Another EMC resource

from EMC Standards

Good EMC Engineering Practices in the Design and

Construction of Fixed Installation

Helping you solve your EMC problems

9 Bracken View, Brocton, Stafford ST17 0TF T:+44 (0) 1785 660247 E:[email protected]
 G o o d E M C E n g in e e r in g P r a c tic e s in th e
D e s ig n a n d C o n s tr u c tio n o f F ix e d In s ta lla tio n

R E O U K L T D
Contents

1
1 Introduction and scope of this Guide 2
2 Complying with the EMC Directive 5
3 Background to EMC engineering 26
4 Good EMC engineering practices for general use 40
5 EM mitigation techniques 64
6 Electronic warfare 166
7 Preventing corrosion 167
8 Maintaining EM performance over the operational lifecycle 171
9 References and further reading 173
10 Solutions from REO 180
11 The Author 181
12 REO market sectors 182
1 Introduction and scope of this Guide

2
This Guide is intended for people who Directive, and are discussed in Section
are not EMC experts, although EMC 3.
experts might find it (or its references) A number of good EMC engineering
useful. It avoids the use of mathematics practices are required to be able to
and attempts to communicate good EMC successfully control the EM
engineering in a way that can easily be characteristics of an installation over its
understood by all practising architects, operational lifetime, whether for
electrical consultants, M&E (mechanical compliance with the EMC Directive
and electrical) contractors, electrical (Section 2) or to reduce financial risks
engineers, and people appointed as (Section 3). The remainder of this Guide
‘Responsible Persons’ under the new is focussed solely on describing the
EMC Directive. good EMC engineering practices
associated with the mechanical and
1.1 2004/108/EC mandates new electrical construction of
EMC requirements for Fixed electrical/electronic systems and
Installations installations.
All professional engineers have a duty
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is
(professional, ethical, and legal) to apply
the engineering discipline that deals with
the latest and best knowledge and
ensuring that electrical and electronic
practices in their work. Some of the good
equipment:
EMC engineering practices described in
• Does not emit such high levels of this Guide might contradict established
electromagnetic (EM) disturbances or traditional practices – but they
that they cause too much represent the state of the art at the time
electromagnetic interference (EMI) to of writing, are all well-proven in practice,
other equipment and are generally internationally
• Functions well enough despite the standardised as being good practice.
EM disturbances in its environment EMC is a rapidly developing field,
The European Union (EU) has a new because of the rapid pace of progress in
Directive on EMC, 2004/108/EC [1], electronics, computing, software, power
which replaces the original 89/336/EEC, control (e.g. variable speed AC motor
and which for the first time includes drives), radiocommunications and
specific requirements for all ‘Fixed wired/wireless data communications.
Installations’. This is discussed in The accelerating use of these
Section 2 along with the associated technologies in all applications means
2006 EMC Regulations for the UK. that some EMC techniques that might
have been perfectly adequate in the
Financial and safety risks associated 1950s (such as single-point earthing,
with inadequate EMC can be much more and bonding cable shields at only one
important than complying with any end, see 3.5) are now very bad EMC
practice indeed.
3
1.2 EMC requirements for EN 62305-4 [3] for the protection of
compliance with the IEE Wiring electronic equipment.
Reg’s (BS7671) We are all used to seeing lightning
protection systems on the outside of
The 17th Edition of the IEE Wiring buildings, but [3] includes requirements
Regulations (BS 7671) was published in for the installations within buildings,
2008, and like all of the preceding including shielding using meshed metal
Editions contains no EMC requirements structures and other conductors, radio-
at all. However, at the time of writing, frequency bonding and surge protection.
work is well underway at BSI on It also includes additional requirements
including EMC requirements in BS7671 for the immunity of items of equipment,
to implement IEC 60364-4-44 clause to those required by the generic and
444 [2] to harmonise with other EU product standards listed under the EMC
member states. These EMC Directive, see 5.13.3.
requirements will be published in the
18th Edition in 2011. Remember that buildings, plant and sites
generally have to comply with lightning
Remember that buildings, plant and sites protection requirements to meet
generally have to comply with BS7671 to insurance requirements. So from August
meet Health & Safety at Work 2008, building insurance requirements
th
requirements. So when (not ‘if’) the 18 will mandate the use of good EMC
Edition of BS7671 comes into force, engineering practices within most
Health & Safety at Work requirements industrial, military, government,
will mandate the use of good EMC commercial, financial and healthcare
engineering practices in all electrical buildings.
installations.
1.4 How this Guide helps comply
1.3 EMC requirements for
with 2004/108/EC, the future
complying with lightning
BS7671 and BS EN 62305
protection (BS EN 62305)
Although all of these Directives, EMC
In August 2008, the UK’s venerable Regulations and standards mandate
lightning protection standard BS 6651 good EMC engineering practices, they
became obsolete, superseded by BS EN do not describe how to actually do them.
62305 [3] that requires the potential for For example, in the future IEE Wiring
lightning damage to electronic Regulations or BS EN 62305 [3], one
equipment/systems on a site or in a can come across requirements such as
building to be taken into account in all ‘employ a suitable EMC filter’ or ‘install a
lightning risk assessments. Such risk surge protector’ – but, as Section 5.13
assessments were optional under shows, if you don’t select the correct
BS6651 Appendix C, and rarely done, type of filter or surge protector, and/or
but from August 2008 will apply to all don’t install it correctly – it won’t work as
new buildings, and almost all intended and could even make the
commercial, financial, industrial and situation worse.
healthcare premises will have to comply
by applying the EMC requirements in BS
 4
The same is true for all other EMC 1.5 Disclaimer
issues – the techniques that are required
to make them work in real-life are not The information and guidance provided
described in 2004/108/EC or the UK’s here is general good engineering
associated 2006 EMC Regulations [4]; practice established over many years
th
[3] or the future 18 edition of BS7671. and backed by numerous standards and
They tell us what techniques are other published documents.
required, but they do not tell us how to However, where significant safety,
do them. financial, political or other risks could
The situation is made more difficult by depend upon anything covered in this
the fact that many of the practical EMC Guide – then design, construction and
engineering techniques that are now maintenance should be based solely
required, are not yet commonly used in upon a competent and detailed analysis
electrical installations, and there is no of the application concerned, and should
tradition of EMC engineering amongst never use these guidelines
architects, building and site design unquestioningly.
consultants, electrical installers or M&E The level of competency and detailed
Contractors. analysis, the amount of work and
This Guide is intended to fill this gap, documentation, and the use of
and provide the necessary appropriate verification/validation
understanding of how to do good EMC techniques (such as reviews by an
engineering in real life, in practical detail independent expert), all depend upon
that can be applied immediately. the level of the risk. Appropriate risk
assessment techniques are required,
This Guide does not cover how to do and where EMI can be a contributory
EMC testing, but it includes a wealth of factor they can become quite complex,
references on doing such testing with see [5] and [6]. A higher risk means
various trade-offs between cost, time, more competency, detail, work,
and accuracy – and many other issues documentation, etc. is required in all
relating to achieving EMC for Fixed stages of a project,and guidance on
Installations. In any case, there are safety risks is available from the UK’s
many EMC test laboratories that one can Health and Safety executive, for
call upon to perform on-site EMC tests – example [7].
whereas at the moment there are very
few (if any) architects, building and site
design consultants, electrical
consultants, M&E Contractors, electrical
installers, or end-users, who know how
to correctly employ good EMC
engineering practices. This Guide is
intended for them.
2 Complying with the EMC Directive

5
2.1 Introduction to the new EMC supposed to have the same effect, but
Directive: 2004/108/EC the UK’s EMC Regulations 2006 go into
a lot more detail than 2004/108/EC and
This section is based upon the following make it easier to understand what is
documents: actually required.
a) The 2nd Edition of the EMC There was always confusion about how
Directive: 2004/108/EC [1] see the 1st Edition EMC Directive
Figure 1 (89/336/EEC) applied to custom-made
b) The EC’s official Guide to (bespoke) equipment, and to systems
2004/108/EC [8] and installations. It just wasn’t written
c) The UK’s EMC Regulations 2006: SI well enough – it was supposed to apply
2006 No. 3418 [4] see Figure 2 to all electrical/electronic equipment, but
its writers only provided compliance
d) The BERR Guide to the UK’s 2006 details for volume-manufactured
EMC Regulations [9] equipment sold in shops and through
e) The EC’s ‘Blue Guide’ [10] distribution.
Each EU Member State’s national law
implementing the EMC Directive is

Figure 1 The 2nd Edition of the EMC Directive: 2004/108/EC

 6

Figure 2 The UK’s EMC Regulations 2006: SI 2006 No. 3418

Dispelling this confusion was a main aim EMC work. And so over the 10 years
of the EC’s 1997 Guidelines on the EMC that 89/336/EEC was in force some very
Directive, but this was only an official odd views (e.g. that the EMC Directive
guide and did not did not change the did not apply at all to installations) and
EMC Directive, or the national some very incorrect EMC practices
implementing legislation in the member (such as the so-called ‘CE + CE = CE
states. approach to compliance’, see 2.3.4)
Since the 1997 Guidelines had no legal arose.
force, many organisations (including The singular absence of enforcement
some government organisations) and activities targeted at custom equipment,
companies working in the area of systems or installations did nothing to
custom equipment, systems and discourage such views and practices,
installations chose to ignore them and which became so commonplace and so
instead continue with their idiosyncratic entrenched that most people working in
interpretations on how they thought the these areas seemed to assume they
original EMC Directive, 89/336/EEC, were correct interpretations of the
should apply to them. Directive.
Strangely, these interpretations usually Setting out a coherent regime for dealing
resulted in them having to do very little with custom equipment, systems and
7
what it calls ‘fixed installations’ was one • The Low Voltage Equipment
of the main issues during the creation of Directive (LVD) [16]
2004/108/EC. Its resulting requirements
owe quite a lot to the EC’s 1997 • The Medical Device Directive:
Guidelines. 93/42/EEC
• The Active Implantable Medical
2.2 2004/108/EC and Safety Devices Directive: 90/385/EEC

First of all it is important to clear up the • The In-Vitro Diagnostics Directive:

relationship between the EMC Directive 98/79/EEC
and safety. Two kinds of safety need to • The General Product Safety
be considered: Directive: 2001/95/EC
• Functional Safety (errors in • Any other EU safety directives, such
operation, misoperation, malfunction as: Personal Protective Equipment,
or failure to function, that increases Potentially Explosive Atmospheres,
safety risks) etc. where electrical,
• Hazards to human health electromechanical, electronic or
programmable electronic
technologies are involved.
2.2.1 EMC for Functional Safety
Unfortunately, as yet there are no
Neither 2004/108/EC [1] nor the UK’s published EMC or safety standards that
2006 EMC Reg’s [4] cover functional effectively control functional safety risks
safety issues. Where errors or caused by EMI, for any types of
malfunctions in electrical, equipment or systems (including
electromechanical, electronic or medical), published by any standards
programmable electronic devices, organisations worldwide. This includes
equipment, systems or installations all safety standards that include EMC
could increase human safety risks, the requirements.
work required to control EMI to achieve
At the time of writing (March 2008) the
acceptable levels of risk could be very
only standardisation work that is at all
much greater than is required simply for
effective in the area of EMC for
compliance with 2004/108/EC. nd
Functional Safety is the 2 Edition of
These ‘EMC for Functional Safety’ IEC/TS 61000-1-2 [17]. This is unlikely
issues need to be fully addressed when to be adopted as a full IEC standard for
complying with: at least 5 years (maybe 10) – but this
• The Product Liability Directive [11] does not stop it from being used. The
(which is mandatory for all goods author hopes to get its principles
th
supplied in the EU) adopted in the 4 Edition of IEC 60601-
1-2 (EMC for medical equipment) but it
• IEC/EN 61508 [12] is too soon to say whether this will
• IEC/EN 61551 [13] happen.
• IEC/EN 62061 [14] However, the Institution of Engineering
Technology (IET) has a Guide on EMC
• The Machinery Directive [15] and Functional Safety [5], which
 8
describes the practical steps that should apparatus, and fixed installation. The
be taken. terms ‘placed on the market’ and ‘put
This guide is written in a way that makes into service’ are not defined in
it easy for any industry to understand 2004/108/EC, so the EC ‘Blue Guide’
and use right away. [10] definitions apply.
However, at least we can say that fully 2004/108/EC treats fixed installations
applying good EMC engineering very differently from apparatus, as
practices as required by 2004/108/EC shown by Figure 3. Apparatus is not
for fixed installations and described in within the scope of this Guide so its
this Guide, should in general help to requirements are not described here.
reduce the possibility that EMI will lead Fixed installations are discussed in 2.3.3
to safety incidents. – 2.3.13, and ‘apparatus intended for
use in a specified fixed installation and
not otherwise commercially available to
2.2.2 EMC and human health risks
an end user as a single commercial item’
Neither 2004/108/EC [1] nor the UK’s is discussed in 2.5.
2006 EMC Reg’s [4] cover health All fixed installations in the EU must
hazards caused by human exposure to comply fully with 2004/108/EC from 20
electromagnetic fields (EMFs). In the EU July 2007.
this is controlled by EC
Unfortunately, 2004/108/EC does not
Recommendation 1999/519/EC, which
say what this means for the very large
gets its legal force via the Low Voltage
numbers of fixed installations in the EU
Directive [16] and via the Radio &
that were already in existence before the
Telecommunications Terminal
20th July 2007, and its EC Guide [8] is
Equipment Directive (1999/5/EC).
no help either. However, the UK’s 2006
However, at least we can say that fully EMC Regulations [4] says that pre-
applying good EMC engineering existing fixed installations must only
practices as required by 2004/108/EC comply if they are modified on/after 20th
for fixed installations and described in July 2007. The UK’s Guide [9] goes
this Guide, should in general help to even further and says that compliance is
reduce the possibility that EMFs will only required for the areas of the fixed
cause hazards to human health. installation where the EMC
characteristics were affected by the
2.3 Applying 2004/108/EC modifications.
The UK Regulations and its Guide place
2.3.1 Applying the Directive to fixed very reasonable and practical
installations interpretations on what it means for a
pre-existing fixed installation to comply
2004/108/EC applies to equipment that
with 2004/108/EC. But it is important to
is placed on the market or put (taken)
note that the actual legal text of
into service. Its definition of ‘equipment’
2004/108/EC could possibly be
includes both ‘apparatus’ and ‘fixed
interpreted as meaning that instead
installations’, with special legal
every fixed installation in the EU must
meanings for the common words:
fully comply from 20th July 2007
9
Figure 3 Applying 2004/108

Component, sub-assembly
Component, sub-assembly
module or
module or equipment
equipment ‘‘Fixed installation’’
Fixed installation’
installation
Enjoys aa ‘reduced
Enjoys ‘reduced
compliance regime’
compliance regime’
‘EMC benign’?
‘EMC benign’?
YES NO Made available
Made available for
for
an end-user
an end-user ‘Apparatus’
‘Apparatus’
e.g. by
e.g. by distribution
distribution
Only available
Only available
to professional
to professional
integrators
integrators Intended for
Intended for aa specified
specified fixed
fixed installation
installation
not end-users
not end-users and not
and not otherwise
otherwise commercially
commercially available
available
YES NO

Choose between…
Choose between…

2004/108/EC
2004/108/EC ‘Reduced compliance
‘Reduced compliance regime’
regime’ The full
The full
does not
does not specific information
specific information must
must be
be compliance
compliance
apply
apply provided to
provided to the
the end-user
end-user requirements
requirements

– which is of course impossible. • Cables and cabling, cables

Similarly, the actual legal text in the UK’s accessories, considered separately;
2006 EMC Regulations could possibly
be interpreted as meaning an entire • Equipment containing only resistive
installation must be made to comply if loads without any automatic
any part of it is modified – which, if not switching device; e.g. simple
impossible, would of course be totally domestic heaters with no controls,
impractical. thermostat, or fan;
• Batteries and accumulators (without
2.3.2 Inherently benign equipment active electronic circuits)
‘Inherently benign equipment’ is • Headphones, loudspeakers without
equipment that is incapable of emitting amplification
any significant EM disturbances, and • Pocket lamps without active
also incapable of being interfered with by electronic circuits
the normal EM disturbances in its
environment. As such, it is excluded • Protection equipment which only
from the scope of 2004/108/EC, whether produces transitory disturbances of
it is an apparatus or a fixed installation. short duration during the clearing of a
short-circuit fault or an abnormal
The EC Guide [8] contains a list of what situation in a circuit and which do not
is currently considered to be inherently include active electronic
benign: components, such as fuses and
 10
circuit breakers without active The EC’s Guide does not say so, but it is
electronic parts or active components reasonable to assume that any
equipment that contains any
• High voltage types of equipment in
semiconductors (rectifiers, transistors,
which possible sources of
ICs, MOVs, transorbs, etc.) or thermionic
disturbances are due only to
valves cannot be considered EMC
localised insulation stresses which
benign.
may be the result of the ageing
process and are under the control of
other technical measures included in 2.3.3 Definition of a ‘fixed installation’
non-EMC product standards, and Fixed installations are defined as:
which do not include active electronic
components. “A particular combination of several
types of apparatus and, where
• Capacitors (e.g. power factor applicable, other devices, which are
correction capacitors) assembled, installed and intended to be
• Induction motors used permanently at a predefined
location.”
• Quartz watches (without additional
This definition covers all installations
functions, e.g. radio receivers)
from the smallest residential electrical
• Filament lamps (bulbs) installation, through to national electrical
• Home and building switches which and telephone networks, including all
do not contain any active electronic commercial and industrial installations.
components The EC Guide’s examples of fixed
installations include…
• Passive antennas used for TV and
radio broadcast reception • Industrial, and power generating
plants
• Plugs, sockets, terminal blocks, etc.
• Electrical power distribution networks
Note that passive (e.g. moving-coil)
loudspeakers and headphones can be • Telecommunication, and cable TV
interfered with by audio-frequency networks
magnetic fields, although the levels • Computer networks
required are not often met in normal
applications. Quartz watches have been • Airport luggage handling, and runway
known to suffer from interference. Home lightning installations
and building switches always emit • Automatic warehouses
broadband EM noise and conducted
transients when they break a current, • Skating hall ice rink machinery
which some switches might do quite installations
often in some applications, and the • Storm surge barrier installations (with
levels can exceed 1kV. Approximately the control room etc)
1% of coiled-coil mains-powered
• Wind turbine stations
filament lamps are significant VHF
transmitters. • Car assembly plants
11
• Water pumping stations, and water anyone can buy, from a shop,
treatment plants, distributor, catalogue or website.
They are generally manufactured in
• Railway infrastructures quantities of more than one, and their
• Air conditioning installations requirements for EMC compliance
Notice that a fixed installation need not and CE-marking under 2004/108/EC
be a whole site; it could be a part of a are not discussed in this Guide.
site, such as the electrical wiring, • Apparatus intended for incorporation
computer network, HVAC installation, into a specified fixed installation and
etc. So a given building or site could not otherwise commercially available
have several fixed installations within it, to an end-user as a single functional
each with their own Responsible Person unit, see 2.5.
(see later). According to [8], the ‘other devices’ that
A fixed installation is intended for can be used to create a fixed installation
permanent use at a predefined location, means items that are not covered by the
which means it was constructed with the EMC Directive.
intention of being permanently located at The term ‘Large Machine’ appears in [1].
that particular location. According to the If a large machine meets the definition
UK’s guide, if its constituent parts are given for a fixed installation, then it is
expected to be moved during their treated as such. In all other cases, large
expected lifetime, and taken into service machines are treated either as…
at another location, then it is not after all
a fixed installation, and must be treated • Apparatus…
as an apparatus instead. • Or ‘apparatus intended for a
End-users create all sorts of fixed specified fixed installation and not
installations, for example domestic multi- otherwise commercially available’
media system/installations in their own (see 2.5)
homes. But if they are not doing it ‘Mobile Installations’ are defined as: “…a
professionally, and if they only use combination of apparatus and, where
apparatus that is compliant with the applicable, other devices, intended to be
EMC Directive and intended by their moved and operated in a range of
manufacturers for the use they put it to – locations.”, and [8] uses the example of
then no further EMC actions are required an outside broadcast vehicle. Mobile
for compliance with the Directive. installations are treated as apparatus
Fixed installations are made of that is placed on the market for an end-
‘apparatus’ or ‘other devices’. There are user, because – just like products sold in
three kinds of apparatus covered by the shops – they can be used anywhere in
EMC Directive: the EU, and the manufacturer has no
control over their EM environment.
• Benign apparatus that inherently
complies with the Essential The term ‘Moveable Installation’ does
Requirements. not appear in [1], but is a term that has
been proposed for something that is
• Apparatus placed on the market for constructed anew on each site, such as
an end user. These are items that
 12
a fairground, open-air touring pop (see [18]) but unfortunately this has not
concert, etc. [8] says: stopped it from being widely used at all
“Installations which are regularly levels of all industries.
dismounted and rebuilt at different [8] includes the following statement:
locations are not considered as mobile “It should be noted that combining two
installations. They may thus be identified or more CE-marked finished appliances
as apparatus or as fixed installations does not automatically produce a
according to the particular cases.” “compliant” system e.g.: a combination
The word ‘System’ is commonly used to of CE-marked Programmable Logic
describe a variety of possible Controllers and motor drives may fail to
constructions, but does not appear meet the protection requirements.”
anywhere in [1]. [8] discusses a limited This should make it much harder for
range of systems, but is not anyone using the CE +CE = CE
comprehensive. Where a system is approach to successfully argue that their
created and supplied to an end-user by product, system or fixed installation
a manufacturer – if it fits the definition of complies with the EMC Directive.
‘apparatus’ it is treated the same way as
an apparatus. But a custom-engineered
2.3.5 Requirements for fixed
(bespoke) system is considered to be:
installations
‘apparatus intended for a specified fixed
installation and not otherwise Unlike apparatus placed on the market
commercially available’ (see 2.5). for an end-user, fixed installations are
Where end-users create their own not required to have…
systems, they are either treated as fixed • An electromagnetic compatibility
installations in their own right, or as assessment
component parts of fixed installations.
• A Conformity Assessment
2.3.4 CE + CE does not equal CE • An EC Declaration of Conformity
(DoC)
The ‘CE + CE = CE approach’ is the
name given to the assumption that if • The CE-marking affixed
someone buys CE-marked items of But, as shown in Figure 3, 2004/108/EC
equipment ‘in good faith’ and assembles does apply a “reduced compliance
them following their suppliers’ regime” to fixed installations – they must
instructions, then there is no more EMC comply with the Directive’s ‘Essential
work required to make the resulting Requirements’, which has two parts:
equipment (apparatus, system or fixed 1) The Protection Requirements
installation) comply with the EMC (or any
other CE-marking) Directive. 2) The Specific Requirements for Fixed
Installations
This approach is acceptable for end-
users who are not doing it professionally The Protection Requirements state:
(see 2.3.3), but not otherwise. There has “Equipment shall be so designed and
never been any legal or technical manufactured, having regard to the state
justification for the use of this approach of the art, as to ensure that:
13
a) the electromagnetic disturbance The Specific Requirements for Fixed
generated does not exceed the level Installations have three parts:
above which radio and A) The application of “good engineering
telecommunication equipment or practices”
other equipment cannot operate as
intended; B) Installation “respecting the
information on the intended use of its
b) it has a level of immunity to the components, with a view to meeting
electromagnetic disturbance to be the essential requirements”
expected in its intended use which
allows it to operate without C) Documentation of the good
unacceptable degradation of its engineering practices that have been
intended use.” employed, kept ready for inspection,
by a named “Responsible Person”,
The Protection Requirements are just a for as long as that installation is in
statement of what EMC is all about, and operation.
it is hard to imagine that any
manufacturer or installation owner would These three issues are discussed in
be happy if these requirements were not following subsections.
met in practice.
2.3.6 The application of Good
It is important to understand that a fixed
Engineering Practices
installation is something that the end-
user creates for his own use. A The phrase ‘good engineering practices’
manufacturer cannot supply a fixed actually means ‘good EMC engineering
installation to an end-user [19]. Anything practices having regard to the state of
that a manufacturer supplies to an end- the art’. For example, although BS7671
user must conform with the EMC (the IEE Wiring Regulations) are good
Directive either by being a CE-marked engineering practices and reflect the
apparatus, or by being ‘apparatus state of the art in electrical wiring for
intended for a specified fixed installation inherent safety purposes, they do not (at
and not otherwise commercially the time of writing) cover EMC practices
available’ (e.g. custom-designed and so they are not appropriate for
equipment). complying with the EMC Directive.
The EMC conformity and CE-marking of The EC’s Guide has the following to say
apparatus is not covered in this Guide, about good EMC engineering practices:
but the conformity of ‘apparatus intended “Good engineering practice comprises of
for a specified fixed installation and not suitable technical behaviour taking into
otherwise commercially available’ is account recognised standards and
covered in 2.5. A contractor who is codes of practice applicable to the
providing assembly/installation services particular fixed installation. The “good
to an end-user according to the end- engineering practices” referred to in
user’s design, is not a manufacturer, and Annex I, 2 mean practices which are
so the EMC Directive does not apply to good for EMC purposes, at the specific
him, see 2.4. site in question. General information on
good engineering practice within the
 14
context of installations is available in installation (power supply port,
several EMC handbooks, courses and control and telecommunication
technical reports. For example some ports etc.)
technical reports published by
⎯ The coupling mechanism with the
standardisation bodies deal with
external environment
installation and mitigation guidelines for
EMC. Good engineering practices, ⎯ The radiation towards or from the
particularly in the field of EMC, are in external environment
constant evolution. Whilst there is a It should be noted that it is not the
need to have regard for the ‘state of the purpose of the EMC Directive to ensure
art’ practices it does not necessarily electromagnetic compatibility between
follow that they are relevant for all specific equipment inside the borders of
installations. Standards for installations the defined fixed installation.”
cannot cover all specific local conditions:
The final sentence in the quotation
therefore it is necessary to be aware of
above means that the EMC Directive is
some guiding principles when aiming to
only concerned with ‘inter-system’
demonstrate installation according to
interference (between a fixed installation
good engineering practices:
and other equipment) – and is not
⎯ Emissions: take appropriate actions concerned with items of equipment
to mitigate the source of within an installation interfering with
disturbances by EMC design, e.g. each other, known as ‘intra-system’
by the addition of filters or of interference. Intra-system interference is
absorption devices etc. not uncommon, can cause significant
⎯ Coupling and radiation: take lost production, and may be more
appropriate actions in respect of important financially to the owner of the
distances, equipotential earthing, installation than inter-system
selection of cables, shielding etc. interference (see 3.1).
So this Guide covers good EMC
⎯ Immunity: take appropriate actions practices for both inter- and intra-system
to ensure that sensitive equipment interference, to help everyone maximise
is protected against the various cost-effectiveness whilst reducing
types of disturbances that might be financial risks and complying with legal
expected. requirements.
When applying the protection This requirement to employ ‘good EMC
requirements to a defined fixed engineering practices having regard to
installation, it is essential to define the the state of the art’, is a big problem for
borderlines/geographical limits of this end-users, architects, electrical
fixed installation in order to distinguish it consultants, system integrators, panel
clearly from the external environment. builders, custom engineers, M&E
It is fundamental to identify: (mechanical and electrical) contractors,
⎯ The ports/interfaces where and electrical engineers, etc., since most
conducted (high or low frequency) of them seem to believe that all that is
disturbances may cross the required for good EMC engineering is to
borderline from or towards the fixed use single-point earthing (grounding),
15
terminate cable shields at one end only, This means that EMC installation and
and that any length of wire may be used use instructions should be obtained from
to terminate a cable shield or ‘ground’ a each equipment supplier, and then
filter – as long as it has green/yellow applied as appropriate.
insulation. The word ‘respecting’ implies that it is
These might possibly have been not mandatory to mindlessly follow a
acceptable EMC practices in the 1950s, supplier’s EMC instructions – which is a
when FM Radio and Television at VHF good thing because sometimes they can
were new and considered to be the be unsuitable for a particular application
pinnacle of high technology, and digital that the supplier had not envisaged.
circuits and software were not even on However, the supplier’s instructions
the horizon. But they are generally bad must be ‘respected’, so if they are not
EMC engineering practices these days, followed exactly their EMC effect should
so they fail the ‘having regard to the be achieved by whatever means are
state of the art’ requirement in the new most appropriate to the installation,
EMC Directive. using good EMC engineering practices
But the date, 20th July 2007, on which ‘having regard to the state of the art’.
good EMC engineering practice was
made mandatory for all fixed installations 2.3.8 The Responsible Person
in the EU has passed, and very few (if
A Responsible Person must be identified
any) of the people involved with
by name for each fixed installation. He or
designing, creating and maintaining fixed
she is responsible for ensuring that the
installations seem to have any clue
fixed installation complies with the EMC
about how to do it properly.
Directive (which means complying with
We just have to hope that the the Protection Requirements plus the
enforcement activities are as three special requirements for fixed
insignificant as they were under the old installations) – and also must keep
EMC Directive. In fact there is every documentation showing how good EMC
likelihood that they will be stepped up engineering practices have been
during the next few years, due to a employed since the 20th July 2007 (see
proposed EU Directive that would force 2.3.10). This compliance documentation
Member States to do more enforcement must be kept ready for inspection by the
[20]. national EMC enforcing authorities for as
long as the fixed installation is in
2.3.7 Following suppliers’ EMC operation.
instructions The Directive allows each EU member
2004/108/EC describes this requirement state to decide on its own rules for
as the practice of constructing a fixed identifying Responsible Persons.
installation: For the UK, SI 2006 No.3418 [4] defines
“..respecting the information on the a Responsible Person (for a fixed
intended use of its components, with a installation) as…
view to meeting the Essential “…the person who, by virtue of their
Requirements”. control of the fixed installation is able to
 16
determine that the configuration of the it all for them, and provide them, at the
installation is such that when used it end of the project, with all of the
complies with the essential compliance documentation that they are
requirements.” supposed to keep ready for inspection
And the UK’s Guide [9] says: by the authorities.
“It will be necessary for operators of But few suppliers, and even fewer
fixed installations to identify the architects, electrical consultants or M&E
responsible person before the contractors have adequate EMC skills
installation is taken into service” (yet), and ensuring EMC compliance for
a fixed installation can be a complex
Notice especially that a Responsible issue, requiring a level of overall
Person must have authority (control) knowledge and control of the installation
over the design and construction of the that most contractors do not have – or
fixed installation they are responsible for. are not permitted to have (especially a
The UK’s Guide also says that a problem when a contractor is required
Responsible Person does not have to be just to work on a modification).
an EMC expert, and can seek
appropriate advice in fulfilling their
obligations. But they cannot delegate 2.3.9 EMC skill requirements
their responsibility. Unfortunately for the level of EMC skills
As 2.3.3 shows, there could be several required to be applied by (or on behalf
fixed installations on a given site (e.g. of) Responsible Persons, the
computer network, HVAC system, etc.), compliance of a fixed installation can
each with their own Responsible Person. easily become complex, for example…
In such situations it seems reasonable to • Suppliers’ instructions can be
expect the Responsible Persons to contradictory, often requiring
coordinate their activities so that the significant EMC expertise to resolve
entire site complies with the EMC the conflict using good EMC
Directive’s Protection Requirements by engineering practices
not causing unacceptable interference to
other equipment. It also seems • The emissions from large numbers of
reasonable for them to work together to individually EMC compliant items of
ensure that the different fixed equipment can build up to cause
installations on the site do not cause serious interference problems,
unacceptable interference with each especially: variable-speed motor
other. drives; variable-power heaters;
electronically-controlled luminaires;
It seems likely that many responsible
low-energy lightning; wireless
persons will try to treat 2004/108/EC in
communication systems; etc.
the same way they deal with other
technical issues (such as the IEE Wiring For example, Figure 4 shows an
Regulations, BS7671) by not bothering example of the control cubicle for a
to learn much about it – simply expecting modern sausage-manufacturing
their suppliers, architects, electrical machine. Machines incorporating
consultants and M&E Contractors to do variable-speed AC or DC motor drives
almost always require very careful
17
design, construction, installation and compliant.
maintenance in order to be EMC

Figure 4 Example of a Fixed Installation that has very complex EMC

issues

Example of (part of)

a complex fixed
installation…
The control cubicle for
the sausage machine
installed at Stork
Townsend B.V., The
Netherlands, in 2006

10 metres long;
60 variable speed drives;
18 multi-axis servo drives

To complicate matters still further, the typical walls present little barrier to
harmonised EMC standards that are their signals).
used to CE mark apparatus make
• All vehicle-mobile radio transmitters
certain assumptions that are often not
operate within legal power ratings.
true in real-life installations, for example
However, it is known that some long-
they assume that:
distance commercial vehicles (trucks,
• Personal hand-held cellphones and juggernaughts, etc.) are fitted with
walkie-talkies are not used nearby illegal CB radio transmitters rated at
(but they always are, in real life) 1kW or more, allowing them to
communicate with their bases across
• Group 2 ISM equipment is not used
whole continents. The very high
nearby (but it can be, in real life)
levels of emissions from these have
• Powerful vehicle-mobile transmitters been implicated in bus crashes in
(e.g. police, ambulance, fire, taxi, Japan (see No. 331 in [21]), and
etc.) are not used nearby (but they several other incidents, and they
can cause problems, in real life, if a could be a concern if an installation
vehicle can get within 10 metres, and
 18
is situated close to a route of depot Other concerns about the suitability of
used by long-distance hauliers. the ‘CE-marking’ EMC test standards for
real-life applications exist, and some of
• Overvoltage surges on the mains
them are expressed in [26].
supply are no higher than ±2kV (but
±6kV or more is widely known to For example, and considering Figure 4,
occur on single-phase installations in the EMC standard for motor drives,
real life, see [22], and ±12kV or more IEC/EN 61800-3, that is listed as
can occur on three-phase systems providing a ‘presumption of conformity’
that have no single phase mains under the EMC Directive, can be less
sockets or equipment connected.) than helpful to end-users trying to make
their Fixed Installations EMC Compliant.
• Electrostatic discharge (ESD) occurs Soon after its initial publication, the
up to 8kV (but >15kV can occur European Association of Competent
during periods of low humidity (see Bodies (renamed the European
IEC 61000-4-2) and 25kV or more Association of Notified Bodies under
has been reported in a number of 2004/108/EC) requested that the
facilities including hospitals (see No. European Commission (EC) withdraw
418 in [21]).) this standard from being listed under the
• That only one EM phenomenon EMC Directive.
occurs at a time (not true in real life). This (and similar) requests were not
[23] shows that apparatus that successful, but eventually the EC did
passes each of its ‘CE’ immunity appoint an EMC expert whose job,
tests individually, can fail very easily amongst others, was to approve or reject
when two EM disturbances at the new EN standards for listing under the
same or lower levels occur at the EMC Directive. Different experts have
same time. different views, for example one EC
• Some EM phenomena can be EMC Consultant thought that the EN
ignored (e.g. continuous EM 550121 series of EMC standards for
disturbances between 50Hz and railway equipment and installations did
150kHz, and above 1GHz) – which not provide sufficient protection for listing
might not be the case for certain under the EMC Directive (a view shared
installations by many other experts, including this
author), but when he was replaced by a
• EMC performance does not vary with different expert the 550121 series was
ambient temperature (but it does, suddenly approved and listed under the
see [24]) EMC Directive without any modifications.
• EMC performance does not vary with Equipment that fully meets harmonised
ageing and wear-and-tear caused by EMC standards can still cause or suffer
the physical environment (but it significant EM interference. Excessive
always degrades over time, see [25]) levels of EM emissions are especially
• There is no electric arc welding likely from electric traction (trams, trains,
taking place nearby (but it can be, cars), and Group 2 ISM equipment
during modification or maintenance under EN 55011 (CISPR 11) [27], e.g.
works) diathermic heating devices, plastic bag
19
sealers, glue dryers, microwave Bluetooth or ZigBee systems no longer
heaters/cookers/dryers, induction function.
heaters, electromagnetic stirrers, electric All of the above (and more) are issues
welders, etc. that EMC consultants worldwide are
Group 2 [27] allows very high levels of often employed in solving – actual
emissions at the ‘ISM’ frequencies – a problems in real-life systems and
number of narrow frequency bands that installations. They exemplify some of the
are not used for broadcasting or licensed reasons why simply relying on suppliers
radiocommunications, set aside by providing products that comply with
international agreement for use by standards listed under the EMC
industry, science and medicine (hence: Directive, and following their EMC
‘ISM’) so that they can use high-power instructions, is not necessarily sufficient
radio-frequency (RF) equipment without to ensure compliance. The situation will
interfering with radio and TV reception only get worse as increasing amounts of
over large areas. But the emissions from more sophisticated electronics and
[27] Group 2 that is legitimately ‘CE- power-control are used in installations,
marked’ under the EMC Directive could and as the EM environment continues to
be so high in its vicinity as to cause worsen and power quality continues to
hazards to human health (see 2.2.2) and degrade.
to interfere with almost any electronic
equipment. 2.3.10 Documenting EMC compliance
It is also notable that some of the ISM
There are no EMC standards for fixed
bands are now being used for
installations listed under 2004/108/EC,
unlicensed communications, in particular
for emissions or immunity. However, the
the 2.4GHz band is being extensively
[27] test method is specified for ‘in-situ’
used by Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, and a
measurements of the emissions from
number of other low-cost wireless data
items of large industrial ‘ISM’ equipment
and voice communication systems. At
after installation, and is sometimes used
the time of writing, many industries and
for assessing the emissions from an
healthcare premises are enthusiastically
entire installation at the boundary of its
embracing these wireless systems,
site. DD CLC/TS 50217 [28] is a draft
using them in place of wired
CENELEC Technical Specification that
datacommunications because they cost
can also be helpful for measurements of
less.
an installation’s emissions. It is possible
Many people have experienced (though not considered to be very likely)
problems with their domestic Wi-Fi when that some appropriate standards for
their microwave cooker (a Group 2 ISM measuring the emissions and immunity
apparatus) operates. But more powerful of a fixed installation could be created in
Group 2 ISM equipment is capable of the future and listed under 2004/108/EC.
wiping out these new ISM-band wireless
Where a simple fixed installation
systems over large areas – and the fact
consists solely of apparatus (placed on
that this is perfectly legal is no comfort to
the EU market for an end-user,
those whose wireless LANS and
conforming to the EMC Directive,
carrying the CE-marking), the
 20
Responsible Person might be able to • Use of EM mitigation measures
satisfy the documentation requirements (shielding, filtering, etc.)
simply by retaining the EMC instructions
for installation, use and maintenance, • Calculations, site measurements,
provided by the suppliers, and keeping etc.,
records that show these instructions and the use of good EMC engineering
were followed using good EMC practices must be documented, for
engineering practices. example by…
But the provision of such user EMC • Retaining all of the EMC
instructions is a new requirement for assembly/installation/operation
apparatus in 2004/108/EC, and until instructions received from suppliers
20th July 2009 types of equipment that
• Reference to other specifications
were already on sale in the EU can
describing appropriate good EMC
continue to be legally sold as compliant
engineering practices
with the 1st Edition EMC Directive
(89/336/EEC as modified) without such • Records of inspections, photographs,
instructions. So this Guide recommends etc., showing that the specified
that potential suppliers are asked about practices were followed
the availability of comprehensive EMC The form in which compliance
installation and use instructions as part documentation should be kept is not
of the process of deciding which specified, but this Guide assumes that
apparatus to purchase. graphics and text files on a computer
As discussed in 2.3.9, EMC issues can system would be appropriate, as long as
become very complicated. The good they can quickly be displayed or printed
practices described in this Guide can out for the benefit of an enforcement
deal with all of those issues, and the officer, and are reliably backed-up off-
compliance documentation should show site.
how the issues were identified during the Since the compliance documentation
design process and realised in practice. has to be kept available for the
There are no mandatory requirements operational life of the installation, which
for the types of documentation that the could be decades, the ability to read the
Responsible Person must keep but computer records many years after their
(except for the simplest systems) it creation is important. So either old
should show how sufficient confidence in systems that can read them should be
complying with the Protection maintained, or the data converted
Requirements, was achieved, for (without errors) to new versions or
example by… formats of computer software as
necessary to keep them readable on
• Knowledge of the EM environment
current systems.
(assessments, calculations, site
measurements, etc.)
2.3.11 Enforcement possibilities
• Knowledge of the EM characteristics
of the equipment incorporated into If the EMC of the fixed installation is
the installation suspect, or if complaints of interference
21
are received, the national EMC even if they do not own sufficient area of
authorities may request evidence of land all around them to ensure that this
compliance (probably assessing the happy situation is maintained for the
Responsible Person’s documentation), operational life?
or initiate an investigation (probably The EM environment will inevitably
actual measurements of the site’s change over time. It changed
emissions or immunity). dramatically during the 1990s with the
Where non-compliance is established, rollout of GSM cellphone systems, and
the authorities may impose measures to in the UK it changed during 2005-7 due
bring the fixed installation into to the rollout of the TETRA
compliance with the essential communications system. Both of these
requirements. This could simply mean roll-outs caused significant interference
switching the offending installation off, problems to a variety of existing
until such time as it has been modified electronic equipment, now mostly solved
and can be shown to be compliant – an (but paid for by the people who suffered
enforcement action that has already the interference). In the near future we
been taken a number of times in the will see the large-scale rollout of Wi-Fi at
past, in the UK at least, when 2.4 and 5-6GHz, with some cities going
installations caused troublesome for metropolitan coverage instead of a
interference problems outside their site few ‘hot spots’ in cafés and the like.
boundaries. Other roll-outs in the pipeline include
WiMAX, 4G cellphone systems, and the
2.3.12 The continuing compliance of large-scale use of switch-mode power
fixed installations conversion in industry and in all
motorised household appliances to save
Some installations are located remotely,
energy (and hopefully the planet) –
which helps them avoid
which will considerably increase the
suffering/causing interference. But what
levels of electromagnetic disturbances at
if – in the future – radio, telecomm or
RF on the public 230/400V mains
other equipment is used nearby? For
supplies.
example, if a housing estate, commercial
park, entertainment venue, sporting Further into the future, changes to the
arena, industrial development or public way that the radio spectrum is licensed
road is built nearby? are looking likely, allowing the use of
software-defined and cognitive radio
Modifying a fixed installation to reduce
systems, so that radio ‘channels’ will no
its emissions can be very costly indeed,
longer use fixed frequencies. This will
with a long downtime and huge loss of
allow a much greater volume of radio
production. So should installations
and TV transmissions to be fitted into the
comply with all such possible future
RF spectrum – with all sorts of hard-to-
requirements when they are first
predict implications for interference.
constructed, so as not to have to be
modified later on in case of such As equipment wears and ages its EM
developments? Or is it acceptable to rely performance (e.g. shielding, filtering,
on remote locations to prevent surge suppression) generally degrades,
interference from ‘noisy’ installations, but fixed installations must continue to
 22
comply with 2004/108/EC throughout out for themselves, and what they
their life. are not permitted to know
• What EMC documents they are
2.3.13 Purchasing a building, plant or required to provide at the end of the
site containing Fixed Installation(s) contract
When a site, plant or building is sold to a • How much they will be paid for the
different end-user, the new owner’s extra EMC work covered by the
Responsible Persons become above three bullets
responsible for all of the good EMC
There is a lot of competition in
engineering practices of their fixed
consultancy and contracting, which
installations and all of their EMC
tends to drive down prices; so many
compliance documentation since the
consultants and contractors might be
20th July 2007 [19].
unwilling to follow the above
For any given Fixed Installation there is recommendation for fear of being
a good chance that the EMC compliance undercut by someone who ignores EMC
documentation will not be complete, or issues.
that it will not have been done with the
So this Guide recommends that quotes
attention to detail required by its new
contain two prices: one being the price
Responsible Person.
following the usual pricing rules already
So, to help avoid taking on unknown established that ignore good EMC
financial risks when purchasing a engineering practices and compliance
building, plant or site, it is strongly with 2004/108/EC, and the other with the
recommended that the EMC compliance good practices and their documentation
documentation is checked thoroughly included. Then the customer can see
prior to purchase. Where the that the quote is competitive in the
documentation is poor, the prospective ‘usual’ way, and also see what he has to
purchaser might want to offer a lower pay if he wants the added EMC services.
price, to allow for the financial risk.
The problem is that some Responsible
Persons will assume that 2004/108/EC
2.4 Architects, consultants and applies to their consultants and/or M&E
M&E Contractors contractors (it doesn’t) and so will
assume that any quoted price includes
This Guide recommends that architects,
all the necessary good EMC Engineering
electrical consultants and M&E
practices and provision of EMC
contractors discuss the following, with
documentation. This will mean that these
the Responsible Person for the fixed
service providers could face great
installation they are working on, before
difficulties in getting paid; when it turns
quoting for the work:
out they have no EMC documentation to
• What EMC activities they are provide at the end.
required to perform So it is best to get all this sort of
• What EMC information on the nonsense out of the way before
existing installation they will be accepting a contract. If the customer
provided with, what must they find says he wants things doing the ‘usual’
23
way – ignoring good EMC engineering to maintain their professionalism at the
practices – then the ‘usual’ pricing rules level that customers actually need.
apply. But if the customer wants good At the time of writing, the vast majority of
EMC engineering applying and the owners of fixed installations are
additional documentation providing, he unaware even of the existence of
must be prepared to pay for the extra 2004/108/EC, much less their legal
work. The good news (such as it is) is duties under it. If contractors discuss
that the Responsible Person is the only their new EMC responsibilities with
one held responsible under the law for them, some will decide to purchase the
ensuring that good EMC engineering additional good EMC engineering
practices ‘having regard to the state of practice services offered by the more
the art’ are employed on their fixed professional contractors despite the
installation. increased costs, and this might also
So, if a consultant or contractor does not reduce the cowboys’ incomes and
employ good EMC engineering practices hopefully reduce their numbers.
in his work, whatever his contract with Increasingly, contractors are undertaking
his customer he cannot be held liable facilities management, so it seems
under 2004/108/EC or the UK’s 2006 possible that they might be appointed as
EMC Reg’s. However, the customer the Responsible Person for the fixed
always has the option of suing the installations they manage.
contractor, if he feels the work was not
performed to the agreed specification.
2.5 Apparatus intended for
Offering the Responsible Person EMC incorporation into a fixed
compliance services under 2004/108/EC
installation
provides an opportunity for the many
professional M&E Contractors to The apparatus used in a fixed
distinguish themselves from their less- installation could be apparatus as
professional competitors, sometimes defined in 2004/108/EC that is placed on
known as ‘cowboys’. the EU market with a DoC and CE-
The problem with the less professional marking.
contractors is that because they are not But it could be apparatus specially made
so highly trained, competent, well- for that installation (typically: custom-
equipped, or knowledgeable about engineered, bespoke, etc.) and ‘not
standards and regulations that apply, otherwise commercially available to an
they can quote much lower prices – and end-user as a single functional unit’
some customers are bound to employ (meaning that it cannot be purchased
them (although they may regret it later from a shop, warehouse, or a catalogue
on). The presence of such people in the – it has to be made to special order for
market depresses prices generally, each installation).
making it hard for the proper
professional contractors to get a 2.5.1 CE-marked apparatus
reasonable rate for the services they
provide, in turn making it harder for them A potential problem is that this apparatus
may not have been intended for use in
 24
the EM environment that obtains in the apparatus there will always be a direct
fixed installation, for example, a desktop relationship between its provider and its
or laptop PC used to control a heavy- final customer. For such apparatus, the
industrial process will probably not be manufacturer can choose to apply a
immune enough (even if the PC is put in ‘reduced compliance regime’ (see Figure
a steel box for mechanical protection). 3) that does not require:
Another problem is that individually • Compliance with any essential
compliant apparatus might still cause requirements
interference problems within or outside a
fixed installation, for example, if: • Any conformity assessment
procedure
• The apparatus is very noisy Group 2
ISM equipment under EN 55011 [27] • A DoC to be created or the CE-
marking to be affixed
• Two or more items of apparatus are (but these may be needed by other
used and their emissions aggregate
Directives, e.g. the LVD [16])
• The apparatus is used in a way that But all such equipment must be provided
is not specifically addressed by its to their end user with documents that:
manufacturer’s EMC installation and
use instructions • Identify the fixed installation it is
intended for (e.g. by its street
The Responsible Person should make
address)
sure that the EMC compliance of the
fixed installation is not compromised by • Identify the EMC characteristics of
purchased items of apparatus. He or she the fixed installation it is intended for
should be aware of the EM environment • Indicate the precautions to be taken
of their fixed installation and take when incorporating it into the fixed
necessary steps, not simply assume that installation so that it does not
because it is CE-marked it can be used compromise the installation’s
without any additional EMC assessment compliance
or work.
• Uniquely identify the item (e.g. its
2.5.2 Equipment custom- serial number)
manufactured for a fixed installation • Give its manufacturer’s name and
address (or that of its agent or EU
2004/108/EC [29] and its Guide [8] calls
importer)
this type of equipment: “Apparatus
intended for incorporation into a How much detail should the supplier’s
specified fixed installation and not documentation go into? The EC Guide
otherwise commercially available to an [8] gives these examples of information
end-user as a single functional unit.” – that should be provided:
but this was too long for the title of this • The required use of additional
section. [4] and [9] call it ‘certain auxiliary devices (e.g. protection
equipment’. devices, filters etc.)
According to the EC’s Guide, for such
‘bespoke’ or ‘custom-manufactured’
25
• The specifications and length of the apparatus (not discussed here, but see
cables required for external [30]) or else the compliance route for
connections (and their connectors) ‘apparatus intended for incorporation
into a specified fixed installation and not
• The conditions for use (e.g. limits for otherwise commercially available to an
proximity of walkie-talkies, end-user as a single functional unit’ –
cellphones, ISM equipment, etc.) what [4] calls ‘certain apparatus’. There
• Any special precautions for EMC are no alternatives.
(e.g. meshed bonding, etc.)
The UK’s Guide [9] adds that the 2.5.3 Apparatus constructed
supplier must understand the nature of professionally for ‘own use’
the fixed installation in sufficient detail to According to the EC’s Guide: if a
specify the precautions for incorporation company makes an item of equipment
to avoid compromising its EMC for its own use, then they are both
compliance. manufacturer and end-user, so it is
However, it is important to understand classified as either an ‘other device, or
that there is no obligation on the part of as an apparatus – in which case all of
the owner or operator of the fixed the requirements of 2004/108/EC apply
installation, or of its Responsible Person, depending on whether it is classified as
to provide any EMC information at all to an ‘apparatus’, or as an ‘apparatus
anyone who is not from the EMC intended for a fixed installation and not
enforcement authorities. So they might otherwise commercially available’.
deny the supplier the information he
needs to use this reduced compliance
regime.
Where it is impossible or impractical to
determine the EM characteristics of the
fixed installation in sufficient detail, the
supplier of the custom equipment should
apply the usual compliance regime to his
apparatus, as if it was going to be sold
through a high-street shop (Conformity
Assessment, DoC, CE-marking, etc.).
The author has heard of some
companies who manufacture custom-
engineered equipment or systems, who
intend to supply them to their end-users
by treating them as fixed installations.
But [19] made it quite plain that this is
not a legal option.
Anything that is supplied to an end-user
must either follow the compliance route
that is specified in [1] and [4] for
3 Background to EMC engineering

