadecimal
 Other base system to Octal
o Binary to Octal
o Decimal to Octal
o Hexadecimal to Octal
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Other Base System to Decimal

Binary to Decimal

Steps:
1. Multiply each bit by 2n, where n is the “weight” of the bit. The weight is the position
of the bit, starting from 0 on the right
2. Add the results

Example: 1010112

1 x 20 = 1
1 x 21 = 2
0 x 22 = 0
1 x 23 = 8
0 x 24 = 0
1 x 25 = 32
___
1010112 = 4310

Octal to Decimal

Steps:
1. Multiply each bit by 8n, where n is the “weight” of the bit. The weight is the position
of the bit, starting from 0 on the right
2. Add the results

Example: 7248

4 x 80 = 4
2 x 81 = 16
7 x 82 = 448
____
7248 = 46810
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Hexadecimal to Decimal

Steps:
1. Multiply each bit by 16 n, where n is the “weight” of the bit. The weight is the
position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right
2. Add the results

Example: ABC16

C x 160 = 12 x 1 = 12
B x 161 = 11 x 16 = 176
A x 162 = 10 x 256 = 2560
____
ABC16 = 274810

Other Base System to Binary

Decimal to Binary

Steps:
1. Divide by two, keep track of the remainder.
2. First remainder is bit 0 (LSB, least-significant bit) and second remainder is bit 1.

Example: 12510
Result Remainder
125/2 = 62 1
62/2 = 31 0
31/2 = 15 1
15/2 = 7 1
7/2 = 3 1
3/2 = 1 1
1/2 = 0 1

12510 = 11111012
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Octal to Binary

Steps:
1. Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit equivalent binary representation.
2. Combine all the binary equivalent.

Example: 7058

7 0 5
111 000 101

7058 = 1110001012

Hexadecimal to Binary

Steps:
1. Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-bit equivalent binary representation.
2. Combine all the binary equivalent.

Example: 10AF16

1 0 A F
0001 0000 1010 1111

10AF16 = 00010000101011112
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Other Base System to Hexadecimal

Decimal to Hexadecimal

Steps:
1. Divide by 16.
2. Keep track of the remainder.

Example: 123410

Result Remainder
1234/16 77 2
=
77/16 = 4 13 = D
4/16 = 0 4

123410 = 4D216

Binary to Hexadecimal

Steps:
1. Group bits in fours, starting on right.
2. Convert to hexadecimal digits.

Example: 10101110112

10 1011 1011
2 B B

10101110112 = 2BB16

Octal to Hexadecimal
Steps:
1. Use binary as an intermediary.
2. Group the binary equivalent to 4 bits.
3. Convert to hexadecimal digits.
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Example: 10768

1 0 7 6
001 000 111 110

0010 0011 1110

2 3 E

10768 = 23E16

Other base system to Octal

Decimal to Octal

Steps:
1. Divide by 8.
2. Keep track of the remainder.

Example: 123410

Result Remainder
1234/8 = 154 2
154/8 = 19 2
19/8 = 2 3
2/8 = 0 2

123410 = 23228

Binary to Octal

Steps:
1. Group bits in threes, starting on right.
2. Convert to octal digits

Example: 10110101112

1 011 010 111

1 3 2 7

10110101112 = 13278
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Hexadecimal to Octal

Steps:
1. Use binary as an intermediary
2. Group bits in threes, starting on right.
3. Convert to octal digits

Example: 1F0C16

1 F 0 C
0001 1111 0000 1100

0 001 111 100 001 100

1 7 4 1 4

1F0C16 = 174148

👉 Exercise 1: Conversion
Complete the table below by converting the following given number system to
other base system. Show your solutions on your notebook.

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

3310

11101012

7038

1AF16

1.2.4: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits

Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for the manipulation of variables that

can have one of two values. In formal logic, these values are true and false. In digital
systems, these values are on and off, 1 and 0, or high and low. Boolean expressions are
created by performing operations on boolean variables. Common boolean operators
include AND, OR, and NOT. A Boolean operator can be completely described using a
truth table. The AND operator is also known as a boolean product. The OR operator is
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the boolean sum. The NOT operation is most often designated by an overbar. It is
sometimes indicated by a prime mark ( ‘ ) or an “elbow” ().

The truth table for the boolean operators AND and OR are shown below.

𝑿 𝑨𝑵𝑫 𝒀 𝑿 𝑶𝑹 𝒀
𝑿 𝑌 𝑋𝑌 𝑿 𝑌 𝑋+𝑌
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

The truth table for the boolean NOT operator is shown below.

𝑵𝑶𝑻 𝑿
𝑿 𝑋̅
0 1
1 0

A Boolean function has at least one boolean variable, boolean operator, and input from the
set {0,1}. It produces an output that is also a member of the set {0,1}.