26
This section discusses financial and [21] includes 500 examples of real-life
safety implications, as well as providing EMI problems (a very small sample of
some non-mathematical background to the total), many of which relate to
EM phenomena and EMC. systems and installations of various
Later sections address the practical types, and some of which concern
mechanical and electrical good EMC incidents that had serious financial
engineering practices that are relevant and/or safety consequences.
for fixed installations to better control So it is becoming essential for reliability
EMI, and to help comply with the EMC of operation (high uptime, low downtime)
Directive, future IEE Wiring Regulations and the quality of the ‘finished product’
and/or new lightning protection created by the installation (e.g. goods for
standards (see Section 2). sale, entertainment experiences,
For more information on other EMI and medical treatments, etc.) to control EMI
EMC issues, such as management, for commercial and financial reasons.
planning, testing, and physical Added to this is the regulatory
background see [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] requirement for the suppliers of products
[36] [37] and [38]. and systems, and owners of premises
EMP and electronic warfare (see 5.13.4 and sites in the European Union, to
and Section 6) are not the subject of this comply with the new EMC Directive [1],
Guide, but the techniques it describes especially the very specific requirements
can be used for mitigating their EM for the use of good EMC engineering
threats. practices, discussed in Section 2 above.
Being found to be non-compliant, and
having your fixed installation switched off
3.1 Financial and safety risks by enforcement agents, can have
controlled by good EMC serious financial implications.
engineering practices
Remember that safety is always
Modern systems and installations are paramount, and should never be
increasingly using continually advancing compromised by any EMC techniques.
electronic technologies, especially digital A typical example of such a compromise
processing, software, wireless and is fitting EMI filters that cause high earth-
switch-mode power conversion (e.g. leakage currents that increase safety
variable speed AC motor drives). These risks – unless special high-integrity
all create more EM disturbances, and at safety earthing/grounding methods are
the same time they are more susceptible used.
to EM disturbances, making EMI
However, it is very important to
problems more likely. Also, their
understand that (see 2.2) where errors
increasing complexity makes the
or malfunctions in electronic circuits
discovery and solution of EMI problems
could possibly have implications for
much more difficult and costly.
functional safety – merely complying
27
with [1] and passing its listed test electronic assemblies, systems, and
standards will almost certainly not be installations regardless of the purpose of
sufficient to comply with the basic their application, in exactly the same
standard on functional safety [12]. way, these practices apply regardless of
Likewise, it will almost certainly not be application, from professional audio
sufficient either, for [13], [14] or safety installations through hospitals and
regulations such as the Low Voltage railways to space vehicle launch
Directive [16]; Machinery Directive [15]; facilities.
and other safety Directives such as Lifts; I hope that the way I have written and
Personal Protective Equipment; illustrated this Guide makes the
Potentially Explosive Atmospheres; the techniques it describes easy to apply
three Medical Devices Directives; or the wherever electrical and electronic
Product Liability Directive [11] and the installations are designed and
General Product Safety Directive. constructed.
Although the design and assembly Even where electronic equipment (such
techniques described here are often as low-frequency analogue signal
used to help achieve ‘EMC for processing) does not employ or emit RF,
Functional Safety’, a lot more is involved the semiconductors they use
that is not covered by this Guide – for (transistors, integrated circuits, etc.) will
more information on this, see [5] [6] and happily demodulate and intermodulate
[17]. any RF noise that appears in their
Some systems and installations can be circuits, causing immunity problems,
described as ‘mission critical’, and the unless their manufacturers have taken
financial, political, or other great care in their EMC design. Many
consequences of their failure to operate manufacturers do not take great care
correctly can sometimes be as bad or over immunity, because it adds to the
worse than a safety accident. Such cost, so even DC and low-frequency
systems and installations should follow analogue electronics need to employ
the good EMC engineering practices that good EMC engineering practices in their
are appropriate for controlling safety systems and installations.
risks (also see 2.2) – but use them to
control whichever risks are considered to 3.3 EM phenomena, EM
be so important. disturbances, EMC test standards
EM disturbances have been mentioned
3.2 These techniques suit a wide several times above. An EM disturbance
range of applications is any EM phenomenon that exists at a
The good EMC engineering practices sufficient level that it could cause EM
described in this Guide focus on interference (EMI). Table 1 is a standard
industrial good EMC engineering list of the types of EM disturbances that
practices, and since the same laws of can occur.
physics (and hence of electromagnetics)
apply to all types of electrical and
 28
Table 1 Overview of types of electromagnetic disturbance phenomena
(from [17])

Conducted low frequency phenomena Harmonics, interharmonics

Signalling voltages
Voltage fluctuations
Voltage dips and interruptions
Voltage unbalance
Power frequency variations
Induced low frequency voltages
d.c. in a.c. networks
Radiated low frequency field phenomena a
Magnetic fields
Electrical fields
Conducted high frequency phenomena Directly coupled or induced
continuous voltages or currents
b
Unidirectional transients
b
Oscillatory transients

Radiated high frequency field phenomena Magnetic fields

Electrical fields
Electromagnetic fields
– continuous waves
c
– transients

Electrostatic discharge phenomena (ESD) Human and machine

d
Intentional EMI
d
High altitude electromagnetic pulse (HEMP)
a
Continuous or transients.
b
Single or repetitive (bursts).
c
Single or repetitive.
d
To be considered in case of special conditions.
NOTE: There is no abrupt change between the low frequency domain and the high
frequency domain but a soft transition between 9 kHz and 150 kHz. For formal
applications the limit is set at 9 kHz (the scope of CISPR).

Of course, whether an EM phenomenon • Electromechanical devices

could actually cause EMI depends upon (switches, relays, contactors,
the susceptibility of the equipment solenoids, residual current detectors,
concerned to that phenomenon. For under/overvoltage relays, phase
example: rotation relays, circuit breakers, etc.)
are especially susceptible to surge
overvoltages that can cause sparking
29
across open contacts, and surge With well-designed digital circuits,
overcurrents that can weld closed continuous EM phenomena need to
contacts together. be at quite a high level before they
Any device that relies on energising cause similar problems, although
a coil (relay, contactors, solenoid, close proximity of portable mobile
etc.) is also susceptible to dropping transmitters such as cellphones,
out due to poor quality of its electrical walkie-talkies, etc., is capable of
power supply, in particular its exceeding such levels.
voltage, dips, dropouts, frequency. REO (UK) Ltd have published a series of
Its susceptibility gets worse as the 17 EMC Guides [37], which describe
temperature of its armature how electromagnetic (EM) phenomena
increases, and relays/contactors that arise (i.e. what causes them) and how
are ‘held in’ by a normally-open they can cause problems for electrical
contact will not automatically recover and electronic devices and circuits and
after a momentary dropout. the applications they are used in.
Another useful reference on EM
• Analogue transducer amplifiers
and similar are typically very disturbances is [39].
susceptible to continuous EM The REO Guides also describe the
phenomena, from DC up to several European EMC test standards, which
hundred MHz. Electrostatic are based on international standards
discharges (ESD), transients, surges, developed by the IEC, and how to test
and dips/dropouts in the electrical using them. All of these standards are
power supply cause a momentary intended for testing items of equipment,
error to occur in their output, which and there are no published standards for
can often be ignored by appropriate testing systems or installations.
programming of the subsequent Many companies do their own EMC
digital system (as long as that do not testing according to European or
cause actual damage to the International standards. There are many
amplifiers). easier, quicker and less costly ways to
• Digital processing is typically very do EMC testing, but they are less
susceptible to ESD, transients, accurate and not as useful for proving
surges, and dips/dropouts in their legal compliance. However, they still
electrical power supply. Where have value in assessing the suitability of
software or firmware is employed it is supplier’s products, design and
not unusual for complex malfunctions development, fault-finding and problem-
to result, sometimes involving solving, checking workmanship
overwriting of programme memory, standards and other QA activities. For
and the processor may also cease more on low-cost testing, see [40].
processing (often called a ‘freeze’ or On-site (‘in situ’) test methods do exist
‘crash’) and need to be rebooted for testing equipment outside of the
(maybe after manually reloading its carefully-controlled EM environments in
software). EMC test laboratories, and so can be
used to test systems and installations.
Examples of in-situ methods that can be
 30
used to verify EMC design and ohms at frequency f (e.g. 63 Ω/m at
assembly, and can also help support a 10MHz).
claim of EMC compliance, are given in The result is that wires (even ones
[41], and [27] and [28] are also relevant. with green/yellow insulation) cannot
be used to provide an effective circuit
3.4 The basic EMC theory (with reference voltage at frequencies
almost no maths) above a few hundred kHz (usually
much less), and so can’t provide any
This Guide focuses on practical tips and EMI control at RF.
techniques, and does not try to explain
why they work. This approach can leave • All conductors – such as metalwork,
engineers vulnerable to special wires and cables – make good
situations where an unusual approach ‘accidental antennas’, and so leak a
may be needed, but trying to convey the proportion of the power and/or
theoretical understanding required to signals they carry into their external
devise special techniques is outside the environment. This is especially the
scope of this Guide, and many practicing case where the conductors are
engineers would find it very tedious longer than one-tenth of a
anyway. So this Guide suggests reading wavelength (λ/10) at the highest
the references in Section 10, and then frequency of concern. The
reading their references if you still need wavelength λ = 300/f when the
more background. But here are a few of frequency f is given in MHz.
the reasons why these EMC techniques Accidental antenna behaviour is a
are needed: common cause of EM emissions and
• All modern electronics – especially immunity problems. Cables can be
digital, switch-mode, and wireless – shielded to reduce their antenna
employ a wide band of frequencies efficiency, but it is never 100%
from audio up to at least 100 MHz, effective and if done incorrectly (e.g.
maybe even up to several GHz cable shield bonded at only one end)
(thousands of MHz). For them to it can have no benefits at RF, and
operate correctly and to achieve could even be worse than having no
EMC it may be necessary to control shield at all.
some or all of their frequency range • All conductors, such as metalwork,
by using EMC techniques in their wires and cables, make good
cabling and assemblies, and in the accidental antennas, and so pick-up
cabinets that house them. a proportion of the EM energy in their
• All conductors have significant external environment and so add
impedance at frequencies above a voltage and current noise into the
few 10s of kHz, caused by skin effect signals and power they are carrying.
(which increases their resistance) This is especially the case where the
and inductance. Inductance (L) is conductors are longer than λ/10 at
typically 1µH/metre for an ordinary the highest frequency of concern,
wire (e.g. a green/yellow insulated and is a common cause of EM
wire), giving a reactance of 2πf L susceptibility (immunity) problems.
31
Shielding can be used to reduce this ‘grounds’. At such frequencies they
effect, but it is never 100% effective cannot provide EMI control – and
and if done incorrectly (e.g. shield may even add to EMI problems.
bonded at only one end) can make The problems caused by accidental
the problem worse. antennas are illustrated in Figures 5, 6
• All conductive structures – typically and 7, which show how the typical wire
called ‘earths’ or ‘grounds’ – become and cable lengths used in installations
ineffective above some frequency (300 mm to 100 metres) can cause the
related to their dimensions and electrical energies they carry (whether
method of construction. Above this as signals or power) to interfere with the
frequency they no longer provide a radio spectrum that is vital for
stable or effective circuit reference broadcasting and communications.
voltage – in fact, they become
accidental antennas instead of

Figure 5 The frequencies we use

Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth,
Taxicabs, walkie-talkies, UHF TV etc.
private mobile radio, etc.
dB Cellphones
AC FM radio
0 supply
CB radio

Short wave radio

-10
Medium wave
(AM radio)
-20
Long wave
(AM radio)
-30

Audio band
-40

-50
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000
All the apparently empty regions of the spectrum are in fact filled by MHz
military, government, telecomm’s and other private users
 32
Figure 6 Plus the noises emitted by electrics/electronics

Microprocessor clocks
Microprocessor clocks
Switch-mode power
Switch-mode power and their
and their harmonics
harmonics
dB Supply rectifiers
Supply rectifiers converters and
converters and their
their (this example
(this example 32MHz)
32MHz)
and their
and their harmonics
harmonics
0 harmonics
harmonics

-10

-20

-30

Random noise
Random noise
-40 from arcs
from arcs and
and
sparks
sparks

-50
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000
MHz

Figure 7 All conductors are accidental antennas

Usually negligible
Usually negligible
antenna effects
antenna effects Length that
Length that makes
makes
inefficient antenna
antenna Length that
Length that makes
makes aa perfect
perfect
inefficient
Metres ‘accidental antenna’ ((λλ/4)
‘accidental antenna’ /4)

1,000

100

10

0.1

0.01
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000
Metalwork and
Metalwork and other
other conductors
conductors are
are also
also ‘accidental
‘accidental antennas’,
antennas’, in
in which
which MHz
case the
case the lines
lines above
above represent
represent their
their longest
longest ‘3-D
‘3-D diagonal’
diagonal’ dimension
dimension
33
The words ‘earth’ and ‘ground’ are very An RF Reference must always be
much misused in electrical and physically close to the circuit that relies
electronic engineering, leading directly to upon it for operation or EMC – much
a great deal of confusion, delay and closer than λ/10 at fmax: the highest
unnecessary extra costs. This Guide frequency to be controlled (ideally λ/100
strongly recommends that these words or even less, e.g. < 30mm for
are never used, except when referring to frequencies up to 100MHz). This is
an actual earth or ground electrode that because of all of the conductors,
is buried in the soil under or around a including large pieces of metal with
site. negligible resistance, that might be used
This Guide will try to take its own advice to connect the circuit to the RF
(but probably not succeed entirely) and Reference suffer from inductance and
use more accurate and explicit terms accidental antenna effects at longer
such as: chassis or frame; shielded distances.
(shielded) enclosure; protective earthing Since λ = 300/f (f in MHz gives λ in
conductor (the green/yellow wire in metres) we can write λ/10 at fmax as
mains cables, used for safety purposes); 30/fmax, and λ/100 as 3/fmax.
Common Bonding Network (CBN) for
what is often called a site’s protective A metal box of whatever size (e.g. a
earthing/grounding system; and of shielded room) can be used to shield a
course: Reference. cable or item of equipment from its
external EM environment, but its metal
As has been implied above, correct surfaces can only be used as the RF
circuit operation and good control of EMI Reference for that cable or equipment if
and the achievement of EMC requires it is much closer than λ/10 (or 30/fmax).
that we understand how to design and
create a Reference that is effective over
the full range of frequencies we need to 3.5 Single-point earthing/
control, especially RF (frequencies grounding is no use for EMC at all
above 150kHz). In some other It should be obvious from the above that
publications the Reference is sometimes the traditional but long-outdated
called the RF Reference, Reference electrical installation practice of ‘single-
Plane, RF Common, or other terms such point earthing’ (or grounding or bonding)
as ‘EMC Earth’ or ‘EMC Ground’. is counter-productive when it comes to
To be effective, an RF Reference must EMC. In fact it is almost as if whoever
have very low impedance over the introduced it was trying to ensure that
frequency range to be controlled, much EMI and even reliability in electronic
lower than the impedance of the installations (e.g. due to surge
capacitors in any EMI filters (i.e. << 1Ω). overvoltages) was as bad as was
The only kind of structure that can humanly possible.
achieve low enough impedance is a Single-point earthing/grounding/bonding
metal mesh, ideally a metal sheet, which attempts to control the flow of currents in
is why RF References are often called the earth/ground structure by providing
RF Reference Planes. each item of equipment (that is not
double-insulated and therefore
 34
unearthed) with a dedicated ‘ground’, it has been misused and so is
green/yellow insulated protective best avoided. For instance, an electrical
earthing conductor in its mains cable. contractor would typically assume that
Each equipment’s protective earthing ‘equipotential bonding’ meant a
conductor connects only to the main protective bonding (safety earth) system
earthing terminal for the vehicle, vessel, that did not produce unsafe voltages
building or site, which is called the during an electrical fault – essentially
single-point earth/ground point voltages that did not exceed 50V rms at
(sometimes: ‘star earth/ground’). 50Hz.
No other electrical connections are Single-point earthing/grounding/bonding
permitted between the structures are never assumed, proposed
chassis/frames/enclosures of the items or recommended anywhere in this Guide
of equipment, so that stray currents in – although now and again the (usually
the earth/ground structure do not create dire) implications of single-point
‘earth loops’, ‘ground loops’ or ‘hum earthing/grounding/bonding for a
loops’. This of course means that particular EMC characteristic will be
shielded cables can only have their mentioned.
shields terminated at one end – a 5.8 goes into some detail describing why
practice that immediately robs the shield the earth/ground/hum loops resulting
of any effectiveness above a few 10s of from cross-bonded or meshed CBNs are
kHz, and can even make EMC worse beneficial in every way, and will reduce
because the shield can then behave as EMI and ‘hum’ or ‘buzz’ noises rather
an accidental antenna as shown in than increasing them, as long as the
Figure 7. electronic input/output circuits connected
Unfortunately, single-point to cables are designed appropriately (as
earthing/grounding/bonding when used they will almost certainly be for every
in a system or installation with item of equipment that would pass the
conductors that are at least a few metres entirely reasonable immunity tests that
long, is physically unable to control are listed under the EMC Directive). It
where currents flow above a few 10s of also describes how to deal with products
kHz, and above a few MHz all of the and equipment that have not been
protective earthing conductors become correctly designed for systems and
very effective accidental antennas installations, for which their
indeed (see Figure 7). manufacturers specify the use of single-
So, where this Guide uses the term CBN point earthing/grounding/bonding
or RF Reference (or even earth or techniques, such as terminating cable
ground) it means a structure that has a shields at one end only.
degree of meshing, or cross-bonding, How best to deal with upgrades,
intended to control a certain range of modifications or additions to legacy
frequencies. installations that are claimed to employ
Some publications use the term single-point earthing/grounding/bonding
‘equipotential bonding’ to mean a mesh- is dealt with as required in the
bonded or cross-bonded structure, but appropriate sections of this Guide.
unfortunately, like the terms ‘earth’ and
35
3.6 Don’t rely on CE-marking 3.7 Following good EMC practices
When constructing a system or In the kinds of residential, commercial,
installation, do not rely solely on the CE- and industrial EM environments that are
marking of its apparatus. The ‘CE + CE addressed by the generic EMC
= CE’ approach assumes that as long as emissions and immunity test standards
the component parts used are all CE- in the series IEC/EN 61000-6-1 to
marked and bought ‘in good faith’, then 61000-6-4, or similar test standards,
the installation as a whole will comply most EMC problems can be solved by:
with all relevant Directives, but this has
• Taking care to only utilise
no technical or legal basis (see 2.3.4). If
electrical/electronic equipment that
a supplier has lied or made a mistake
have proven good EMC performance
about the compliance of his product, and
(see [18]) when tested to those
this causes an installation to become
standards or tougher ones
non-compliant, the law holds both
parties to be at fault – the Responsible • Obtaining and fully applying their
Person cannot simply pass responsibility supplier’s EMC instructions in design
onto suppliers – he or she is expected to and construction
take appropriate steps to verify that their • Taking account of the build-up of
purchases meet their specifications, emissions caused by having multiple
and/or that their installation complies. units [42]
Experience all over the world shows that It is still advisable to employ the good
it is very rare indeed for an installation EMC practices in this Guide wherever
constructed from CE-marked apparatus suppliers provide EMC instructions, to
to actually meet the relevant EMC help resolve conflicts between different
standards if it is tested. [18] goes into units’ EMC instructions.
this issue in detail, showing how to spot
many of the tricks that some However, most normal EM environments
manufacturers use when CE-marking are worse than the ones described by
their products, and warning of the pitfalls the generic or similar test standards,
that can compromise the EMC of the because those standards specifically do
system or installation it is used in, even not cover the situation where portable
when all the components used in the radio transmitters are used nearby –
cabinet have excellent EMC compliance which is now commonplace in all
individually. environments, and cannot be controlled
without very stringent security measures.
Perhaps it is not surprising that the CE + The standards also ignore a number of
CE = CE approach does not work in other EM environmental situations that
practice, when one considers that recent can easily occur, such as the proximity
EC data [20] indicates that about 33% of of Group 2 ISM equipment (see 2.3.9),
all CE-marked goods supplied in Europe or electric welding. So in almost all real-
do not comply with the Directives they life situations, and especially in certain
are supposed to. industrial, medical, scientific or military
sites where the EM environment is more
extreme than usual, the use of good
 36
EMC engineering practices can be very modern good EMC engineering
important indeed for preventing costly practices threatens their livelihoods they
problems due to EMI. generally argue against their use,
Good EMC practices in the construction encouraging manufacturers and systems
of electrical and electronic systems and integrators to continue using the
installations have been known for outdated traditional practices (such as
decades, and are continually evolving to using single-point earthing, and bonding
cope with the increasing frequencies the shields of cables at only one end)
being generated by modern electronic that keeps them in work.
technologies, especially digital Part of good EMC practice is to follow
processing, switch-mode power the EMC instructions provided by the
conversion, and wireless voice and data manufacturers of the electronic units that
communications. Relevant standards are to be used – but only where these
and public-domain documents on good are reasonable and don’t conflict with
EMC engineering practices include [43] what is written in this Guide, or with
[44] [45] [32] and Part 5 of [38], and other manufacturers EMC instructions.
there are a number of guides to good Where manufacturers’ instructions differ
practices produced by companies that or conflict, EMC expertise is needed. For
sell industrial components, such as [46] example, some suppliers specify that
and [47]. shielded cables must have their shields
These days, good EMC practices are bonded to ‘earth’ at only one end, and
often different from traditional electrical they often provide a screw-terminal for
assembly and installation practices. In that purpose. While this may sometimes
some long-established industries large be acceptable these days in some
amounts of money and time are still special cases, it will generally prevent
needlessly wasted, because of an typical systems and installations from
apparent reluctance to learn about EMC passing the relevant emissions and/or
or modern techniques. Instead of dealing immunity tests, and can therefore lead to
with the foreseeable EMC problems in inaccurate or unreliable operation as
the original design and construction, well as non-compliance with legal
they just attempt to fix any EMC requirements.
problems with the systems and Such poor EMC instructions are mostly
installations that arise during operation. due to a lack of knowledge and/or poor
It is often the case that operational design of the electronic circuits used for
problems aren’t recognised as being the inputs and outputs. They are usually
EMC-related for some time, and even written by companies who have not
then take a long time to fix, making them tested emissions and immunity, or not
very costly. tested them properly, or tested them
In some industries there are people who using unrealistic set-ups. They slavishly
specialise in fixing operational problems, repeat the bad instructions in their
which they usually identify as signal manuals, believing them to be good
quality issues such as ‘mains hum’, EMC practice because someone told
‘ground loops’ or ‘noise breakthrough’ them so 30 years or more ago.
rather than EMC. Since the use of
37
Good EMC practices should generally fixed installation (see 2.3.8) still needs to
be followed for all installations, to help communicate to them which – of the
the purchased electrical and electronic many techniques available – need to be
apparatus achieve the EM performance employed.
they are capable of, and to help EM So it is important – to save time and
mitigation measures (e.g. filtering, money – that companies find ways to
shielding and transient overvoltage communicate the necessary good EMC
suppression) achieve their desired practices to everyone who needs to
performance. These techniques require know, including those doing the
additional effort and skill in design, but construction.
generally cost little and add very little
time in assembly. Ideally, the various good EMC assembly
and construction techniques would be
documented as Work Instructions under
3.8 Communicating good EMC a QA system, and then referenced by
techniques the designers on their drawings
Many companies have problems in wherever they need to be applied. Some
turning the intentions of their designers companies use the graphics that appear
into actual constructions. Nowhere is this in this Guide as their Work Instructions,
more evident than in EMC, where and the author will be pleased to provide
apparently small variations in cable these graphics for such purposes, on
length or route, or equipment placement, request [48].
can make huge differences to the EMI
caused or suffered.
This situation is not helped by the
apparently almost total lack of
understanding of good EMC engineering
practices amongst architects, electrical
consultants, system integrators and
M&E contractors. The author feels sure
that those who develop their skills in this
area will win many contracts from
installation owners or operators aware of
their legal obligations under
2004/108/EC [1] [8] and its associated
UK EMC Regulations [4] (see Section 2).
Also, they should more easily win
contracts from installation owners or
operators who have suffered significant
financial losses due to EMI and do not
wish to repeat the experience.
But even where the above people do
have the necessary EMC skills, the
Responsible Person for the EMC of the
 38
3.9 An overall EMC procedure installation. It shows how the
A general procedure for managing EMC combination of EM mitigation measures
to achieve reliable performance and and equipment EM performance
legal compliance, and reduce financial achieves the EM emissions and
risks, for a system or fixed installation is immunity specifications for the overall
shown in overview in Figure 8: installation. It is generally best to
purchase equipment that allows the
Figure 9 goes into a little more detail system or installation to achieve its EM
about the elements of Figure 8 that are specifications without the need for
concerned with the specification and additional EM mitigation, but
selection of equipment to be unfortunately this is not always practical.
incorporated into the system or

Figure 8 Overview of a general procedure for achieving EMC

A Assess
Assess the
the EM
EM environment
environment

B Specify
Specify EM
EM disturbances
disturbances versus functional performance
versus functional performance

Use of EM mitigation
C Study
Study and
and design
design the
the installation’s
installation’s EMC techniques (EM zoning)

Create EM
EM verification
verification plans
plans for
for the
the installation
installation Iterations may
D Create
be required,
to be able to
E Create
E Create an
an EM
EM specification
specification for
for each
each item
item of
of equipment
equipment use the desired
commercially
available
F Design
F Design and
and G Select
G Select the
the products
manufacture any
manufacture any commercially
commercially
custom equipment
custom equipment available products
available products
Take into account
the EM
H
H Construct and
Construct and commission
commission the
the installation,
installation, following
following specifications of
suppliers’ EMC
suppliers’ EMC instructions
instructions and
and good
good EMC
EMC engineering
engineering practices
practices the commercially
available products
JJ Verify the
Verify the installation’s
installation’s EM
EM performance
performance

K
K Maintain adequate
Maintain adequate EM
EM performance
performance over
over the
the operational
operational lifetime
lifetime
39

Figure 9 Overview of a general procedure for specifying and selecting

equipment
From step B
Use of EM mitigation
C Study
C Study and
and design
design the
the installation’s
installation’s EMC
EMC techniques (EM Zoning)
–– employing
employing EM
EM mitigation
mitigation measures
measures
(EM Zoning)
(EM Zoning) as
as appropriate
appropriate
Iterative design
changes may be
needed to the
design of the
D Create
D Create EM
EM verification
verification plans
plans for
for the
the installation
installation installation,
–– including
including verification
verification of
of the
the EM
EM environment
environment
and/or to the
and the
and the performance
performance of of the
the mitigation
mitigation measures
measures
EM Zoning and
mitigation
measures–
E Create
E Create an
an EM
EM specification
specification for
for each
each item
item of
of equipment
equipment – to be able to
–– taking
taking the
the EM
EM environment,
environment, installation
installation design,
design, acceptable
acceptable use certain
performance degradations
performance degradations during
during interference,
interference, and
and the
the commercially
mitigation provided
mitigation provided by
by the
the nested
nested EM
EM Zones
Zones into
into account
account available
products

F Design
F Design and
and Select the
G Select the commercially
commercially
manufacture any
manufacture any available products
available products –– that
that meet
meet Take into account
custom equipment
custom equipment the specifications
the specifications from
from step
step E
E the EM
specifications of
the commercially
To step H available products

The following sections of this Guide are

concerned with the activity represented
by boxes C and H in Figure 8. A detailed
discussion of the other elements in
Figure 8, or Figure 9, is outside the
scope of this Guide, but the references
at the end will provide a great deal of
relevant information.
4 Good EMC engineering practices for general use

40
4.1 Power distribution systems for neutral-CBN connections anywhere else.
EMC It is good installation practice to fit a link
in the neutral-BRC bond, and before
A number of different types of power commissioning, during annual shutdown
distribution systems exist, for example or when problems are suspected, isolate
TN-S, TN-C, TT, IT, etc. TN-C types, the power source, remove the link and
also known as PEN (Protective-Earth- check there is now no resistive path from
Neutral) combine the functions of the neutral to the CBN. The equipment
Neutral conductor and protective earth in in the zone should be plugged in during
one conductor, and are bad for EMC this test, to discover if any of them is
because they cause signal and data suffering a neutral-to-chassis insulation
cables between items of equipment to failure.
experience high levels of noise at
TN-C, PEN and similar distribution
50/60Hz and their harmonics. They also
systems do not create interference
create strong magnetic fields throughout
problems where all of the electronics or
an installation at 50/60Hz and their
other circuits are insensitive to the EM
harmonics, that make the images on
disturbances they create, or have been
VDUs and photo-multiplier tubes
specially ‘hardened’ to operate reliably in
‘wobble’, and can also interfere with
an environment containing high levels of
sensitive electronic circuits.
conducted electromagnetic
So power distribution systems that use a disturbances, and high levels of
single conductor for the neutral and the magnetic fields, at the power line
protective earth should not be used frequency, its harmonics, and its load
wherever signals, data, VDUs, photo- currents.
multipliers, or sensitive electronic or
All other types of AC power distribution
electrical equipment is used, such as
have no EMC effects, as long as they
equipment that complies with the
don’t prevent the use of the good EMC
product or generic immunity test
engineering practices and EM mitigation
standards used for compliance with the
techniques described in this Guide.
EMC Directive [1], which do not test at
all for this kind of EM environment.
4.2 Improving power quality
Where TN-C (PEN) systems are used,
they can be converted to the EMC- Non-RF power quality issues include:
friendly TN-S types by installing a
• Sags, brownouts, swells, dips,
suitable mains isolating transformer at
dropouts, variations, flicker, short
the boundary of the area to be protected
interruptions, long interruptions
(see 4.6), and only supplying mains
power to that zone from its TN-S output. • Harmonic and inter-harmonic
The neutral of the TN-S supply must be waveform distortion
connected to the BRC for the areas (see • Common-mode (CM) voltages on
4.7), and must not have any other phases and neutrals, DC – 150kHz
41
How these EMC issues can arise in real Well-designed equipment deals with this
life, what they can affect, and how to by using ‘balanced’ signalling with
deal with them is covered in two REO transformers to provide galvanic
booklets, “Power Quality” [35] and isolation that attenuates the low-
“Mains Harmonics” [34], and they are not frequency ‘earth potential differences’,
covered further in this Guide. and RF filters to attenuate the RF earth
potentials, all rated to withstand the
4.3 Galvanic isolation for EMC highest surge overvoltages that are
anticipated. But these techniques add
4.3.1 Galvanic isolation for signal, cost and some manufacturers improve
control and datacommunications the (apparent) competitiveness of their
products by using cheaper and less
As 3.4 and Figure 7 show, all cables and robust interconnections, which can be
other conductors (including ‘earth’ wires, difficult for the inexperienced designers,
metal brackets and panels) behave as specifier or purchaser to identify.
‘accidental antennas”. They leak the One way of dealing with this potential
power or signals they carry, causing problem is to design and construct a
emissions, and they carry conducted low-impedance CBN using meshing
noises and pick up EM fields from their techniques, discussed in 5.5. But this is
environment, causing interference and not a cost-free exercise, especially for
immunity problems. This is not what we legacy installations, although appropriate
want cables and other conductors to do, use of existing metalwork and structures
but if we use metal conductors there is can help keep costs low.
no way of preventing this, other than
using the EM mitigation techniques: Galvanic isolation transformers can be
added to equipment, a common solution
galvanic isolation; shielding; filtering;
surge and transient suppression, which for sensitive analogue audio signals in
professional audio installations.
all add cost.
There is always impedance in a CBN, so But the most cost-effective and certainly
the ‘earth leakage’ and occasional ‘earth the easiest and most trouble-free good
fault’ currents emitted by EMC practice is to use fibre-optics to
electrical/electronic equipment; surge carry analogue, digital or control signals,
currents caused by lightning; and instead of cables or other conductors.
induced currents caused by transmitters The fibre-optic cables do not behave as
or high-power processes, generate accidental antennas, they provide
voltage differences between the galvanic isolation that completely
chassis/frames/enclosures of widely- ignores any electromagnetic
separated items of equipment. These disturbances occurring in the CBN, at
voltage differences appear to the input any frequency, and they can handle
and output drivers of the interconnecting huge data rates.
cables as CM noise, over a very wide It is even possible to supply a few Watts
range of frequencies, which can be of electrical power via fibre-optics,
capable of interfering with their signals, enough for some instrumentation
or even damaging the driver devices applications. Although the purchase
themselves. price of the fibre-optic components and
 42
cables makes them appear to be more armour) that can suffer from dangerous
costly than metal conductors and their voltages; can compromise shielding; and
connectors, the EMC problems may not be robust enough to take
associated with cables and conductors ground fault and surge currents. So it is
generally makes fibre-optics much more best to use metal-free fibre-optic cables,
cost-effective over the lifetime of an or otherwise treat their metal as if it was
installation. a thin bonding wire, using appropriate
Of course, the fibre-optic receivers and techniques discussed elsewhere in this
transmitters need to have adequate EM Guide.
performance for both emissions and Optocoupler (optoisolator) devices are
immunity, but they are just small devices like very small sections of fibre-optic
that are easy to shield and filter on their packaged inside a tiny PCB-mounted
printed circuit boards (PCBs). device. They are often used at the inputs
Using metal conductors in an and outputs of equipment. Another
installation, discovering that they cause galvanic isolation technique often used
an EMI problem, then stripping them out on PCBs or in equipment is the isolated
and replacing them with fibre-optics, is contacts of relays (often called ‘volt-free
always going to be a very costly relays’) or contactors.
undertaking. So it can be good risk- Wireless (radio), guided or free-space
avoidance practice to use fibre-optics microwave, free-space laser and infra-
whenever there is a possibility that metal red datacommunications are also
conductors could cause EMI problems. generally better for EMC than cables or
There are signalling protocols other metal conductors, and may be
appropriate for sending any kinds of considered a viable alternative to fibre-
digital signals over fibre-optics, from optics. Because they do not require any
multi-channel professional audio to cables to be pulled, they can be quicker
Gigabit Ethernet. ‘Stage boxes’ that to install and help keep the overall
accept dozens of microphone inputs and project cost down, and they have no
communicate them to a digital- cables to be damaged.
processing sound mixing desk via a In the past, building structures,
single long fibre-optic cable, were first machines and other equipment would
designed and used in the early 1980s often block wireless signals, and radio
specifically to save overall project cost interference could occur, both problems
whilst also improving sound quality by being especially common in industrial
reducing interference. The use of fibre- environments. So radio communications
optic fieldbusses with de-centralised has not been widely adopted despite the
instrumentation and control panels is many benefits of not having any cabling.
now commonplace in processing But at the time of writing there are a
industries where there is a lot of number of manufacturers offering
electrical noise and/or the cost of wireless data communications systems
downtime is high, such as paper mills that they claim use advanced signal
and steel foundries. processing techniques that take
Some fibre-optic cables contain metal advantage of reflections and improve
(e.g. draw-wires, vapour barriers, resistance to interference, to provide
43
robust wireless datacommunications describe these techniques from the point
even in most industrial environments. of view of improving power quality at
Guided microwave techniques use metal frequencies below 150kHz, but they are
pipes called waveguides to carry GHz equally applicable at higher frequencies,
radio signals over almost any distance, providing the devices used are
and easily cope with corners and even appropriately specified, designed and
rotary joints. The waveguides are metal, proven by testing.
and to achieve galvanic isolation they For example, a typical mains isolating
need to have one or more insulating transformer or continuous on-line
spacers inserted at waveguide joints. double-conversion UPS might only
Free-space microwave uses dish provide a high degree of attenuation for
antenna to send GHz radio signals in conducted EM disturbances on the
narrow beams in a line-of-sight mains supply up to a few 10s of kHz, but
configuration. By using relay stations, if they are designed appropriately, with
which could be terrestrial or satellite- appropriately-designed shields in their
based, free-space microwaves can be transformers and careful segregation of
used to communicate between most input and output cables, they can
buildings, and for many years was the achieve up to 80dB of attenuation from
main ‘backbone’ of the DC to over 1GHz.
telecommunications network in the UK
and many other countries. 4.3.3 Surge voltage ratings for
Infra-red communications must always galvanic isolation
be line-of sight, which can place
Where galvanic isolation mitigation
limitations on its use, but there are
techniques are used at the boundary of
systems which sprinkle numerous
an EM Zone (see 5.4), they must be
devices all over the ceiling so as to allow
rated for the maximum surge
unhindered voice and
overvoltage expected due to lightning, or
datacommunications all over a site.
faults in the LV, MV or HV mains
Infra-red systems designed to replace
distribution networks, or any other
wireless handsets in explosive
sources of overvoltage (see 5.13.5) in
atmospheres (and other areas where
the zone or its neighbouring areas.
their use could cause problems) have
been commercially available for years. The mains power distribution authorities
have this well in hand, and the
4.3.2 Galvanic isolation for electrical distribution transformers they supply,
power that transform from HV or MV to LV
(230/400V rms) are rated accordingly.
Galvanic isolation of the electrical power Within a vehicle, vessel, building or site
supply is a very powerful EMC where techniques described in this
technique, and can be achieved using Guide have been applied, surges can be
isolating transformers (special high- controlled to whatever level is desired.
isolation types are available), motor- But big problems arise when any cables
generator sets, and isolating continuous interconnect buildings on a site, where
on-line double-conversion uninterruptible the whole site was not protected as an
power supplies (UPSs). [34] and [35]
 44
entity, for example by enclosing it in an recommendation is that there is a
EM Zone 1 (see 5.4) with appropriate completely empty air gap of at least X
mesh-bonding over the whole zone (see metres between any conductive parts of
5.5). the input and output devices (e.g.
Electrical faults, and especially lightning antennas, metal draw-wires in fibre-optic
strikes to individual buildings that have cables, microwave dishes, etc.), where X
not benefited from such an approach, is at least five times the maximum
can cause their interconnecting cables to overvoltage to be withstood expressed in
suffer surges measured in MV, which kV, to cope with damp conditions, rain,
are capable of ‘flashing over’ to other snow, etc. For example, to withstand
conductors that are even as far away as 2MV, the shortest path through the
2 metres. This raises very serious issues empty airspace between the input and
for human safety, property damage (e.g. output devices should be at least 10
fire), and equipment reliability, which metres.
should never be underestimated. Like everything else in this Guide, the
Galvanic isolation techniques that could information and guidance provided here
be subject to such voltages, must be is just general good practice. Where
rated accordingly. Optocouplers, there are significant safety, financial or
optoisolators, relays, contactors and political risks that could be affected by
isolating signal transformers will anything covered in this document,
generally withstand a few hundred volts design and construction should be
between their inputs and their outputs, based solely upon a competent and
which is generally only adequate for detailed analysis of the application
interconnections within the cabinet of a concerned, and should not use these
single item of equipment, although they guidelines unquestioningly as if they
might be acceptable in a very well- were some sort of rule.
controlled EM environment such as
might be found in an EM Zone 2 or 4.4 Routing send and return
higher (see 5.4). current paths together
Types that are rated to withstand input- The laws of physics mean that there are
to-output voltages of at least 1.5kV rms, always return currents associated with
2kV peak or surge are generally required any type of electrical or electronic signal
for use within an EM Zone 1, or within an or power, with any type of electrical or
area protected by a BRC as described in electronic load. For good EMC the ‘send’
4.7, but some vehicles, buildings or sites and ‘return’ currents should have
might require ratings of at least 10kV dedicated conductors that are routed as
peak (especially where the installation closely together as possible. Cables that
uses single-point earthing/grounding twist the send and return conductors as
techniques, see 3.5). twisted pairs, triples, quads, etc., are
But fibre-optics, free-space microwave generally the best.
or laser, and infra-red galvanic isolation Busbars cannot be twisted, so are best
techniques can easily cope with any spaced very closely together spaced by
surge overvoltage between their input thin layers of solid dielectric.
and output devices – the only
45
Figure 10 shows preferred and non- from weak transducer signals, through
preferred routes for switches in a lighting high-speed data, to electrical power.
circuit, or when relays or contactors in a Above a few kHz, the return current will
control panel switch one of the power automatically take the path of least
conductors, for example. It also shows impedance (not resistance), which is
the desired routing of analogue or digital also the path that gives the least
signal conductors close to their return accidental antenna effects, and this will
path, even if it means adding extra be along the conductor that is physically
conductors that appear to create a closest to the send conductor over its
‘ground loop’. (‘Ground loops’ are a good route. (Above a few kHz the resistance
thing for EMC, and do not cause of the conductors is not important, the
problems for correctly-EMC-designed path taken by the return current depends
electronics, see 5.8.) These principles on the impedance created by inductance
apply whatever electrical signals or and capacitance, including ‘stray’
power a conductor may be carrying, inductance and capacitance.)