Example: 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑧̅ + 𝑦

The truth table for the boolean function: 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑧̅ + 𝑦

𝒙 𝒚 𝒛 𝒛̅ 𝒙𝒛̅ 𝒙𝒛̅ + 𝒚
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1

To make evaluation of the boolean function easier, the truth table contains
extra (shaded) columns to hold evaluations of subparts of the function.

As with common arithmetic, boolean operations have rules of precedence. The

NOT operator has highest priority, followed by AND and then OR. Digital
computers contain circuits that implement boolean functions. The simpler that we
can make a boolean function, the smaller the circuit that will result. Simpler circuits
are cheaper to build, consume less power, and run faster than complex circuits. With
this in mind, we always want to reduce our boolean functions to their simplest form.
There are a number of boolean identities that help us to do this.
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Most Boolean identities have an AND (product) form as well as an OR (sum)

form. We give our identities using both forms.

Our first group is rather intuitive:

Identity Name AND Form OR Form

𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑳𝒂𝒘 1𝑥 = 𝑥 0 + 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑵𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝑳𝒂𝒘 0𝑥 = 0 1 + 𝑥 =1
𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑳𝒂𝒘 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝑳𝒂𝒘 𝑥𝑥̅ = 0 𝑥 + 𝑥̅ = 1

Our second group of boolean identities should be familiar to you from your
study of algebra:

Identity Name AND Form OR Form

𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑳𝒂𝒘 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥 𝑥+ 𝑦 = 𝑦+𝑥
𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑳𝒂𝒘 (𝑥𝑦) = 𝑥(𝑦𝑧) (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑧 = 𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧)
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑳𝒂𝒘 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑧) 𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧

Our last group of boolean identities are perhaps the most useful.

Identity Name AND Form OR Form

𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳𝒂𝒘 𝑥(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑫𝒆𝑴𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏′𝒔 𝑳𝒂𝒘 ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 𝑥̅ + 𝑦̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑥𝑦) (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅
𝑫𝒐𝒖𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑳𝒂𝒘 ̅̅̅̅
(𝑥̅ ) = 𝑥

We can use boolean identities to simplify functions.

Example: 𝑭(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) = (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒚 ̅̅̅̅̅̅

̅)(𝒙𝒛̅)
(𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒚 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅)(𝒙𝒛 ̅) 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐿𝑎𝑤 (𝑅𝑒𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)
(𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒚̅)(𝒙̅ + 𝒛) 𝐷𝑒𝑀𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛’𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤
(𝒙𝒙 + 𝒙𝒚̅ + 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝒚 ̅)(𝒙
̅ + 𝒛) 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤
((𝒙 + 𝒚𝒚̅ + 𝒙( 𝒚 + 𝒚 ̅))(𝒙
̅ + 𝒛) 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 & 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤
((𝒙 + 𝟎 + 𝒙(𝟏))(𝒙 ̅ + 𝒛) 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤
𝒙( 𝒙
̅ + 𝒛) 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐿𝑎𝑤
̅ + 𝒙𝒛)
𝒙𝒙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤
𝟎 + 𝒙𝒛 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤
𝒙𝒛 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐿𝑎𝑤

Sometimes it is more economical to build a circuit using the complement of a

function (and complementing its result) than it is to implement the function directly.

DeMorgan’s law provides an easy way of finding the complement of a boolean

function. DeMorgan’s law can be extended to any number of variables. Replace each
variable by its complement and change all ANDs to ORs and all ORs to ANDs.
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Thus, we find the complement of:

𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥𝑦) + (𝑥̅ 𝑧) + (𝑦𝑧̅)

(𝑥𝑦) + ̅̅̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅ (𝑥̅ 𝑧) + ̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑦𝑧̅)
= (𝑥̅ + 𝑦̅)(𝑥 + 𝑧̅)(𝑦̅ + 𝑧)

Through our exercises in simplifying boolean expressions, we see that there are
numerous ways of stating the same Boolean expression. These “synonymous” forms
are logically equivalent. Logically equivalent expressions have identical truth tables. In
order to eliminate as much confusion as possible, designers express boolean functions
in standardized or canonical form. There are two canonical forms for boolean
expressions: sum-of-products and product-of-sums.

Recall the boolean product is the AND operation and the boolean sum is the
OR operation. In the sum-of-products form, ANDed variables are ORed together. For
example: 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 + 𝑦𝑧 . In the product-of-sums form, ORed variables are
ANDed together. For example: 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑧)(𝑦 + 𝑧).

It is easy to convert a function to sum-of-products form using its truth table.

We are interested in the values of the variables that make the function true (=1). Using
the truth table, we list the values of the variables that result in a true function value.
Each group of variables is then ORed together.