Figure 10 Always route send and return current paths close together

N
L

0V
Bad EMC practice
The send
The send and
and return
return conductors
conductors
should be
should be in
in close
close proximity
proximity
over their
over their entire
entire route
route
N — ideally
ideally twisted
twisted together
together
L —
— for
— for every
every kind
kind of
of power
power
or signal
or signal interconnection
interconnection

+
_

0V

Twisting the send and return conductors conductors every half-turn reduces their
helps ensure that the send and return emissions of (and susceptibility to)
currents both follow the same route, and differential-mode (DM) and common-
its reversal of the orientation of the mode (CM) EM fields. So twisted-pair
 46
cables are always preferred (or twisted the ribbon cables shown in Figure 11,
triples or quads, whatever it takes to get because bundling does not maintain the
all the send/return paths associated with send and return paths for a given power
a circuit into close proximity along their or signal together all along their route –
length). the individual conductors tend to lie in
Flat ribbon cables are often a cause of the bundle in a random manner.
EMI problems with both emissions and The CM fields associated with the
immunity, and Figure 11 shows two bundles can be reduced by adding extra
examples of ribbons that have had their conductors into the bundle, and bonding
EM characteristics improved by routing them to the chassis/frames/enclosures
send and return conductors on adjacent of the equipment at both ends of the
conductors. A send/return pair in a bundle – the more bonding conductors
ribbon cable will still have very inferior the better. These bonding conductors
EMC performance compared to a could from part of the protective (safety)
twisted pair. bonding network or not (in which case
Bundles of individual straight conductors they are known as functional bonding
will have worse EM characteristics than conductors). See [49] for more detail.

Figure 11 Some practical examples of routing send and return current

paths close together

Return Return Signal 1 Signal 2 Return Signal 3 Signal 4 Return …etc.

is the minimum configuration that should be used for flat cable

A few extra ‘grounding’

conductors spread
throughout a wire bundle
improves its EM
performance

Return Return Signal 1 Return Signal 2 Return Signal 3 Return

…etc. gives the best EM performance that ribbon cable can
achieve (but not as good as using twisted send/return pairs)

A large number of extra ‘grounding’

conductors spread throughout a wire
bundle improves its EM performance
even more (but still not as good as
using twisted send/return pairs)

As long as the protective bonding and system or installation are designed and
protective earthing conductors in the constructed so that they can safely carry
47
the maximum fault (and/or lightning the resulting problems can easily be
surge or EMP) currents, and are not solved at low cost (see 5.8).
damaged by them, the cross-sectional Shielding of cables for EMC (see 5.11) is
area and current capacity of any other of little benefit unless both send and
copper bonding conductors connected in return conductors are enclosed together
parallel with them and routed in parallel within a single shield. The better the
with them along their length is not physical balance between the send and
important. Fault currents will divide up return current paths, and the better the
according to the resistances of the electrical balance between the signals
conductors, so if a large diameter copper they carry, the better will be the
wire is in parallel with one of much electromagnetic performance of the
smaller diameter, the heating effect in cable (whether it is shielded or not).
each will be the same. So if the large Transducer signals and modern
one is rated adequately, the smaller one datacommunications would suffer terribly
is protected. from interference in many modern
Where single-point protective earthing is systems if it were not for the careful use
used (see 3.5), a copper conductor of of shielded twisted-pair cables, where
smaller cross-sectional area that does the twisted-pair (but not the cable’s
not follow the route of the protective shield) carries the send and return
conductors will create a ‘bridge’ between signals.
two different ‘arms’ of the protective Coaxial cables are not preferred, for
earthing network and so should be good EMC, because the return current
adequately rated to carry the possible uses the same conductor (the shield) as
fault (and/or lightning surge) currents the noisy currents that the shield is trying
that could flow in it. to protect from. Triaxial types solve this
Of course, conductors that link different problem.
parts of the ‘earth’ ‘ground’ or protective Power cables also benefit from close
bonding network together will carry proximity of send and return conductors.
some currents that attempt to equalise For a delta connected three-phases
the potential differences between their system this would just involve the three
ends, often known as ‘ground loop’ or phases and a safety earth, but in a star-
‘earth loop’ currents. The more they do connected system it would involve all
not follow the route of the protective three phases plus their neutral and
bonding conductors, the more current safety earth (five conductors). Where
they will generally carry. Tradition (see high currents make twisting impossible,
3.5) has been to avoid creating ground see 4.5.
loops, but they are a benefit for EMC
and solve problems that cannot be
solved cost-effectively in any other way.
4.5 What to do when send and
Ground loops can cause problems for return conductors cannot be
poorly-designed electrical and electronic routed in close proximity
circuits, but where the design of the Some systems use their CBN as their
electrical/electronic equipment is poor return path for both power and signals,
and this is common in land vehicles,
 48
sea-going vessels and aircraft, which using twisted conductors) – high levels
use their chassis/hull, etc. as their return of electric and/or magnetic fields will be
path for historical reasons. However, this generated. These fields could upset the
approach has dire consequences for operation of nearby electronics.
EMC, and should never be used where For example, problems with image
there is any practical alternative. It stability on cathode ray tube (CRT) type
seems that the land, sea and air craft visual display units (VDUs) such as
industries continue to use this approach computer monitors and television
because of the legacy of components, screens are often caused by magnetic
equipment and systems that have all fields from nearby power cables or
been designed to use it, and which they busbars where the send and return
want to use in new designs to save cost conductors are not twisted together.
and time.
So, where high-current or high-voltage
But they must soon reach a point where conductors are separated, it is very
the costs and delays of dealing with the important indeed to keep them well away
resulting EMI outweigh the savings of from any sensitive electronics. The
continuing with the legacy systems. The resulting electrical and/or magnetic fields
best generally-effective solution where are easily calculated (see [39]) and their
such CBN-return systems cannot be frequencies are known, and these
avoided is galvanic isolation, at least for should be compared with the immunity
signals, control and data specifications for all nearby equipment.
communications; for instance using The EM fields should also be checked
twisted-pair wiring with galvanic isolation against personnel exposure limits, to
transformers, or fibre-optics. ensure that personnel and third parties
Very high-current conductors, such as are protected from possible health
the vertical feeders in a tall building, or hazards (see 2.2.2).
the motor cables for a steel rolling mill or Busbar systems benefit from using types
other high-power industrial process, that create a laminated ‘stack’ of
suffer high mechanical stresses on their busbars separated by solid insulation
conductors if placed too close together instead of air. The solid insulation
(due to electromotive forces), and this achieves the same insulation as the air,
could damage their insulation. So they but with very much smaller busbar
cannot be twisted together, or even spacings, hence significantly lower
placed in close proximity. emissions of magnetic and electric
Very high voltage air-insulated cables fields. There are now several
also have to be spaced apart by manufacturers of such laminated busbar
considerable distances to prevent flash- systems, which are provided with all the
over between their conductors. And of necessary components for quickly
course busbars cannot (easily) be connecting to their conductors.
twisted together!
In both the high-current and high-voltage
cases – and whenever power send and
return conductors do not follow virtually
identical paths in close proximity (e.g. by
49
4.6 Segregation of apparatus and [8] [4] [9] makes it mandatory for
their supplies suppliers to provide them), read them
carefully, and fully implement their
Separating (segregating) equipment and requirements.
cables, to reduce the likelihood of the
Segregation is absolutely essential when
emissions from one interfering with
EM mitigation techniques are used, such
another, is a good EMC engineering
as galvanic isolation (see 4.3), filtering
practice that helps ensure EM
(see 5.10), shielding (see 5.11 and 5.12)
compatibility between items of
or surge suppression (see 5.13) – and
equipment. Segregation techniques can
this technique is often called ‘EM Zoning’
be applied between items of equipment
(see 5.4). Without EM Zoning, any
that are part of the same system or
mitigation techniques will be ineffective,
installation (to help control ‘intra-system’
and therefore a waste of time and
interference), and between the items of
money.
equipment within a system or
installation, and equipment that is Since we can never be quite sure that
outside the system or installation (to help we will not have to add some filtering,
control ‘inter-system’ interference). shielding or surge suppression to solve
an unexpected problem with an
Segregation is a very low-cost good
installation, it makes very good financial
EMC engineering practice – if performed
sense to always do very good EM
early enough in a project – so it is
Zoning (segregation) from the start of
important to discuss segregation with
the design and construction of any
architects and electrical consultants as
vehicle, vessel, building or site, so that
early as possible. Good segregation can
EM mitigation can be easily applied
cost nothing if done early enough, but it
later, if problems arise.
can cost a fortune to achieve when EMC
problems are discovered during Equipment should be classified as high-
commissioning or operation. voltage (HV, > 33kVAC rms), medium
voltage (MV, between 1 and 33kVAC
Segregation places strong emitters and
rms) and low voltage (LV, < 1kVAC rms).
their cables as far away physically as
LV equipment should then be classified
can be practically achieved from
at least as ‘noisy’ or ‘sensitive’, with
sensitive/critical equipment and their
more sub-categories used where even
cables, and supplies their mains power
greater control of EMC is required.
from separate phases. It is even better
to supply their mains power from Examples of noisy equipment include
different HV distribution transformers. adjustable-speed (variable speed) motor
Cable segregation is dealt with in more drives; electric welding for metal or
detail in 4.8. plastics; power rectifier systems for
electrochemical processes; relays and
Suppliers’ EMC installation and use
contactors; radio, television, and radar
instructions might include segregation
transmitters; electrosurgery and medical
requirements that go beyond what is
diathermy; Group 2 ISM equipment
described here or in 4.8, so it is always
according to CISPR11 [27]; switch-mode
important to obtain all such EMC
power or frequency conversion, and
instructions (the new EMC Directive [1]
many kinds of scientific apparatus.
 50
Examples of sensitive equipment include as computers and programmable logic
radio, television, and radar receivers, controllers (PLCs). Many types of
instrumentation for temperature, flow, equipment now incorporate computer
weight, pH, humidity, pressure, and any technology, making almost everything
other physical parameters; CRT type sensitive equipment.
visual displays and photomultiplier Figure 12 shows an example of
tubes; audio induction loop systems; segregating the equipment on a large
many types of medical devices; site fed at HV.
programmable electronic devices such

Figure 12 Example of segregating apparatus and their mains supplies

HV
HV apparatus
Incoming Switchyard
HV MV
Well-
Well-separated MV
supply cables apparatus

Geographically zoned,
LV distribution each zone separated from each other
and
switching room Noisy LV
‘Noisy’ 400/230V apparatus

‘Quiet’ 400/230V Sensitive LV

apparatus

Figure 12 shows the different associated with each type should be

classifications of equipment being routed well away from each other (see
powered from different mains distribution 4.8).
networks which are routed separately Where equipment cabinets contain both
from each other, with the two (or more) noisy and sensitive equipment, their
classifications of LV equipment ideally manufacturers would be expected to
powered from different distribution achieve internal segregation so that one
transformers. The different did not interfere with the other.
classifications of apparatus should be
spaced well apart from each other, the For example, if a fork-lift truck battery
further the better (metres rather than charging station and a computer or
centimetres), and any other cables fileserver room were adjacent to each
51
other it is possible that the battery conductor’ and ‘interior ring bonding
charging could interfere with any CRT bus’.
displays and/or the operation of the The BRC should be a copper conductor
computer system. At the initial design with a cross-sectional area of at least 50
stage it is easy to allocate these facilities sq. mm, for example a round conductor
to well-separated locations, and costs with at least 8mm diameter, or ‘lightning
nothing to do. If interference problems tape’ at least 25mm x 2mm. For more
are discovered during commissioning (or details on the purpose, design and
afterwards) the very significant costs of construction of BRCs see [50] [51] [52]
moving one of the facilities and its [53] and [32].
cabling well away from the other are
likely to be dwarfed by the lost Also as shown in Figure 13, all
production due to the delays incurred. conductors and conductive services (e.g.
metal pipes or ducts for gas, water, air,
Similar problems can arise in the food etc.) entering a segregated area should
industry, where (sensitive) be RF-bonded (see 5.7) to the
checkweighers and metal detectors are appropriate BRC, either directly, or
followed closely by packaging machines indirectly through filters and/or surge
employing (noisy) RF plastic welding protection devices (SPDs), at the point
techniques for sealing plastic bags or where they cross the BRC.
cartons (Group 2 ISM [27]). If not
designed-in from the beginning, the There are no exceptions to this rule,
distance required between the which applies throughout this Guide,
packaging machine and the other even for ‘earth’ or ‘ground’ wires.
equipment may not be achievable It is best to bring all of the services into
without wholesale re-structuring of the the area in one place, and make all of
production line, at great cost. the RF-bonds to a small part of the BRC
– its main bonding bar. Since the BRC is
4.7 The Bonding Ring Conductor almost always also used as the method
of providing protective (safety) earthing
(BRC)
to equipment, this bonding bar is usually
Overvoltage surges caused by nearby called the ‘main earthing bar’. As Figure
lightning activity (i.e. within 3 miles, 5km) 12 shows, this bonding bar is connected
can enter an installation via any to the BRC at each end – it is actually a
conductor, and are a major cause of section of the BRC.
equipment damage and downtime When RF-bonding filters or surge
costing the global economy billions arrestors to the BRC, it is generally best
every year. To help protect against to expand the dimensions of the bonding
interference and damage, a Bonding bar to make it a large enough plate for
Ring Conductor (BRC) should surround them to be mounted on. This ‘bonding
an installation. In fact, a separate BRC plate’ technique is described in 5.7.
should surround each segregated zone
Ordinary water is conductive, and
or area within an installation, as shown
wastewater can be especially so. The
in Figure 13. Some other terms that
author knows of one large chemical
used for BRCs are ‘earthing bus
processing plant where about 100kA of
 52
current was ‘lost’, eventually discovered When adding a BRC to an existing
flowing in the wastewater stream. Where (legacy) installation it is often
a conductive liquid in a plastic pipe is inconvenient to move all the cables and
flowing into or out of a zone or area other services so they enter the
surrounded by a BRC, it might be segregated area close to its main
necessary to insert a metal pipe section earthing terminal. They should be
(say, at least 2m long) at the point where bonded (directly, or via surge
the service crosses the BRC, and RF- suppressers and/or filters) to the BRC
bond the metal pipe section to the BRC where they cross it. But this is not ideal
at the bonding bar. and the cable or service may need to be
It might be possible to replace some re-routed close to the main bonding
metal objects providing mechanical terminal if problems arise.
functions, such as pull-cords or push- Of course, replacing analogue and
rods, and metal pipes for pneumatic or digital cables with (metal free) fibre-optic
hydraulic power, with ceramic or plastic cables, free-space lasers or microwaves,
alternatives, to avoid the need to RF- avoids the need to bond anything to the
bond them as they cross the BRC. BRC as they cross it.

Figure 13 An example of using BRCs in a segregated installation

All metallic
All metallic services
services enter
enter Uncontrolled
Uncontrolled
and are
are RF-bonded
RF-bonded at at the
the outside world
outside world Bonds between
Bonds between main
main BRC
BRC
and and the
the building’
building’ Common
Common
main earthing
main earthing terminal
terminal EM environment:
EM environment: and
(part of
(part of the
the BRC)
BRC) EM Zone
EM Zone 00 Bonding Network
Bonding Network (CBN)
(CBN)

Items of
Items of electrical
electrical or
or electronic
electronic equipment
equipment

Segregated Area
Segregated Area 11
(EM Zone
(EM Zone 1)
1)

Main earthing
Main earthing terminals
terminals are
are RF-
RF-
bonded to
bonded to their
their BRCs
BRCs at
at both
both ends
ends

Metallic services
Metallic services entering
entering Area
Area 22
are also
are also RF-bonded
RF-bonded toto its
its BRC
BRC
Main BRC
Main BRC for
for one
one floor
floor of
of aa
building (segregated
building (segregated area
area 1)
1)

Segregated Area
Segregated Area 22
Additional BRC
Additional BRC around
around
(EM Zone
(EM Zone 2)
2) segregated area
area 22
segregated

Walls of
Walls of building
building

Where items of equipment are close to a enclosures should be bonded to it with

BRC, their frames, chassis or metal conductors of at least 28 sq. mm that are
53
up to 2 metre in length. Where they are terminal as practical, so the ground loop
further from the BRC than this, two currents do not flow around the its metal
bonding conductors should be used, structure.
spaced as far apart as possible. Where In fact the resulting ground loops will
such cables would exceed 4 metres in reduce the impedance of the ground
length, the BRC should be ‘meshed’ by structure and hence reduce the noise
adding additional 50 sq. mm conductors voltage differences between items of
that bond to the BRC at both ends and equipment, which will help reduce the
cross the segregated area in such a way electrical noise levels in their signal
as to allow those items of equipment to interconnections and be good for
bond to it with short conductors. reliability and EMC. This is discussed in
Note that the bonds from the equipment some detail and demonstrated by
to their BRC are not safety earths – they experiments in [54], from the point of
are additional to the protective earthing view of professional audio applications,
conductors in the mains supply cables to and [55] and [56] are also relevant.
the equipment, they do not replace This issue often arises in professional
them. (In some circumstances it might audio installations because of the very
be possible to replace the protective high signal-to-noise ratios they require. It
earthing conductors in the mains supply is also common in information
cables with bonds to the BRC, but this technology systems and installations
depends on the relevant safety because of the very high frequency
standards and is outside the scope of signals they send down their cables, but
this Guide.) in fact it is relevant for all types of
Of course the BRC and its equipment installations.
bonds create ‘ground loops’, but the Connecting filters and/or SPDs to a BRC
general hysteria about avoiding ground is made easier if they are mounted on
loops is misplaced, in fact using many the backplate of an industrial cabinet,
small ground loops is an essential tool in using DIN-rail mountings for example,
EM mitigation (see 5.6). Since the bonds and making the backplate a part of the
only connect to the equipment’s metal BRC’s ‘ring’ circuit. A metal plate used
frames, chassis or enclosures, the so- for this purpose is effectively an bonding
called ‘ground loop’ currents will not flow bar, but sometimes called a ‘transient
through the electronic circuits of suppression plate’ or a ‘filter bonding
equipment that has been correctly plate’ – depending on the types of
designed (using good EMC engineering components mounted upon it. Good
techniques that have been well- EMC engineering practices concerning
established for over 20 years, so will not filters are discussed in 5.10, and for
cause interference). SPDs see 5.13.
But if in any doubt about the quality of The BRC concept should be very
the electronic design in the equipment, familiar to those who work in industries
make the equipment’s bond to the BRC that have to deal with explosive
to the same piece of metal that the atmospheres. Each hazardous zone in
equipment’s “Protective Earthing such installations must be surrounded by
Terminal” is fixed to, and as close to that a very heavy-duty BRC, and all
 54
explosion-proof cabinets have fixing appears in the segregation distances
points on each side for connection to the proposed later on).
cut ends of the BRC, so that they Class 1a cables – for sensitive
become part of the BRC. Every metallic analogue signals
cable or service entering a hazardous
zone must be RF-bonded to that zone’s This class includes all low-level
BRC (see 5.7). analogue signals (e.g.
thermocouples, thermistors,
In Section 5 the BRC is developed into resistance thermometers, strain
an integral part of a metal mesh gauges, load cells, microphones,
structure that provides more attenuation receiving antennas, encoders,
at higher frequencies for protection tachogenerators, etc.) including all
against lightning and other EM threats analogue signals with a full-scale
entering via conduction, induction or value less than 1 volt or 1mA; a
radiation. voltage signal with a source
impedance greater than 1kΩ; or
4.8 Cable classification, routing where the signal-to-noise ratio is
and segregation required to be greater than 72dB (or
to be digitised with a noise level
4.8.1 Cable classification techniques smaller than the LSB in a 12-bit
system).
Note that some of the techniques
This class must use good quality
described in this section might not be
twisted pair cables with shielded
compatible with ‘single-point earthing’
connectors, with no breaks in their
(see 3.5). Solutions are provided at the
shielding anywhere – often called
end of 5.8.
360° shielding (see 5.11) to achieve
LV cables (< 1kVAC rms) are split into at a high level of shielding effectiveness
least four classes, and each class run up to the highest frequency that
along a different route, only bundled with needs to be controlled.
(or in close proximity to) cables from its
Class 1b cables – for sensitive digital
own class. Ideally, cable classes would
signals
not cross over each other, but where
they must cross they should do so at This class includes all high-rate serial
right angles (and even then some digital communications e.g. Ethernet,
additional metal shielding, see 5.11 and USB, Firewire, LVDS, video, etc.
5.12, may be required between classes Good quality shielded twisted-pair
more than one class apart). (STP) cables with good quality
shielded connectors at both ends are
[43] describes a system that uses five
generally recommended, see 5.11.
classes, where the middle class is called
“EMC indifferent”. The author finds it Class 2 cables – for slightly sensitive
hard to imagine any cables that are truly signals or power
indifferent to EMC, so this class is not This includes all ‘ordinary’ analogue
used in the system described below (but signals, for example 4-20mA, or 0-
the ‘ghost of the middle class’ (!) 10V with a source impedance of
under 1kΩ, signal-to-noise ratios of
55
less than 60dB or digitisation to less Class 3 cables — for slightly
than 10 bits. It also includes low-rate interfering signals or power
digital bus communications based on This class is for LV (up to 230/415V
5 volt powered logic devices, such as rms or 600V peak or DC) power
RS232, RS422, RS485, etc. typical of the mains supply in a
These should use shielded cables, typical residential building, office or
but the shielding effectiveness other commercial building, and most
requirements are not as severe as light industrial units. Such mains
for Class 1 cables. Flat ribbon cables supplies will not be connected to
must either be fitted with flat ‘noisy’ equipment such as electric arc
shielding jackets or (preferably) welders, Group 2 ISM equipment
shielded ‘round and flat’ (where a flat according to [27], or high-power
cable is rolled up and sheathed in an variable-speed motor drives or
ordinary cylindrical shield. Flat ribbon switch-mode power converters or
cables should use the send/return uninterruptible power supplies. All
configurations shown in Figure 11 for the electronic equipment connected
both signals and power. to such mains supplies with
This class also includes AC or DC emissions broadly in line with the
power (up to 230/415V) that has generic emission standards IEC/EN
been internally filtered to a high 61000-6-3 or 61000-6-4, whichever
specification (see 5.10) in an is the most relevant for their EM
equipment cabinet – providing environment, or standards with
whatever equipment is powered by equivalent limits on emissions.
this Class 2 cable is not also It should be noted that the EMC
connected to any Class 3 or 4 cables product standards listed under the
from any other equipment. These EMC Directive for arc welders, Group
power supply cables should twist 2 ISM and high-power power
their +V and –V conductors, or their converters (e.g. IEC 61800-3 for
phase, neutral and safety earth motor drives; IEC/EN 60974-10 for
conductors together, but can arc welding; EN 12015 for lifts,
generally use unshielded cables. escalators and moving walkways;
Digital (i.e. on/off signals, not data) [27] for ISM, etc.) can allow higher
inputs and outputs (e.g. limit levels of emissions than would be
switches, non-data-bus low rate appropriate for a Class 3 cable, see
signals) can use shielded or Class 4.
unshielded cables, or single send These power cables should always
and return wires in a bundle. Twisted use shielded or unshielded cables or
pairs are always preferred in both cable bundles that include all +V and
shielded and unshielded cables, and –V conductors, or phase, neutral and
any flat cables should use one of the safety earth conductors, preferably
schemes shown in Figure 11 and twisted together.
described in 4.4. This class also includes control
circuits with resistive and inductive
loads (e.g. the coils of solenoids,
 56
relays and contactors). They should assume typical levels, frequency
always be fitted with the transient ranges and rates of occurrence for
suppressors recommended by their this type of noise, and it is often
manufacturers. They can use assumed that as long as none of the
shielded or unshielded cables, electromechanical contacts switch
twisted pairs, or single wires in more often than 5 times per minute
bundles as long as the sends always and create arcs that last less than
have closely routed return 20ms, and the lightning exposure is
conductors (twisted pairs are always typical of countries like the UK, the
preferred, whether cables are mains cables can be considered to
shielded or not). be Class 3.
AC motor cables are also Class 3 However, to better co-ordinate with
providing they are ‘direct-on-line the tests applied by the generic
(DOL) on/off controlled and the AC immunity standards,
supply used is itself Class 3, or else electromechanical contacts closer
are powered by AC inverter drives than 10 metres should all be
fitted with appropriate mains filters on suppressed using ‘snubbers’
their power inputs. The output cables recommended by their
of these drives must either be very manufacturers, and surge protection
well shielded, or fitted with ‘sinus devices should be fitted to the mains
plus’ output filters that filter both the supply to limit its surges to ±2kV
DM and CM signals so that the Pulse peak (see 5.13).
Width Modulated (PWM) signals are Without such protection measures it
converted into reasonably pure sine- is recommended to create a new
waves with very low RF content. Class 3b, – noisier than Class 3
These drives should always use (which would then be called 3a) –
cables that twist all the phases, and only connect equipment to Class
neutral and safety earth together. 3b if it is proven to be able to
The contacts of manual switches, withstand such high transient and
relays, contactors, thermostats and surge noise levels without errors,
the like are connected directly to AC malfunction, or damage.
mains supplies, and when they Note that Class 3 assumes that there
switch they create high levels of ‘fast is a vanishingly small likelihood of a
transient bursts’. If the contacts are direct lightning strike to the building
closer than about 10 metres to in which the system or installation is
equipment, their frequency spectrum installed, or else that it is acceptable
exceeds that assumed by the generic for such events to cause errors or
immunity standards. Nearby lightning malfunctions, or actual damage, to
events can cause surges that can any/all of the electronic equipment
exceed ±6kV on single-phase connected to it. Such assumptions
supplies, and more than ±12kV on are no longer generally acceptable,
dedicated three-phase supplies. see 5.13.
The generic immunity test standards
IEC/EN 61000-6-1 and 61000-6-2
57
Class 4 cables – for strongly Class 4 also includes AC or DC
interfering signals or power supply conductors connected to
This class is for any power cables unsuppressed electromechanical
(inputs or outputs) associated with contacts that can switch significantly
electromagnetically ‘noisy’ equipment more often than 5 times each minute
such as adjustable (variable) speed (especially where they are closer
motor drives (DC, AC, stepper, etc.), than 10 metres to an equipment);
electrical arc welding, Group 2 ISM where their switching arcs
[27], etc. These should all use braid experience restriking; where high
shielded power cables (at least), and rates of nearby lightning events or
motor drive manufacturers often direct strikes to the building are
specify special cables, routing, or expected; or where the supply cables
other suppressers, such as ferrite are connected to significant amounts
toroids or clips. of reactive stored energy that can be
switched (e.g. AC or DC motors
(Where AC ‘inverter’ drives are fitted rated at more than 50kW, switched
with appropriate mains filters on their power factor correction capacitors,
power inputs, and their output cables tap-changing transformers).
are either very well-shielded or fitted
with ‘sinus plus’ output filters, it is None of the IEC product or generic
possible for them to be Class 3 immunity standards test equipment
instead.) with the levels that can exist on
Class 4 cables – although the
This class also includes cables to RF proposed IEC 61000-6-5 (generic
transmitting antennas (type and immunity standard for power
termination always specified generation installations) might come
completely by manufacturer). It also close for some of the EM
includes control cables to phenomena. So without special
unsuppressed inductive loads mitigation measures (e.g. filtering
(relays, contactors, solenoids, etc.) and surge suppression) having been
using shielded or unshielded cables taken, it should be assumed that
containing all the sends with their ‘ordinary’ CE-marked electronic
returns (twisted pairs preferred). equipment attached to Class 4 AC or
Cables to on/off controlled DC DC supplies will suffer from errors
motors or sliprings are Class 4 and and malfunctions, and could even
should use braid-shielded cables suffer permanent damage quite
(send/return conductors twisted quickly.
together) with their braid correctly Whatever the classification of the cable
RF-terminated at both ends (at the according to the above, always check
drive and the motor frame). Cables whether equipment suppliers or relevant
associated with ‘pancake’ DC industry standards (e.g. [57])
motors, or DC motors fitted with recommend special types or grades of
spark-suppressed rotors or cables, special connectors, routing,
appropriate filters, might be able to shield termination methods, or other
be treated as Class 3. techniques to control EMI. Many industry
 58
codes or standards, and some technique, whatever the styles of cables
international standards published by used in the bundle (individual, twisted
standards bodies (e.g. [57]) specify the and/or shielded).
types of connectors to be used, and Where a powerful RF transmitter is
sometimes cable types too, for certain nearby, all cables of whatever class may
applications (e.g. 100base-T Ethernet). need to be shielded types and use
Unfortunately, many of them have not shielded connectors (depends on the
taken EMI issues into account. transmitter’s power, frequency and
Problems arise when an industry proximity), see 5.11.
standard cable interconnection (e.g. In addition to the above four
phono, jack, Ethernet, USB, Firewire, classifications, if MV (1-33kV) or HV (>
etc.) is based solely on providing low- 33kV) supply distribution cables are
cost and adequate functionality and so nearby, we might call these Class 5 and
suffers from EMI problems. Their Class 6 respectively. Air-insulated high-
connectors often appear not to have power busbars and high-voltage
been designed with good EMC distribution cannot easily be shielded, so
performance in mind, so they do not the other cable classes in proximity to
provide very effective RF terminations these may need to be protected by
for their cable shields required to control additional shielding, or by very much
the EMI. [57] seems to have been greater segregation (see 4.6).
developed assuming the ‘normal’ EM
environments as expressed in the Cable armour should also be used as a
generic EMC standards in the IEC shield, but its effective use demands
61000-6 series, but see [37] for some of reliable 360° electrical bonding methods
the shortcomings in these standards as at all joints and terminations (see 5.7).
descriptions of the real-life EM But most types of armour do not provide
environments. a very good or reliable shield for RF –
although there are some types of armour
Any bundles containing untwisted specifically designed to provide RF
send/return conductors should include at shielding as well as mechanical
least one additional conductor bonded to protection.
the equipment frames or chassis or
metal enclosures at both ends, see
4.8.2 Cable segregation and routing
Figure 11 and its associated text in 4.4.
techniques
Any cable armour should be RF-bonded
to the equipment frames, chassis or All cables between items of equipment
metal enclosures at both ends, and RF- should follow the same route whilst
bonded at all joints along their length. maintaining at least the minimum
See 5.8 for why the resulting ground separation (segregation) between the
loops are a benefit for EMC and with a bundles of cables in each Class. Only
little attention should cause only cables of the same Classification may
benefits, not problems. touch each other or be bundled together.
In fact, adding one or more ‘chassis Where cable classes must cross each
bonding’ conductors to any bundle of other, they should only do so at right
wires or cables is a useful EMC
59
angles, and even then their insulation Figure 14 exhibits the ghostly remnant of
should not touch. the “indifferent” cable class used in BS
Figure 14 shows the recommended IEC 61000-5-2, as the 300mm spacing
minimum spacings between cable between its Classes 2 and 3. If this
classes, based on a parallel run of indifferent class was used it would be in
cables up to 30 metres long, routed the centre of this region, with 150mm
close to metal supports that form part of spacings either side to Classes 2 and 3.
the CBN at all times. Longer parallel The metal ducts, trays, or other support
runs should use pro-rata greater structures that are part of the CBN
spacings (e.g. double the minimum should only contain as many Classes of
distances for a 60 metre run). cables as do not compromise the
minimum spacings in Figure 14.

Figure 14 Minimum segregation distances between cable classes (in

mm, not to scale)

450

450

600

1a 1b 2 3 4
20 150 300 150

Metal cable tray (for example) – that is part of the CBN

These are for cables run close to a single metal tray for up to
30 metres. For longer runs multiply by: length (metres) ÷ 30

The spacings between Classes may be dividers are used between Classes, the
reduced if cables use higher quality dividers RF-bonded (see 5.7) metal-to-
shielding along their route (e.g. double- metal to the duct or tray at least every
shielded cables, see 5.11) and/or if 30/fmax metres at the highest frequency
filtering is added (or improved) at both to be controlled, along its entire length
ends of the cables (see 5.10). They may (fmax in MHz).
also be able to be reduced if metal
 60
But general guidance on such reduced metre to Class 1 cables, the earthed
spacings is not available other than to duct or tray carrying the Class 1 cable
say that – where each Class is should be fitted with a metal cover that
contained in a dedicated solid metal makes frequent electrical bonds to the
conduit – the spacings between them body of the duct or cover, at least every
can be ignored. A covered metal duct 30/fmax and preferably closer, along its
can be as good as a solid conduit, if the length. Solid metal conduit would be
cover makes a reliable direct metal-to- ideal for the Class 1 cables in this
metal contact to both of the duct’s sides situation.
at least every 30/fmax along its entire There is actually very little evidence for
length. the minimum cable spacings
For a metal tray, duct, conduit or other recommended above – they really
metal structure to be part of the CBN depend entirely upon the emissions and
and suitable for cable routing as shown immunity characteristics of the
in Figure 14, it must be RF-bonded as equipment they interconnect, and the
described in 5.7 to the equipment’s signal-to-noise ratios that can be
metal chassis/frame/enclosure at both permitted (which in turn depend upon
ends, and RF-bonded at every joint the individual application). Some
along its length and to any other electronic equipment is so sensitive that
members of the CBN that are these spacings might need to be
appropriate. (‘Earthing’ a section of increased or extra shielding or filtering
metal cable support with a single applied. However, segregation distances
green/yellow wire connected to an at least as large as those shown in
‘earthing’ point somewhere actually Figure 14 are generally recommended
worsens EM performance instead of (greater distances are even better),
improving it, by increasing the crosstalk because they seem to work quite well in
between the cables.) the majority of installations.
Unshielded multiway cables, or bundles Where cables are not routed close to a
of unshielded conductors, should include metal area (such as the cable tray of
at least one conductor connected to the Figure 14) that is part of the CBN, the
equipment frames (or chassis or minimum spacings to other classes of
enclosures) at both ends, in parallel with cables should be increased
the cable Class’s metal support structure considerably. Unfortunately, no guidance
(where there is one). The cable metal is available, and each case should be
support structure must be rated to safely analysed mathematically, or with
carry the maximum fault current that computer simulators, or by trail and error
could occur in it. If there is no metal on an actual site.
cable support, the additional ‘frame- There are standards for certain types of
bonding’ conductors must be so rated. cable installations, for example
Classes 5 and 6 should have spacings structured wiring for Ethernet [57], which
beyond Class 4 depending on their recommend different segregation
insulation requirements but certainly not distances and other installation
less than 150mm each. Where Class 5 practices. Where these claim to cover
or 6 cables are routed closer than 1 EMC issues they might perhaps provide
61
better guidance than this section does, segregated by class but all routed along
but where they specify minimum the same metal support structure
spacings less than those in Figure 14, forming part of the CBN, so as not to
this Guide recommends caution. create loops.
Figure 15 sketches a plan view of part of
an installation, with the cables

Figure 15 Routing cables along the same path whilst maintaining

segregation by Class

Don’t do this!

All cables
All cables follow
follow the
the same
same
route between
route between cabinets
cabinets and
and
Equipment other units…
other units… Equipment
cabinet 1 whilst maintaining
maintaining at
at least
least
cabinet 3
whilst
the minimum
minimum spacings
spacings Cross
Cross
the
between the
the Classes
Classes at 90°
at 90°
between

Cables are
Cables are run
run along
along metal
metal trays,
trays, in
in
metal ducts,
metal ducts, metal
metal conduits,
conduits, etc.
etc.
Equipment Machine 1
cabinet 2

Figure 16 sketches a different view of If each item of equipment has a single

the routing shown in Figure 15; showing connection panel, with the connectors
how cable Classes may be split between segregated by Class, this helps achieve
two (or more) vertically stacked trays or the above good EMC engineering
ducts. The vertical spacings between practices described above. This also
two Classes in open trays or ducts helps reduce the emissions from the
should be at least as much as the equipment, and improve their immunity,
horizontal spacings from Figure 14. as discussed in section 4.8 of [36].
Internal corner runs in an earthed metal Cables that enter or leave a cabinet on
tray or duct are better at controlling different sides, or top and bottom, are
higher-frequency EM fields, so should be not recommended.
reserved for the especially sensitive or
noisy cables in each class.
 62
Figure 16 Example of segregating cable Classes in stacked trays

gs
c in
a
sp m
Class 11 cables
Class cables in imu Class
Class 22 cables
cables
a
nt in
ai > m
M

s
Vertical spacings
Vertical spacings same
same as
as horizontal
horizontal ng
a ci
sp um
n
Class 33 cables
Class cables t ai inim ClassClass 44 cables
cables
n
ai > m
M

Corner runs
Corner runs give
give better
better EMC
EMC

4.8.3 Cable segregation and routing in sites. In fact, most of the systems and
single-point earthed installations installations of any complexity and age
that are proudly proclaimed to employ
Techniques described in 4.8.2 include single-point earthing, generally do not –
the use of conductors and metal they often have one or more loops,
structures that are part of the CBN, that sometimes hundreds (as in an air traffic
directly connect between the metal control centre for a major UK airport that
chassis/frames/enclosures of the items the author was asked to assess).
of equipment interconnected by the
cables. This is in fact a CBN-meshing Because of the dogmatic adherence to
technique that is described in more the long-outdated idea of single-point
detail in 5.5. But of course it creates earthing, it is common to see beautifully-
‘ground loops’ and so is not consistent constructed cable management systems
with the rigorous use of the traditional with bundles of cables carefully routed
single-point ‘earthing’ approach. along trays and in ducts and conduits –
but those metal support structures are
As described in 5.8, the single-point not electrically connected to the
earthing approach has a very bad effect equipment the cables interconnect – or
on the EMC characteristics of a system to each other (for example, where they
or installation, so is not generally cross). Instead, each of their sections
recommended for any systems or has a green/yellow insulated wire that
installations these days, even legacy snakes off via a different route to the
63
main earthing terminal, where there overvoltages will be limited to one or two
might be a number of copper bars kV depending on the details of the
dedicated to the protective bonding of all design and construction employed, and
such items of metal throughout the site. equipment that complies with the
Such metal support structures do relevant immunity standards should
nothing for EMC, and in fact they operate reliably and without undue EMI.
actually increase the noise coupling However, lightning, and faults in MV and
between cable classes – necessitating HV power distribution networks can
larger spacings between cable classes inject huge voltages (e.g. 2MV) and/or
than would be needed if the cables were huge currents (e.g. 10s of kA) into
floating in the air or supported by a cables that interconnect buildings.
plastic or wooden structure. Signal, control, data and similar cables
The only way to use metal cable support between buildings should never be used,
structures to get the EMC benefits and should be replaced by metal-free
described in 4.8.2 and the spacings of fibre-optics, free-space microwave or
Figure 14 in a single-point earthed laser, or wireless communications as
system, is for all of the cable trays, described in 4.3 – unless those buildings
ducts, conduit or other metal support are part of a single EM Zone 1 or higher
structures to be make a continuous (see 5.4) that has been designed to
electrical connection from each item of comply with the direct lightning strike
equipment to the main earthing terminal. and other requirements of 5.13. Such
In effect, the metal cable supports are cables will generally be routed inside a
connected in parallel with the metal conduit or covered duct between
green/yellow protective conductor of the buildings that is a PEC (see 5.9) and
each equipment’s mains cable. also part of the MESH-CBN (see 5.5).
Then all the cables that interconnect two Likewise, mains power cables between
items of equipment, say from A to B, buildings should never be used, unless
must route along their metal support they have been installed by the local
structures from equipment A to the main power distribution authorities fully in
earthing terminal, and then along a accordance with their codes of practice,
different set of support structures from or a suitably-surge-rated isolating
the mains earthing terminal to equipment transformer is used where the power
B. Without appropriate design, in most enters. In either case, the incoming
installations this approach would supply to each building must be earth-
considerably increase the length and bonded to its BRC, which in turn is
cost of the cables and their supports, bonded to its Lightning Protection
and it can be physically difficult to System’s (LPS’s) earth electrode
achieve on complex industrial sites. structure (see 5.13).

4.9 Cables that interconnect

different buildings
Within buildings that have been
protected as described in 5.13, surge
5 EM mitigation techniques

64
5.1 Introduction to EM mitigation • Galvanic isolation, see 4.3
EM mitigation techniques rely upon • Grounding (earthing) by creating an
developing the segregation techniques RF Reference that has a low-enough
discussed in Section 4 above, to create impedance at the frequencies to be
what we call EM Zones. EM mitigation controlled, see 4.7 and 5.5.
measures are applied at the boundary of For a building, the RF Reference
each EM Zone, to control the EM Plane is usually connected to one or
disturbances that could enter or exit the more earth electrodes buried in the
zone. The boundary of an EM Zone can ground around its perimeter, and for
be thought of as a layer of protection, a ship it is connected to the water in
that: which it floats, but connections to
• Protects equipment within the zone such ‘true earths’ are not possible for
from EM disturbances originating some kinds of installations (e.g. land
outside the zone vehicles, aircraft, spacecraft, etc.).
However, connection to a ‘true earth’
• Protects equipment outside the zone is not a necessity for EMC – it is the
from EM disturbances originating mesh-bonding of the Reference that
inside the zone is important.
• Provides both of the above at the • RF-bonding at joints, seams, and
same time electrical bonds, see 5.7
Although we generally draw EM Zones
• Cabling, see 4.4 and 4.8 for general
as areas on a plan, and their boundaries
techniques, 5.11 for shielded cables,
as lines, we must never forget that the
and 5.9 for PECs.
boundary of an EM Zone is really the
surface of a three-dimensional volume, • Filtering, see 5.10.
and any/all EM disturbances that could Filtering may be necessary for every
penetrate that surface by conduction, conductor that enters/exits an EM
induction or radiation should be Zone, which is not directly RF-
assessed and controlled where bonded to the EM Zone’s BRC, or
necessary to prevent EMI from shielded with its shield RF-bonded to
occurring. EM Zoning is described in the BRC as described in 5.7.6.
more detail in 5.4.
The word ‘conductor’ includes
The EM mitigation measures that can be everything that could conduct – not
applied at the boundary of an EM Zone, just wires and cables.
to provide its layer of protection,
include… • Shielding of EM Zones
Shielding can be achieved with a
• Power Distribution, see 4.1
three-dimensional MESH-CBN, for
• Power Quality improvements, see example for lightning protection, and
4.2 this is described in 5.5 and 5.12.
65
• Surge protection, see 5.13. as it is done. This is especially important
for features (e.g. rebar bonding) that will
Surge protection may be necessary
not be readily accessible later in the
for every conductor that enters/exits
construction process.
an EM Zone, which is not directly
RF-bonded to the zone’s BRC, or The guidelines presented in this
shielded with its shield RF-bonded to document are often quite crude. The
the BRC as described in 5.7.6. EMC of a system or installation is an
immensely complex issue, as a quick
The word ‘conductor’ includes
look at the formulas in [58] will show.
everything that could conduct – not
The accuracy and detail of an EMC
just wires and cables.
analysis can be improved by using
formulas and calculations obtained from
5.2 Project management: depth of the various references provided, but in
analysis, quality control, testing real life there are so many interactions in
The EMC mitigation measures described a system or installation that even these
in Section 5, can be developed to create will not be close to predicting the final
EM Zones with improved immunity result of a construction.
and/or reduced emissions up to Critical facilities (such as hospital life-
whatever level of performance is support wards, operating theatres, data
required, even to meet the toughest centres for the internet and financial
military or National Security institutions, military, national security,
requirements. Of course, the higher the etc.) should always have their EM
level of EM performance required, the performance validated against their EMC
more detailed and accurate the design specification by EMC testing after
needs to be, and the more the construction is complete. Some owners
construction should be supervised to or their main contractors will make
ensure it results in the desired verification EM testing a condition of
performance. payment anyway. It is possible to
Most architects, electrical consultants, perform on-site (in situ) EMC tests using
M&E contractors and installers have hired or purchased equipment and
little/no idea about the use of good EMC competent personnel, and a number of
engineering practices (see 2.3.9 and EMC test laboratories offer mobile
2.4) – or may claim that they do but in testing services for this purpose [59].
fact are using methods (such as single- 5.12.14 gives some suggestions on
point bonding, see 3.5) that are worse testing an EM Zone’s shielding.
than useless these days. So unless However, if EM performance falls short
using service providers who have of specification, modifying the vessel,
verified references regarding the quality building or site to make it comply can be
of their EMC work (which will generally extremely time-consuming and costly
mean those who are used to building operation. The normal way of reducing
critical military and/or National Security these risks is to overdesign/overspecify
facilities) every aspect of construction the EM performance by at least 20dB,
discussed in this Guide should be and/or build in certain features that allow
checked by EMC competent personnel EM performance to be improved
 66
(relatively) quickly and easily if testing tests show errors exceeding ±20dB
the final construction proves that it is not (without an understandable reason).
as good as required. Obviously, even when using a verified
However, these days there are a number simulator, it is best to overdesign/
of ‘three-dimensional field solver’ overspecify by aiming for an EM
computer simulators available that deal performance specification that is at least
with the complexity and produce much 10dB higher than is really needed.
more accurate and reliable results than it Taking into account the degrading
is possible for a team of EMC expert effects of ageing and foreseeable
mathematicians to ever achieve. Their use/misuse, to help ensure adequate
use permits much more cost-effective EM performance is maintained over the
control of financial, safety or EMC operational lifetime of the system or
issues. A number of EMC consulting installation, perhaps the EM
companies offer bureau services in this overspecification for the new
area, and there are also software construction should be at least 20dB
packages that can be purchased for in- higher than is really needed. Of course,
house use, but this Guide does not the degree of overspecification for the
include any recommendations or new construction depends on how well
references. issues like misuse, wear, corrosion, etc.
Even though computers are now so very will be managed and controlled over the
powerful, EMC field solvers have to use operational lifetime, see Section 8.
a variety of simplifying assumptions if Another issue with computer simulators
they are to produce a result with the is that they must be supplied with good
required accuracy in a reasonable time – quality data on:
but the assumptions used depend on the
problems to be solved, and choosing the • Material characteristics (e.g. the
correct assumptions requires skill. diameters, conductivity and
permeability of rebars, when using
So, the accuracy of a computer EMC
them in a MESH-CBN and/or shield;
simulator should always be verified by
surface transfer impedance of cable
comparing its predictions against real-life
shields, etc.).
EMC measurements (taken after the
simulation), on systems and installations • Device characteristics (e.g.
and structures that are similar to the one voltage/current/time characteristics of
for which an analysis is required. surge protection devices;
Differences between simulation and real- attenuation/frequency characteristics
life testing of up to ±10dB indicate a very of filters, etc.)
accurate simulation, partly because • Construction characteristics (e.g.
EMC testing itself is subject to a number mesh dimensions, RF-bonding
of uncertainties. details, etc.)
Never rely on simulators for which such
• Etc…
verification has not been done, or has
only been done on different types of If the data they are supplied with does
EMC problems, or when the verification not match the final construction, the
simulation results will not be accurate.
67
5.3 Supplier-specified EMC comes at a price, but in some situations
mitigation measures it can be the most cost-effective solution.
Where the necessary EM characteristics
Some of these mitigation measures may
of a system or installation can be
be required by the EMC installation
achieved solely by the appropriate
instructions provided by suppliers of
choice of equipment and the good
equipment or systems. It is good EMC
practice installation techniques in
engineering practice to follow such
Section 4 above, then the system or
supplier instructions, where they are in
installation does not need to employ the
fact consistent with good EMC
EM of the mitigation methods discussed
engineering.
in Section 5.
Unfortunately, some suppliers are
But modern systems and installations
working to outdated installation concepts
are becoming so complex, and employ
(e.g. single-point earthing/grounding,
such large quantities of advanced
see 3.5), and instructions supplied with
electronic technologies (especially
some equipment might be incompatible
digital, switch-mode and wireless), that
with the instructions supplied with
they increasingly need to apply EM
equipment that it is to be connected to.
mitigation techniques so that they are
So there is always a need for competent
reliable enough in operation, and don’t
assessment of whatever is done as
cause their neighbours to complain of
regards EMC, rather than uncritically
interference (see Sections 1 and 2).
following supplier’s EMC instructions.
EM mitigation techniques in systems and
Where a supplier’s EMC assembly/
installations are always applied using an
installation instructions are not followed,
‘EM Zoning’ approach, which is a
compliance with 2004/108/EC would
development of the segregation
require appropriate documentation
approach described in 4.6. EM mitigation
justifying this fact (see 2.3.10), and
measures such as filtering, shielding,
arguing why its requirement to employ
surge suppression, galvanic isolation,
good EMC engineering was in fact best
etc., are applied around the boundaries
served by what was done instead.
of each EM Zone, to attenuate the
conducted, induced and radiated EM
5.4 EM Zoning disturbances that would otherwise cross
These mitigation guidelines are intended that boundary, as shown in Figure 17.
to cost-effectively protect ‘ordinary’ EM Zones are generally drawn in plan
equipment. But it is always possible to view, but we must not forget they are
design equipment that is sufficiently actually three-dimensional volumes, not
‘EMC hardened’ that it can be used areas.
anywhere, with or without shielding, and The thick red line around each EM Zone
with or without an RF Reference. It is indicates the boundary at which EM
even possible to harden equipment so mitigation techniques are applied, and it
that it can be located outside a lightning follows the same path as the BRC
protection system, and yet survive a discussed in 4.7.
direct lightning strike. Such hardening
 68
Figure 17 Example of EM Zoning in an installation comprising six items of
equipment

EM Zone
EM Zone 00 (The external, ambient, EM environment)
The external boundary (limits) of the installation

EM mitigation (shielding, filtering,

EM Zone
EM Zone 11 EM Zone
EM Zone 2A
2A transient suppression, etc.) can be
applied at this boundary to create an EM
Equipment Equipment Equipment Zone for the entire installation
1 2 5 – called EM Zone 1

Equipment Equipment Equipmen

Equipment EM mitigation can be applied to areas
3 4 t 66 within the installation to create new EM
Zones (e.g: 2A, 2B, etc.) within EM Zone 1

Equipment 6 EM mitigation can be applied to an item of equipment

to create a new EM Zone (e.g: 3A, 3B, etc.) for all of the
EM Zone
EM Zone 3A
3A units, modules, products, components, etc., contained
within that equipment
Module EM
1 Zone 4A
EM mitigation can be applied to an area within an item
Module
Module
3
of equipment to create new EM Zones (e.g: 4A, 4B, etc.)
2 for a selection of the units, modules, products,
components, etc. contained within that equipment

The uncontrolled external EM • Have custom equipment

environment is always called EM Zone manufactured and tested to meet the
0, and the volume contained within the EM specifications required by the
site’s BRC is always EM Zone 1. Within installation.
EM Zone 1 there could be many EM
Zone 2’s, labelled 2A, 2B, 2C, etc. • Create EM Zones employing
Within the EM Zone 2’s there could be mitigation measures around their
many EM Zone 3’s, labelled 3A, 3B, 3C, boundaries, so that the combination
etc., and so on. Figure 17 shows four of the attenuation provided by the
levels of zoning, with (in this example) mitigation plus the EM characteristics
EM Zone 3A being an item of of the standard commercially
equipment, and EM Zone 4A being a available equipment meets the EM
module within that equipment. specifications required by the
installation.
Where standard commercially available
equipment does not have the EM Figures 8 and 9 in 3.9 show how the
specifications that are necessary for the selection of equipment is related to the
reliability or compliance of the system or EM environment and the mitigation
installation, there are two possibilities: techniques employed by any EM Zones
created within an installation.
69
5.5 Conductive meshing (in metres) much less than 50/fmax (fmax
in MHz gives answers in metres). Even
5.5.1 The MESH-CBN smaller mesh-element diagonals provide
better EM characteristics.
To be able to control conducted and Meshes with element diagonals of 150/f
radiated EM disturbances at a boundary
(or larger) provide no EMC benefits, and
of an EM Zone requires a meshed
could even resonate and make their EM
(highly cross-bonded) CBN, generally
Zone’s characteristics worse than having
known as a MESH-CBN, over that entire
no EM Zoning at all. With D = 50/fmax the
boundary – the entire layer of protection.
EM control achieved by the mesh at fmax
The mesh behaves as a shield that will not be very good, but at least it will
attenuates radiated EM phenomena, and not resonate.
it can also be used as an RF Reference
Radiated EM pulses due to nearby
Plane for equipment within that EM
lightning (lightning EM pulse, known as
Zone. The problems of using a mesh as
LEMP) are a threat to all electronics. To
both shield and RF Reference are
protect typical equipment from LEMP it
discussed in 5.5.3.
is generally recommended that no part
The BRC is an important part of the of the boundary between EM Zone 0 and
CBN’s mesh, and filters, surge 1 (e.g. the external walls, floor, ceiling or
protection devices, galvanic isolation, roof of a building) should have any mesh
and cable shield bonding are applied to elements with D greater than 5 metres
any/all conductors at the point where (see 5.13).
they cross the BRC, as previously
Especially sensitive or critical equipment
described in 4.7, to attenuate conducted
may require greater attenuation of
EM phenomena.
LEMP, so may need mesh diagonals
Where the meshing has sufficient cross- smaller than 5m, and the design of
sectional area, there may no longer be meshes for such shielding is discussed
any need to have a BRC that is an in detail in 5.12.
identifiable single conductor. For
Unlike a solid metal sheet shield (see
example, the perfect MESH-CBN for
5.12.8) a mesh shield only achieves its
EMC uses solid metal sheets instead of
full shielding effectiveness (SE) at a
meshes, to create what is essentially a
distance inside that is equal to its
shielded room (see 5.12). In such a
longest diagonal, D. Increased spacing
room, the BRC is any point on its sheet
is better, and especially-sensitive or
metal walls, floor or ceiling.
critical cables or equipment should be
spaced much further away, depending
5.5.2 General mesh design and on the equipment’s EM specifications
construction issues and the severity of any interference
To have any useful effect at up to the consequences. The centre of a shielded
highest frequency to be controlled by the EM Zone is the best location for
EM Zone boundary, fmax, individual mesh sensitive and/or critical equipment and
elements in the boundary should have their cables.
their largest diagonals or diameters, D
 70
Following the guidance in 5.12 for the and its cables should be located at least
SE of meshes for EM fields other than twice the value of D that was actually
LEMP, seems like a good policy for EM created, away from that mesh, to help
fields of all types. But where the avoid problems due to LEMP.
consequences of getting it wrong are Better still, and especially where the
unacceptable, a more detailed consequences of getting it wrong are
investigation of the SE provided by the unacceptable, the equipment should be
meshed structures is recommended to placed inside another EM Zone that
achieve a satisfactory cost/risk balance. provides useful shielding up to the
Planned structures can be computer- highest frequency of concern. For
simulated using three-dimensional EM example: if it was EM Zone 1 that had a
field solvers that have been validated D > 5m due to a large door, then the
(i.e. proven by experiment to be additional LEMP protection should be
accurate) for this purpose, with the provided by an EM Zone 2 (see Figure
advantage that modifications can be 17).
made to the design before the
construction materials are purchased. Where sheet metal is used as an EM
Zone boundary, there is no D, hence no
For an existing building, or one that has minimum spacing distance. However,
been constructed following calculations any joints or seams between sheets that
or simulations of its SE, on-site are not conductively bonded (e.g. seam-
measurements of SE can be done easily welded) all along their length – and any
and quickly (see 5.12.14) using standard gaps or apertures in the sheets – should
methodologies, either using hired test be treated exactly the same as a mesh
equipment or subcontracting an EMC with longest diagonal equal to D, with all
test laboratory that offers such services. the above ‘rules’ applied.
Where the consequences of getting it
wrong are unacceptable, on-site Meshed constructions create very many,
measurements are always very small ‘ground loops’, sometimes
recommended, if only to check that the called ‘earth loops’. These are a good
actual construction of a site has thing for EMC and not a cause for
achieved its design intent. concern. See 3.5, and also 5.8 for more
detail and some simple solutions for any
Where such large spacings cause problems caused by poorly-designed
practical difficulties for locating equipment.
equipment or cables, use a much
smaller mesh size where the cables or All the various metal parts and other
equipment are located – ideally sheet conductors that are meshed to create an
metal. The smaller mesh or sheet metal EM Zone boundary, whether or not it is
should extend on all sides beyond the also used as an RF Reference, must be
equipment or cables, by as far as is ‘RF-bonded’ together, using bonding
practicable – at least by D. techniques that reliably achieve low
impedance at the highest frequency to
Where a maximum 5m mesh diagonal D be controlled, see 5.7.
cannot be achieved (e.g. due to very
large doors, such as for an aircraft
hanger), sensitive or critical equipment
71
5.5.3 Using a conductive mesh as an Also, electrical/electronic equipment
RF Reference using metal frames, chassis or
enclosures, or shielded plastic
The concept of the RF Reference was enclosures, should have their frame,
introduced in 3.4, and within an EM chassis, enclosure or shield bonded to
Zone its MESH-CBN (or MESH-IBN) is the RF Reference with at least a 28 sq.
used as its RF Reference, sometimes mm copper conductor (e.g. 6mm
called its ‘RF earth’, ‘RF ground’ or ‘RF diameter, although a braid strap would
common’). This is generally connected be better) that is much shorter than
to the safety earthing system, if it is not 30/fmax, and once again 3/fmax should be
the same conductive structure. the target for general use. RF-bonding
At frequencies above a few kHz, only a techniques are discussed in 5.7. (Good
meshed (ideally a sheet) metal area or EMC engineering practices should also
volume can achieve a reliable RF be employed in the design and
Reference that achieves a low construction of all the equipment used,
impedance (typically <<1Ω) at see [36] for industrial cabinets and the
frequencies up to the highest to be like that uses metal or shielded plastic
controlled (fmax). enclosures.)
(RF References are almost always These 30/fmax and 3/fmax ‘rules’ only
‘earthed’ or ‘grounded’ and can serve ensure that some EM benefits are
the dual purpose of providing electrical obtained from the RF Reference, and
safety earthing or grounding functions closer spacing and much shorter
for equipment, but such issues are not bonding conductors will achieve
within the scope of this Guide and are improved EM characteristics. If 30/fmax
not discussed further. Only the EM cannot be achieved, the RF Reference
characteristics of the RF References are will not provide any significant EMC
discussed here.) benefits, and consideration should be
Some very critical or sensitive given to extending it to be much closer
installations will need to use sheet metal to the equipment or cable concerned.
as their RF References, but most Routing cables very close to an RF
‘ordinary’ installations will probably be Reference – along their entire route –
able to use meshed metal structures greatly reduces their accidental antenna
instead. effects (see 3.4), and the benefits are
For an RF Reference to be effective (as very much greater when the metal
a low impedance RF ‘earth’ or ‘ground’) frames, chassis or enclosures of the
for its EM Zone, all of the cables and equipment at both ends of the cables are
other power and signal conductors, and also RF-bonded (see 5.7) to the mesh.
devices and circuits in unshielded plastic So, closer proximity to the RF Reference
enclosures, should be much closer to it also helps an EM Zone to control
than 30/fmax (fmax in MHz gives the radiated disturbances.
answer in metres), and 3/fmax should be As mentioned in 5.2, these fmax based
the target for general use (e.g. 30mm for ‘rules’ are in fact only very crude
an fmax of 100MHz). guidelines, and radiated EM computer
simulations using three-dimensional field
 72
solvers working with real data are [60] says that ordinary soils do not
recommended to help design RF attenuate at a very high rate, at
References for cost-effective control of frequencies below 10MHz. If the soil
financial, safety or EMC compliance does not provide sufficient attenuation to
risks. protect against external EM threats, a
5.5.2 said that where a mesh is used as shielding layer should be added
an EMC shield, equipment and cables underneath the RF Reference floor,
should be located at least D (the largest spaced below by at least the longest
diagonal of the mesh’s individual diagonals used for the shield’s mesh
elements) away from the mesh, with elements. As mentioned earlier, if the RF
further being better. But when using a Reference is a sheet metal construction,
mesh as an RF Reference, closer there is no conflict between its roles as
spacing is better. shield and RF Reference.
This makes it impossible to use a mesh Similar issues can arise where meshed
as both a shield for an EM Zone and as floors within a building are required to
the RF Reference for the equipment act as shields between EM Zones on
within it. This situation does not arise separate floors. If sheet metal is not
with a sheet metal shield/RF Reference, used, there should be two meshes
but it needs to be addressed when spaced apart by the D of the shielding
relying on meshes. mesh – one to provide the shielding and
the other to act as the RF Reference.
In general, when using mesh-bonding
techniques, the BRC for an EM Zone will Where meshes are achieved by welding
be located along the line where its RF rebars and/or other meshed material
Reference intersects any shielding (see 5.12.4) inside a concrete floor or
around the EM Zone. When using sheet wall, and the individual mesh elements
metal shielding with adequate thickness have a D that is equal to (or less than)
(see 5.12.8), there may be no need for a half the thickness of the concrete, then
separate BRC – the whole metal shield the thickness of the concrete can
may be able to be used as a BRC. provide all the spacing that is necessary
– allowing equipment and/or cables
When the RF Reference is the lowest and/or the RF Reference to be placed
floor in a building, as shown by Figure directly on the concrete surface
18, and the soil attenuates the EM fields containing the shielding mesh.
sufficiently, the floor mesh (RF
Reference) does not have to provide
shielding so there is no conflict.
73
Figure 18 Example of meshes used as shields and RF References

Lightning protection
Lightning protection
EM Zone
EM Zone 00 Metal mesh
Metal mesh in/on
in/on roof,
roof,
system not
system not shown
shown
mesh diagonals
mesh diagonals == R
R

EM Zone
EM Zone 11

Metal mesh
Metal mesh in/on
in/on ≥R These spacings
These spacings help help ≥R Metal mesh
Metal mesh in/on
in/on
this wall: mesh
this wall: mesh ensure that
ensure that this wall: mesh
this wall: mesh
diagonals =
diagonals = Q Q equipment tested
equipment tested for for diagonals == PP
diagonals
immunity to
immunity to pulsed
pulsed
magnetic fields
magnetic fields as
as
≥Q specified by
specified by ≥P
BS EN
BS EN 62305-4
62305-4 All meshes
All meshes bonded
bonded atat
survive lightning
survive lightning every mesh
mesh along
along the
the
every
strikes to
strikes to the
the building
building joint seams
seams
joint

Mesh in/on
Mesh in/on floor
floor used
used as
as RF
RF Reference,
Reference,
with closely-spaced
with closely-spaced cables
cables and
and equipment
equipment

IfIf the
the soil
soil does
does not
not provide
provide sufficient
sufficient attenuation
attenuation for
for the
the external
external EM
EM fields,
fields,
aa shielding
shielding layer
layer should
should be
be added
added underneath the RF
underneath the RF Reference
Reference floor,
floor,
spaced below by at least its largest mesh diagonals
spaced below by at least its largest mesh diagonals (D) (D)

5.5.4 The 3-dimensional meshed present, had its own earth electrodes.
common-bonding-network (MESH- This method is very dangerous and
CBN) should never be used – during lightning
strikes the voltages between the
Figure 19 shows a very old style of different earth systems can be 100s of
earthing system using single-point kV, causing serious electrocution, fire
bonding methods for two separate and explosion hazards. Legacy
systems, each with their own earth structures should immediately be
electrodes, one for the ‘power’ or ‘dirty’ converted to Figure 20, or better still,
earth, the other for the ‘clean’ earth. The Figure 21.
lightning protection system (LPS), if
 74
Figure 19 Independent earthing: not suitable for EMC and creates safety
hazards

Safety ‘Clean’ earths

‘Clean’ earths using
using
single-point bonding
single-point bonding
EMC

Other
Other
‘Power’ earths
‘Power’ earths using
using floors
floors
single-point bonding
single-point bonding

Lightning
Lightning
protection
protection
Item of system (LPS)
(LPS)
system
equipment
Mains
Mains Ground floor
Ground floor
distribution
distribution

123 N Bonding
Bonding
conductor
conductor

HV
HV Earth (mass)
Earth (mass) Soil
Soil LPS earth
LPS earth (mass)
(mass)
electrode
electrode electrodes
electrodes

Figure 20 Single-point earthing: good for safety, but poor EMC at any
frequency

Safety ‘Clean’ earths

earths using
using
‘Clean’
single-point bonding
single-point bonding
EMC

‘Power’ earths
‘Power’ earths using
using Other
Other
single-point bonding
bonding floors
floors
single-point
Lightning
Lightning
protection
protection
Item of system (LPS)
(LPS)
system
equipment
Mains
Mains Ground floor
Ground floor
distribution
distribution

123 N Bonding
Bonding
conductor
conductor

HV
HV Earth (mass)
Earth (mass) Soil
Soil LPS bonds
bonds to
to MESH-CBN
MESH-CBN Earth (mass)
Earth (mass) electrodes
electrodes
LPS
electrode
electrode
75
Figure 20 shows the earthing system political or other risks due to EMI are
that has been most common in recent unacceptable.
decades. All the earth electrodes are Figure 21 sketches a meshed ‘earthing’
connected together and then feed or ‘grounding’ structure that can be used
single-point bonded earthing systems as as an RF Reference and/or shielding at
necessary, such as ‘power’ or ‘dirty’, the boundaries of an EM Zone. In IEC
‘clean’ and a LPS if present. This is standards for electrical installations (e.g.
adequate for safety, but does not [43]) it is often called a meshed
provide an RF Reference so is poor for common-bonding network: ‘MESH-CBN’.
control of EM disturbances above a few This achieves low impedances from DC
kHz, see 3.5 and 5.8. up to a frequency determined by the size
It is still generally an adequate earthing of the mesh (see 5.5), and is a very
structure for typical domestic and small important element of modern
commercial or industrial installations, installations with concentrations of high-
where the density of electrical/electronic technology equipment including
equipment and signal/control cabling is computers, radio/tele/
low. But it is not recommended where datacommunications, variable speed
there is a high density of equipment and motor drives, and the like.
cabling, or where safety, financial,

Figure 21 3-D MESH-CBN: excellent for safety, RF Reference depends on

mesh dimensions

Safety
Other floors
Other floors
EMC

Meshed common
Meshed common bonding
bonding network,
network,
MESH-CBN, for
for both
both ‘power’
‘power’ and
and ‘clean’
‘clean’ earths
earths Lightning
Lightning
MESH-CBN, protection
(also bonds
bonds services
services and
and ‘natural’
‘natural’ metalwork)
metalwork) protection
(also Item of system (LPS)
system (LPS)
equipment
Mains
Mains Ground floor
Ground floor
distribution
distribution

123N Bonding
Bonding
conductors
conductors

HV
HV
Earth (mass)
Earth (mass) Soil
Soil LPS bonds
LPS bonds to
to MESH-CBN
MESH-CBN Earth (mass)
Earth (mass) electrodes
electrodes
electrode
electrode (additional bonds
(additional bonds every
every 15-
15-
20m height
20m height in
in tall
tall buildings)
buildings)
 76
MESH-CBN techniques were first The boundary of an EM Zone does not
developed for data and have to have a uniform mesh size all
telecommunication centres, but the over. For example, Figure 22 sketches
density and sophistication of electronic different mesh sizes being used for
equipment now used in many other different parts of an EM Zone 1’s RF
types of installations means they are Reference, according to the different
now more widely used. And, as ‘highest frequency to be controlled’ in
described earlier, without a conductive each part of the site. In this example, the
mesh in the boundary of an EM Zone, power distribution room has no RF EMC
the EM mitigation techniques employed requirements so the mesh there is just
at the boundaries will not be effective. enough to provide the sufficient fault
Some of the standards and other current handling. In the instrumentation
documents recommending the use of room there needs to be a mesh sized to
MESH-CBNs and providing design and control the frequencies relevant to
construction details include: [2] [32] [43] achieving the EM characteristics for the
[50] [51] [52] [53] [61] and [47], provide instrumentation, and in the computer
more information. room there is a different sized mesh
The boundary between EM Zone 0 and because the frequency range to be
EM Zone 1 (see Figure 17) requires a controlled is different.
three dimensional (3-D) MESH-CBN Existing metal structures can be
volume, one surface of which (usually interconnected to help create meshed
the floor) is generally used as the RF EM Zone boundaries, and in industrial
Reference (but see 5.5.3 and Figure 18). applications there is often so much of
Where internal EM Zones (e.g. Zone 2 this ‘natural’ metalwork available that
or higher) only need to control adequate conductive meshes can be
conducted EM disturbances, they only created easily at low cost, with little need
need to use a meshed area, such as a to add extra conductors, as shown in
floor or wall, as their RF Reference and Figure 23. Bonding cable shields at both
they may not require a meshed volume. ends (see 5.7.6), and bonding cable
However, to control induced and trays and ducts to equipment cabinets at
radiated EM disturbances at an EM both ends (see 5.7.1), also help to
Zone boundary always requires a 3-D improve MESH-CBNs – and reduce the
mesh (a meshed volume) with mesh impedances of meshed RF References
diagonals small enough to provide the – by providing many parallel bonding
necessary shielding at the highest paths and opportunities for more cross-
frequency to be controlled (see 5.12). bonding between metal elements.
77

Figure 22 Example of different mesh sizes in an RF Reference in one EM

Zone

Example of
Example of computer
computer room
room
orrss
fllooo
t
h herr f
e
oot
TToo

Example of
Example of power
power distribution
distribution room
room Example of
Example of instrumentation
instrumentation room
room

Figure 23 Creating a MESH-CBN by bonding ‘natural’ metalwork

Metal window
Metal window and
and door
door Structural steelwork
steelwork Bonding conductors
Bonding conductors
frames, cladding,
frames, cladding, Structural and BRCs
BRCs
including reinforcement
including reinforcement and
roofing, etc.
roofing, etc.

Plumbing and
Plumbing and
pipework
pipework

Cable ducts,
Cable ducts, trays,
trays,
conduits, etc.
conduits, etc.
Bonds across
Bonds across
non- metallic
non- metallic
pipe sections
pipe sections
Air ducts,
Air ducts, vents,
vents,
flues, chimneys,
flues, chimneys, etc.
etc.

Short bonding
Short bonding conductors
conductors used
used Gratings, ladders,
ladders,
where direct
direct metal-to-metal
metal-to-metal Gratings,
where walkways, fences,
walkways, fences, etc.
etc.
fixings or
fixings or welds
welds are
are not
not practical
practical
 78
Figure 24 shows how the MESH-CBN manufacturers have been specifying a
for a multi-level IT or telecomm building maximum ground potential difference of
might be designed. Each floor has its no more than 15mV at any frequency of
BRC and its RF Reference, and they are concern over the area occupied by their
all interconnected with the rest of the interconnected computers, just so that
building’s MESH-CBN both horizontally they function reliably, never mind
and vertically, using ‘natural’ metalwork ensuring their EM emissions comply with
where possible (such as re-bars) but the new EMC Directive [1].
adding metalwork or bonding conductors To achieve this, data and telco centres
where the mesh is too large. typically place their equipment on – and
Because of the huge volume of very bond it to – a closely-meshed area of
sophisticated electronic equipment and MESH-CBN that their standards and
data cabling associated with Data and guides (e.g. [50] [53]) usually call a
Telecommunication centres, they need ‘Bonding Mat’ or ‘System Reference
to use RF References that maintain low Potential Plane’ (SRPP). An example is
impedances up to at least 30MHz. The sketched in Figure 25.
author understands that since the late
1990’s some internet server

Figure 24 Example of vertical mesh bonding in a MESH-CBN

MESH-CBN vertical
vertical elements
elements MESH-CBN bonded
MESH-CBN bonded to
to each
each
MESH-CBN floor's BRC
BRC at
at several
several places
places
(e.g. steel
(e.g. steel girders,
girders, re-bars)
re-bars) floor's

Cables routed
Cables routed
close to
close to MESH-
MESH-
CBN elements
CBN elements
along entire
along entire
route
route

Cables and
Cables and
metallic services
metallic services
RF-bonded at
RF-bonded at
every BRC
every BRC they
they
cross
cross
(Earthing bars,
(Earthing bars,
plates, filters,
plates, filters,
SPDs, etc.,
SPDs, etc., not
not
shown)
shown)

MESH-CBN’s horizontal
MESH-CBN’s horizontal Example of
Example of aa meshed
meshed RF
RF Reference
Reference
elements (e.g.
elements (e.g. re-bars)
re-bars) (e.g. SRPP,
(e.g. SRPP, bonding
bonding mat)
mat)
79
Figure 25 An example of an area of MESH-CBN providing a Bonding Mat
or SRPP for a data centre

‘Frame bond’
‘Frame bond’ conductors,
conductors, 28
28 sq.
sq. mm,
mm, short
short and
and direct
direct to
to
underfloor ‘bonding
underfloor ‘bonding mat’
mat’ or
or SRPP
SRPP (area
(area of
of MESH
MESH CBN)
CBN)

Telco cabinets IT cabinets

UPS
Computer
Computer
flooring
flooring
pedestal
pedestal

Typical mesh
Typical mesh size:
size: 600mm
600mm square,
square, connected
connected to
to the
the BRC
BRC of
of the
the appropriate
appropriate EM
EM Zone
Zone

Other applications than servers or Where the EM environment suffers from

telecommunications could also have EM disturbances that go beyond the
large concentrations of electronics, or immunity specifications of an
critical equipment, that require RF installation’s equipment, a high-
References with similar (or lower) specification RF Reference might be
impedances for reliable functioning (see required so that EM mitigation provides
3.1), and/or so that EM mitigation effective attenuation. A MESH-CBN like
measures can reduce their emissions that shown in Figure 25 might be what is
sufficiently for legal EMC compliance required.
(see Section 1). So they might also use Typically these bonding ‘mats’ use a
a closely meshed structure like that mesh of copper wire or lightning tape on
shown in Figure 24. For example, high- a 600mm grid, installed beneath the
power motor drives can create very high computer flooring and bonded to the
levels of EM disturbances at frequencies equipment cabinet frames by 28 sq. mm
up to at least 10MHz. Although fmax is not conductors (e.g. 6mm diameter) no
very high, the very high levels of the EM longer than 500mm. Some companies
disturbances might make it necessary to use the metal support framework for the
use a closely-spaced ‘bonding mat’ as raised computer flooring, and/or metal-
the RF Reference. backed computer flooring tiles, as a
bonding mat/SRPP. Turning the floor
 80
tiles over, so their metal backing is now 5.5.5 Mesh bonding on single-point
on top, makes it easier to bond the bonded legacy sites – the MESH-IBN
bonding mat to the frames or cabinets of
the equipment. Older (legacy) buildings often use single-
point earthing (see Figure 20) and there
When using metal backed floor tiles as are serious concerns that adding a
the bonding mat, special care needs to meshed RF Reference might cause
be taken over the way the floor tiles’ ‘ground loop’ problems for the existing
metal backing is bonded together. The equipment. In such cases, to save
intention of the metal backing on the tile having to convert the whole building or
is to help prevent large electrostatic site to a MESH-CBN, some authorities
discharges (ESD) caused by people and standards suggest the use of
walking on the carpet or vinyl surface. insulated meshed bonding networks
The bonding provisions for ESD control (MESH-IBNs) when adding data and
are often not very rugged and often telco centres, or other concentrations of
become high-resistance or even fail sophisticated electronic equipment, see
altogether when a tile has been lifted [43] [50] [51] [61] [63] ([32] has more
and replaced a number of times, or details and references). Some of them
when insufficient care is taken about also recommend modifying the entire
placing feet. The result of such damage building or site to use MESH-CBN
is often acceptable for ESD, but can ruin construction at the earliest opportunity.
an RF Reference. [61] is probably the most comprehensive
Although each application will differ, a reference, and is often referenced by
600mm meshed bonding mat as other standards for its MESH-IBN
sketched in Figure 25 ought to at least details.
achieve the old IBM specification MESH-IBNs should be constructed to
(ground potential differences < 1V over a have at least 10kV of isolation from the
computer room). But where better rest of the building’s bonding network,
control and/or higher frequencies are when their connections to the rest of the
required (e.g. where the specification is building are opened. This is so that
15mV and communications use Gigabit during thunderstorms, dangerous flash-
Ethernets or other very high-rate overs from the existing building’s earth
datacommunications) the mesh size may structure to the MESH-IBN are unlikely.
need to be much smaller – a metal sheet
is best – and the equipment frame bonds MESH-IBNs should have their own
much shorter. It is not unrealistic in BRCs and their main earthing terminal is
some applications to install a seam- called their ‘single-point of connection’
bonded metal floor, stand the equipment (SPC). The SPC is the one point where
cabinets directly on the metal floor, and the MESH-IBN is bonded to the
bond them to the floor with very short building’s existing earthed structure,
straps, maybe even one at each corner ideally to a low-impedance (at 50Hz)
or one every 300mm or so around each earthed conductor such as a cable duct.
cabinet’s perimeter. All cables and conductive services must
enter the MESH-IBN close to the SPC,
and be RF-bonded at the SPC (either
81
directly bonded, or indirectly bonded via other points. Figure 26 sketches the
SPDs and/or filters). main points of MESH-IBN construction.
No exceptions are allowed – no cables
or conductive services may enter at

Figure 26 Adding a MESH-IBN to a legacy building

Existing low-impedance
Existing low-impedance (at (at 50Hz)
50Hz) earthed
earthed
structure (e.g.
structure (e.g. cable
cable tray
tray or
or duct)
duct)

All cables
All cables and
and conductive
conductive services
services enter
enter atat the
the Single
Single Point
Point
Connection (SPC)
Connection (SPC) and
and are
are RF-bonded
RF-bonded toto the
the BRC
BRC atat that
that point
point
(Earthing bars
(Earthing bars and
and plates,
plates, filters,
filters, SPDs
SPDs etc.,
etc., not
not shown)
shown)

New MESH-IBN
New MESH-IBN isolated
isolated >> 10kV
10kV
from all
from all other
other conductive
conductive parts
parts
PCC of the
the legacy
legacy building
building
SSP
of

The BRC
The BRC around
around the
the Meshed
Meshed Insulated
Insulated False floor
False floor
Bonding Network
Bonding Network (MESH-IBN)
(MESH-IBN)

Although MESH-IBNs can work very well decide to run a data or power cable
indeed when first installed, they must be between two areas or rooms, or even
designed taking into account lightning between floors, not realising that they
and surge protection for personnel. It are compromising the isolation of the
must be impossible by design, for safety new area. Such additional cables can
reasons, for anyone to be able to touch cause serious risks of electric shock
equipment bonded to the MESH-IBN and/or fire, never mind EMI.
and any other equipment or structure on As a result, MESH-IBNs need to be
the site. Consequently, MESH-IBNs are regularly inspected and maintained
very vulnerable to ‘craftsmen’, who may, throughout their life, by electrical
for example, remove a partition or engineers who fully understand their
convert a wide walkway into a smaller concepts and requirements and have the
one and install equipment that can be necessary authority to control that part of
touched. the installation. Where a site relies upon
MESH-IBNs are also very vulnerable to contract electrical engineers and has no
technicians and engineers, who may chief electrical engineer permanently
 82
employed to oversee the electrical performance and EMC. See 5.8 for why
networks, it is safest – and also best for ground loops do not cause a problem for
EMC – to avoid MESH-IBNs and use a correctly-designed equipment, and how
MESH-CBN instead. to easily deal with poorly-designed
In fact, the same is also true for equipment.
‘traditional’ single-point bonded systems
(see 3.5). If they have any complexity, 5.5.6 Mesh-bonding in legacy sites –
then over time they generally suffer from mixed bonding structures
some accidental or unforeseen ‘ground
5.2.3 discussed buildings or sites with
loops’ that can be difficult to discover.
full MESH-CBNs, and 5.2.4 discussed
For example, sites where professional
MESH-IBNs, but in fact there are an
audio or video systems are installed,
infinite number of ‘mixed’ styles of
which employ traditional single-point
common bonding network that can be
safety earthing/grounding networks,
used, as shown in Figure 27. These are
often suffer from audio or video noise
very useful when modifying a legacy
when new ground loops are accidentally
structure, which may be using single-
created by the installation of a new item
point bonding, or a mesh that is too open
of equipment, new cable, or by an
for the RF Reference for the new
insulation failure.
equipment.
Such problems can take days, even
The key issue that controls all of these is
weeks to resolve, with no guarantee that
the EM characteristics specified for each
another such problem will not occur next
EM Zone, which comes from the EM
week. But when they are constructed
specifications for the equipment and the
using MESH-CBNs instead, such
EM environment that they would be
problems cannot occur – every new
subjected to if the EM Zones were not
ground loop simply improves the mesh
present.
and improves the overall noise
83
Figure 27 Examples of mixing CBN styles

BRC
Single-point EM Zone
EM Zone 11
plus MESH- EM Zone
EM Zone 22 BRC
IBN

PCC
EM Zone
Zone 00

SSP
EM Main earthing
terminals

EM Zone
EM Zone 1
BRC
‘Islands’ of EM Zone
Zone 2B
2B
close meshes EM
BRC
in a weakly
meshed CBN EM Zone
EM Zone 2A
2A
BRC

installations), that your use of mesh-

5.6 What if you really cannot use bonding techniques will not cause
mesh-bonding? problems with aspects of safety or
performance other than EMC. Of course,
For example, what if certain situations such persuasion should be based on an
do not permit cable shields or armour to appropriate amount of investigation and
be terminated at both ends, or the use of analysis, which proves the case in
a PEC? Such restrictions might, for appropriate detail, so as not to expose
example, be applied by some safety anyone to uncontrolled safety, financial
standards governing the installation or or political risks. Converting a legacy
electrical/electronic equipment in installation to MESH-CBN can be a time-
explosive atmospheres. consuming and costly operation that is
Another example is when working on a not to be undertaken lightly.
legacy installation that is constructed If the above approach was not
according to the traditional (but long- attempted, or has not succeeded, the
since outdated) single-point best approach is to mesh-bond as many
earthing/grounding/bonding concept areas as possible, creating a different
(see 3.5). EM Zone for each area, each with its
The best approach from an EMC point of own BRC. The BRC of each should be
view is to persuade the safety authorities connected to the rest of the structure at
(in the case of explosive atmospheres), only one point, as shown in the
or the owner (in the case of legacy discussion of the MESH-IBN technique
 84
in 5.5.5. Then only connect the useless (or even counter-productive)
equipment inside each EM Zone to the above 10MHz when bonding a standard
rest of the system/installation using the equipment cabinet to a metal plane. This
galvanic isolation devices described in is because the unavoidable stray
4.3, making sure they are rated for the capacitance of the cabinet is resonating
maximum fault and lightning surge with the inductance of the bonding wire,
voltage that could occur. an example of the kind of complex EMC
Galvanic isolation methods should be interactions that makes simple
installed at the boundary of the EM calculations so unreliable.
Zone, as described in detail in 4.7 and When there is no practical alternative to
5.4. using a conductor for RF-bonding, their
Where it is not practical to provide poor performance at RF can be
galvanic isolation for a conductor, it improved by using two or more, spaced
should be appropriately filtered and/or as widely as possible along a seam or
shield bonded and/or surge protected at joint. For example, with respect to Figure
the point where it crosses the BRC – 25, instead of a single 6mm diameter
with the filter, shield-bond or surge conductor bonding a cabinet to its RF
protection device RF-bonded to the BRC Reference, four conductors of the same
at that point, using the techniques length could be used, one connected at
described in this Guide. each corner, to reduce the bonding
impedance to one-quarter of the single
wire situation.
5.7 RF-bonding techniques
Bonding conductors that are connected
5.7.1 Direct bonding in parallel should always be spaced as
far apart as possible (see Figure 13)
Bonding should ideally be direct metal- because this minimises the overall
to-metal connection between metal inductance – no RF benefit is obtained if
surfaces that have highly-conductive they are routed close together.
surfaces (see 5.7.2) and are protected Aggressive ‘spiky’ washers and screw
against corrosion (see 5.7.2 and Section threads that bite through paint and oxide
7) as shown in Figure 28. Short bonding films can be used to bond metal parts
conductors can be used instead, as together, or to terminate cables to metal,
shown in Figure 29, which grades the but this is not a good method and should
conductors from 4 (worst for RF) to 1 not be used when designing a mesh.
(best for RF). However, it may be the only practical
NAVAIR AD 115 [45] has some graphs approach when trying to improve the
of the effectiveness of braid bonding meshing of an existing installation.
straps with frequency, and shows that a
single 9½ inch long braid strap is
85
Figure 28 Metal-to-metal RF-bonding (always preferred)