The truth table for the boolean function: 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑧̅ + 𝑦

𝒙 𝒚 𝒛 𝒙𝒛̅ + 𝒚
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

The sum-of-products form of the above function is: 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥̅ 𝑦𝑧̅ + 𝑥̅ 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦̅𝑧̅ +
𝑥𝑦𝑧̅ + 𝑥𝑦𝑧

*We note that this function is not in simplest terms. Our aim is only to rewrite our function
in canonical sum-of-products form.
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Logic Gates

We have looked at Boolean functions in abstract terms. In this section, we see

that boolean functions are implemented in digital computer circuits called gates. A
gate is an electronic device that produces a result based on two or more input values.
In reality, gates consist of one to six transistors, but digital designers think of them as
a single unit. Integrated circuits contain collections of gates suited to a particular
purpose.

The three simplest gates are the AND, OR, and NOT gates.

𝑿 𝑿 X 𝑋+𝑌
XY
𝑿𝑌 𝑿 𝑋̅
𝑌 𝑌 Y

𝑿 𝑨𝑵𝑫 𝒀 𝑿 𝑶𝑹 𝒀 𝑵𝑶𝑻 𝑿
𝑿 𝑌 𝑋𝑌 𝑋 𝑌 𝑋+𝑌 𝑋 𝑋̅
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

They correspond directly to their respective boolean operations, as you can see
by their truth tables.

Another very useful gate is the exclusive OR (XOR) gate. The output of the
XOR operation is true only when the values of the inputs differ.
U1A
𝑿 𝑿𝑶𝑹 𝒀
𝑿 𝑌 𝑋 𝑌 𝑋
0 0 0 𝑋 𝑌
0 1 1 𝑌
1 0 1
1 1 0

NAND and NOR are two very important gates. Their symbols and truth tables
are shown below.

𝑿 𝑵𝑨𝑵𝑫 𝒀
𝑿 𝑌 𝑋 NAND 𝑌
0 0 1 𝑋
̅̅̅̅
𝑋𝑌
0 1 1 𝑌
1 0 1
1 1 0
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𝑋̅ + 𝑌̅ = ̅̅̅̅
𝑋𝑌

𝑿 𝑵𝑶𝑹 𝒀
𝑿 𝑌 𝑋 NOR 𝑌
0 0 1 𝑋
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑋+𝑌
0 1 0
𝑌
1 0 0
1 1 0

𝑋̅ 𝑌̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑋+𝑌

NAND and NOR are known as universal gates because they are inexpensive
to manufacture and any boolean function can be constructed using only NAND or
only NOR gates.

𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝑋
𝑋 𝑋̅

𝑋 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑌
̅̅̅̅
𝑋𝑌
𝑋 ̅̅̅̅
𝑋𝑌 = 𝑋𝑌
𝑌

𝑋 𝑂𝑅 𝑌
𝑋 𝑋̅
̅̅̅̅ = 𝑋 + 𝑌
𝑋𝑌
𝑌 𝑌̅

Gates can have multiple inputs and more than one output. The main thing to
remember is that combinations of gates implement boolean functions.

The circuit below implements the Boolean function: 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 + 𝑦̅𝑧

𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦̅𝑧

𝑦
𝑧 𝑦̅𝑧
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👉 Exercise 2. Logic gates. Complete the truth table below by determining

the corresponding output of each basic logic gates.

👉 Exercise 3. Boolean expression. Convert the following logic gate

circuit into a Boolean expression, writing Boolean sub-
expressions next to each gate output in the diagram:
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👉 Exercise 4. Boolean Algebra. Use Boolean algebra to simplify the

following logic gate circuit.

👉 Exercise 5. Design Logic Circuit. An automobile manufacturer needs a

logic circuit to perform a specific task in its new line of cars. These
cars will be equipped with a “headlight left on” alarm that sounds
any time these two conditions are met: headlights on and ignition
switch off. Draw the schematic diagram of a logic gate circuit that
will implement this alarm.

👉 Exercise 6. Simulation App. Use simulation application to run your diagram

created in exercise 5.

1.3 References

Boolean Algebra Worksheet - Digital Circuits. (2020, June 29). All about Circuit.
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/worksheets/boolean-algebra/

Computer Basics: Basic Parts of a Computer. (2020). GCFGlobal.Org.

https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/computerbasics/basic-parts-of-a-computer/1/

Extended Learning Institute (ELI) at Northern Virginia Community College

(NOVA). (2020). Reading: Computer Hardware | Introduction to Computer
Applications and Concepts. Lumen: Introduction to Computer Applications and
Concepts. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/zeliite115/chapter/reading-
hardware-2/
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Note: Should you have questions about the topics discussed in this module, please feel
free to chat me thru my fb account. I will appreciate if you’ll ask questions for
clarifications to have sufficient learning.