Anti-vibration device
Anti-vibration device
Any insulating
Any insulating finishes
finishes Washer or
or other
other method,
method, but
but
Washer
removed from
removed from entire
entire chemical ‘thread-lock’
never chemical ‘thread-lock’
never
bonding area
bonding area
(e.g. paint,
(e.g. paint, anodising,
anodising,
polymer passivation)
polymer passivation) Note: this
Note: this RF
RF bond
bond
is shown
is shown partially
partially
disassembled
disassembled

Metal components
Metal components
forming part
forming part of
of aa
conductive mesh
conductive mesh
Conductive gaskets
Conductive gaskets
could be
could be inserted
inserted here
here

Reliable RF
Reliable RF bonds
bonds are
are created
created by
by pressing
pressing
together highly-conductive
together highly-conductive metal
metal surfaces
surfaces
Do not
Do not rely
rely on
on screw
screw
threads of
threads of any
any type
type to
to Materials should
Materials should be
be chosen
chosen to
to prevent
prevent
make the
make the RF
RF bonds
bonds oxidation or
oxidation or corrosion
corrosion over
over the
the lifecycle
lifecycle

The best method of bonding two metal Figure 28. Conductive gaskets (see
components together is to seam-weld 5.7.4) could be squashed between the
them all along the perimeter of their conductive metal parts to spread the
common seam. This method is used for contact area even wider.
steel, stainless steel or aluminium Where it is not practical to use metal-to-
components in some very high-reliability metal RF-bonds as shown in Figure 28,
installations. Dissimilar metals can be the use of multiple short conductors, or
‘cadwelded’, for example to bond a better still short wide straps, widely
copper conductor to a steel girder. separated from each other along the
Conductive gasketting (see 5.7.4) can whole length of a joint or seam, achieves
also be a practical alternative. more effective RF-bonding at higher
It is generally best to design installations frequencies than a single conductor.
so that all their metalwork is conductively Figures 30, 31, 32 and 33 sketch some
plated, with no paint or other insulating examples of using various types of
finishes applied (see 5.7.2). Then very bonding conductors from Figure 29 and
good and reliable RF-bonds can easily metal-to-metal fixings from Figure 28.
be created by using mechanical fixings Numbers grade the performance of the
of various types to press the conducting bonds from 4 (worst for RF) to 1 (best for
metal surfaces together, as shown in RF).
 86
Figure 29 Examples of RF-bonding conductors

Long wires
Long wires are
are poor
poor for
for RF,
RF,
but help
but help control
control LF
LF (e.g.
(e.g. 50Hz)
50Hz) 4

Shorter wire
Shorter wire length
length is
is
better for
better for RF
RF
3

Short, wide
Short, wide braid
braid strap
strap is
is
better still
better still for
for RF
RF 2

Short wide
Short wide metal
metal plates
plates with
with
multiple fixings
multiple fixings are
are the
the best
best
1

But no
But no bonding
bonding conductor
conductor is
is ever
ever as
as effective
effective at
at RF
RF as
as
multiple direct
multiple direct metal-to-metal
metal-to-metal bonds,
bonds, especially
especially seam-welding
seam-welding

Metal-to-metal RF-bonds in a MESH- any other parts of the MESH-CBN where

CBN should generally be spaced apart cables are routed closely, the RF-bonds
much less than 30/fmax metres (fmax in should be spaced no further than
MHz) – but joints in cable trays, ducts, 100mm apart, and preferably less.
conduit, and any other metalwork that is Seam-welding is always the preferred
part of the MESH-CBN and is also used technique for RF-bonding any seams
as a cable support should be spaced no and joints in MESH-CBNs, but due to its
more than 3/fmax. cost is generally only used in military
For example, for a MESH-CBN that is command and control underground
intended to control frequencies up to bunkers and other applications intended
30MHz, the general spacings between to survive nuclear attack, see 5.13.4.
RF-bonds in the structure (e.g. at joints However, it is a powerful technique that
in sheet metal, or between meshed gives very good results for EMC, and is
areas such as rebars) should be no reliable over decades of operational
greater than 1 metre, and preferably a lifetime, so it deserves to be considered
lot less. But for bonds in cable support in all applications.
systems such as trays, ducts, etc., or
87
Figure 30 Examples of RF-bonding techniques

A short conductor is unlikely to be very

effective above 100kHz

4 (depends on the sizes of the bonded

objects and the bond length)

Short braid straps spaced along the whole

joint or seam could be effective up to 100MHz
3 (depending on the sizes of the bonded
objects and the bond lengths and spacing)

( f in MHz)

Metal plate Metal-to-metal fixings 30/f metres apart

must cover 2 (f in MHz) make an effective bond up to f ,
full length with 3/f spacing where cables cross a joint
of joint, Screws,
the more spot-welds,
overlap the etc. At f > 1GHz seam welding or continuous 1
better conductive gasket is usually more practical

Figure 31 Examples of RF-bonding techniques for joints in cable trays and

ducts

4 Wires only provide

bonds that are
effective up to 1kHz

Short, wide braid straps

3 could bond up to MHz
Use as many as practical,
spread along the joint and
at both ends

U-brackets with RF-bonds

2 every 3/f metres along the
join and at both ends (f in
MHz) are effective up to f

But continuously seam-welded or conductively-gasketed joints are best 1

Covers and lids are good for EMC up to f if they have RF-bonds 30/f metres
along their whole length, and every 3/f metres at joints and both ends
( f in MHz)
 88

Figure 32 RF-bonding techniques for trays, ducts, and metal enclosures

U-bracket, bonded
U-bracket, bonded metal-to-
metal-to-
metal at
metal at least
least every
every 3/3/ffmax
max
metres along
metres along the
the joint
joint
Base of
Base of duct
duct or
or tray
tray bent
bent (Continuous seam-weld
seam-weld or or
Double (Continuous
down and
down and fixed
fixed to
to cabinet
cabinet Double
strap conductive gasket
conductive gasket is
is best)
best)
3/ffmax
3/ metres along
max metres along the
the joint
joint strap

2 3
1
Single strap
Single strap
or wire
or wire bond
bond

4 (( ff in
in MHz)
MHz)

Figure 33 Some more RF-bonding techniques for trays, ducts, and metal
enclosures

Paint removed
Paint removed to to expose
expose plated
plated
metal, RF-bonded
metal, RF-bonded every
every 3/3/ffmax
max
metres along
metres along the
the joint
joint to
to the
the
cable tray
cable tray or
or duct
duct

(( ff in
in MHz)
MHz)
89
Solid circular conduit can provide truly fixing is unsuitable, as it relies upon a
excellent EMC performance for cables length of green/yellow wire to bond it to
routed in it, but only one Class is the chassis/frame/enclosure.
permitted in any one conduit (see 4.8). Figure 34 shows an example of a
To achieve this it is necessary to make product that has been developed
reliable low-impedance 360° RF-bonds specifically to RF-bond conduits to
at all joints along the conduit by using equipment cabinets, and achieves about
threaded couplers, and also to make 30dB better SE up to 200MHz, than the
reliable low-impedance RF-bonds to the usual conduit termination.
chassis/frames/enclosures at both ends.
Unfortunately, the usual conduit end-

Figure 34 Example of an RF-bonding conduit termination

Courtesy of Cable Terminology Ltd

www.cable-terminology.co.uk

assembled, reducing the bond’s

5.7.2 Assembly issues impedance and prolonging its useful and
effective life. If necessary, use gentle
It is very important that, immediately
abrasives to achieve suitable surfaces –
before assembly, all electrical and RF-
a slight roughness is desirable, but take
bonding surfaces are clean, dry smooth
care not to remove any plating.
and free from oxides, tarnishing, or
fingerprints. This encourages Fixings should also be ‘torqued-up’ to
microscopic cold-welds to be formed at the specified value, using calibrated
pressure points when the joints are tools. A loose fixing that allows
movement, will encourage fretting
 90
corrosion that quickly leads to poor EM • Aluminium (tin plated, or conductively
performance. passivated by ‘Iridite-NCP’ or
There are liquids, gels or greases alochrom, never anodised)
specially designed for use in/on Over time, the conductivity of metal
electrical bonds, to give them longer life, surfaces always degrades due to fretting
especially in challenging environments – and/or oxidation, and also due to
for example the rail industry uses galvanic corrosion at dissimilar metal
greases formulated with a very high joints, see Section 7. Plating and/or
percentage of metal dusts. passivation with suitable materials can
But chemical threadlocking compounds prevent both types of degradation, or at
must never be used on any electrical least slow its progress appreciably.
joints, whether they are intended for RF- Silver or gold plating is the best, but for
bonding or not – because they penetrate cost reasons is usually only applied to
the joint and cause unpredictably high small parts and so is more likely to be
impedance. The author has seen a 4mm used in high-specification equipment
stud fitted with a ring tag and nut, that rather than in metal structures and wiring
when assembled as usual had a in installations.
resistance of about 1mΩ, but when Oxidation is very obvious with steels,
assembled with a common chemical which (with the exception of stainless
threadlock and torqued up just as tight, grades) all rust, and of course rust is a
measured 8Ω. poor conductor. Coppers and brasses
So, fixings must only be prevented from also oxidise, but in polluted
loosening due to vibration by mechanical environments sulphates or sulphides
methods, such as locknuts, split pins, might dominate, so they can turn a
anti-vibration washers, nyloc nuts, etc. variety of colours between green and
black, all of which are poor conductors.
5.7.3 Materials for reliable RF-bonding What might not be so obvious is that
aluminium also oxidises, but its ‘rust’ is
For the easiest RF-bonding and mesh aluminium oxide, which is grey and hard
construction, and to help maintain good and looks very much like metal. New
EM characteristics over an installation’s aluminium has a thin oxide skin that is
operational life, we use metalwork and easily penetrated by reasonable
other conductors with corrosion- amounts of contact pressure, but
protected electrically-conducting high- aluminium that is a year or two old or
conductivity surfaces, for example: more will have quite a thick oxide layer.
• Tin or zinc plating (tin plating Aluminium oxide is much harder than
preferred, and can be applied to aluminium (unlike rust which is much
steel, copper, aluminium) softer than steel), and is one of the best
insulators known – making plain
• Galvanised mild steel (but tin or zinc aluminium an unsuitable material for
plating is better) general construction use where RF-
• Stainless steel bonding is required.
Anodised aluminium is just aluminium in
which the oxidation process has been
91
hastened by chemical action, and is a painting the masking tape is removed to
very good insulator. To make a good reveal the shiny metal surface where the
RF-bond (or any reliable electrical bonding is to take place.
contact) to anodised aluminium requires Beware of metal passivation. Chromate
machining the surface to remove the passivation based on hexavalent
very hard layer of anodising, exposing chromium (Chrome-6) is always
the plain aluminium – which then acceptable, but is being phased out due
immediately starts to oxidise, so needs a to the very serious risks of cancer
protective coating to be applied (e.g. caused by the chemicals used in its
silver-loaded paint). processing. A variety of new methods
To help prevent both types of corrosion, based on fluorine (e.g. Iridite-NCP, for
it is best to standardise on one type of aluminium) or alochrom (for aluminium)
plating for all the constructional based on trivalent chromium (Chrome-3)
metalwork that might be meshed to have been, and are currently being
create an RF Reference. For example, developed, and some of them are
tin plating can be applied to many metals proving better than Chrome-6. However,
(e.g. steels, coppers, brasses) and also some of them might not create the
to aluminium (although it is not a low- necessary highly-conductive surface
cost process for this metal) so that joints over the lifetime of the installation, so
between metal structures and bonding always check.
conductors do not suffer galvanic But a big problem is that many metal
corrosion when exposed to liquids even suppliers and finishers automatically
though their base metals are different apply a polymer passivation film, even if
(see Section 7). their customer did not request it (and
A variety of metal tapes with pressure- sometimes even when it was specifically
sensitive conductive adhesive backing prohibited). Like anodising, this type of
are available from companies such as passivation creates a non-conductive,
3M, which can be used to provide a insulating surface that makes it very
good high-conductivity bonding surface difficult to create reliable conductive
(usually tin) instead of relying on plating. meshes. It is recommended to always
Where a painted finish is required, it is check whether a polymer passivation
very messy and unsatisfactory to has been applied, and check all metal
remove paint or anodising wherever an deliveries with an ohmmeter and
RF-bond is required. Apart from anything smooth/soft contacts (using soft
else it tends to remove the base metal’s conductive gaskets to make contact
protection, and unless the exposed rather than pointed probes or plug pins),
metal is then protected with brush-on tin to make sure they really do have a
plating, conductive paints or greases, highly conductive surface.
oxidation and corrosion will occur and ‘Zintec’ steel is a popular material, being
cause poor RF-bonding quite quickly. sheet steel that is already zinc plated
Some types of conductive metal tapes and so resistant to corrosion even if left
are available with an extra layer of unpainted. Unfortunately, the standard
masking tape. They are applied to the ‘Zintec’ grades are finished with a top-
area to be bonded, before painting. After coat of polymer film passivation, making
 92
the surface non-conductive. Also, the Alternatively, where GHz bonding is not
zinc plating is so thin (about 5 microns) required, short pieces or ‘dots’ of gasket
that without the polymer film the metal can be used to multiply the number of
can corrode quite quickly. Thicker zinc bonding points whilst using fewer fixings,
plating and no polymer passivation film saving time during assembly or
coating would be very much better for disassembly.
RF-bonding and constructing a mesh. There are many suppliers of such
A different approach may be to use the gaskets, and each one offers very many
recently-developed vapour-phase different gasket materials in many
corrosion inhibition technique [64], which different styles (see Figure 35 and
claims to reduce the rate at which Figure 36 for some examples of gasket
oxidation and galvanic corrosion occur. materials) because no one type of
gasket is suitable for all applications.
5.7.4 Using conductive gaskets This Guide will not discuss gaskets and
their use in any detail (for which see [36]
Using multiple metal-to-metal fixings and [65]) – except to say that when
(screws or spot welds), as shown in assembled they should be compressed
Figures 30 - 32, generally provides good to an amount within their manufacturers
RF-bonding performance. But achieving recommended range, which can require
effective bonding above about 500MHz considerable pressure.
requires so many that assembly time
Good EMC gasket manufacturers
can become prohibitive. As mentioned in
provide a wealth of data and application
5.7.1, continuous seam-welding, brazing
assistance (for example [66]), covering
or soldering around the perimeter of the
the correct choice of gasket materials
mating parts is the best method of
and styles for particular applications, and
creating long-term reliable RF-bonds
the data required for correct mechanical
that work up to the highest frequencies –
design.
but it is not always practical, and
soldering might not be reliable. Even gaskets that are easily squashed
flat between two fingers can require very
An alternative can be to use conductive
large compression forces when used in
gaskets, often called EMC gaskets, to
long strips (e.g. around doors, see
provide low-impedance bonding all
5.12.13), so the effective use of gaskets
around the perimeter, or over the entire
requires careful mechanical and fixing
mating area, of a metal joint. These
design to prevent metal parts from
gaskets are most often used to create
bending too much. Where a very long
shielded enclosures (see [36] and [65]),
joint is to be gasketted it usual to fit a
and the way in which they are used to
long strip of a relatively soft conductive
help create good RF-bonds in
gasket, only to find that the total force
conductive meshes is no different.
required to compress its long length
Multiple screw fixings are still required,
causes the metal parts to bend
but in this case their job is to provide
inbetween the fixings – opening up gaps
sufficient pressure to compress the
that defeat the purpose of the
gasket optimally over the entire length or
gasketting.
area required – and the resulting RF-
bond is good to GHz.
93

Figure 35 Some examples of conductive gaskets

Conductively-plated
Conductively-plated
fabric over
fabric over foam
foam
Volume-conductive
Volume-conductive
elastomers
elastomers

These examples
These examples are
are from
from Laird
Laird
Technologies, www.lairdtech.com
Technologies, www.lairdtech.com

Knitted wire
Knitted wire over
over foam
foam

Hollow knitted
Hollow knitted wire
wire

Figure 36 Some examples of fingerstock (spring finger gaskets)

Examples of
Examples of ‘spring
‘spring
fingers’ (‘fingerstock’)
fingers’ (‘fingerstock’)
from Laird
from Laird Technologies,
Technologies,
www.lairdtech.com
www.lairdtech.com
 94

5.7.5 Direct and indirect RF-bonding boundary. All EM mitigation devices

of conductors crossing a BRC should be chosen to achieve the
attenuation required for the EM
All conductors must be RF-bonded to disturbances crossing the boundary of
the boundary of an EM Zone (usually its an EM Zone, to achieve the necessary
BRC) when they cross it to enter that EM EM control required for that zone.
Zone. 5.7.1 to 5.7.4 described direct
bonding techniques that can be used for Figure 37 shows examples of direct RF-
metal parts and conductors forming a bonding (cable shield clamping) and
conductive mesh, such as the MESH- indirect RF-bonding (filtering) at a BRC,
CBN, and these techniques can be used using a ‘bonding plate’ inserted into a
to directly bond any conductors as they BRC for that purpose.
cross a BRC. 5.7.6 goes into more detail Figure 37 is clearly a very simple
about how these methods should be installation, and it is more likely that all
applied to cable shields and armour, and the RF-bonding will be contained within
any circular conductors such as conduit. an industrial cabinet, using its backplate
Unshielded signal, data, control and as the main earthing terminal. Such a
power conductors obviously cannot be cabinet is shown in Figure 38, and is
directly RF-bonded to an EM Zone large enough to have room for fitting all
boundary, because that would short the direct and indirect RF-bonding
them out. Instead, they must be devices for the quantity of cables, whilst
indirectly RF-bonded through an EM easing their assembly (e.g. DIN-rail
mitigation device such as a filter (see mounted surge protection devices) and
5.10) and/or surge protection device ensuring good low-impedance RF-bonds
(see 5.13). to the BRC. This type of cabinet, with
BRC connections to its backplate on
Galvanic isolation (see 4.3) is an both sides, will be very familiar to
alternative EM mitigation method that electrical/electronic system designers
can be used at an EM Zone boundary, who are familiar with designing for
with the Reference for the isolated signal explosive atmospheres.
or power that passes into the EM Zone
being RF-bonded at the zone’s
95

Figure 37 Example of direct and indirect RF-bonding at a BRC, using a

bonding plate

Bonding plate
Bonding plate
in series
in series with
with the
the BRC
BRC
The bonding
The bonding ring
ring
conductor (BRC)
conductor (BRC)
surrounding EM Zone 22
surrounding EM Zone
EM Zone
EM Zone 11
(for e.g.)
(for e.g.)

Filter
BRC
BRC BRC
BRC

Cable screens
Cable screens RF-
RF-
EM Zone
EM Zone 22 bonded to
bonded to plate
plate
(for e.g.)
(for e.g.) –– in
in line
line with
with the
the
filter and
filter and the
the BRC
BRC

Filters bonded
Filters bonded
metal-to-metal
metal-to-metal
to the plate
to the plate
at each
at each fixing
fixing point
point Example of
Example of improved
improved MESH-CBN
MESH-CBN in
in EM
EM Zone
Zone 22

Figure 38 Example of direct and indirect RF-bonding at a BRC, using an

industrial cabinet backplate

Cabinet wall
Cabinet wall

Cabinet
Cabinet
backplate used
backplate used
EM Zone
EM Zone 11 as bonding
as bonding plate,
plate,
(for example)
(for example) in series
in series with
with the
the
BRC
BRC

BRC
BRC BRC
BRC

Filters RF-bonded
Filters RF-bonded metal-
metal- Surge protection
Surge protection
to-metal at
at each
each fixing
fixing
EM Zone
EM Zone 22 to-metal devices (SPDs)
devices (SPDs)
(for example)
(for example) Direct RF
Direct RF bonds
bonds (metal
(metal clamps)
clamps) for
for
cable shields,
cable shields, armour,
armour, conduit,
conduit, etc.
etc.

Example of
Example of additional
additional
meshing in
meshing in EM
EM Zone
Zone 22
 96

Neither Figure 37 nor Figure 38 show between the remaining metal pipes and
the direct RF-bonding required for other the BRC should be at least 100mm.
conductors, such as metal structures, Metal pipes should all be bonded along
pipes for gas, water, hydraulic fluids, with cables and other conductors at the
pneumatics, etc., or for ducts for air main earthing terminal, but plastic pipes
conditioning, cables, etc. (or pipe sections) carrying non-
Figure 39 shows one way of dealing with conductive liquids or gasses can cross
the RF-bonding for a cable tray that the BRC anywhere.
passes from one EM Zone to another. Ordinary water is conductive, and
The red cross is meant to show that no polluted water can be very conductive,
conductors of any sort are permitted to so always check to make sure the fluids
cross the zone boundary without being concerned really are non-conductive.
RF-bonded to it either directly or Tribocharging can cause insulated
indirectly. sections of pipe to build up dangerous
Where non-conductive liquids or gasses static potentials, so all metal pipe
cross from one EM Zone to another, an sections should be bonded to the BRC
alternative to RF-bonding is to employ a for safety reasons – but how this is done
length of plastic piping at the crossing is immaterial for EMC as long as any
point. The length of plastic piping should bonding conductors remain within their
be at least 50mm, and the spacing respective EM Zone.

Figure 39 Example of direct and indirect RF-bonding at a BRC, for a cable

tray
All conductors
All conductors must
must bebe RF-
RF- BRC
BRC Metal cable
cable tray,
tray, duct,
duct, conduit,
conduit,
Metal
bonded and/or
bonded and/or filtered
filtered at
at the
the wall, floor,
wall, floor, or
or other
other ‘parallel
‘parallel
EM Zone
EM Zone boundary
boundary earth conductor’
conductor’ (PEC)
(PEC) usedused
earth
as aa bonding
as bonding plate
plate in
in aa BRC
BRC

EM Zone
EM Zone 11 EM Zone
EM Zone 22
(for e.g.)
(for e.g.) (for e.g.)
(for e.g.)

Filter

NO

BRC
BRC
97
5.7.6 Direct RF-bonding of cable are often purchased from plumbing,
shields, armour and conduit pneumatic or hydraulic suppliers (see
Figure 50).
As mentioned earlier, cable shields,
metal armour and metal conduit should Saddleclamps and P-clips must make a
be RF-bonded at the points where they reliably tight fit around the shield, so the
cross each and every BRC (i.e. as they correct size should be used to
cross from one EM Zone to another), coordinate with each cable. It is not good
even if they are also RF-bonded within a practice to rely on the thread of the
zone. Figures 37, 38 and 39 show some screw fixing(s) to make the RF-bond – it
examples of direct bonding of shields as is best if the metal clamp or clip makes a
they cross a BRC, and this section metal-to-metal contact with the highly-
discusses how to do cable shield conductive surface of the bonding plate.
bonding in more detail. In the case of saddleclamps, the shield
of the cable should also be pressed
Figures 37-39 show the shields being metal-to-metal with the highly conductive
bonded using metal saddleclamps of the surface (like Figure 29). Braid shields
type more commonly used to clamp are easier to RF-bond than foil, see
pipes. Obviously, the outer jacket of the 5.7.10.
cable must be removed to expose the
shield so that it can be bonded, and Shielded cable glands, often called
where this exposes the cable to harm it ‘EMC glands’ can be used to RF-bond
should be done inside a protective shields as they cross from one EM Zone
cabinet (as in Figure 38). Metal P-clips to another, as shown in Figure 40.
are often used instead of saddleclamps, Because they make an electrical
for ease of assembly (they only have connection all around the circumference
one fixed screw instead of two), but their of a shield (or a multi-point connection
RF-bonding performance is not as good all around) – the best way to RF-bond a
above 50MHz. Very few EMC suppliers cable shield or armour – they are often
offer anything as simple and low-cost as called ‘360° shielding glands’.
metal saddleclamps or P-clips, so they
 98
Figure 40 Using EMC glands at an EM Zone boundary

Cable shields RF-bonded by ‘EMC

glands’ as they cross the EM Zone
boundary

Cable tray used as a

bonding plate in a BRC
(BRC not shown)
EM Zone
EM Zone EM Zone
EM Zone
11 22
(for e.g.)
(for e.g.) (for e.g.)
(for e.g.)

There are many types of gland available the possibility that the assembler will not
from commercial suppliers, and Figure spread the cut braid evenly, or make
41 shows three types. Glands that bond other mistakes that degrade EMC
with uniform pressure all around an performance. Also, because the shield
undisturbed cable shield (e.g. a 360° cannot continue past the gland, this type
bonding ‘iris’ spring or ‘knitmesh’ gasket) is of limited applicability in an installation
generally give the best RF performance, – it is only suitable where the gland is
and an example of this type is shown in fitted in the wall of a shielded enclosure,
the top left of Figure 41. so that the unshielded length of cable is
The type shown at the bottom-left of inside the enclosure’s shield. However,
Figure 41 relies upon the assembler this may be perfectly adequate (bearing
cutting the braid and spreading it over a in mind the workmanship issues) for
plastic part before assembling it to the cables that enter or exit shielded
metal part that provides the RF-bond to terminal or junction boxes.
the RF Reference. The gland on the right of Figure 41 tends
Although this type of gland has a lower to damage the cable shield if it is
cost, the extra work required to disassembled.
assemble it costs more, and there is also
99
Figure 41 Three types of 360º shielding cable glands (‘EMC glands’)

A high
A high quality
quality cable
cable gland
gland
from KEC
from KEC
(uses an
(uses an iris
iris spring
spring to
to make
make
an excellent
an excellent RFRF bond)
bond)

An EMC
An EMC Gland
Gland
from Lapp
from Lapp Kabel
Kabel
(multi-point shield
(multi-point shield
connection)
connection)

A low-cost
A low-cost EMC
EMC Gland
Gland from
from Hummel
Hummel
(requires the
(requires the shield
shield to
to be
be cut
cut and
and
carefully spread
carefully spread out,
out, so
so is
is not
not generally
generally
applicable and is also susceptible
applicable and is also susceptible to to
quality of
quality of workmanship)
workmanship)

A variety of shield-bonding accessories Mass shield bonding helps save time

is available from various suppliers, and during assembly, and some suppliers
as long as they provide 360° (full circle) offer suitable products. But it is easy to
metal-to-metal bonding directly between design your own mass bonding facility,
the cable shields and the surface of the as shown Figure 42, a low-cost
local RF Reference (for example the technique relying on clamping a number
bonding plates in Figures 37 and 38, or of exposed shields between conductive
the cable trays in Figures 39 and 40), gaskets. The cables can be held in place
they will give good EMC performance. by tie-wraps until they are all ready, then
But beware – instead of direct metal-to- the clamping plate with its conductive
metal bonding some types rely on a wire gasket is fitted over their exposed
or braid strap connection to the RF shields. This type of assembly easily
Reference. This makes them into pigtail outperforms many of the proprietary
connections, which are very poor for shield-bonding accessories that are
EMC above a few hundred kHz. Pigtails available.
are discussed in 5.7.8.
 100

Figure 42 Easily bonding multiple cable shields to an RF Reference (a)

Metal clamping plate

Cables entering/leaving the EM Zone

(Strain relief and environmental sealing
not shown)

Cable shields exposed

Two strips of soft conductive gasket create 360°

bonds between the cable shields and the highly-
EM Zone
EM Zone EM Zone
EM Zone conductive surface of the RF Reference (bonding
11 22 plate) when the clamping plate is tightened down
(for e.g.)
(for e.g.) (for e.g.)
(for e.g.)

Figure 43 Easily bonding multiple cable shields to an RF Reference (b)

Cable shields exposed and clamped to the castellated ‘fingers’
with metal cable ties, band clamps, etc.

Cables crossing an EM Zone boundary

(Strain relief and environmental
sealing not shown)

A ‘castellation’
Castellated metal bracket with
highly conductive corrosion-
proof plating and multiple RF-
bonds to RF Reference along
its length
RF Reference Plane
bonding plate (part of the BRC)

EM Zone
EM Zone 11 EM Zone
EM Zone 22
(for e.g.)
(for e.g.) (for e.g.)
(for e.g.)
101
Another method of mass-terminating the zone’s BRC at the point where cross,
cable shields is shown in Figure 43. Like see 5.7.6. This applies even where the
Figure 42, this method can be easily shield is also be bonded to the same RF
adapted to suit a variety of situations. Reference at another place – as it
The bracket and its discrete fixings adds usually will be – for instance at an item
some inductance to the RF-bond, so it is of equipment.
not quite as good as the method of An obvious way to bond a shield to the
Figure 42, in which the lower piece of RF Reference is with a shield-bonding
conductive gasket makes a continuous connector, such as the types shown in
RF-bond to the highly-conductive Figure 44 (a D-type) and Figure 47 (a
surface of the bonding plate. bayonet-locking circular connector), with
the chassis-mounted mating connectors
5.7.7 RF-bonding cable shields using themselves bonded metal-to-metal to the
connectors bonding plate in the BRC.
External cables entering an EM Zone
must have their shields RF-bonded to

Figure 44 Example of 360° termination of cable shield in a D-Type

connector backshell

Dimples on
Dimples on the
the connector’s
connector’s body
body makes
makes multiple
multiple bonds
bonds
to mating
to mating half
half all
all around
around (equivalent
(equivalent to
to 360º
360º bonding)
bonding)

Metal surface
Metal surface of
of backshell
backshell makes
makes 360º
360º bond,
bond, or
or
multiple bonds,
multiple bonds, all
all around
around the
the connector’s
connector’s body
body

Metal (or
Metal (or metallised)
metallised) backshell
backshell

Cable shield
Cable shield exposed
exposed andand
360°clamped (must
360°clamped (must be
be aa tight
tight fit)
fit)

Some other 360o bonding methods and types Example of

Example of aa
of 360o shielded connectors can be equally D-type connector
D-type connector
acceptable, or better
 102
The D-type in Figure 44 shows the cable the body of the connector, like the
shield bonded using a saddleclamp, connector shown in Figure 45. These
which does not really provide a 360° types all provide noticeably inferior SE to
shield termination but nevertheless is the saddleclamp method shown in
often an acceptable alternative. Some D- Figure 44, even though they are often
types require the assembler to make a more costly, have solid metal backshells,
pigtail from the braid or the drain wire of and/or advertised as being military-
a foil-wrapped shield, and trap it under a standard.
spring clip or screw head or solder it to

Figure 45 Example of a D-type with poor EMC performance

Pigtailed cable
Pigtailed cable shield
shield
Not aa good
Not good shield
shield
termination method
termination method

D-type backshells are also available that fold the shield back over the outer jacket
provide a proper 360° shield termination, and clamp both the shield and jacket at
for example with a semicircular the same time. But this makes the EMC
conductive gasket in each half of their performance depend greatly on
backshell, and these are generally workmanship, so where the best EMC
preferred to the type shown in Figure 44. performance is required as well as strain
Many shielded D-type connector relief, a D-Type (or any other type of
backshells do not provide a strain relief connector) should provide 360° bonding
clamp for the cable jacket. In such of the undisturbed shield – plus a strain
situations, where the very best EMC relief clamp for the cable’s overall jacket.
performance is not required, it is usual to
103
Some connector manufacturers offer flange to the cable – the flange being
shielding backshell systems for D-Type clamped by the backshell when the
and other multiway rectangular connector is finally assembled, as shown
connectors that combine both shield- in Figure 46.
bonding and strain relief functions in a
crimp accessory that attaches a metal

Figure 46 Example of a crimp ferrule system that provides 360° shield

bonding, strain relief and easy assembly

The 360° flange adapter is The strain relief ferrule is The ferrule is crimped over
inserted into the cable slid over the flange adapter the cable and flange adapter

The crimped
flange is
placed in the
slot in the
backshell
After the
conductors are
attached to the
connector, the
backshell is
assembled

Shielded industrial connectors are that make a 360° electrical bond

available in round and rectangular styles between the cable’s shield, the
that will take a very large number of connector’s backshell, and the mating
signal pins, and carry power up to high connector’s backshell (or the mounting
currents. Figure 47 shows a cross- panel of the mating connector) work well
section of a circular connector that for EMC. Any connector bonding
achieves a very high quality of 360° technique that involves disturbing the lay
bond between cable shield and of the foil or braid of the cable shield, or
connector body, and also provides a extending it with wires (see ‘pigtails’ in
strain relief and environmental seal. 5.7.8) will compromise the shielding
Many other types of connector and performance of the cable and/or the
shield termination exist, but only those connector.
 104
Figure 47 Example of 360° cable shield termination in a shielded circular
bayonet-locking connector

Multi-way
Multi-way
connector
connector
Threaded metal
Threaded metal pieces
pieces squash
squash the
the two
two
Exposed braid
Exposed braid Bayonet
Bayonet
rings tightly
rings tightly 360°
360° against
against cable
cable and
and braid
braid
(undisturbed)
(undisturbed) locking pins
locking pins
(when fully
(when fully assembled)
assembled)

Shielded
Shielded
cable
cable

Conductive EMC
EMC ring
ring Circular conductive
Circular conductive
Conductive gasket or
or spring
spring fingers
fingers
Strain relief
Strain relief and
and (e.g. canted
canted spring,
spring, conductive
conductive gasket
(e.g. makes 360°
360° contact
contact with
with
environmental seal
environmental seal polymer, metal knitmesh, etc.)
polymer, metal knitmesh, etc.) makes
shell of mating connector
shell of mating connector

5.7.8 Terminating cable shields using radiated tests around 70MHz because a
‘pigtails’ – making the best of a poor single cable from the volt-free contacts
EMC technique of a PLC had a 25mm long pigtail to the
RF Reference (the cabinet’s backplate in
It has been common practice for that case). Replacing that very short
decades to bond cable shields using pigtail with a metal saddleclamp that
short lengths of twisted braid, or the pressed the shield against the backplate
drain wires in foil-shielded cables, or by reduced the emissions around 70MHz
soldering a wire to either of these to by over 20dB and the test was passed.
reach an RF Reference. These lengths
of braid or wire are known as ‘pigtails’ Pigtails of about 30mm long are long
(or just ‘tails’), and using them is enough to completely ruin the cable’s
generally now a very bad EMC practice shielding effectiveness (SE) above
that effectively ruins the shielding 1MHz, as shown by Figure 48 (from
performance of the cable. However, Figure 27 of [67]). Longer pigtails, even
pigtails may still be useful when the if they are green/yellow insulated or
cable shield is only required for low-level even braid straps, will worsen SE even
signals (<5V pk-pk) at frequencies below more. Also, the bundling of all of the
100kHz. excess lengths of unshielded conductors
in the plastic trunking helps ensure a
The author has measured emissions great deal of undesirable crosstalk
from industrial cabinets that failed the between the signals on those wires and
105
other cables – quite possibly what the
cable shielding was supposed to be
preventing in the first place.

Figure 48 Effect of pigtail on the ZT of a 25-way subminiature D-type

connector

ZT
Plastic backshell
Plastic backshell and
and pigtail
pigtail braid
braid termination
termination
in Ohms
SE at
SE at 100MHz
100MHz approx.
approx. 6000
6000 times
times worse
worse
100 (-75dB) than
(-75dB) than the
the other
other two
two examples
examples

10 Diecast metal
Diecast metal backshell
backshell with
with
compression insert,
compression insert, (360°)
(360°) braid
braid
termination, plain
termination, plain plug/socket bodies
bodies
1
Diecast metal
Diecast metal backshell
backshell and
and aa
0.1 compression insert
compression insert (360°)
(360°)
braid termination, with aa
braid termination, with
‘dimpled’ plug
‘dimpled’ plug body
body
0.01

0.001

0.0001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 MHz 100
ZT is a measure of the shielding effectiveness (SE) of a cable or connector
— higher ZT means lower SE

Sometimes all that is needed is an may prove difficult to achieve a good SE

average level of SE up to about 100kHz, at frequencies much above 1MHz in any
for instance to reduce the coupling of case.
50/60Hz electric and magnetic fields Figure 49 shows how to use pigtails
from mains power cables and devices effectively, using the example of DIN-rail
into sensitive transducer signals such as terminals but applicable to any
those from thermocouples, strain gauges unshielded screw-terminals. To get the
and the like. Also, variable-speed motor best EM performance from a pigtail, the
drives and other switch-mode power exposed conductors and the pigtail from
converters rated at 1kW or more create a cable should be as short as is
high levels of electric and magnetic possible, consistent with the practical
fields below 1MHz, so in some cases needs of assembly (say, around 30 mm),
shielding may only be required for and where possible they should be kept
frequencies below 1MHz. And where close together by interleaving the shield
unshielded terminals such as DIN-rail bonding terminals with the signal
mounted ones are used without a shield terminals as shown in Figure 49. But
(see 5.12) at the EM Zone boundary, it
 106
remember that pigtailed shields are above a few hundred kHz, maybe up to
never going to be much use for EMC 1MHz.

Figure 49 Making the best of a poor EMC technique – using pigtails at a

terminal block

Metal ‘bonding
‘bonding plate’
plate’ used
used asas the
the
EM Zone
EM Zone 11 EM Zone
EM Zone 22
Metal (for e.g.)
(for e.g.) (for e.g.)
(for e.g.)
main earthing
main earthing terminal
terminal in
in aa BRC
BRC

RF-bond the
RF-bond the DIN
DIN rail
rail to
to the
the
bonding plate
bonding plate every
every 100mm
100mm or or less
less

Always expose
Always expose the
the shortest
shortest practical
practical
lengths of
lengths of conductors
conductors (e.g.
(e.g. <30mm)
<30mm)
and make
and make the
the pigtails
pigtails the
the same
same length
length

DIN rail
DIN rail ‘earthing’
‘earthing’ terminals
terminals
positioned so
positioned so that
that the
the pigtails
pigtails run
run
close alongside
close alongside their
their signal
signal wires
wires

When using DIN-rail terminals, the rail than are needed for mechanical
‘earth’ or chassis terminals (usually fixing. It is recommended that, in
coloured half in green and half in yellow) general, these RF-bonds should never
connect to the metal DIN-rail, and the be more than 100mm apart, and they
DIN-rail is in turn fixed to the bonding may need to be closer.
plate. Where the DIN-rail’s fixings are Placing shield-bonding terminals (usually
some distance from the terminals the coloured green/yellow to indicate they
pigtails are connected to, they effectively are bonded to the DIN-rail and so are at
add to the length of the pigtail and ‘earth’ potential) either side of the
worsen EMC performance. Ideally, the signal/power terminals also helps
DIN-rails would be RF-bonded metal-to- provide a little shielding for them,
metal by a fixing screw pressing highly although this cannot be expected to
conductive metal surfaces together (see have any significant effect above about
Figure 29) at every shield bonding wire 10MHz. On no account should the
terminal. At least, many more RF-bonds green/yellow terminals used for bonding
are required along the length of the DIN-
107
cable shields ever be grouped together A good alternative to pigtails is to use
at one end of a DIN-rail, for ‘neatness’. saddleclamps or P-clips to RF-bond the
The RF performance of pigtails can be cable shields close to the unshielded
usefully improved by using two pigtails screw-terminals, as shown in the
for each shielded cable. They should be photograph in Figure 50. The minimum
soldered to either side of the cable, and length of conductors should be exposed,
connect to terminals either side of those all the same length, as short as possible
used by the cable’s conductors. Above and routed as close as possible to the
about 10MHz this method still provides bonding plate (RF Reference).
far inferior EMC performance to a Solid metal, or overall metal-plated P-
saddleclamp or P-clip. clips, will be better than the partially-
plated type shown inset in Figure 50.

Figure 50 Example of replacing pigtails with P-clips

EM Zone
EM Zone 11
(for e.g.)
(for e.g.)

EM Zone
EM Zone 22
(for e.g.)
(for e.g.)

Example of
Example of using
using metal
metal P-
P-
clips to
clips to RF-bond
RF-bond cable
cable
shields at
shields at aa screw
screw terminal,
terminal,
to avoid
to avoid using
using pigtails
pigtails

Examples of
Examples of metallised-plastic
metallised-plastic
P-clips for
P-clips for bonding
bonding cable
cable
shields (from
shields (from Kitagawa)
Kitagawa)

Figure 50 shows DIN-rail mounted they are fitted inside a shielded terminal
terminals, but they could instead be box. The best type of shield bond to use
screw or solder terminals of any type. with a shielded terminal or junction box
Using unshielded terminals or is the EMC gland, see Figure 41, or a
connectors in any shielded cable system shielded connector.
will of course dramatically reduce the SE
achieved by the cable overall, unless
 108
5.7.9 Capacitive and hybrid shield motors controlled by electromechanical
bonding contactors, capacitor banks (e.g. for
power factor correction), or
If, for some reason, bonding the shield at superconducting magnets, see 5.13.5.
both ends is impractical, it may prove
acceptable to connect a short-leaded Where safety is a concern, the
ceramic capacitor from one end of the of capacitors used may need to be safety-
the cable’s shield to its local RF rated. In such cases it is recommended
Reference (instead of directly bonding it that they are purchased as safety-
360° metal-to-metal, or using a pigtail). approved components, and their
This method is sometimes called hybrid approval certificates are obtained and
shield bonding, because one end has a checked with their issuing bodies to
direct bond to its local RF Reference, make sure they are not forgeries.
while the other has a capacitive bond. Unfortunately, without using special (and
Where both ends of a shield use expensive) annular capacitors it is
capacitors in series with their shield difficult to make capacitive shield
terminations, this is called capacitive bonding work well at the higher
shield bonding. frequencies being used by modern
electronic equipment, or work well over a
The frequencies and frequency ranges wide range of frequencies. So hybrid or
over which capacitive and hybrid capacitive shield bonding is a technique
bonding are effective depend upon the best kept in reserve to deal with special
types of capacitors used, and their situations, such as where 360° bonding
values. The lengths of the capacitors’ at both ends is not possible for some
leads and any wires or conductors reason, or proves to cause problems
attached to them should generally be that cannot easily be solved using the
minimised. methods in 5.8.
Shield-bonding capacitors should be However, when using single capacitors
rated for the voltages they have to as terminators, the cable’s best SE only
withstand, and cables longer than about occurs over a fairly narrow range of
10 metres should also be rated to frequencies.
withstand overvoltage surges and
transients of at least 500V, maybe as Where a cable has been assembled
much as 10kV, depending on the cable using 360° shield bonding or pigtails at
length, cable route, the meshing used in both ends, on-site replacement of its
the of the installation (see 5.5) and the shield bonds by capacitors is not too
lightning exposure of the site (see 5.13). difficult, and removing one or both shield
bonds (should it prove necessary) is
These surges are typically caused by very easy. However, where a cable has
lightning electromagnetic pulse (LEMP) been assembled with its shield bonded
and/or by induction from nearby mains at only one end, or at neither end –
cables or lightning conductors carrying attempting to fit capacitors or 360° shield
lightning surge currents. There may also bonds to solve EMC problems on-site or
be other sources of surge or transient during compliance testing can be very
overvoltages in some types of difficult and time-consuming.
installation, such as large AC or DC
109
So it is best to standardise on 360° performance of such shield bonds is
bonding at both ends of cables, very susceptible to quality of
modifying them if it proves necessary. workmanship, and often degrade quite
However, if the good EMC engineering rapidly over a period of a few years.
practices described in this Guide are It has been common practice for many
followed, 360° bonding at both ends will years to use the drain wire as the sole
generally give the very best EMC means of bonding foil-shielded cables,
performance without harming any but this creates a ‘pigtail’ (see 5.7.8) and
signals due to ‘ground loops’ (see 5.8). ruins the EM performance of the cable
above a few hundred kHz. So it is
5.7.10 Some additional shield important for any drain wires in the foil-
bonding issues shielded cable to be RF-bonded along
with the metallised surface of the foil.
All cable shield bonding methods (other
Where a foil shielded cable is a little
than pigtails) should make a tight fit all
loose in a shield clamp, it might be
around the periphery of their cable’s
possible to wrap the drain wire over the
shield (but without damaging the cable),
exposed metallised foil surface a few
and this tight fit must not become loose
times to make a tighter and more reliable
with age, wear and tear. Braid shielded
clamp.
cables are the easiest to RF-bond, and it
is always best not to disturb the lay of a Another problem with spiral-wrapped
cables’ shield when 360° bonding to it. foil-shielded cables is that their
aluminium metallisation is very thin, and
Spiral-wrapped foil-shielded cables are
exposure to polluted atmospheres can
not so easy to RF-bond to. Their foil is
cause it to oxidise very quickly,
an insulating plastic film that is
whereupon it turns to a grey insulating
metallised on one side only, so it is
dust and ruins the shielding performance
important to make sure that it is the
of the cable. This can also occur at the
metal surface of the foil that makes a
cable’s ends, and even to metal-plated
360° contact with the connector
plastic connectors, where the shields are
backshell or other shield bonding
terminated in connectors or to
method. This is not too difficult where it
equipment.
is the outside surface of the foil that is
metallised. Because of the above difficulties
associated with spiral-wrapped foil
But where the internal surface of the foil
shields, braid shielded cables are
is metallised, the foil will need to be
generally preferred to spiral-wrapped
folded back and this cannot be done
foil-shielded types. However, a few cable
without cutting it – limiting the use of
manufacturers make foil-shielded cables
such cables to applications in which it is
that are not spiral wrapped (e.g. Belden
acceptable to stop the cable shield at
‘Z-Fold’) and may also use thicker
that point (e.g. when entering a well-
metallisation, and these can overcome
shielded EM Zone or equipment
some of the problems that occur with
enclosure). Unfortunately, it is very
wrapped-foils.
difficult to fold back a spiral-wrapped foil
to expose its metal surface to obtain a
reliable 360° bond, so the EMC
 110
5.8 The benefits of ‘earth loops’ employ experts for several days (or
(‘ground loops’) more) to hunt down the ‘rogue’ ground
loops in their installations and eliminate
Some of the good EMC engineering them.
practices described in Section 4, and
Since most customers only considered
many of those described in Section 5,
the ‘sticker price’ of the equipment they
result in the creation of ‘ground loops’
bought, and didn’t ask about the difficulty
(also called ‘hum loops’, ‘earth loops’,
and cost of getting them to work as
etc.). For example, an RF Reference is
required in their installation, the cheap
essential for the effectiveness of EM
electronic design that needed single-
mitigation methods such as zoning,
point earthing became the usual
filtering, shielding and surge
practice.
suppression, and they necessarily create
very many small ground loops. Also, Eventually, the idea of avoiding ground
bonding cable shields at both ends so loops to avoid problems became so
that shielded cables actually provide entrenched that it became a standard
useful shielding (see 5.7.6) creates practice that nobody questioned, indeed
ground loops. it sometimes seems to have become
almost heretical to question it. In fact, it
So it is important to discuss why ‘ground
only came about because of the use of
loops’ are not the problem that almost
cheap and nasty electronic design
everyone seems to think they are – why
techniques by equipment manufacturers
they are actually good for EMC – and
to maximise their profits with no care at
what to do with equipment designed in
all for the customers’ overall costs of
such a way that it has a problem with
ownership.
ground loops.
(The author is well qualified to discuss
Several decades ago, most of the
this issue, because decades ago he was
interference problems in installations
one of those electronic designers
were at 50Hz and it was possible to
employing the cheap and nasty design
control circulating currents (‘earth loops’)
techniques that relied upon the user
using single-point earthing techniques.
achieving single-point earthing, despite
This encouraged the design of cheaper
the huge practical difficulties that this
electronics using poor circuit design
quite clearly created for customers with
techniques that relied upon single-point
very complex professional audio
earthing installations so as not to suffer
installations with very high signal-to-
from 50Hz noise problems.
noise ratios. His excuse is that he was
Better electronic design techniques were ‘just following orders’ at that time, and
available that made the design of the had not yet understood how to design
installation’s earth structure irrelevant, circuits correctly for use in installations.)
but since they added a few percent to
These days the normal environment for
the cost of the parts – manufacturers
equipment is highly polluted with
used the cheaper, poorer design
frequencies from DC to thousands of
techniques to make more profit. This
MHz, and getting more polluted every
was at the expense of adding
day due to technological progress. The
headaches for users, who might have to
signals routinely used by electronic
111
communications in cables now regularly Mesh-bonding, and terminating cable
extend to 30MHz and above. At the shields at both ends, allows stray
frequencies in typical use these days the currents to circulate as they will in the
stray (‘parasitic’) mutual inductances and RF Reference and cable shields. The
capacitances in systems and benefit of this is that because RF
installations create circulating RF currents flow in the path of least
currents that flow through air or impedance, they naturally take the path
insulation and can cause interference, with the smallest loop area (i.e. the
and these high frequencies cannot be lowest inductive), which allows us to
controlled by single-point earthing control where they flow. This is simply
techniques. not possible when using ‘traditional’
One reason why single-point earthing single-point earthing techniques. These
cannot possibly work at RF is the mesh-bonding techniques can be
inherent inductance of all conductors, developed to achieve as much control as
which is about 1µH per metre (very large is necessary for even extreme EM
cross-sectional area wires, tapes or environments.
straps might approach as little as 0.5µH The negative aspect of this approach is
per metre). This results in a series that stray currents at the frequency of
impedance of up to 2πf Ω/metre, where f the electrical power supply and its
is given in MHz. So for example at harmonics are also allowed to flow
10MHz a 10m long 4mm diameter earth where they will, and they will generally
conductor has an impedance of about split along multiple paths in the inverse
600Ω – clearly incapable of ‘earthing’ ratio to those paths’ resistances. The
currents or voltages at that (fairly low) higher the degree of meshing, and the
frequency. smaller the mesh size, the smaller each
Another reason why single-point of the individual currents will be. By
earthing cannot possibly work at RF is comparison, single-point earthing
the accidental antenna behaviour of all constrained them to follow a single
conductors, as shown in Figure 7 and conductor, back to (usually) the main
discussed in 3.4. Earthing conductors earthing terminal, sometimes called a
are just accidental antennas, like any ‘star point’.
other kind of conductor. The electrons However, equipment that has been
flowing in them don’t behave differently properly designed for use in systems
just because the insulation is coloured and installations will use input and
green with a yellow spiral stripe! output drivers that happily resist the CM
So single-point earthing is only capable effects of stray power frequency (and its
of being effective up to a few kHz, which harmonics) current flowing in meshed
makes it useless in any system or systems. 5.6 describes some methods
installation where frequencies of MHz for dealing with equipment that has not
need to be controlled by the installation’s been properly designed for systems and
design. To create an RF Reference installations, for example consumer
above this frequency, there is no products.
alternative to creating a mesh of ground Data centres use servers and other
loops, as described in 5.5. equipment such as RAID arrays, all
 112
designed to provide the highest possible When we realise this fact, which can
computing/storage performance at the easily be tested with commonplace
very lowest cost. They are not properly electrical test equipment, we begin to
designed for use in systems and understand that the higher the degree of
installations, because this increases meshing, and the lower the impedance
their selling price and makes less well- of the RF Reference, the lower the
designed equipment appear to be more voltage differences will be between the
price-competitive. As a result, computer grounds of items of interconnected
rooms and data centres have to use equipment, that are the real cause of so-
mesh-bonded RF References that called ‘ground loop’ noise. The currents
achieve very low impedance up to at that flow in cable shields as a result of
least 30MHz (see 5.5.4 and Figure 25). them being bonded at both ends, helps
The purchasers of the servers, so reduce the noise by improving the mesh-
pleased to have bought them at the bonding of the RF Reference.
lowest price, are generally not aware Since 1990, the author has had a great
that this low price is achieved at the deal of experience with testing the RF
additional cost to them of a more immunity of electronic equipment
expensive RF Reference construction. designed to use single-ended shield
There is a common fallacy that stray termination (for use with single-point
currents in cable shields induce noise earthing systems), to the immunity
into the signals contained within those standards listed under the EMC
shields, and it has even been blessed Directive. Such equipment always failed
with a name and an acronym: SCIN the RF immunity tests unless ‘proper’
(shield current induced noise). The both-ends shield bonding was used, as
author and colleagues have tested this described in 5.7.6. As more equipment
with shield currents high enough to melt manufacturers are taking the trouble to
regular PVC insulation, at frequencies actually comply with the EMC Directive,
up to 100kHz, with good quality twisted- they are finding that they have to use
pair cables and also with straight modern design techniques that no longer
multiconductor cables deliberately have to rely upon single-point earthing in
constructed to have a high degree of their installations.
unbalance between a signal’s send and Equipment imported from countries
its return, and found that it is simply not outside Europe, where such immunity
true – see [54] [55] and [56]. performance is not a legal requirement
What really happens is that stray (e.g. USA, Canada, and most of the
currents in an installation give rise to other countries in the world) is of course
voltage differences between items of CE-marked, but in some industries it is
equipment that are interconnected by clear that most such equipment has
signal, control or data cables, and it is never been tested for RF immunity, and
these ‘ground noise’ voltages that cause when used in systems and installations it
the apparent noise in the signal, and can suffer noise problems that its
they also cause the stray currents in the manufacturers claim is caused by
shield (that are then mistakenly blamed ‘ground loops’ in the installation but in
as the cause of the noise). fact are caused by their adherence to
113
long-outmoded circuit design practices for Ethernet) to devices employing
that are not in the best interests of their optical or capacitive isolation. Many
customers. suppliers are now offering Bluetooth and
It is good EMC engineering practice to similar wireless modules that plug into
ask suppliers appropriate questions cable sockets to replace them with
about how their equipment should be wireless data links.
‘earthed’ and any cable shields Metal-free fibre-optic communications
terminated, before purchase, and only are the best for EMC, and are now
buy equipment that does not suffer from available in a huge range of types, from
ground loop problems when used with low-cost plug-in replacements for RS232
RF References and properly shielded cables, through DC-2GHz ‘transparent’
cabling (i.e. shields bonded at both links that can carry any kind of signal or
ends). It is also good EMC engineering data, to 40GHz links such as are used
practice (see 2.3.4) to request evidence for the national telecommunications
of compliance with both emissions and backbone.
immunity tests listed under the EMC If none of these methods are employed,
Directive. Suppliers that decline to a PEC might be sufficient to reduce the
provide such information to a potential so-called ‘ground loop’ noises to
customer (for example in the form of test negligible levels (see 5.9). If this is
reports) or who promise information that impractical, see 5.7.9
never arrives, often prove not to
understand how to do EMC engineering
for systems and installations, so should
5.9 Parallel Earth Conductors
generally be avoided. (PECs)
Where ‘single-point earthed’ equipment
5.9.1 PECs as elements of the MESH-
must be used for some reason, ‘ground
CBN
loop’ problems can sometimes arise
where installations must use an RF When using mesh-bonding, if equipment
Reference (see 5.5) or effective cable has difficulties in handling the resulting
shielding (see 5.7.6). stray power-frequency (and its
But these so-called ‘ground-loop’ harmonic) currents flowing in its input or
problems can usually be resolved easily output signal, control or data cables, and
and quickly using some of the wide if the techniques mentioned at the end of
variety of digital and analogue galvanic 5.8 have not been used for some
isolation devices available for this reason, the solution is generally to use a
purpose from many suppliers. Galvanic Parallel Earth Conductor (PEC).
isolation (see 4.3) is especially A PEC must have a very low resistance
recommended because it also help when compared with the resistance of
protect against surge overvoltages – the cable shield, and it must be RF-
which are a particular problem for single- bonded directly to the equipment
point earthed systems, see [56]. frame/chassis/enclosure at both ends
Suitable devices range from isolating (see 5.7), and the cable concerned must
transformers (e.g. audio ‘balancing’ be strapped to it along its entire length.
transformers; ‘pulse transformers’ used The ratio of the resistance of the shield
 114
to that of the PEC is the ratio by which benefits above for reducing shield
the PEC will reduce shield currents up to currents – they also improve overall
about 1kHz. For example, a typical EMC performance. Where the CBN is
100m long shielded cable with a small used as the RF Reference, as it
diameter could have a shield resistance generally is, then the PEC is also part of
of about 2Ω, and a 6mm diameter the RF Reference. Figure 51 shows
copper wire PEC would reduce its shield some examples of using different
current to about 3% (a reduction of conductors as PECs – the lower their
about 30dB). number, the better they are for higher
This Guide uses the term ‘Parallel Earth frequency EMC.
Conductor’, PEC, because this is the Where a PEC is used just to divert 50Hz
term used in IEC 61000-5-2 [43], but it is currents away from a cable shield, to
not a very good term because what it reduce noise at 50Hz and its first few
describes has everything to do with harmonics, a long wire PEC is perfectly
bonding, but might have nothing at all to adequate.
do with protective safety earthing. To comply with Health and Safety
‘Parallel Bonding Conductor’ (PBC) regulations, an installation will usually
would have been a much better term, or have its CBN connected to its earth
‘Bypass Conductor’ – a term that is used electrodes, and be robust enough to
in some other installation standards withstand all foreseeable electrical faults
when they mean a PEC. without suffering overheating or any
Currents leak from all cables (although other kind of damage. In such
higher-quality types leak less), giving installations, any additional conductors
rise to CM currents and voltages in the such as cable shields that could carry
CBN and equipment chassis/frames/ earth/ground fault currents do not need
enclosures, which ‘drive’ the cables as to be rated to carry fault currents – they
accidental antennas (see 3.4). It was are protected by the existing
mentioned in 4.8.2 and 5.5 that it is good earth/ground structure. Even a cable
EMC practice to route all cables very shield having a cross-sectional area of 1
close to parts of their MESH-CBN all square millimetre could be draped all
along their route, because this provides through such an installation, connected
a much lower loop area for these CM to equipment chassis at each end,
currents, hence a lower-impedance path without suffering damage due to faults in
for them and a reduction in the cabel’s the power distribution.
emitting/receiving efficiency as However, it is probably wise not to rely
accidental antennas. on this when using single-point earthing,
A PEC is part of the MESH-CBN – or because it is vulnerable to corrosion and
another way of looking at it is that parts single faults. There would be no such
of the MESH-CBN can be used as PECs concerns when using a heavily mesh-
if cables are routed in intimate proximity bonded CBN.
to them, Either way – as well as the
115
Figure 51 Types of PECs

A heavy-
A heavy-
gauge wire
gauge wire

77 66 55 44
Effective
Effective ‘Lightning tape’
‘Lightning tape’ Corner position
Corner position in
in tray
tray is
is better
better
only up
only up to
to
about 1kHz
about 1kHz

Metal tube
Metal tube
33 22 11 (stainless or
(stainless
galvanised)
galvanised)
or

is by
is by far
far the
the best
best
Narrow duct
Narrow duct Better with
Better with lid
lid

In legacy installations where the Any ‘natural’ metalwork forming part of

impedances in the safety the MESH-CBN can be used as a PEC,
earthing/bonding structure may be high, for example steel girders, cable support
and/or where the degree of meshing of trays, ducts, etc., but don’t forget they
the CBN is low, PECs should be rated to must be RF-bonded at all joints and at
carry high currents during fault both ends to the equipment
conditions. frames/chassis/cabinets/etc. as
But where installations have very high described in 5.5, with the spacing
levels of magnetic fields, for instance between RF-bonds in metal structures
large power generating plant, additional that act as PECs being no greater than
conductors (such as cable shields) that 3/fmax metres (fmax in MHz). See Figure
do not closely follow the same route as 34 for a solution for terminating the ends
elements of the CBN will experience of solid conduit.
induced circulating currents that could It is important to remember that when
cause them to overheat. This is one of using existing so-called ‘natural’
the reasons why 4.8.2 recommended metalwork and/or cable armour as part
routing all cables very close to the of a CBN, or as a PEC, it must be
conductors of their CBN or MESH-CBN managed to ensure that all joints and
all along their routes – to minimise loop connections remain bonded over the
areas. lifecycle, and that no electrician
disconnects any part (e.g. by adding a
 116
junction box to an armoured cable) Figure 52 shows some examples of
during any modifications or additions to cable routes along a steel I-beam girder,
the system or installation. Cable support rating each route by its performance as
structures and armour are usually a PEC at various frequencies. Figure 53
assumed to be simply for mechanical shows an example where the type of
protection purposes, so when they are metal structure used as a PEC changes
used to improve EMC performance, along the cable’s route, rating the
any/all work that could affect them must various alternatives as before.
be supervised appropriately.

Figure 52 Example of using a steel girder as a PEC

Routing in
Routing in the
the
included angle
included angle isis
the best
the best for
for
controlling high
controlling high
frequencies
frequencies
Centre of
Centre of flange
flange
(or rib)
(or rib) is
is better
better
still for
still for
controlling
controlling
higher
higher
1 frequencies
frequencies
Along flange
Along flange edge
edge 2
is suitable
is suitable for
for Best
Best
controlling up
controlling up to
to
10kHz
10kHz

3 Further from
Further
flange edge:
flange
from
edge: better
better
control
control
of higher
higher
4 of
frequencies
frequencies

Any cable armour should be used as a Figure 54 shows examples of armoured

PEC, but for normal types (e.g. steel cables leaving/joining a cable tray PEC,
wire armoured, SWA) its performance at RF-bonding their armour at the point of
frequencies above a few kHz can be leaving/joining the tray. Where an
hard to predict. Some cables are unarmoured cable has a braided shield
available with armour that combines with a large copper cross-sectional area,
mechanical strength with a braid shield, it might be practical to use the braid as a
a combination that can almost be as PEC as if it was armour.
good as metal tube (No. 1 in Figure 51).
117

Figure 53 Running cables along PECs

Cables run
Cables run along
along mesh-
mesh-
bonded trays
bonded trays or
or ducts
ducts

11

Cable run
Cable run close
close to
to bonded
bonded plate
plate
or natural
or natural metalwork
metalwork (part
(part of
of
MESH-CBN)
MESH-CBN)

22 33
Cable strapped
Cable strapped toto aa wire
wire PEC
PEC
(bonded to
(bonded to the
the tray,
tray, and
and to
to the
the MESH-CBN
MESH-CBN at at the
the
cable’s far
cable’s far end,
end, but
but only
only good
good for
for aa few
few kHz)
kHz)

Figure 54 Armoured cables leaving or joining a tray PEC

In this example, a cable tray is

used as the PEC for shielded or
armoured cables

"U" or
"U" or "P"
"P" clamp
clamp from
from
exposed armour
exposed armour (or(or heavy
heavy
BAD practice...
BAD practice... braid) to
to the
the tray
tray
braid)
cable exits/joins
cable exits/joins PEC
without bonding
without
PEC
bonding its
its 22
armour (or
armour (or heavy
heavy
braid)
braid)

11
360° bonding
360° bonding gland
gland between
between
armour (or
armour (or heavy
heavy braid)
braid)
and the
and the tray
tray
 118
The best PECs for control of high- effect on EMC, and Figure 56 shows an
frequency EMC have no slots or gaps at example of good EMC joint in a
all (even at their joints). Figure 55 shows proprietary cable management tray
examples of various holes and slots in system.
cable trays, with comments about their

Figure 55 Holes and slots in cable trays and ducts used as PECs

The best
The best cable
cable tray
tray for
for control
control of
of higher-frequencies
higher-frequencies is is aa
11 solid metal
solid metal tray,
tray, drilled
drilled as
as necessary
necessary for
for fixings
fixings

Small holes
Small holes have
have low
low impact
impact on
on EMC
EMC
(but in
(but in some
some installations
installations unused
unused holes
holes
have had
have had toto be
be filled
filled with
with mounting
mounting bolts)
bolts)
22

Short longitudinal
Short longitudinal slots
slots
are next
are next best
best
33
Holes or
or slots
slots in
in the
the Avoid slots
Avoid slots perpendicular
perpendicular to to the
the
Holes direction of
of the
the tray
tray
corners are
are bad
bad for
for EMC
EMC direction
corners
44

All PECs should be mesh-bonded to every 30/fmax metres or less (fmax in

their MESH-CBN wherever practical, not MHz).
just at both ends, using RF-bonding Joints in covers and lids should be
techniques. This helps reduce the overlapped where practical, and RF-
impedance of the MESH-CBN and make bonded together every 3/fmax metres or
it a better RF Reference. less, along any/all joints and to the
equipment chassis/frame/enclosure at
5.9.2 Sizes of cable bundles both ends, as for any joints in a PEC
such as a cable tray. To make assembly
Cables routed inside metal conduit or
easy and quick, it is best to use the
covered ducts or trays, can fill the entire
same high-surface-conductivity low-
volume available (subject to segregation
corrosion metal, or metal plating, for the
by Class, see 4.8) – providing the covers
ducts or trays and their covers or lids
or lids are RF-bonded metal-to-metal to
(see 5.7.3) using types of trays or ducts
the body of the tray or duct at intervals
that press their metal surfaces together
along their length no further apart than
at the contact points, as discussed in
5.7.1 and shown in Figure 28.
119
Figure 56 Joints and gaps in cable trays used as PECs

Ladder or
Ladder or basket
basket type
type cable
cable trays
trays are
are only
only
good PECs
good PECs up
up toto aa few
few kHz
kHz at
at most
most

Good joints
Good joints (well
(well overlapped),
overlapped), needs
needs multiple
multiple
metal-to-metal fixings
metal-to-metal fixings (not
(not shown)
shown) spread
spread along
along
the joint for good RF-bonding
the joint for good RF-bonding

Too many
Too many slots
slots to
to be
be aa good
good PEC
PEC at
at the
the
highest frequencies,
highest frequencies, but but probably
probably very
very
good up
good up to
to at
at least
least 30MHz
30MHz

Where metal trays or ducts do not have use a single layer of cables strapped
a metal cover or lid RF-bonded as against the base – but it is often
described above, the cables should not acceptable to use two or more layers as
be stacked up too high. In a shallow tray, long as the maximum height is less than
it is best to have a single layer of cables, half the metal wall height. This is a very
all reliably strapped down against the crude guideline, greater accuracy
base of the tray, as shown in Figure 57. requires calculations or computer
In a deep tray or duct, increasing simulations of the SE provided by the
distance from the base degrades EMC uncovered tray or duct.
performance, so it is once again best to
 120
Figure 57 Some examples of cables bundled into trays and ducts

Metal covers/lids
Metal covers/lids
must RF-bond
must RF-bond
along whole
along whole
length of
length of tray
tray
or duct
or duct every
every
30/ffmax
30/ metres
max metres
or less
or less

((ffmax in MHz)
max in MHz)

dimension is as long as the cable and it

5.9.3 Controlling the CM loop will resonate at frequencies at which the
It was mentioned above that it is good length is a whole number of half-
EMC practice to route all cables close to wavelengths. fRES = 150n/L where L is
elements of the MESH-CBN (which the spacing between two bonds (L in
might be called PECs) (see 4.8.2), metres gives fRES in MHz) and n is an
preferably an RF Reference (see 5.5.3) integer (1, 2, 3, etc.). For example, the
along their whole length. One reason is CM loop for a 10m long cable routed
to take advantage of the ‘image plane’ very close against a sheet metal RF
effect to reduce their efficiencies as Reference would resonate near to
accidental antennas. Another is that the 15MHz, 30MHz, 45MHz, 60MHz, etc.
nearby metal helps return the CM At resonance, the CM current loop will
current that always ‘leaks’ from cables amplify the RF currents and/or their
so that the resulting CM current loop has voltages, making the cable a more
the smallest area, once again helping effective accidental antenna, possibly
reduce the accidental antenna efficiency. increasing emissions and/or worsening
However, cables can be very long and immunity.
even though the area of the CM loop CM loop resonant frequencies can be
between a cable and its RF Reference is increased by exposing and RF-bonding
made as small as possible, the longest the armour and shields of cables directly
121
to the RF Reference (MESH-CBN or An alternative to frequent RF-bonding is
PEC) at intervals along their length, to dampen down the CM loop’s
using one of the direct RF shield- resonances – reducing their ‘Q’ (their
bonding techniques described in 5.7.6 resonant gain) and making them less
(and not pigtails). The idea is to increase effective accidental antennas – by fitting
the lowest resonant frequency fRES (n=1) ferrite CM suppression chokes to the
so that it is higher than fmax. cables. Whereas the RF-bonding
This technique is not one that anyone technique only works for shielded
ever finds very desirable, but sometimes cables, this works for all types. The
it is the only way to solve an interference ferrite choke fits around the outside of
problem without ripping out all the the cable (or cable bundle), and so acts
cabling and replacing it with a higher on the unwanted CM current, and not on
quality type that has less CM leakage the wanted differential-mode (DM)
(e.g. double-shielded). Protecting the signal, and Figure 58 shows some
cables at the bonding points, where their examples of the kinds of ferrite
outer jackets have been cut away to suppressers available.
expose their shields, can be important in
some physical or climatic environments.

Figure 58 Examples of ferrite suppressers for CM cable currents

(from Steward, Ferrishield, Fair-Rite, etc.)

 122
It may be necessary to use several CM large range of such chokes with them.
chokes spread along the length of a Unsplit ferrites chokes cost less than
cable, spaced <75/fmax apart. Larger clip-on types, but are more disruptive
chokes generally provide more damping, and time-consuming to fit to an existing
but two or more smaller ones can often installation.
be as effective as one large one. The
chokes are available with different core 5.10 Choosing and using filters
materials to suit different frequency
ranges, and it is best to choose types 5.10.1 Choosing filters for electrical
where their maximum impedance is power
achieved near to the resonant frequency
to be suppressed. As any catalogue of filters, and Figure
Clip-on chokes use a split ferrite core in 59 shows, there are a great many types
a plastic holder, and can easily be of mains filter, and there are also a great
clipped over cables in-situ. EMC many types of signal filter – so it is
engineers visiting sites to solve important to choose the right ones for
interference problems always carry a your applications.

Figure 59 Some examples of mains filters

‘Room filters’
‘Room filters’

Filtered IEC
Filtered IEC 320
320
‘appliance inlet’
‘appliance inlet’ type
type
High performance
High performance ‘feedthrough’
‘feedthrough’
or ‘through-bulkhead’
or ‘through-bulkhead’ filters
filters
(double feedthrough
(double feedthrough pictured)
pictured)

Filters designed for use on 50/60Hz and temperature derating curves should
mains supplies can generally be used for be checked with their manufacturers.
filtering electrical power from DC to Filters that provide attenuation at lower-
400Hz, although their maximum current frequencies, carry higher currents, or
123
achieve higher attenuation, will generally When choosing a mains filter for a
be larger and more expensive. A very system or installation, it is safest to
crude but often effective measure of a assume that its real-life attenuation at a
filter is its weight. If comparing two filters given frequency will be no better than
with similar specifications and costs, the the worst-case derived from all six of
heavier one will often perform better in these test results. Figure 60 shows an
real life. example based on just three sets of test
Electrical power distribution networks results from a real filter.
are not impedance-matched 50Ω All power filters use inductors and
systems, and very few electrical loads capacitors, and so are resonant circuits
have a resistive impedance of 50Ω, yet that with some values of source and load
the shortform data published by impedances can produce gain instead of
suppliers and distributors is generally attenuation. The first time this happens
based on testing with 50Ω sources and to you in real life often comes as
50Ω loads, giving results that often bear something of a shock.
little relationship to the attenuation they Figure 60 shows that if the filter had
provide in real life. been expected to behave according to
the usual 50Ω/50Ω attenuation curves at
Good filter manufacturers will provide six
frequencies around 300kHz, an
sets of attenuation data, all measured
attenuation of around 15dB would have
using the CISPR17 test method, as
been anticipated. But in real life, with the
graphs covering the whole frequency
usual mismatched source and load, it
range of interest, including both the
could instead have given a gain – an
conducted range (down to 150kHz or
actual amplification of the noise it was
less) and the radiated frequency range
supposed to be attenuating – of up to
(e.g. up to 1GHz or more):
20dB.
• Test results with 50Ω source and The filter whose data was used in Figure
50Ω load, known as ‘matched 50/50’ 60 was a low-cost single-stage mains
tests. filter, and such filters when mismatched
• Test results with 100Ω source and (that is to say, in most real-life
0.1Ω load, known as ‘mismatched applications) produce gain of up to
100/0.1’ tests. 20dB, at as frequency that is usually
somewhere between 100kHz to 5MHz (it
• Test results with 0.1Ω source and is impossible to be more precise
100Ω load, known as ‘mismatched because the range of possible filter
0.1/100’ tests. designs is very large). Two-stage mains
• All of the above three tests filters might have matched 50/50 graphs
performed in both CM and DM much the same as single stage versions,
(known as ‘asymmetrical’ and whilst having up to double their size and
‘symmetrical’ respectively by filter cost – but their mismatched curves
manufacturers), making six sets of generally reveal much superior
test result graphs in all. attenuations, with resonant peaks
generally no worse than 10dB over the
frequency range 10 to 300kHz.
 124
Figure 60 Deriving reliable filter attenuation figures from manufacturer’s
data

Filter attenuation in dB
70
Key
Example of a
60 1-stage mains filter 50/50 ASYM

50 50/50 SYM
100/0.1 SYM
40 WORST CASE

30

20 Get all
Get all CM
CM and
and DM,
DM,
matched (50
matched Ω)) and
(50Ω and
10 mismatched (100/0.1
mismatched (100/0.1
and 0.1/100)
and 0.1/100) data
data
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 4 6 8 10 30 Then plot
Then plot the overall
the overall
worst case
worst case for
for all
all six
six
-10 MHz curves, and
curves, and use
use that
that

-20
Filter GAIN!

Filters with more stages, even up to to reduce the risk to costs and
seven, are available as standard timescales of choosing the wrong filters,
products from a variety of and/or having to use trial and error. An
manufacturers, who are also usually only alternative is to plan for some iteration of
too pleased to design custom filters for the filters during commissioning, leaving
applications of any sort. In general, the enough room for the largest, most costly
higher the number of stages in a filter, filter we hope we will not need, and
the more reliable is its attenuation when testing the installation to find which filter
it is connected to real-life sources and works best in real life. A good supply of
load impedances. hopefully suitable filters is required, from
The attenuation provided by mains filters the lowest-cost to the highest-
varies with the supply voltage, load performance, from several filter
current and their operating temperature manufacturers.
[24], so it is best to choose filters that – How to do testing for conducted
according to the process described emissions and immunity is described in
above – have at least 10dB more [40] [41] [32] and [68], but if you do not
attenuation than appears to be actually want to do it yourself, there are many
needed. EMC test laboratories [59] with the
Detailed calculations, or computer necessary skills and equipment for on-
simulations, are appropriate techniques site testing, and some filter
125
manufacturers will also be pleased to signal filters, but manufacturers
help. generally only provide matched 50/50
Filter input and output wires must never data for such filters, or matched data for
come anywhere near each other, as they tests with source and load impedances
are always at least one cable Class more appropriate to the types of signals
apart (see 4.8). Cascaded mains filters or data the filters are intended for (e.g.
(connected in series) can interact and 100Ω). High-speed signals and data are
make the overall EMC performance usually communicated via ‘transmission-
worse than that of each filter on its own, line’ cables, and where filters are used
as discussed in [69], so if it is necessary they must be of the correct type for that
to cascade filters on a single cable the exact type of transmission line,
additional filter might have to have more otherwise signal quality will be lost.
stages, and/or be larger with a higher Some types of signal connectors (e.g. in
specification, than might seem D-types and military-style circular
necessary. connectors, see Figures 44 and 47) are
It is also worth noting that the best filters available as standard with built-in filters.
for EMC generally have seamless metal Some of these are simple ferrites
bodies (deep-drawn, or seam-welded) needing no RF Reference connection
fitted with flanges or other means of (see 5.10.3) and many are simple
directly bonding them metal-to-metal to a capacitors, but more costly and higher-
local RF Reference at least at two performance types are available based
points, see 5.7.5. on ‘filter pins’, which can even use Tee
or Pi filtering techniques.
Where high levels of attenuation are
required, filters suffer from stray A cable that is suffering from emissions
induction and radiation between the or immunity problems at frequencies
conductors on their input and output needed for control, data or other signals
sides. So will generally need to be cannot use filtered connectors pins at
combined with shielded cables (see those frequencies, because filtered pins
5.11), or closely-spaced meshes or even act on the DM signal and so would filter
sheet metal used as shields (see 5.12) out the wanted signals as well as the
at the boundary of their EM Zone. So the unwanted noise. If fitting ferrite CM
choice of filter might also depend on its chokes to the cable does not solve the
style of housing – how well it can be problem, it may be necessary to use
integrated into a shielded barrier, see filtered pins to attenuate just the higher
5.12.11. noise frequencies, and cable and
connector shielding techniques to
For more detail on the above and other
attenuate the noise frequencies
filter selection issues, refer to [69] and
associated with the wanted signal
[70].
frequencies.
5.10.2 Choosing filters for signals So, when choosing connectors for signal
(including control and data) cables for connection to the boundary of
an EM Zone, it can be helpful to choose
Similar considerations to those types that have the options of being
discussed above apply to choosing fitted with both filters and 360° shielding
 126
backshells, so that filtering (and/or Reference adds some stray capacitance
shielding) can be more easily employed that can increase their attenuation – but
if found to be necessary. only where the RF Reference has a low
impedance at the frequency concerned.
5.10.3 Ferrite filters need no RF Fitting ferrite chokes around a whole
Reference cable or cable bundle that includes the
send and return conductors for each
Some filters rely solely on ferrites and
signal or power cable attenuates the CM
have no need for any connection to the
currents and voltages; whilst fitting them
RF Reference. This type includes the
around an individual send or return
cable-mounting chokes for which some
conductor acts on the DM.
examples were shown in Figure 58, and
they are especially useful where the RF Because DM currents are much higher
Reference does not provide a low than CM, they are more likely to saturate
impedance at the frequency to be the ferrite and stop it from filtering at all,
filtered. For this reason they are often but it is also possible for CM chokes to
useful in installations for reducing be saturated, especially if some of the
emissions or improving immunity at DM return currents flow back outside of
walkie-talkie and cellphone frequencies, the cable or bundle. CM chokes are less
from 200MHz to over 2GHz, where likely to saturate, and more likely to give
sheet metal MESH-CBNs are not used good results, when the cables they are
(see 5.12). fitted on are centred inside them, by
using plastic foam or other filling
There are many types of ferrite chokes
materials where necessary. Ferrites that
available, but the appropriate types will
feel warm are in saturation and
be listed as being suitable for RF
ineffective, but not all saturated ferrites
suppression. Less-common terms for
feel warm. Comparison of the ferrite
them include ‘shield beads’ or ‘shielding
manufacturers’ product data, plus
ferrites’. Ferrites cores and toroids
knowledge of the currents (or trial and
intended for power applications, such as
error) avoids saturation problems.
in switch-mode power converters, use
types of ferrite material that are not
suitable for use in RF filters. 5.10.4 Bonding filters to the RF
Reference
High levels of attenuation cannot be
expected from simple ferrite choke filters Most types of packaged filters – and all
like these, although quite good results medium or high-performance filters –
can sometimes be achieved by stringing contain capacitors RF-bonded to their
several of them along a length of the metal bodies. It is vital for their EMC
cable to be filtered, no further apart than performance that their highly conductive
75/f at the frequency concerned ( f in metal bodies are RF-bonded to a local
MHz). Make sure the cable does not RF Reference that has lower impedance
loop back to lie close to itself at any than their capacitors at the frequencies
point along its length, and has no other for which the filter is intended to achieve
cables nearby (unless they also have useful attenuation. The RF Reference
ferrites at the same location). Lying bonds must be made at least at all of the
ferrite cable-mounted chokes on the RF filter’s fixing points.
127
Filters can be fitted anywhere in an In both cases, good filtering performance
installation, but they are mostly used for will not be achieved unless their metal
indirect RF-bonding of unshielded bodies are RF-bonded metal-to-metal to
conductors that cannot be RF-bonded the plate they are mounted on, at
directly to the BRC (e.g. mains power) at multiple points around the perimeter of
the very point where they cross an EM their mounting holes. Many EM Zones
Zone boundary, as has been mentioned have had their shielding/filtering
many times in this Guide already, see performance completely ruined by a lack
Figures 17, 37, 38 and 39. of attention to the detail of these RF-
Figure 37 shows a chassis-mounted bonds.
filter RF-bonded at all its fixings to a Where modest EMC performance is
bonding plate connected to the BRC that required from the EM Zone boundary, it
forms the boundary of an EM Zone. may be enough to rely on RF-bonds at
Figures 38 and 39 show similar filters the filters’ normal fixing points, but for
RF-bonded to a cabinet backplate and high levels of EMC attenuation at a zone
cable tray respectively, as their boundary – especially at frequencies
conductors cross EM Zone boundaries. above 100MHz – a conductive gasket
Where the boundary of an EM Zone may be required to bond a filter’s metal
must be a closely-spaced mesh, or body to the metal surface all around the
sheet metal to provide shielding, as periphery of its mounting hole. All the
discussed in 5.12, ‘through-bulkhead’ issues discussed in 5.7.1 to 5.7.5 apply
filters and filtered connectors will cause to such gaskets.
the least degradation of the EM Zone Appliance-inlet filters are low-cost, but
boundary’s attenuation performance. are not available with current ratings
Their input cables are on one side of the above 15A single-phase, and very few
shielding boundary, and their output have as many as two internal stages, so
cables are on the other, so that the their attenuation is never amazing.
shielding at the EM Zone’s boundary Through-bulkhead filters can have very
reduces the stray capacitive and high performance and current ratings of
magnetic induction that would otherwise hundreds of Amps, but such types tend
allow unwanted noise to circumvent the to be costly.
filters. If a chassis-mounted filter is used
Figure 61 shows three examples of instead, its installation requires a short
mains filters mounted in a sheet metal length of external cable to penetrate the
wall at an EMC Zone boundary bonding plate, and this can induce noise
(although it could also be a bonding in other conductors inside the EM Zone,
plate in the BRC at a mesh-shielded and/or behave as an accidental antenna,
boundary). The centre filter is a proper compromising the shielding achieved by
through-bulkhead type, and the one on the EM Zone’s boundary.
the right is combined with an IEC 320
style ‘appliance-inlet’ mains connector.
 128
Figure 61 Mounting through-bulkhead filters in metal plates in EM Zone
boundaries

‘Clean Box’
‘Clean Box’
‘Dirty Box’
‘Dirty Box’ The inside
inside of
of EM
EM Zone
Zone 22
The
Completely encloses
Completely encloses filter,
filter, has
has
frequent metallic
frequent metallic bonds
bonds oror
conductive gasket to the bonding
conductive gasket to the bonding
plate
plate EM Zone
EM Zone 22
(for e.g.)
(for e.g.)
Feedthrough type
May need
May need to
to fit
fit aa bulkhead mounted
feedthrough filter
feedthrough filter here
here filter

Bulkhead
Chassis- mounted
mounted filter
filter (e.g. IEC
320 style)

A bonding
A bonding plate
plate in
in the
the boundary
boundary
of EM
EM Zone
Zone 22 EM Zone
EM Zone 11
of (for e.g.)
e.g.)
(for
(typically RF-bonded
(typically RF-bonded to
to its
its BRC)
BRC)

However, chassis-mounted filters can better, and a welded seam would be

use what is usually called the ‘Clean Box best.
/Dirty Box’ method shown in Figure 61,
• Reducing the stray coupling between
to improve their performance without
the filter’s input and output cables
adding much cost. Attention to detail is
inside the Dirty Box by keeping them
needed to achieve good EMC
very short and far apart from each
performance with this technique,
other.
especially:
There will still be some coupling
• Minimising any gaps in the RF- between the filter’s input and output
bonding around the edges of the cables inside the Dirty Box, especially at
Dirty Box, which should have metal- frequencies above 100MHz, so a high-
to-metal fixings (see Figure 29) to the frequency through-bulkhead filter may
inside of the Clean Box with spacings need to be fitted to one of the cables.
much less than 30/fmax (fmax in MHz Often, all that is needed is to add one or
gives the maximum spacing in more ferrite cable suppressers (CM
metres) for example for good filtering chokes, see Figure 58) to one or both
at 100MHz the spacing of the RF- cables close to the Dirty Box.
bonds should be <<300mm, and
<30mm is recommended. A ‘Room filters’ are high-performance
conductive gasket would be even versions of chassis-mounting filters
129
specifically designed for penetrating the Some cable manufacturers, such as
walls of shielded EM Zones without Belden (Z-fold cable) and Alcatel, offer
compromising their SE. They incorporate some types of cable with shielding
compartmented shields for their input based on solid aluminium foil, or even
and output terminals (effectively two extruded thin aluminium, that overcome
separate Dirty Boxes), and their filtered some of the problems with spiral-
outputs enter the shielded room through wrapped foil types. But braid is generally
a metal conduit that makes a 360° RF- the best overall.
bond to the metal plate in the boundary 4.4 discussed keeping the send current
of the EM Zone. Some examples are in intimate proximity with the return
shown in Figure 59 above. current over the length of a cable, and
Room filters are generally designed to this is best achieved using a twisted-pair
achieve attenuations of at least 80dB type of cable. So the best kind of
from 100kHz to at least 1GHz, and types shielded cables for EMC purposes, are
are available that go down to kHz and/or braid-shielded twisted-pairs.
up to 40GHz and/or meet military The shielding effectiveness (SE) for a
specifications such as TEMPEST. cable entering/exiting an EM Zone must
Mains filters are installed at the point be at least as good as the SE of the
where power enters an EM Zone, volumetric shielding achieved around
generally before the isolator for that that EM Zone. This is usually not difficult
zone. So their terminals can remain live to achieve when using meshed shields
even when the power is switched off in around EM Zones (see 5.12), providing
their zone, and require touch protection they are RF-bonded as described in
and appropriate safety warnings (be 5.7.5 to 5.7.8 but it is very important
sure to meet all the requirements in the indeed when using high-specification
relevant safety standards). Figure 61 shielding around EM Zones (see 5.12.8).
does not show the protective covers that There are very many types of shielded
may be required for safety. cables, offering a range of choices of
shielding effectiveness, size, flexibility
5.11 Cable shielding (minimum bending radius), ease of
shield termination, and cost. It is good
5.11.1 Choosing cables practice to check whether suppliers
recommend specific types of cables (or
Sections 5.7.5 to 5.7.9 discuss certain even a specific manufacturer and part
issues associated with RF-bonding of number) for use with their equipment or
cables shields, and 5.7.10 discusses systems – and then use the same type
how much easier and more effective it is of cable or one with a better
to use braid-shielded cables instead of specification.
types that use wrapped-foil with a drain
wire. It also describes how, in polluted The shielding performance of cables and
atmospheres, wrapped-foil shields can connectors is generally measured as
oxidise in just a few years and lose all their ‘surface transfer impedance’ ZT,
their shielding. which is simply the ratio of the voltage of
the RF noise induced on their shielded
inner conductors to the RF noise current
 130
injected into their shield, and is of special metals with extremely high
measured in Ω/metre of cable length as permeability (e.g. MuMetal™).
shown in Figure 62. Good shielding Unfortunately, they are very costly and
generally requires that ZT be less than so only tend to be used in military,
1Ω at all of the frequencies to be government and aerospace applications.
shielded from, with 100mΩ being very All other types of flexible shielded cables
good, 10mΩ being excellent, and 1mΩ have a ZT that continually worsens as
being about the best achievable. frequency increases above a breakpoint
So-called ‘superscreened’ cables are the that generally lies between 1MHz and
very best flexible cables available, and a 100MHz. The better the cable for EMC,
typical type will have two or more braid the higher the breakpoint, as shown by
shields separated by wound tapes made Figure 62.

Figure 62 ZTs for some typical types of cable shields

High ZZTT
High
== low
low SE
SE

ZZTT depends
depends
on cable
on cable type
type
and frequency
and frequency

DEF STAN 59-41 Part 7/1 Figure A2

Lossy cables are also available, with lot of copper, plus a good optical
braid shields plus a spiral wrapping of coverage (very small gaps between
silicon-steel tape that behaves rather like braid wraps). ‘Optimised braid’ shielded
a distributed ferrite choke. cables are available from some
The best braid shields tend to have low suppliers, which despite having optical
resistance, which means they have a coverage of under 90% have lower ZT
high cross-sectional area and contain a than even a 95% optical coverage braid.
131
To get even better shielding requires coaxial, etc.) either individually shielded
multiple shield layers, such as braid+foil or not, with an overall shield of braid,
and double uninsulated braids. Braid+foil braid+foil, double braid, etc.
works best when the metallised surface Cables can have shielding added using
of the spiral-wrapped foil is in contact ‘overbraids’ and flexible shielded
with the braid along its length. conduit, available from several
Triple shielded cables are also available. manufacturers. These can easily be
Generally speaking, going from one slipped over the cable and 360° bonded
braid to two, and from two to three, at both ends, either to add a shield, or to
increases the SE by 20dB each time. add a second or third shield. Figure 63
Double insulated shields can be as good shows some ZT figures for a range of
as double-uninsulated types up to some overbraids.
frequency, but above that frequency they When choosing connectors for signal
resonate and are only as good as a cables for connection to the boundary of
single braid. It is best to reserve them for an EM Zone, it can be helpful to choose
special requirements needing separate types that have the options of being
shields, such as the situation described fitted with both filters and 360° shielding
in 5.11.2. backshells, so that filtering (and/or
Multicore shielded cables are available shielding) can be more easily employed
that can include a variety of types of if found to be necessary.
conductors (straight, twisted pair,

Figure 63 Examples of some overbraids’ ZTs

95% optical-coverage braids, on their nominal former size

(courtesy of Cabletech, www.cabletech.com)
10.0
ZT
Ohms/metre Ω/m
1.00
4mm
4mm

0.10 6mm
6mm
12.5mm
12.5mm

0.01

20mm
20mm
0.001
30mm
30mm

0.0001
0.1 1 10 100 MHz 1,000
 132
Figure 62 shows that a solid copper shield must only be connected at one
screen (e.g. microwave ‘semi-rigid’) end (usually at that item of equipment,
does not suffer from rising ZT above and usually to a screw-terminal or
some frequency – its ZT always connector pin).
improves as frequency increases. This Leaving aside the issues of whether the
shows that solid conduit also makes an supplier had used good EMC design, or
excellent shield. was simply regurgitating ‘traditional’
5.11.2 When good cable shield- EMC instructions that are now decades
bonding practices contradict obsolete – unless the supplier can be
supplier’s instructions persuaded to alter his EMC instructions
they should be followed or else he will
It sometimes happens that two items of disclaim all responsibility for
equipment need to be interconnected by interference, and possibly for other
a shielded cable but are installed in malfunctions too.
different EM Zones. Problems arise if
one equipment is supplied with EMC
instructions that state that its cable

Figure 64 When bonding a cable shield at both ends contradicts

supplier’s instructions

EM Zone
EM Zone boundaries
boundaries (e.g.
(e.g. their
their BRCs)
BRCs)

EM Zone
EM Zone 2B2B
Insulated outer
Insulated shield
outer shield for e.g.
for e.g.
and/or cable
cable armour
armour RF-
RF-
EM Zone
EM Zone 2A2A and/or
bonded 360° at both ends
bonded 360° at both ends
for e.g.
for e.g.

Equipment
Equipment Double insulated shielding
2
1

EM Zone
EM Zone 11
for e.g.
for e.g.

Insulated inner
Insulated shield bonded
inner shield bonded at at one
one end
end
(using aa pigtail
(using pigtail or
or whatever
whatever the the supplier
supplier
specified, so
specified, so as
as not
not to
to void
void the
the warranty)
warranty)
133
The problem is that unless the shield is 5.12 Shielding for EM Zones
RF-bonded at the point where it crosses
the boundary of each EM Zone, it will 5.12.1 Introduction
compromise the EMC performance of
those zones – but the suppliers EM Zones can be shielded by a variety
instructions forbid this. Figure 64 of materials, including:
illustrates one solution – use a double • Sheet metals: solid, foil
insulated shield cable and RF-bond the
outer (insulated) shield layer to the • Perforated metal sheets, ‘expanded’
BRCs of each EM Zone in the metal, etc.
appropriate manner (see 5.7.5). The • Meshes: chicken wire, weldmesh,
inner shield layer can then be terminated heavy steel rebars, natural
in accordance with the supplier’s EMC metalwork, etc.
instructions.
• Conductive paint
Multicore shielded cables are available
that can include a variety of types of • Metallised fabrics
conductors (straight, twisted pair, The essential principles of shielding an
coaxial, etc.) either individually shielded EM Zone are shown in Figures 65 and
or not, with an overall insulated shield of 66. Figure 65 shows the desired
braid, braid+foil, double braid, etc. These boundary of a new EM Zone, and
can be used like the cable type shown in indicates all of the conducted, induced
Figure 64 to connect a variety of cables and radiated threats to the equipment
all at once between equipment in within it. Figure 66 shows sheet metal
separated EM Zones. Also, an overbraid walls, floor and ceiling creating a
or flexible shielded conduit, or solid shielding boundary around the EM Zone
conduit, could be used as the insulated to protect it from induced and radiated
outer shield in Figure 64, with one or threats.
more cables inside it, either shielded or Figure 66 also shows that – providing all
not. conductors are RF-bonded to the wall
Where both equipment suppliers insist either directly or indirectly (see 5.7,
that the cable shield must only be 5.10.4 and 5.13) – the EM Zone is also
bonded at one end, and they don’t agree protected from conducted EM threats.
on which end, the method of Figure 64 Although Figures 65 and 66 show
can be used with a triple-insulated threats to the equipment in the EM Zone
shield. One inner shield connected to 2, exactly the same principles apply if
one item of equipment, the other inner EM Zone 1 is being protected from the
shields to the other equipment, and the emissions of the equipment in EM Zone
outer at the boundaries of the EM 2.
Zones. If triple-insulated shielded cables
are not readily available, use a double- The principles shown in Figures 65 and
insulated shield with an overbraid or 66 apply equally well to EM Zones
shielded conduit (see 5.11.1). shielded with wire meshes, conductive
paint, metallised fabrics, rebar meshes,
etc.
 134

Figure 65 Overview of threats to an EM Zone

Volume of
Volume of new
new zone
zone
to be
to be protected
protected from
from
EM threats
EM threats
EM Zone
EM Zone 11
for e.g.
for e.g.

te d
a dia
Radiated R

Ra
dia
te d

Inductive
Capacitive
ed

d
te
ct

uc
du

nd
n
Co

Co

Figure 66 Using shielding and RF-bonding to create EM Zone 2

EM Zone
EM Zone 11 Shielding
Shielding
material could
material could be
be
for e.g.
for e.g. a foil or mesh
mesh
a foil or
EM Zone
EM Zone 22 d instead of
instead of sheet
sheet
Ra for e.g.
e.g.
te metal
dia for dia metal
ted a
(but lower
(but
R lower SE
SE ))
ed
iat
Radiated R ad

te d
dia
Ra

Inductive
Capacitive
Filter
Filter
nd
nd

360° shield-
360° shield-
Co
Co

bonding gland
bonding gland
135
Achieving EM shielding for a room, As a result, this Guide very strongly
several rooms, or even a complete recommends that – where it is desired to
building is usually called architectural shield the zones in an existing structure
shielding [71]. It requires great attention to a high specification – companies
to detail and should not be lightly specialising in architectural shielding
undertaken. Section 5 of [36], and its (and with good references from previous
figures 56 to 62, describes how to customers) are employed.
design and construct sheet metal The following sections include a lot of
shielded enclosures for industrial material on rebar meshing, because
cabinets – and exactly the same most modern constructions use
techniques are required for sheet metal reinforced concrete so the rebars are
shielded enclosure of any size, including free, and also because this method is
entire buildings many 10s of metres on a recommended by [3] for the protection of
side. electronic equipment from LEMP (see
Doors and windows (see 5.12.13), air 5.13). Also, there is considerable
vents, lightning, cable and service experience in the use of rebar meshes in
entries, all cause great problems for the construction of military facilities for
architectural shielding. It is difficult protection from HEMP and EMP [60].
enough trying to make an industrial Electric fields can easily be attenuated
cabinet with an SE of over 60dB at over by lightweight foils, meshes, paint and
100MHz, but it is much worse for a room fabrics but magnetic field shielding at
or building because the doors and frequencies between 1kHz and 10MHz –
windows are larger, the seams and joints where the destructive energies of
are longer, and it is more difficult to lightning and EMP events are
control the activities of electricians and concentrated – requires substantial
others (a management problem that is thicknesses of metal.
common to all EM Zoning, see Section
8. Adding heavy-gauge sheet steel all
around an EM Zone requires the
A long and costly learning curve is the structure and fixings to be able to
lot of those who want to construct high- support the weight of all that metal,
specification shielded enclosures the whereas rebar meshes contain quite a
size of rooms or buildings. Although [60] large mass of metal and so provide
includes a lot of useful guidance for useful magnetic field shielding over
those who want to try, it is mostly aimed these frequencies, and are part of the
at facilities that have to withstand up to supporting structure anyway.
100MHz – every decade increase in
frequency (e.g. from 100MHz to 1GHz)
5.12.2 Creating effective mesh shields
means gaps and joints have to be ten
times smaller for the same shielding Filters (see 5.10) attenuate conducted
specification, filters and cable shield EM phenomena, whilst shields attenuate
bonds have to be higher-specification radiated phenomena (electric, magnetic
too, and errors and oversights cause ten and electromagnetic fields (see 3.3).
times the performance degradation at Shielding from EM fields using a
1GHz than they do at 100MHz. conductive mesh, and reducing the
 136
mesh dimensions to improve SE, were Concrete or metal structures can bond
mentioned in 5.5, for a MESH-CBN that all the metal in their walls and roofs as
encloses an EM Zone (three- part of the MESH-CBN, including
dimensionally, i.e. as a volume). As reinforcing bars (‘rebars’), girders, metal
Figure 23 shows, all existing metalwork window and door frames, cladding, etc.,
can be pressed into service in the as shown in Figure 67, which is copied
creation of the shielding mesh, to save from [3]. A similar figure also appears in
cost. [60].

Figure 67 Example of using rebars, windows and doorframes in a MESH-

CBN shield

Metal door
Metal door and
and
window frames
window frames

Reinforcing bars
Reinforcing bars

Reinforcing bars
Reinforcing bars and
and metal
metal
frames welded
frames welded or
or clamped
clamped at at
every rod/frame
every rod/frame joint
joint and
and
every rod
every rod crossing
crossing (for
(for
example)
example)
From IEC/EN 62305-4

In years past it has been common However, many buildings are made from
practice to bond rebar joints by wrapping reinforced concrete, and it is very cost-
wire around them, or by spot-welding effective if their reinforcement metalwork
them. Pre-spot-welded mesh could be used as a MESH-CBN
(‘weldmesh’) has been another solution. volumetric shield. This is addressed in
Unfortunately, all these techniques are the lightning protection standard [3], and
unreliable – pouring the concrete can an example of its recommended method
break spot welds and wires, and welds for RF-bonding rebars, which relies upon
and wires often corrode – so the mesh using seam-welds at least 30mm long, is
created is not as good as was desired, shown in Figure 68. These seam-welded
and degrades over time. joints are not necessarily required at all
rebar crossings, only at the locations
137
that achieve the necessary shapes and with (and have passed tests to) EN
sizes for the mesh elements. 50164.
According to [3], an alternative to seam-
welding is to use clamps that comply

Figure 68 Recommended method for welding the joints in rebar meshed

shields

Short length
Short length of
of rebar
rebar Seam welds
Seam welds 30mm
30mm
for the
for the welded
welded joint
joint minimum
minimum

Reinforcing bars
Reinforcing bars

From IEC/EN 62305-3

To connect a rebar mesh to the rest of an EM Zone, and since all buildings
the MESH-CBN, short lengths of rebar have walls and a roof one obvious
are cut, bent, and seam-welded at least application is at the boundary between
30mm, or clamped (as above) to the EM Zone 0 (the uncontrolled EM
rebar mesh, angled so that they stick out environment in the outside world) and
perpendicular to it. When the concrete EM Zone 1, as shown in Figure 17.
is poured, these bars will then protrude
out of the concrete walls, floors or 5.12.3 SE for magnetic electric fields,
ceilings for RF-bonding to the rest of the and the magnetic field component of
metal CBN structure. Of course, the plane waves
concrete shuttering will have to be fitted
around these bonding bars before the It is difficult to provide simple guidance
concrete is poured. for the magnetic field SE achieved by a
mesh of rebars, or of other kinds of
A properly-design and well-constructed
conductors, such as copper wires.
rebar structure makes a useful shield for
Table A.2 in Part 4 of [3] gives a formula
 138
for the SE of a rebar mesh that is below 50/D MHz, but the formulae in
equivalent to: SE = 20log(12/D), where Table A.2 of Part 4 of [3] have no
D is the size of the largest mesh frequency dependence. Figure 69, which
diagonals in metres – but it applies this is mostly copied from figure 10.26 of
formula for both 25kHz and 1MHz. [58], provides the reason for this in the
A mesh becomes very ineffective at form of some graphs for the magnetic-
frequencies above 50/D MHz, and field SE in a volume shielded by a
provides no SE at all above 150/D MHz. square mesh created by welding 16mm
One would expect that the SE of a mesh diameter concrete reinforcing bars
would improve as frequency decreases where they cross.

Figure 69 Magnetic field SE varying with frequency and size of rebar mesh

Magnetic SE in centre of a perfect spherical room 6m diameter

(no joints or seams in walls), shielded by a square mesh created
SE by welding 16mm diameter concrete reinforcing bars where they cross
dB
60 50mm square
50mm square
centre-to-centre
centre-to-centre BS EN
BS EN 62305-4
62305-4
Table A.2,
Table A.2, 100mm
100mm
100mm square
100mm square square mesh
square mesh
centre-to-centre
centre-to-centre

150mm square
150mm square
40 centre-to-centre
centre-to-centre BS EN
BS EN 62305-4
62305-4
Table A.2,
Table A.2, 250mm
250mm
250mm square
250mm square square mesh
square mesh
centre-to-centre
centre-to-centre

20

350mm square
350mm square
see next
see next two
two figures
figures
0
10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1G
From Figure 10.26 of [58] f in Hz

Clearly, the mesh SE does vary with other out, resulting in a plateau region
frequency, but there are at least two for the SE.
different mechanisms at work. From very The 25kHz and 1MHz frequencies used
high frequencies down to some in [3] lie within this plateau region, which
frequency, the SE performance probably explains why the formulae
improves as frequency decreases, but provided in its Table A.2 are not
as the frequency continues to decrease frequency dependent.
it reaches a value at which the SE starts
to reduce as frequency reduces. In the Figure 69 compares the results of two
region between these two slopes, the calculations from Table A.2 of BS EN
two mechanisms seem to cancel each 52305-4:2006 with the graphs from
139
Figure 10.26 of [58], and shows that they 16mm diameter rebars. Figure 70,
are up to 10dB higher, so maybe it is created by merging figures 5-27 and 5-
best to treat the mesh SE predictions of 28 of [60], shows how the SE achieved
[3] rather conservatively. Figure 5-31 in at 10kHz at the centre of a mesh-
[60] is similar to Figure 69, but only shielded EM Zone varies with the size of
covers 100Hz to 1MHz. the zone, assuming it is a rectangular
Figure 69 shows that reducing mesh volume. Only one mesh size is given:
size improves SE, but the SE figures are 350mm centre-to-centre (i.e. D =
not very large compared with what can 495mm), and only two zone heights are
be achieved using sheet metal walls, given, 5m and 10m but the ranges of
floors and ceilings (see 5.12.8). zone lengths and widths are quite large.
There are no simple calculations that [60] is a very suitable reference for this
can estimate the SE of a rebar mesh Guide, because EMP has significant
over a wide range of frequencies, but frequency content to 100MHz and so
Figures 69 to 71 make it possible to [60] includes practical techniques for
estimate it for a range of EM Zone sizes, constructing facilities to resist such
and a range of rebar diameters and threats from their external EM
mesh sizes. Environment, whereas lightning
standards are generally only concerned
Figure 69 shows how a number of rebar with EM threats up to 10MHz.
mesh sizes vary with frequency, for

Fgure 70 Magnetic field SE varying with EM zone volume, at 10kHz

Magnetic SE at 10kHz, in centre of room surrounded by 43mm diameter rebars

welded to make a mesh 350mm square (rebar centre-to-rebar centre)
dB
32 Room’s Width × Height:
From Figures 5-27 and 5-28 of [60]
60m ×× 10m
60m 10m
31
30 40m ×× 10m
40m 10m

29 30m ×× 10m
30m 10m

28 20m ×× 10m
20m 10m
27 40m ×× 5m
40m 5m
26 7.5m ×× 10m
7.5m 10m
25 20m ×× 5m
20m 5m
24 10m ×× 5m
5m
10m
23 7.5m ×× 5m
5m
7.5m
22
Rebar characteristics:
21
Conductivity 6.5.106 mho/m
Relative permeability 50
Room’s
length in
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 metres
 140
It was mentioned in 5.5 that – close to its to the lack of metal in the rebars. The
surface – a mesh is not effective as a wavelength is so much larger than the
shield, and that equipment and cables mesh diagonal that the EM fields just
should be located no closer than D to see the average of the metal, so thicker
the mesh, as shown in Figure 18. It was rebars will give better SE, as shown by
also mentioned that the best location for Figure 71.
sensitive equipment is in the centre of a Figure 71 is taken from Figure 5-29 of
structure, and Figure 70 makes this point [60], and is a partner for Figure 70
again, but this time with useful numerical allowing its 10kHz SE predictions for a
data. 350mm square mesh to be adjusted to
The reduction in SE as frequency allow for different mesh sizes and rebar
reduces, on the left of Figure 69, is due diameters.

Figure 71 Magnetic field SE varying with rebar diameter and mesh size, at
10kHz

Change in In centre of room surrounded by rebars

magnetic SE welded to make a square mesh
at 10kHz 10
19mm
19mm
caused by
changing the eter 22mm
22mm
iam s)
diameter and ar d e
weld spacing Reb illimetr
(m 25mm
25mm
of the rebars
5
29mm
29mm
dB
32mm
+ 32mm

36mm
36mm
The previous figure
0
is the reference 43mm
43mm

57mm
57mm
- Rebar characteristics:
Conductivity 6.5.106 mho/m
-5 Relative permeability 50

From Figure 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
5-29 of [60] Rebar spacing (centre-to-centre) = mesh width/height (millimetres)

The author has drawn an extra curve on obtained, giving an SE value for
Figure 69 corresponding to a 350mm 10kHz only.
square mesh of 16mm diameter rebars,
• The rebar diameter and square mesh
with a dot at 10kHz, so that Figures 69-
size is then compared with Figure 71
71 can be used together to estimate the
and the resulting correction factor
SE of rebar meshes, as follows:
applied to the SE value from Figure
• The EM Zone size is compared with 70. Still only at 10kHz.
Figure 70 and a reasonable match
141
• Then a correction factor derived from “#2” or “#4” mesh (etc.) this refers to the
Figure 69 is applied, from its 250mm number of metal wires per inch across
curve, for the frequency concerned. the mesh. So a #2 mesh would have a
square mesh with a centre-to-centre
[60] provides more detail on using this
spacing of 0.5 inches (12.5mm) and a D
process, including worked examples.
of 14mm.
Figures 69-71 work on the width of a
square mesh, but not all meshes are 5.12.5 SE of mesh for electric fields
square, and when using rectangular or and plane waves
odd-shaped meshes take their longest
diagonal D and divide it by 1.414 to get It is generally assumed that the electric
the equivalent square mesh centre-to- field SE of a single aperture in an infinite
centre spacing for use with Figures 69- metal sheet is given by 20log(150/Df ),
71. where f is given in MHz and D is the
When using a double-layer of rebars, largest diagonal of the aperture, or its
with each layer constructed identically as diameter, given in metres. For multiple
a mesh for shielding purpose, [60] says apertures it is generally assumed that
that the effect on SE is the same as the SE will reduce by 20log√N dB, where
halving the spacings in Figure 71. N is the number of apertures – but this
correction factor only applies where all
5.12.4 Augmenting a rebar mesh with the apertures are contained within an
wire mesh and similar area that is one-quarter of a wavelength
or less, which is obviously not the case
Certain types of wire meshes are for large structures at all frequencies.
suitable for use in rebar structures and The problem with trying to apply these
will withstand the pouring and setting of two simple formulae to mesh shielding a
the concrete. They can be draped over a large vehicle, vessel or building, is that
rebar mesh shield before pouring the SE values come out very low indeed,
concrete, to improve the magnetic field or even negative, nothing like as good
SE at frequencies above 10MHz. Around as the SE values for magnetic fields
10kHz they will only make a difference of discussed earlier.
a few dB, because they do not have a
sufficient mass. The author has not been able to find any
substantial guidance for the electric field
The material should have small mesh SE of a large mesh-shielded structure to
sizes (e.g. a D of 30mm or less) and it electric fields, since most of the literature
should be reliably clamped, soldered, is concerned with EMP and Lightning for
brazed or welded at all joints and seams which the largest threats are produced
in such a way that there are no gaps by magnetic fields.
larger than D all around the EM Zone to
be protected. However, table 9.9 on page 9.48 of [72]
and tables 5-14 and 5-15 in [60] give
Figure 9.27 of [72] gives some examples some examples of the electric field and
of the magnetic field SE achieved by plane-wave shielding achieved by
using a variety of perforated metals various kinds of perforated metal sheets
sheets and wire meshes. The author and wire meshes when used to shield a
understands that where it talks about a
 142
building. It appears that the mesh size mix, and this has achieved a degree of
has to be very small, when compared SE. Carbon coated polystyrene beads
with a mesh of rebars (see 5.13.3), to admixtures are investigated in [74] and
achieve any reasonable SE values. For [75], a method that seems to be aimed
example, over the range 100Hz to at increasing the lossiness of the
1GHz: concrete rather than making it
conductive.
• 0.03 inch (0.75mm) diameter
galvanised steel wire in a square Although the SE values obtained
mesh of side 0.5 inch (12.5mm) (without weakening the concrete by too
achieves a minimum electric field SE much) are modest, they may
of 24dB. nevertheless be useful, especially when
used in combination with a meshed
• 0.03 inch (0.75mm) diameter rebar structure.
galvanised steel wire in a square
mesh of side 0.25 inch (6.3mm)
5.12.7 ‘Nesting’ EM Zones to improve
achieves a minimum electric field SE
SE
of 28dB.
• 0.02 inch (0.51mm) diameter copper Nesting EM Zones (see Figure 17) can
wire in a square mesh of side 0.083 multiply the low SE figures achieved by
inch (2.1mm) achieves a minimum mesh-shielding. For example a building
electric field SE of 50dB. 40m cube might use a mesh in its walls,
floor and roof that achieves an EM Zone
It seems that if sheet metal or other 1 with a minimum of 20dB SE over the
continuous shielding is not to be applied frequency range of interest. If an EM
(see 5.12.98 and 5.12.9), and it is Zone 2, say 30m cube, is located
desired to rely on a rebar mesh for completely within the building and uses
shielding, the method described in using a similar mesh shield construction,
5.12.4 should be used. without sharing any shielding with the
boundary of EM Zone 1, then the overall
5.12.6 Shielding due to concrete itself SE of EM Zone 2 with regard to EM
The attenuation of ordinary concrete, Zone 0 (the outside world) would be a
ignoring the contribution from any minimum of 40dB.
reinforcing bars, depends upon its A further EM Zone 3, say 20m cube,
moisture content. [73] found that with a could then be nested within EM Zone 2,
moisture content of 0.12%, 300mm thick using similar construction to achieve a
concrete gave an SE of between 1 and minimum of 60dB; and yet another EM
3dB depending on frequency, but with Zone 4, say 10m cube, could be nested
12% it gave between 10 and 20dB over within EM Zone 3 again using similar
a wide frequency range up to at least construction to achieve a minimum of
2GHz. Table 5-20 of [60] also gives 80dB. The 80dB of SE achieved in this
some figures for shielding due to way would be very robust, and even if
moisture content of building materials. the building lost an external wall the SE
Conductive concrete has been made by would only degrade to 60dB. If achieved
adding, for example, crushed coke to the for example by welding rebars it could
be cost-effective when compared with
143
the usual methods of achieving 80dB semiconductor fabrication plants
(see 5.12.8). because they are very critical for
financial reasons – a single piece of
5.12.8 Shielding with sheet metal equipment suffering EMI can cost
millions of dollars in lost production per
EM Zones with meshed shields can day.
achieve SEs of up to about 40dB at
Chapter 5 of [60] describes how to shield
frequencies between 30kHz and 30MHz,
entire buildings using heavy-gauge
but mostly achieve lower values (see
sheet steel with welded seams, to
5.12.2–5.12.5). Where they can be
achieve SEs of 100dB over frequency
achieved by using ‘natural’ metalwork,
ranges to protect against EMP (see
such as rebars, then they can provide
5.13.4). Its chapter 12 describes how to
useful shielding at low cost. Nested
make buildings and rooms with SEs of
mesh-shielded EM Zones (see Figure
over 50dB for TEMPEST (data security)
17) can usefully multiply these SE
reasons, using such materials as copper
figures, as discussed in 5.12.7.
foil backed with building paper. This
SEs of 60dB or more can be achieved, Guide recommends leaving such work to
for both electric and magnetic fields, specialist companies who are well along
using solid (sheet) metal boundaries for their learning curves, but if you want to
EM Zones. The sheet metal itself can have a go at doing it yourself, these
easily give SEs of over 100dB for chapters are a good place to start.
frequencies over 1MHz, but in practice
It is most convenient if the systems or
what limits the SE for an EM Zone shield
installations that require highly-shielded
are its apertures (seams, joints, etc.) and
EM Zones are restricted to small
conductor penetrations (cables and
volumes that can be shielded by metal
metallic services such as air, water,
enclosures, often called ‘shielded
etc.).
rooms’, purchased from specialist
The sheet metal walls, floor and ceiling suppliers of such rooms. Figure 72
of an EM Zone are integral part of its shows an example of one such room,
MESH-CBN, just exactly as if the mesh and annotates its major features, all of
shields discussed in 5.12.2 had shrunk which should be familiar from the
their mesh size more and more until preceding sections of this Guide, and
there were no gaps any more. from [36]. Rooms like this are available
Similarly, sheet metal makes the best with very good EM specifications indeed.
possible RF References, and is a .
technique generally used in
 144
Figure 72 Example of a commercially-available shielded room

EM Zone
EM Zone 11 (for
(for example)
example)
outside the
outside the shielded
shielded room
room

Bulkhead-mounted
Bulkhead-mounted
mains supply
mains supply ‘room
‘room filters’
filters’
Conductive gaskets
Conductive gaskets
all around
all around the
the door
door

Vent panel
Vent panel (‘honeycomb
(‘honeycomb
EM Zone
EM Zone 22 (for
(for example)
example) metal’) with
metal’) with conductive
conductive
inside the
inside the shielded
shielded room
room gasket RF-bond
gasket RF-bond all
all
around its
around its perimeter
perimeter

Through-bulkhead shielded
Through-bulkhead shielded
and/or filtered
and/or filtered connectors
connectors on on
bonding plate
bonding plate with
with conductive
conductive
gasket all around its perimeter
gasket all around its perimeter
Lever-assisted door
Lever-assisted door
latching mechanism
latching mechanism
with multiple
with multiple latches
latches
(Courtesy of
(Courtesy of Lindgren-
Lindgren-Rayproof)
Lindgren-Rayproof)
Rayproof)

Figure 72 is an example of a bolted- (with a bit of decoration) the personnel

together shielded room, made from might not even realise they were working
chipboard panels with galvanised sheet in shielded rooms. (Of course, they
steel glued on each side to provide two would have to keep their doors closed,
layers of shielding. Figure 73 shows and they would probably notice that they
some details of the construction at the were very heavy if they were not power-
bolted joints, which use long strips of operated.)
folded steel to overlap at the joints. To Compared with seam-welded shielded
improve the EM performance, copper or rooms, bolted rooms like Figure 72 and
tinned steel tape with a pressure- Figure 73 are easier to assemble and so
sensitive conductive adhesive backing cost less. However, [60] is very scathing
can be placed over all the seams. Even about the performance, reliability and
better performance is achieved by seam- ageing of their bolted seams, and claims
soldering the tape to the metal walls all that maintaining their shielding
around. performance over many years means
Commercial suppliers of shielded rooms refurbishing all of their bolted joints
can provide them up to almost any size, periodically, so their overall cost of
and Figure 74 shows an example of ownership is higher than that of a room
quite a large shielded room inside a that is seam-welded throughout.
facility. With suitable metal support However, bolted shielded rooms are
structures, shielded rooms can be (relatively) easy to disassemble to move
stacked side-by-side and on top of each to a different site, which might be an
other to create very large facilities where important feature
145

Figure 73 Some details of construction of a bolted-together shielded room

Structure
Support
Column

(Courtesy of
(Courtesy of Lindgren-
Lindgren-Rayproof)
Lindgren-Rayproof)
Rayproof)

Figure 74 Example of a large shielded room in a facility

(Courtesy of
(Courtesy of Qinetic,
Qinetic,, Chertsey,
Qinetic Chertsey,, UK)
Chertsey UK)
 146
5.12 9 Using shipping containers support framework. Figure 75 shows
some stacked up in an industrial plant
Standard shipping containers can be where they are being used as shielded
used as shielded rooms, with a bit of Do- EM Zones. If the main building in Figure
It-Yourself, and they are very low-cost if 75 is EM Zone 1, the shipping containers
purchased second-hand. They are in the photograph would each be EM
entirely seam-welded from thick steel, Zone 2A, 2B, 2C, etc.
and so strong that they do not need a

Figure 75 Examples of stacked shipping containers used as shielded EM

Zones

Beware: some shipping containers are a standard all-welded shipping container

only spot-welded and the seams filled as an excellent shielded room with a
with mastic to simulate seam-welds! very high SE requires its door to be
Test the welds with a sharp metal object modified, however, unlike the doors
to check they are real. discussed in 5.12.13, the doors on
Figure 76 shows some sensitive shipping containers are very rigid
measuring equipment installed inside indeed, and can compress conductive
one of those shipping containers. To use gaskets very nicely.
147
Figure 76 Inside one of the shipping containers from Figure 75

It is not too difficult to remove the paint there should be no light visible or air flow
from the mating surfaces of the door and possible anywhere around to door
its frame, paint the exposed steel gasket when the door is closed.
surfaces (before they rust) with brushed- It may be necessary to modify the
on tin plating, or zinc-rich or silver-rich latching mechanisms for the door, to be
conductive paint, or else apply a tin- able to open and close it against the
plated tape that has a conductive force or friction of the gaskets.
adhesive. Conductive adhesive is very
sensitive to dirt, damp and grease, even Cables for power and signals must be
fingerprints, so when using it always RF-bonded to a bonding plate as they
take great care to clean the surface with pass through the wall, as shown in
degreaser. Figures 61 and 72, and also as shown
by Figures 79 and 80 (but with a solid
Next, affix a soft self-adhesive metal wall instead of rebars in Figure
conductive gasket strip to the conductive 79).
paint strip on the frame all around the
door so that the conductive paint surface Since the containers are made of thick
on the door presses firmly against it, steel, and very well seam-welded at all
making a good seal when the door is seams and joints, once the door
closed. The gasket should generally be gasketting has been done well (and the
compressed by between 20% and 70% door closed) the result is a very high-
(check its manufacturer’s datasheet) and specification shielded EM Zone.
 148
5.12.10 Shielding with wire mesh, at least on the same pitch as the mesh
perforated metals or metallised fabric or hole pitch. Figure 77 shows a
shielded room made from Expamet™
Wire mesh (even ‘chicken wire’) and expanded metal, which gave good
perforated metal can be used outside of performance in the 50-60dB range. The
concrete structures, and they can easily only difficulty encountered with its
be stapled or nailed to a timber frame, construction was making a shielded door
maybe using a layer inside as well as that would reliably seal to its conductive
one outside. Such wire-mesh rooms can gaskets all around, a common problem
be seen in the Hollywood movies “The that is discussed in 5.12.13. In the end a
Conversation” and “Enemy of the State”. shielded room door and frame had to be
The wire mesh or perforated metal purchased as a set from a specialist
should be overlapped by at least 30mm company, and fitted to the otherwise
at all seams, and the seams RF-bonded low-cost room.

Figure 77 Example of a shielded room made from expanded metal

There are several manufacturers of but they can be very useful where an EM
metallised fabric, which can be stitched Zone needs to be created temporarily,
to make a shielded tent, or to line the for whatever reason.
walls as part of an architectural shielding Like all shielded EM zones their weak
scheme. These fabrics are really only points are their doors, and conductor
good for frequencies above 1MHz, and penetrations, and Figure 78 shows an
their maximum SE is often around 60dB,
149
example of a portable shielded tent with more permanent erection can be very
a door that uses a hook-and-loop type of large, and often use regular shielded-
clothing fastener made from very fine room doors and frames purchased from
stainless-steel wire. Tents made for specialist suppliers.

Figure 78 Example of a portable shielding tent

(Courtesy of
(Courtesy of Hitek
Hitek Electronic
Electronic At the
At the EMC-
EMC-UK
EMC 2006 conference
-UK 2006 conference and
and
Materials Ltd,
Materials Ltd, www.hitek
www.hitek-ltd.co.uk)
www. hitek--ltd.co.uk
ltd.co.uk)) exhibition, www.compliance-
exhibition, www.compliance-club.com
www.compliance -club.com

The metallised fabric must be RF- for frequencies above 100kHz. Joints in
bonded all around the perimeter of its the fabric can generally be RF-bonded
metal floor, and all around the perimeter by folding the two edges over each other
of the bonding plates required for direct to make a seam and stapling it to a
and indirect bonding of conductors that wooden frame underneath every 30mm
need to penetrate the fabric. Shielded or so.
doorframes also must RF-bond to the
fabric all around their perimeter. No 5.12.11 RF-bonding conductors to the
seams or gaps are permitted if shield
reasonable shielding performance is to
be achieved. Where the EM attenuation required at
the EM Zone 0/1 boundary is only
Two layers of metallised fabric, one
moderate (say, up to 20dB) and only
stretched over the outside of a timber
required to control frequencies up to,
frame and the other stretched over the
say, 10MHz or so, it might be acceptable
inside, held in place with staples, can
to RF-bond all the conductors
make a very effective shielded EM Zone
entering/exiting the building directly or
 150
indirectly to the BRC as described in 5.7, Figures 37 and 38. In this case, the
providing the BRC is RF-bonded in turn conductors should pass through the
to the rebar mesh in the walls at plate, so that their external length is
intervals of no more than 5 metres along shielded from their internal length by the
its entire length. plate, and by the rebar mesh.
Where a small mesh-size is used for the Figure 61 showed some examples of
rebar structure, and its full EMC how this can be done for indirect RF-
performance is required, for example to bonding using filters, whilst Figure 79,
provide good attenuation to at least taken from Appendix C of the old
100MHz, all the conductors lightning protection standard BS 6651,
entering/exiting the building must be RF- shows how a bonding plate can be
bonded (directly or indirectly) to the seam-welded to the rebars in concrete
rebar mesh itself, which will require a structures, to provide a suitable surface
bonding plate similar to those shown in for direct and indirect RF-bonding.

Figure 79 Example of using a bonding plate in a rebar-meshed EM Zone

boundary

Re-bars clamped
Re-bars clamped oror welded
welded atat joints
joints throughout
throughout the
the structure’s
structure’s
volume, to
volume, to achieve
achieve the
the required
required meshmesh size
size throughout
throughout

Bonding plate
Bonding plate 360oo through-bulkhead
through-bulkhead Reinforcing bars
Reinforcing bars in
in
360 the concrete
concrete walls
walls
reliably welded
reliably welded to
to gland or
gland or connector
connector the
aa number
number ofof re-bars
re-bars Bolted or
Bolted or seam-
seam-
welded sheet
welded sheet metal
metal
walls are
walls are much
much better
better
Metal pipe
Metal pipe
(e.g. gas,
(e.g. gas, water,
water, etc.)
etc.)

360° welding
360° welding

Metal
Metal
Shielded
Shielded 360° cable
360° cable tube
Multicore tube
cable
cable Multicore armour
armour
armoured
armoured bonding
bonding
cable
cable
From BS6651 Appendix C

[60] recommends the use of what it calls above paragraphs for crossing an EM
a ‘Cable Entry Vault’ technique, and its Zone boundary, especially the EM Zone
figure 3-5 is replicated in Figure 80. This 0/1 boundary around the external walls
is a cross-sectional view of the type of of the structure.
construction that is recommended in the
151
Figure 80 Example of a ‘Cable Entry Vault’

From Figure 3-5 of [60]

[32] describes how rebars can be used 5.12.12 Non-conductors penetrating a

to create a very effective foundation shield
earth electrode that is also a ring earth
electrode, very suitable for a lightning Where high-specification shielding is
protection system that is intended to required, conductive liquids such as
protect electronics. water (unless it is distilled), even if using
plastic piping, are best passed through a
Good EM performance can be achieved metal pipe section one or two metres
by having the cables and other long, that is 360° RF-bonded to the
conductors entering/exiting the walls of a shield wall as it passes through.
building (the EM Zone 0/1 boundary) via
an underground ‘cable entry vault’ like Non-conductors include such things as
that shown in Figure 80, using armoured metal-free fibre-optic cables, plastic
cables and/or cables enclosed in a pipes for pneumatic and hydraulic
covered metal cable duct – and using systems and compressed air, and non-
the rebars shown in Figure 79 (the metallic actuators such as pull-cords or
‘Building Steel’ in Figure 80) as a ‘ring push-rods. If using a mesh shield with
earth electrode’ (see 5.13.1) and also as large enough gaps, non-conductors can
the mesh shield for the EM Zone 0/1 simply be poked through the gaps where
boundary. appropriate. But where the non-
conductor is too large for this, the
solution is to use a waveguide-below-
cutoff technique.
 152
The waveguide-below-cutoff technique One way to deal with windows is not to
consists essentially of a rectangular or have any, relying instead on a good
circular metal tube that has a length that quality lighting system – and this is
is at least four times longer than D, its exactly what is done in some critical
longest diagonal or diameter. It facilities. Removing windows also
maintains good SE for all frequencies improves heat losses, removes points of
below 100/D (D in Metres gives highest weakness, and saves on window-
frequency in MHz, D in mm gives GHz). cleaning costs.
For example a 150mm diameter pipe Another approach is to make the
600mm long maintains very good windows non-openable, relying instead
shielding, when 360° bonded through a on a good quality heating ventilating and
shield wall, at up to 670MHz. At air-conditioning (HVAC) system. The
frequencies above 150/D a waveguide- concrete around the rebars in the
below-cutoff provides no SE at all. window areas would then not be poured,
No conductors (including conductive and the weather kept out with glass. The
liquids) must ever pass through a rebar (or other metal) mesh would still
waveguide-below-cutoff. be in place behind the glass.
Any non-conductors other than air in a Most people do not find this look
waveguide-below-cutoff, will decrease attractive so architects generally design
the frequency at which it provides good windows that are prettier, thereby
SE, so it might need to have a smaller creating big problems for shielding at
value of D than predicted by the 100/D frequencies below 10kHz. Glass with
formula. Figures 5-80 to 5-86 in [60] embedded wire mesh has been
provides some useful practical data on available for many years, and can be
using this technique in shielded used for RF shielding if the wire mesh is
buildings, which is also discussed in exposed around the edges for RF-
detail in [65]. bonding to its metal frames, in turn
welded to the rebars. Of course, the
5.12.13 Doors, windows and density of metal in a mesh-glass window
ventilation is much less than in the rebar mesh, so
the attenuation at 10kHz and below will
The mesh dimensions shown in Figures be less.
69 to 71 are too small for use as opening
For even prettier windows than wire-
doors or windows, and doors and
mesh glass, some companies can
windows are also a significant problem
supply RFI-shielded “architectural glass”
for any shielded volume. [65] describes
that includes thin metallised layer(s),
the issues of doors, windows and
exposed around their edges for bonding
ventilation grilles for shielding, and [36]
to their metal frames, for example [76] .
discusses how to install them in
However, the light transmittance of high-
industrial cabinets. The same principles
specification shielding glass might be
apply for shielded volumes of any size,
very low.
but their larger dimensions when used in
vehicles, rooms, vessels and buildings The key to using shielding architectural
makes them more likely to cause glass is that its internal conductive
problems for SE. shielding layer(s) must be brought out all
153
around the edge of the glass sheet, and squashed flat between two fingers) is so
be available for RF-bonding using large that special levers and multiple
suitable constructional techniques. latches are required. Larger doors (e.g.
Generally, the glass would be seated loading bays) often require machinery to
inside a metal window frame that was close them properly against the
welded to the rebars or other mesh at resistance of the gaskets.
numerous points around its perimeter. A shielded door must be RF-bonded all
The conductive edge to the glass would around, and this means along its bottom
then be RF-bonded to the metal frame edge too. Whatever type of gasket is
using conductive EMC gaskets, or a used there has to withstand foot or
conductive sealant (usually based on vehicle traffic for years, plus the dirt that
silicone), see 5.7.4. Conductive EMC accumulated on the floor and the floor
gaskets are discussed in more detail in cleaning that removes it. The design of
[36] and [65]. shielded doors that actually work in real
This Guide strongly recommends that life, and remain effective for years, is a
the supply of window glass and frames, job for specialists.
and the RF-bonding of the glass to the So this Guide very strongly recommends
frame, be left entirely up to a specialist that the supply of shielded doors and
shielded glass supplier. The supplier their metal frames, and their assembly
should guarantee the overall SE on site, be left entirely up to a specialist
performance of the glass/frame shielded door supplier. The supplier
combination to the customer’s should guarantee the overall SE
specification, and prove it by EMC performance of the door/frame
testing after installation. combination to the customer’s
Don’t even think about openable specification, and prove it by EMC
shielded windows. testing after installation.
Doors must be openable, and also quite An important point that is easy to
large, and this creates big problems for overlook, is that a shielded door is only
shielding. It would seem trivial to shield shielding when it is shut. EMC test
an ordinary door, e.g. by adding a layer laboratories use shielded rooms to do
of aluminium foil or cladding it with thin tests, but inbetween tests they can open
sheet copper or steel – but it never the shielded doors and everything is
works because the doors are never stiff fine. But where at least modest levels of
enough to compress the conductive SE are required during periods in which
EMC gaskets properly around their people or vehicles need to move in and
entire perimeter (see [36]). And even if out of an EM Zone, two doors will be
the doors are made stiff enough, the needed, in an ‘airlock’ type of
tolerances of their mating with their arrangement so that only one can be
frame are generally too large for good open at any time.
contact all around. Each door must achieve the full SE
Even if the door is made stiff enough, specification of the EM Zone on its own,
the force required to compress the total and they must be connected by an
length of gasket around the door (even extension of the EM Zone’s shielding
very soft types that can easily be into a sort of vestibule area.
 154
A metal tunnel that penetrates the wall of possible to apply to the Regulatory
a shielded EM Zone and is large enough Authority (OFCOM in the UK) for a site
for people or vehicles to pass through, transmitting licence for a wide range of
and 360° RF-bonded to the shield wall at frequencies for a limited period.
the point of penetration, will create a Where an EM Zone is a high-
large waveguide-below-cutoff. Its cutoff specification shielded volume, operating
frequency will be low, because of its an unlicensed radio transmitter inside it
large diameter, but if that is sufficient for is permissible, because it should not be
providing the SE and hence the EMC able to interfere with anything outside.
protection required for the EM Zone, Whichever side of the EM Zone
then no shielded doors would be needed boundary the transmitter is, an antenna
at all. is placed on the other side, as close as
For example, a 3m diameter circular possible to the transmitting antenna
metal tunnel at least 12m long would when measured in a straight line.
maintain an SE of about 80dB at The receiving antenna is connected to a
frequencies below about 30MHz. radio receiver or spectrum analyser that
Crowding it with people could reduce its is tuned to the same frequency as the
cutoff frequency to 15MHz or less, so it transmitter. A narrow frequency span will
might be necessary to limit the rate of help distinguish the transmitter’s signal
traffic through it. from the background noise, but too
Developing this idea further, [60] narrow a frequency span could cause
describes using a buried metal tunnel for the signal to be lost due to frequency
personnel access to a shielded military drift between the transmitter and the
facility – the depth of the soil providing receiver or spectrum analyser’s
good SE at frequencies above 40MHz, frequency reference.
while the 2.5m diameter metal tunnel There are established standards that
(360° RF-bonded to the shielded wall) describe methodologies for performing
acts as a waveguide-below-cutoff and such tests to give SE figures, and these
provided a good SE below 40MHz. should be used when testing a shield to
Thinking this through, they could not see if it meets specification.
have extended the metal tunnel right to
the surface, because that would have Generally, the SE of an EM Zone’s
allowed the >40MHz EM threats to enter shield is compromised by gaps and
the waveguide. Unfortunately [60] just joints, often in unexpected locations due
says that they did it, and does not to poor quality control during
describe how it was designed to achieve construction. These can quickly be found
good SE above 40MHz. by placing the transmitting antenna very
close to the suspected joint or seam, for
example close to a shielded door’s
5.12.14 Testing shielding gasket, and placing the receiving
It is illegal to use unlicensed radio antenna at the same point on the other
transmitters outside of an EM shielded side. Moving them along the seam in
volume, in which case shielding tests synchronism (easier to say than do)
can use licensed transmitters and test at quickly reveals places where there is
just a few frequencies. Alternatively, it is excessive leakage, without any need for
155
calibration or accurate measurements. Figure 81 – being portable they are very
Such test can use a walkie-talkie, ideally useful for checking shielded rooms and
one that transmits at a frequency above other potential EMC problems on a
200MHz. regular basis.
Suitable spectrum analysers costing
from £800 to £12,000 are shown in

Figure 81 Some examples of portable spectrum analysers

Rohde &
Rohde & Schwarz
Schwarz FSH
FSH series
series
www.rohde-schwarz.com
www.rohde-schwarz.com

Agilent E7400A
Agilent E7400A Series
Series
www.agilent.com
www.agilent.com

Thurlby-Thandar PSA1301T
Thurlby-Thandar PSA1301T
www.tti-test.com
www.tti-test.com

5.12.15 Shielding very low [60]), assuming perfect shielding

frequencies construction (seam-welded joints, etc.)
as described in 5.12.8.
It is difficult to shield frequencies below
100Hz. The majority of sources of EM Special high-permeability metals (e.g.
phenomena at such frequencies are in MuMetal®) are often used to avoid the
the ‘near field’ and so generate low- need for very large thicknesses of low-
impedance magnetic fields that ordinary carbon steel, but these are costly and
materials do not attenuate very require special handling. Also, they are
effectively. easily saturated and so may need to be
used in conjunction with steel as a two-
Good shielding can be achieved from ply or three-ply metal layered
100Hz to 10kHz by using low-carbon construction, for which there are
steel materials, but for example at 50Hz proprietary types of sheet materials
a thickness of 6.3mm only achieves an available from specialist suppliers.
SE of about 25dB (see figure 5-14 in
 156
Another technique is so-called active with an area enclosed between their
shielding, in which the equipment to be send and return conductors, and these
protected is enclosed by metal struts areas pick up magnetic fields in their
driven individually by currents from audio environment and create interfering
power amplifiers, in such a way that the voltages. For a single current loop, in air:
magnetic field inside the arrangement of
struts is cancelled out to a large degree.
Vn = 2·π·f ·µO·H·A
Active shielding can attenuate static (DC where:
fields), such as the Earth’s magnetic Vn is the noise voltage created in the
field, which ‘passive’ shielding with metal signal
can never do.
Electrical power distribution is a common f is the frequency of the magnetic
source of fields at 50Hz (or 60Hz in field (in Hertz)
some countries) and its harmonics, and µO is the permeability of free space
has often been found to interfere with -7
(4π.10 )
VDUs that use cathode ray tube (CRT)
technologies – especially the high- H is the magnetic field strength (in
resolution types used (for example) in air A/m)
traffic control. A is the area of the loop enclosed by
Electron microscopes are very sensitive the circuit’s current (in square
to magnetic fields in their environments, metres)
and the general rule is that they should For example, for a 1 square metre loop
be installed in areas having magnetic created by patient connections during
fields of no more than 0.1A/m. The more evoked nerve stimulus measurements in
precision you need from an electron a hospital or medical research, a 50Hz
microscope, the lower the external fields field at 0.1A/m would induce a 50Hz
need to be, and for example Imperial noise signal of 12µV, which could easily
College, London, purchased a very high- compromise the measurement.
specification electron microscope for
Very long conductors (hundreds of
which the magnetically shielded room
metres) can suffer much larger voltages
alone cost £500,000.
when exposed to low frequency
It is unusual to apply shielding at sub- magnetic fields, sometimes several
1kHz to an entire system – it is more hundred volts (e.g. lightning, EMP, etc.)
usual to apply it to individual items of – enough to damage electronics devices
equipment that are especially in some cases. However, such problems
susceptible to such fields. Since this are dealt with by employing the good
Guide is not intended for EMC experts, it EMC engineering practices for cables
recommends that where such shielding described in this Guide, to whatever
is required, companies that specialise in degree of detail is necessary given the
providing low-frequency shielding importance/criticality of the application.
solutions are employed.
Another problem of very low frequency
magnetic fields is induced voltages in
conductors. All currents travel in loops,
157
5.13 Surge and lightning people from electrocution and fire, and
protection protecting building fabrics from fire,
explosion and structural damage so it is
5.13.1 Applying BS EN 62305 outside the scope of this Guide, for more
information, see [77].
The essential details of a Lightning Notice that the air termination and down-
Protection System (LPS) for a building conductor structure forms a mesh
are shown in Figure 82. A general around the structure. Single lightning
description of air terminations, down- conductors, such as are often seen on
conductors and earth electrodes will be old church spires, generally do not work
found in Chapter 9 of [32], but the well enough to provide adequate
primary purpose of an LPS is protecting protection.

Figure 82 Overview of an LPS

Air termination
Air termination
network
network
Down-
Down-
conductors
conductors

Rodded earth
Rodded earth Ring earth
Ring earth electrode
electrode
electrodes
electrodes required when
required when
protecting electronic
protecting electronic
equipment
equipment
(buried, links
(buried, links all
all earth
earth
rods)
rods)
Could use
Could use ‘foundation
‘foundation
earth electrode’
earth electrode’ instead
instead

It is worth mentioning here that most be required, for example, by [3]. This
lightning experts do not believe that so- Guide is happy to go with the majority
called early streamer technologies work opinion and not recommend the use of
as claimed. Proponents of early early streamer technology.
streamer electrodes (ESEs) claim that As mentioned in 1.3 – from the end of
they prevent lightning strikes from August 2008 BS EN 62305:2006 [3]
‘attaching’ to a structure, and so the LPS becomes the lightning protection
does not need to be as robust as would standard in the UK, this describes in
 158
great detail exactly how to analyse, inside the building should be protected
design and build an external LPS. from lightning.
However, a great deal of additional Figures 83 and 84 show the basic
knowledge, and calculation and/or features of bonding the LPS ring earth
computer simulation is required to electrode to the BRC.
design an LPS that achieves the
required safety and protection of the Figure 84 shows the main bonding bar
building fabric, and there are very many where the conductors entering/exiting
practical issues that must also be taken the structure are RF-bonded to the BRC
into account if it is to be constructed and around EM Zone 1, either directly or
operate reliably for decades. indirectly through filters, SPDs, etc. As
mentioned in 4.7, this should ideally be a
All this is best left to LPS specialists. single small area, and Figure 80 called it
Some architects like to use the steel a ‘Cable Entry Vault’. This bonding bar
girder framing and/or rebars in the walls or bonding plate must be connected
as the LPS downconductors, in which directly to the ring earth electrode, which
case it might be possible to use a should also be connected to at least one
meshed rebar system as discussed in earth electrode (driven or radial) at that
5.12.2 as an LPS too. However, in such point to ensure low impedance earth
cases it will be even more important to bond even for transients and radio
keep all equipment and their cables well frequencies.
away from the meshed structure at the Part 4 of [3] requires additional lightning
boundary between EM Zones 0/1, as protection within a building, to protect
shown in Figure 18, to prevent high electronic equipment from LEMP (pulsed
levels of stray coupling into the cables magnetic fields produced by lightning
when the down-conductors carry strikes and the currents they create in
lightning currents. the LPS) and also from surges of voltage
Notice that Figure 82 shows a ring earth in all conductors, including the MESH-
electrode, which could be constructed CBN and other metal structures.
from rebars in concrete foundations that These additional protection measures
are exposed to water and salts in the employ the same principles as have
soil. A ring earth electrode is a sort of already been described in Sections 4
‘external BRC’ for the earth electrodes, and 5 above:
running around the EM Zone 0/1
boundary (which [3] calls the LPZ Zone • EM Zoning (which EN62305 calls
0/1 boundary) and connecting to each LPZs)
earth electrode (e.g. a driven or radial • RF References
rods) in turn. A ring earth electrode is a
requirement of BS EN 62305-4 • EM mitigation
whenever the risk analysis of BS EN • Cable segregation/routing
62305-2 shows that electronic
equipment, systems or installations
• Etc.
159
Figure 83 Bonding an LPS to the BRC of EM Zone 1

BRC
BRC
LPS down-
LPS down-
conductor
EM Zone
EM Zone 11 At least
least 50
50 sq.
sq. mm
mm copper
copper
conductor At

Main earthing
Main earthing
EM Zone
EM Zone 00 terminal
terminal
(a bonding
(a bonding barbar
or plate
or plate in
in series
series
with the
with the BRC)
BRC)

Connection to
Connection to
ring earth
ring earth
electrode
electrode

BRC all
BRC all around
around
EM Zone
EM Zone 11

Other elements
Other elements of
of
the CBN
the CBN

Water, gas,
Water, gas,
Incoming
Incoming etc.
etc.
electrical
electrical
power
power

Figure 84 Meshing the ring earth electrode with the MESH-CBN of EM

Zone 1

Could add
add ‘equipotential
‘equipotential At least
At least one
one earth
earth electrode
electrode
Could
bonding plate’
plate’ to
to ring
ring earth
earth near the
near the main
main earthing
earthing terminal
terminal
bonding Power,
Power,
electrode for
electrode for extra
extra bonding
bonding conducting
conducting
services, etc.
services, etc.
Instrumentation,
Instrumentation,
Ring electrode
Ring electrode telecomm’s, etc.
telecomm’s, etc.
bonded to
bonded to BRC
BRC
every 5m
every 5m or
or less
less
around
around thethe
perimeter of the site
perimeter of the site

BRC
BRC

Ring earth
Ring earth EM Zone
EM Zone 11
electrode
electrode
All conductors
All conductors bonded
bonded at at main
main
earthing terminal
earthing terminal (either
(either direct,
direct, or
or
EM Zone
EM Zone 00 indirect via
indirect via filters,
filters, SPDs,
SPDs, etc.)
etc.)
using aa bonding
using bonding plate
plate ifif necessary
necessary
 160
The only real difference from what has strike to the LPS. Another result of this
been discussed so far in this Guide is technique is a reduction in the LEMP
that indirect bonding at EM Zone inside the protected structure, due to the
boundaries is done using SPDs, for lightning strike to the building, hence an
example where Figures 37-39, 61 and increased volume available for sensitive
80 show filters. But since SPDs only electronics and their cables.
protect against overvoltages, to provide So the recommendations for numbers of
more comprehensive protection against down-conductors in the lightning
EM threats at an EM Zone boundary it protection standards should be taken as
will generally be necessary to follow an a minimum, and many more added
SPD with a filter, and/or apply an SPD where practical, to help protect
to the conductors in a shielded cable, all electronics. Doubling the number would
RF-bonded to the BRC using a bonding not be inappropriate.
plate.
Also, according to [83], the pulsed
Note that the galvanic isolation EM magnetic fields within a building during a
mitigation techniques does not need to lightning strike to an air termination on
use SPDs – providing it is rated for the the roof can be “remarkably reduced” by
maximum overvoltage that could occur adding a closely-spaced mesh (e.g. 2m
on its input or output, as discussed in square) onto all the roof surfaces,
4.3.3. bonded to all the downconductors.
As mentioned earlier, the centre of an Such a roof mesh would have a more
EM Zone structure is generally the best limited effect on a side-strike, which can
place for locating sensitive or critical happen with buildings of around 15m tall
equipment and their cables to protect or higher, and the best that can be done
from surges and LEMP. No equipment to limit their internal magnetic fields is to
or cables at all should be placed near an add a perimeter lightning conductor, that
LPS air termination or down-conductor, horizontally link to all the
unless they are appropriately protected downconductors, one for about every
against arc flashover and huge pulses of 15m of a building’s height.
magnetic fields. Indeed, it is not
recommended for people to stand near SPDs for lightning protection are split
down-conductors, especially if they have into three categories, and used as
been fitted with implanted electronics shown in Figure 85:
such as pacemakers or defibrillators. • Heavy duty: generally slow to
We are talking here, about keeping operate but capable of handling very
several meters away from high currents, used on conductors
downconductors. crossing the boundary between EM
Zones 0 and 1 (where the lightning
The greater the number of down-
threat is the greatest)
conductors, the more regularly they are
spread around the perimeter of a • Medium duty: fairly fast operation,
building, and the more they share the not very powerful. Used at the
current due to a lightning strike to the air boundary between EM Zone 1 and 2.
termination network – the lower is the
current in each one during a lightning
161
• Light duty: very fast operation for the passing tests for compliance with the
protection of electronic devices, low EMC Directive.
power. Used at the boundary Part 4 of [3] provides the specifications
between EM Zone 2 and 3, or at the for each types of SPD, requiring them to
metal enclosure of an item of pass tests in other IEC standards. These
electronic equipment if there is no tests subject the SPDs to representative
EM Zone 3. Many items of surges, and they repeat the tests a
equipment are supplied already fitted specified number of times to ensure that
with appropriate light duty SPDs, for they will be robust enough for reliable
operation in real life.

Figure 85 Zoning and SPDs

Zone 1’s
Zone 1’s BRC
BRC Zone 2’s
Zone 2’s BRC
BRC Zone 3’s
Zone 3’s BRC
BRC

Incoming
Incoming 230/400V from
from
AC supply
supply 230/400V Light-duty SPDs
SPDs
AC main distribution
distribution 230/400V in
230/400V in Light-duty
main at boundary
boundary ofof
EM Zone
EM Zone 22 at
EM Zone
EM Zone 33

EM Zone
EM Zone 00 EM
EM
Zone
Zone
33
Incoming
Incoming
telephones, etc.
telephones, etc.
EM Zone
EM Zone 11 EM Zone
EM Zone 22

Directly bond
Directly bond cable
cable Medium-duty SPDs
SPDs at
at
Heavy-duty SPDs
Heavy-duty SPDs at
at Medium-duty
shields, armour,
shields, armour, ducts,
ducts, boundary of
of EM
EM Zone
Zone 22
boundary of
boundary of EM
EM Zone
Zone 11 boundary
pipes, etc.
pipes, etc. when
when
crossing any
crossing any BRC
BRC

Where other kinds of surges are to be and also for signals, controls and data
suppressed (see 5.13.5) the SPDs might that can be connected by screw-
need to have additional performance, or terminals, such as ‘plain old’ telephones.
additional types of SPDs might need to Some types of signals or data require
be employed. shielded wires, though, and there are
Figures 86 and 87 show just a few of the types of SPDs designed to suit them too,
very many types of SPDs that are Figure 87 includes some examples.
commercially available from a number of Figure 87 also shows a small group of
suppliers. Wired-in or leaded SPDs are SPDs mounted on a bonding plate at an
used for protection of mains supplies, EM Zone boundary.
 162
Figure 86 Some types of SPDs

SPDs for
SPDs for PABX
PABX telephone
telephone exchanges
exchanges
From Furse
From Furse

Medium duty
Medium duty SPDs
SPDs for
for DIN
DIN rails
rails
in mains
in mains distribution
distribution boards
boards
From Phoenix
From Phoenix Contact
Contact

A heavy-duty
A heavy-duty SPD
SPD for
for incoming
incoming
mains supplies
mains supplies
It has
It has condition
condition monitoring
monitoring and
and
indication, to
indication, to aid
aid maintenance
maintenance
From Furse
From Furse

Figure 87 Some more types of SPDs

For CCTV
For CCTV For coaxial
For coaxial Ethernet
Ethernet
From Furse
From Furse From Furse
From Furse

Mounting along
Mounting along an
an EM
EM Zone
Zone boundary
boundary
SPDs for
SPDs for wired-in
wired-in data
data and
and signals
signals
From Furse
From Furse

SPDs for
SPDs for shielded
shielded cables
cables
and radio
and radio antennas
antennas EM Zone
EM Zone 11 EM Zone
EM Zone 22
From Phoenix
From Phoenix Contact
Contact (for example)
(for example) (for example)
(for example)
163
5.13.2 Data needs error not considered to be ‘normal’, even
detection/correction though it occurs within 3 miles (5km) of
most places, in most years.
SPDs on data lines only protect the
electronics from damage; they do not Also, the generic and product standards
prevent false data from occurring during listed under the EMC Directive only test
a surge or similar transient overvoltage with conducted surges at no more than
event. ±2kV. However, it is an observed fact
that normal 230V AC rms single-phase
Where false data could cause a mains distribution networks that are not
problem, data lines exposed to surges protected by appropriate surge
also need to use an error-detecting or protection devices, will experience
error correcting protocol, for example as surges up to ±6kV – the voltage at which
used by Ethernet or CAN bus. The MIL- the terminals in the wall-sockets spark
STD-1553 bus is an example of a very over. This much higher level of real-life
robust real-time data bus, and surge is reflected in the specifications in
commercial versions are now available. the power quality standard for European
mains voltage [22].
5.13.3 Magnetic pulse immunity
Once again, it seems that this is not
requirements for items of equipment
addressed by EMC Directive Standards,
[3] also includes requirements for the probably because such large surges are
immunity of items of equipment. not considered to occur in ‘normal’
Specifically, it requires that electrical and operation, even though several can be
electronic equipment identified by its risk expected in a typical year. Where mains
assessment process as being in need of power is provided to a building by
protection from lightning, must have an overhead cables, possibly several
appropriate level of immunity to transient hundred times each year.
magnetic fields, as tested using IEC The above means that items of
61000-4-9 (“Pulse Magnetic Field equipment identified by the risk
Immunity Test”) and/or IEC 61000-4-10 assessment process in [3], as requiring
(“Damped Oscillatory Magnetic Field protection from the effects of lightning,
Test”). should be purchased against a contract
Equipment that meets higher levels on specification that includes requirements
these tests needs less shielding from for passing tests to IEC 61000-4-9 and
lightning electromagnetic pulse by the IEC 61000-4-10, at specified levels that
meshed metal structures and other are related to the degree of magnetic
conductors in the building structure (see shielding provided by (or are planned
5.12). for) the building’s structure, derived from
Unfortunately, tests to IEC 61000-4-9 calculations in BS EN 62305-4.
and –10 are not required by the generic Also the purchasing contract should
or product standards that are listed include specifications for passing tests to
under the EMC Directive. Presumably, IEC 61000-4-5 (‘unidirectional surge’),
this omission is because the EMC IEC 61000-4-12 (‘ring wave surge’)
Directive is only concerned with “normal and/or IEC 61000-4-18 (‘damped
operation”, and lightning is apparently oscillatory wave surge’), at levels that
 164
correspond to the degree of conducted there are now a number of IEC
surge suppression that will be provided standards dealing with types of HPEM
by (or are planned for) the electrical and their effects, HPEM environments,
installation, for AC mains power and also testing and measurements techniques,
for cables carrying signals, control or installation and mitigation guidelines,
data that are longer than 30 metres. and even a generic standard, all listed
Where critical equipment has unknown with their scopes in [78]. Lightning is of
or inadequate immunity to magnetic course an HPEM, but for civilian
pulses or voltage surges, the design buildings is covered by [3] and there are
should provide a high degree of other standards for military vehicles and
protection, consistent with the aerospace.
consequential risks of damage to the HPEM environments include Nuclear EM
equipment as determined by a risk pulse (NEMP), high-altitude EM pulse
analysis such as the one in Part 2 of [3]. (HEMP) and other EMPs, that are the
Where the financial consequences of dominant effects (outside of the thermal
equipment errors, malfunctions or failure and blast radius) of a nuclear bomb –
are very severe, and/or where they could from the point of view of an electronic
increase human safety risks (see 2.2), device – and can damage electronic
the appropriate specification of equipment at hundreds of miles distance
equipment to withstand LEMP within a [60] [79]. Their EM threats are
given building is a very important issue – superficially similar to lightning, but up to
it certainly will not be sufficient to rely on 10,000 times faster with a frequency
the equipment’s CE-marking or spectrum extends to 100MHz – so
compliance with the EMC Directive. protection methods suitable for lightning
will probably not be enough.
The need to co-ordinate the LEMP
shielding and surge protection of an EMP is outside the scope of this Guide,
installation, with the pulsed magnetic although information and guidance on it
field specifications of the equipment (to is readily available in military and civil
IEC 61000-4-9/10) to be used within that defence publications and textbooks in
installation, is comprehensively ignored the public domain. It is an increasing
at the time of writing. concern when considering data security,
terrorism, and criminal activities, since it
I imagine it will continue to be ignored seems that EMP ‘bombs’ which create
until a series of very costly electronic little blast damage can be made without
failures (possibly with safety too much difficulty [80].
implications, e.g. hospitals) due to a
major thunderstorm tracking across the Protecting against EMP is a matter of
country, wakes-up the insurance applying the techniques discussed in this
companies. Guide in an appropriate manner,
depending on the nature of the EM
threat. For more on how to do this refer
5.13.4 HPEM: High Power
to [60], which also has a comprehensive
Electromagnetic Environments
list of references for further study.
HPEM includes any environment where
the incident field exceeds 100V/m, and
165
5.13.5 Other external and internal and power supplies as described in 4.6,
surges and providing a good low-impedance
MESH-CBN (or a number of MESH-
Externally generated overvoltage IBNs). But where surges originate within
surges, other than those caused by an EM Zone it may be difficult to stop the
lightning, are especially common on other equipment in the zone from being
incoming HV or MV power supplies. exposed, and either a nested EM Zone
They are caused by the switching of should be created, or appropriate SPDs
large reactive loads, or load shedding by or filters applied to the offending
HV or MV switchgear or in the wider equipment. Galvanic isolation is another
distribution network. External non- useful technique in such situations (see
lightning surge sources also afflict 4.3).
telephone and data lines outside
structures, usually due to shorting to Where significant non-lightning surges
mains cables when a vehicle knocks exist, the lightning exposure levels that
down a utility pole, or when a were determined by the risk assessment
mechanical digger cuts through an methodology in [3] (or equivalent) may
underground cable conduit (sometimes need to be increased, requiring
called a ‘power cross’). upgrades in one or more of the lightning
protection measures discussed above.
Very large currents from HV or MV earth
faults can damage (even vaporise)
signal or data cables that connect to a
different building, and/or damage the
equipment they interconnect. Even fibre-
optic cables may not be immune to this if
they use metal in their construction,
unless any metal in them is stripped
back far enough before entering the
structure (generally, by at least 2
metres).
Internal surges can be caused by large
on/off controlled DC or AC motors as
their stored energy is released at switch-
off, by the opening of a fuse (peak
voltage typically double the peak of the
nominal supply voltage), and by faults in
the power distribution network. At the
more extreme end, a superconducting
magnet in an MRI scanner or linear
accelerator can source around 1MJ of
surge energy when its field collapses.
Internally-generated surges are best
controlled by segregating high power
and sensitive equipment and their cables
6 Electronic warfare

166
As mentioned earlier, data security and ever day (or more) stand to lose many
the reliability of electronics is an 10s of millions due to a single downtime
increasing concern as our society comes incident lasting a few hours, never mind
to entirely depend upon data and an actual espionage or e-terrorism
electronics, [79] [81]. The military have a incident. For such enterprises, as for
powerful zone protection programme nuclear control rooms, financially
known as TEMPEST. This is now justifying an adequate level of protection
available for civilian use to counter the from all but the most extreme of EM
increasing amount of commercial, threats is probably not difficult to do,
financial, and industrial blackmail, especially at the planning stage where
terrorism, and espionage which relies the measures required can be designed-
upon the vulnerability of modern in at much less cost than adding them
computers and their networks to EM after construction is complete.
disturbances, and their propensity to There is increasing concern that national
broadcast their data over large power grids and other infrastructures are
geographical areas where they may be vulnerable to a number of EMI events
picked up by sensitive receivers caused by solar storms [84], criminals
available to all. and terrorists [79] [80] [81] [85] [86].
Mains filters for TEMPEST tend to have [84] warns that a repeat of the 1859
many more than two stages, and reliably solar outburst known as the “Carrington
provide over 80dB of attenuation from Event” would have a similar effect as the
10kHz to over 1GHz. Shielding for EMP attacks that are the concern of [79]
TEMPEST tends to be similar to that [85] and [86]. In either case, studies
used for EMC test chambers. I show that the USA’s national power grid
understand that UK national security could be out of action for several years,
operatives nowadays are expected to causing a “complete breakdown of civil
work in EMC shielded rooms such as the society”. Similar conclusions apply to
one in Figure 72, with only a single metal other countries’ power grids, and to
conductor – the mains cable – that many other kinds of national
enters through a very large TEMPEST infrastructure, such as wired telephone
filter. All data in or out of the room is networks, electrified railways and the
carried by metal-free fibre optics, like.
presumably with sensitive devices to
monitor optical signal levels for taps. I Of course, because such an incident has
hope that they remember to shut the not yet occurred, most people like to
doors to their rooms when they are pretend that it never will – when in reality
working. it could happen tomorrow, with almost
unimaginably severe consequences for
Whilst the level of protection provided for any developed country.
the offices of spies may be excessive for
most situations, merchant banks and the
like that handle billions of dollars of trade
7 Preventing corrosion

167
All of the techniques described above otherwise most equipment and
rely for their effectiveness on achieving installations suffer oxidation.
very low-impedance RF-bonds over the To prevent EMC problems due to
operational life, despite its physical and oxidation we use metals that have very
climatic environments. The contact thin, weak oxides, easily penetrated by
resistance at each RF-bond must not be the kind of contact pressures we will be
permitted to increase too much over the applying at electrical contacts and RF-
lifecycle, either due to fretting, or bonds in our installation. Since the best
oxidation or other chemical conversion RF-bonds use an area contact, rather
of the metals or conductors used, or due than a point contact (see 5.7.1 and
to galvanic corrosion. Figure 29) the issue of the type of oxide
Fretting corrosion is a form of and the surface pressure is often critical.
accelerated atmospheric oxidation that Where suitable metals are not very
occurs at the interface of conducting strong, we use them as plating on top of
materials undergoing slight, cyclic stronger metals, so that the plating
relative motion. In electrical contacts makes the electrical connection or RF-
involving non-noble metals, fretting bond, whilst the metal underneath the
action can cause rapid increases in plating provides the strength and is
contact resistance, even creating open protected from oxidation.
circuits in a matter of minutes in extreme Gold is the best metal to use for reason
cases [82]. of its very weak and thin oxide, but
Oxidation always occurs on the surfaces unfortunately it is too costly for general
of metals that are exposed to gasses or use as a structural material, and even
liquids containing air (or at least too costly to be used for plating other
oxygen), and metal oxides are either than small areas.
non-conducting or semi-conducting, both In some more-polluted atmospheres,
of which are bad for electrical contacts chemical conversions of metal surfaces
and RF-bonds. In the case of iron, most can occur in a similar way to oxidation.
steels, and aluminium the oxides are For example, where there are significant
very tough, and their thickness will amounts of sulphurous gasses and
almost always build up to such an extent vapours, such as near fossil-fuel burning
that reliable electrical connections and engines (e.g. electrical power generating
RF-bonding cannot be ensured. station; roads for motor vehicles;
There are situations where installations residential areas where coal burning is
are operated in the absence of oxygen permitted etc.) there will be sulphides
(e.g. in space, or where explosive and/or sulphates created. Like oxides,
atmospheres could occur and protection they are non-conductors or semi-
is achieved by using electrical/electronic conductors, and also bad for EMC.
cabinets fed with pure nitrogen at a Silver is a good contact material, but it
pressure above atmospheric), but easily corrodes to a sulphide, and
 168
blackened silver is a common sight. So eventually disappearing (or turning into
silver is a poor finish. non-conductive or semi-conductive
Galvanic corrosion is a different corrosion products) altogether. If the
corrosion mechanism from oxidation or choice of metals is poor for the
similar chemical conversion mechanisms environment, galvanic corrosion can
described above. It arises because completely destroy an electrical
different metals have different positions connection or RF-bond very quickly
in the electro-chemical series, so when indeed, maybe in just a few weeks.
connected by an electrically-conductive Figure 88 shows an example of a
liquid (called an electrolyte, for example simulated lifecycle test using standard
ordinary water) they form an ‘accidental metal blanks to test the galvanic
battery’ and a self-generated current compatibility of different types of
flows in them. The most anodic of the conductive EMC gasket.
metals gets eaten away by this current,

Figure 88 Example of a test comparing simulated lifecycle corrosion for

three different gasket types

After a 144-
144-hour
salt spray
accelerated life
test…
gasket material A
had very poor
shielding
effectiveness (SE),
B had poor SE,
whilst material C
had almost no
change in its SE

[45] has a very good chapter on categories as shown below in order from
preventing galvanic corrosion, which is most anodic (more easily corroded) to
summarised very briefly below. most cathodic (least easily corroded)
Metals are generally classified by their .
position in the ‘galvanic series’, into five
169

Group 1 Magnesium Most easily corroded

Group 2 Aluminium and its alloys, zinc, cadmium
Group 3 Carbon steel, iron, lead, tin, tin-lead solder
Group 4 Nickel, chromium, stainless steel
Group 5 Copper, silver, gold, platinum, titanium Least easily corroded

The idea behind this categorisation is The flow of DC or AC current through an

that the galvanic voltage differences electrical bond also hastens galvanic
between the materials within a given corrosion, making it a more important
Group are low enough to allow them to consideration for MESH-CBNs and the
be used in contact with each other like, where currents flow in metalwork.
regardless of the environment. However, Rebars can suffer badly from corrosion
in very aggressive environments (such unless appropriate care is taken. It is
as the deck of an ocean-going vessel) it always best to ensure that the part that
is probably best to make sure that only is more easy to replace, is either the
identical metals (or, if they are alloys same metal as the other part, or is
such as brass, identical compositions) higher in the galvanic series and so
are used in contact. more likely to be the part that corrodes.
Coating or plating mating parts with the Figure 89 is a useful table giving
same metal (for example, zinc, tin, or guidance on the combinations of the
nickel) helps keep the dissimilar metals metals in the above five groups,
protected from the electrolyte, depending on their environment, and
preventing galvanic corrosion, but was copied from [45]. It also includes
depends on the quality of the plating. A some recommendations for protecting
pinhole or scratch in the plating can joints, for example by coatings (grease is
allow the metal underneath the plating to a favourite).
get eaten away.
 170

Figure 89 Corrosion guidance

Anodic end
Exposure situation (most heavily corroded) Cathodic end
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4
Exposed B A n/a n/a Group 2
Sheltered A A n/a n/a Group 2
Protected A A n/a n/a Group 2
Exposed C B A n/a Group 3
Sheltered C A A n/a Group 3
Protected B A A n/a Group 3
Exposed No C B A Group 4
Sheltered C B A A Group 4
Protected C A A A Group 4
Exposed No No C B Group 5
Sheltered No B B A Group 5
Protected C B A A Group 5
KEY: No = Do not use this combination From NAVAIR115
A = Metal may be exposed at junction surfaces
B = Coating must prevent any possibility of liquid bridging the join
C = Protective coatings mandatory, but joint may still have a short life

Section 5 of [60] also has some useful molecules thick. The film is supposed to
advice on preventing galvanic corrosion, be so weak that any pressure will
and points out that dust and dirt that penetrate it and allow good electrical
accumulates tends to absorb moisture, contacts and RF-bonds to be made, but
where it becomes an attractive substrate sufficiently impervious to oxygen and
for moulds and fungi, which retain more liquids to prevent oxidative or galvanic
moisture. So even in dry indoor corrosion. It can be used as an
environments galvanic corrosion can still admixture in concrete, to protect rebars
occur. from rusting over decades.
Welded joints and seams do not
corrode, and cadwelding allows
dissimilar metals (e.g. copper and steel)
to be thermally welded, removing their
potential for galvanic corrosion.
Vapour-phase corrosion inhibition is a
recently developed technology [64] that
claims to use small quantities of a solid
material that sublimes, releasing a
vapour that coats nearby metal parts
with an insulating film just a few
8 Maintaining EM performance over the operational lifecycle

171
EM performance always degrades over possibly leading to major savings in cost
time, due to corrosion, vibration, over the operational lifetime.
movement of structures, wear of Some examples of common EMC
conductive gaskets at doors, etc., so it is maintenance activities follow, but this is
a good idea to overspecify the EMC not a comprehensive list.
requirements during the project design
to allow for this (see 5.2), and to design • Any shielded doors, and shielded
and construct the vehicle, vessel, panels that are frequently removed
building, site, installation, etc. so that its and replaced, are prime candidates
EM characteristics will be reliable over for annual inspections. Gaskets
time (e.g. using welded instead of bolted should be inspected and any suspect
joints). lengths replaced with new. Spring
finger gaskets generally benefit from
However, without appropriate
a light coating of petroleum jelly, to
maintenance activities, any installation
reduce fretting corrosion at sliding
will eventually lose an unacceptable
contacts.
amount of EM performance, for instance
by misuse (e.g. people leaving shielded • SPDs have in the past had a
doors open). tendency to degrade rapidly,
So part of the design process (see 5.2) although the new IEC standards
is to: referenced in [3] should make them
more reliable. But thunderstorm
• Identify all the areas that will need activity is hard to predict and they
maintenance. might reach their design life in one-
• Specify the periodicity of the quarter the expected time, or less.
maintenance activities for each item SPDs are increasingly being
(some may be annual, some every 5 designed with built-in performance
or 10 years). monitoring, and some even with
signal outputs that can be monitored
• Specify exactly how inspection is to by a remote computer.
be accomplished (e.g. by visual
inspection, measurement, etc.). • Filters can be degraded by surges,
vibration and overheating/
• Specify what is considered overloading, and like SPDs that have
unacceptable. no built-in condition monitoring they
• Specify how refurbishment is to be need some kind of performance test
done. to see if they are still doing the job
that was expected of them.
This exercise concentrates the mind
wonderfully during design, and can lead • All non-welded RF-bonds may need
to the realisation that the design needs disassembly every few years,
to be done in a particular way to enable cleaning and reassembly, according
all critical points to be easily monitored, to Chapter 5 of [60].
 172
• Any joints that are exposed, or
otherwise likely to corrode (see
Figure 89) should be regularly
inspected and their protective
greases or other coatings renewed,
at least. Disassembly might be
required to check for corrosion.
• MESH-IBNs (see 5.5.5) must be
regularly checked to ensure they
have not lost their 10kV isolation.
• When using existing (so-called
‘natural’) metalwork and/or cable
armour as part of a CBN, or as a
PEC, as shown in Figure 23, the
installation should be managed to
ensure that all joints and connections
remain bonded over the lifecycle,
and that no-one disconnects any part
(e.g. by adding a junction box to an
armoured cable) during any
modifications or additions to the
system or installation. Cable support
structures and armour are usually
assumed to be simply for mechanical
protection purposes, so when they
are used to improve EMC
performance, any/all work that could
affect them should be supervised
carefully.
• Repairs, refurbishment, upgrades,
modifications and additions to an
installation must not degrade its EMC
performance. This is a problem
where any computer board or
module has to be replaced, because
it is almost certain to be replaced
with a much more powerful unit – the
old one having gone obsolete within
a year of the original construction. Of
course, the new boards/modules will
have different EMC performance.
9 References and further reading

173
[1] European Union Directive www.theiet.org/factfiles/emc/index.htm
2004/108/EC (as amended) on or from the ‘Publications & Downloads’
Electromagnetic Compatibility (2nd pages at www.cherryclough.com, or as
Edition) in English: http://eur- ow-cost colour-printed book from
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2004 http://www.emcacademy.org/books.asp
/l_390/l_39020041231en00240037.pdf [6] “List of Resources on EMC for
in any EU language: Functional Safety”, Keith Armstrong,
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/electr_equ from the ‘Publications & Downloads’
ipment/emc/directiv/dir2004_108.htm pages at www.cherryclough.com
The Directive’s official EU homepage [7] “Reducing Risks, Protecting People”,
includes a downloadable version of the the Health & Safety Executive (HSE)
current EMC Directive and its successor; 2001, HSE Books, ISBN 0 7176 2151 0,
a table of all the EN standards listed available from www.hsebooks.co.uk.
under the Directive; a guidance The ‘HSE InfoLine’ is another source of
document on how to apply the Directive; information, via www.hse.gov.uk.
lists of appointed EMC Competent [8] The EC’s official guide on
Bodies; etc., all at: 2004/108/EC:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/ele http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/electr_equ
ctr_equipment/emc/index.htm. ipment/emc/guides/emcguide_may2007.
[2] IEC 60364-4-44:2006 “Electrical pdf
installations of buildings – Part 4-44: [9] The UK’s official guide to the 2006
Protection for safety – Protection against EMC Regulations, August 2008:either
voltage disturbances and via:
electromagnetic disturbances”, Clause http://www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/sector
444: “Measures against electromagnetic s/sustainability/regulations/ecdirect/page
influences” 12469.html,
[3] BS EN 62305:2006, “Protection or download from:
Against Lightning”, in four parts. It is http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file47539.pdf
identical to EN 62305:2006 and also to [10] The EC’s ‘Blue Guide’, “Guide to the
Parts 1, 2 and 4 of IEC 62305:2006. BS Implementation of Directives Based on
EN 62306-3 is essentially the same as the New Approach and the Global
IEC 62305-3, except for some common Approach”, 2000:
modifications.
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/newappro
[4] The EMC Regulations 2006, United ach/legislation/guide/index.htm, also
Kingdom Statutory Instrument 2006 No. (English only) from:
3418: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/newappro
http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2006/uksi_20 ach/legislation/guide/document/1999_12
063418_en.pdf 82_en.pdf
[5] The IET’s 2008 “Guide on EMC for [11] The Product Liability Directive,
Functional Safety”, free download: 85/374/EEC amended by 99/34/EC,
 174
implemented in the UK as the Consumer [19] From the BERR/EMCTLA/EMCIA
Protection Act 1987, meeting held at the Newbury Hilton, 29th
http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l320 Nov 07, at which BERR’s EMC
12.htm, consultants responded to a series of
http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/file22866.pdf questions about how to interpret the
[12] IEC 61508: “Functional Safety of UK’s 2006 EMC Regulations.
Electrical, Electronic and Programmable [20] “The Future of Market Surveillance
Electronic Systems” (seven parts) for Technical Products in Europe”, Ivan
[13] IEC 61511: “Functional safety: Hendrikx, Conformity, Apr 1, 2007,
Safety instrumented systems for the www.conformity.com.
process industry sector” [21] “The First 500 Banana Skins”,
[14] IEC 62061: “Safety of Machinery – Nutwood UK, 2007, from
Functional safety of electrical, electronic http://www.emcacademy.org/books.asp.
and programmable control systems for This amazing little book summarises 500
machinery” published reports and anecdotes on
interference events, and costs about
[15] The ‘Machinery Safety Directive’: £10. It can also be read online (not
“Directive 98/37/EC of the European downloaded) at www.theemcjournal.com
Parliament and of the Council of 22 June by clicking on ‘EMC Information Centre’
1998 on the approximation of the laws of (registering if necessary) then clicking on
the Member States relating to ‘Banana Skins’.
machinery”
[22] BS EN 50160:2000, “Voltage
The new Machinery Safety Directive: characteristics of electricity supplied by
“Directive 2006/42/EC of the European public distribution systems”
Parliament and of the Council of 17 May
2006 on machinery, and amending [23] “Combined Effects of Several,
Directive 95/16/EC (recast)” Simultaneous, EMI Couplings”, Michel
Mardiguian, 2000 IEEE International
[16] The consolidated version of the Low Symposium on EMC, Washington D.C.,
Voltage Directive, 2006/95/EC, replaces August 21-25 2000, ISBN 0-7803-5680-
73/23/EEC and its amendment by 2, pp. 181-184
93/68/EEC,
http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/ele [24] “EMC Performance of Drive
ctr_equipment/lv/index.htm Application Under Real Load Condition”,
F Beck and J Sroka, Schaffner EMV AG
[17] IEC TS 61000-1-2, basic safety application note, 11th March 1999
publication, Ed. 2.0, December 2008,
“Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) – [25] “The Case for Combining EMC and
Part 1-2: General – Methodology for the Environmental Testing”, W H Parker, W
achievement of the functional safety of Tustin, T Masone, ITEM 2002, pp 54-60
electrical and electronic equipment with http://www.interferencetechnology.com
regard to electromagnetic phenomena.” [26] “Breaking All the Rules: Challenging
[18] “CE + CE does not equal CE – what the Engineering and Regulatory
to do instead” available from the Precepts of Electromagnetic
‘Publications and Downloads’ pages at Compatibility”, D A Townsend et al, 1995
www.cherryclough.com IEEE International Symposium on
175
Electromagnetic Compatibility, Atlanta, February 1999, IEE Colloquium Digest
1995, pp 194 – 199. No. 99/0666 (ISSN 0963-3308) available
[27] BS EN 55011:2007 (CISPR11 Am2 from IEE Sales for around £20,
Ed. 4.0:2006) “Industrial, scientific and [email protected] or from the IEE
medical (ISM) radio-frequency Library: www.iee.org.uk/Library,
equipment - Electromagnetic [email protected]
disturbance characteristics - Limits and [32] “EMC for Systems and
methods of measurement”. The scope of Installations”, Tim Williams and Keith
this standard includes: Interference Armstrong, Newnes, 2000, ISBN 0 7506
relating to industrial, scientific and 4167 3, RS Components Part No. 377-
medical radio-frequency apparatus, 6463
other (high power) industrial equipment, [33] A number of useful and practical
overhead power lines, high voltage documents on complying with the EMC
equipment and electric traction. At the Directive are available from the
time of writing the 5th Edition of ‘Publications and Downloads’ pages at
CISPR11 has been finalised and will be www.cherryclough.com
published very soon.
[34] REO (UK) Ltd Guide on
[28] DD CLC/TS 50217:2005, “Guide for “Harmonics”, available from
in situ measurements – In situ www.reo.co.uk/knowledgebase.
measurements of disturbance emission”,
Cenelec Technical Specification CLC/TS [35] REO Guide on “Power Quality”,
50217:2005, published by British available from
Standards Institution as a draft for www.reo.co.uk/knowledgebase.
development (DD). A Technical [36] REO Guide on “Good EMC
Specification (TS) is not a standard, but Engineering Practices in the Design and
it is considered to be a proposal for a Construction of Industrial Cabinets”,
standard that needs further experience available from
with its use before a final version could www.reo.co.uk/knowledgebase
be agreed. However, in the absence of a [37] Seventeen EMC Guides on EM
relevant standard, a TS can be used as phenomena, legal compliance and EMC
an expression of the present state-of- testing have been written by Keith
the-art for the issues within its scope. Armstrong and published by REO (UK)
[29] REO Guide on EN 61000-3-3 and - Ltd. They are very readable and
3-11, “Emissions of voltage fluctuations practical, and can be downloaded from
and flicker”, from www.reo.co.uk/knowledgebase. They
www.reo.co.uk/knowledgebase are also available from REO (UK) Ltd
[30] “Complying with the EMC Directive and Cherry Clough Consultantsm [48] as
(2004/108/EC) Second Edition”, Keith a CD-ROM that contains all 17 of them
Armstrong, Conformity, March 2008, pp plus other REO EMC Guides and a great
12-23, www.conformity.com. deal of other useful information on EMC.
[31] “Electromagnetic Compatibility in [38] Def Stan 59-411 “Electromagnetic
Heavy Power Installations”, IEE Compatibility”, from:
Colloquium, Middlesborough UK, 23rd http://www.dstan.mod.uk/ (you will need
to register first)
 176
Part No: 1: “Management & Planning” and Related Ground Equipment”, 3rd
Part No: 2: “The Electric, Magnetic and Edition, June 1988, Naval Air Systems
Electromagnetic Environment” Command, Department of the Navy,
Part No: 3: “Test Methods and Limits for Washington DC, USA.
Equipment and Sub Systems” [46] “Electromagnetic Compatibility –
Part No: 4: “Platform and System Tests Installation Guide”, Eurotherm Controls,
and Trials” http://download.eurotherm.co.uk/downlo
Part No: 5: “Code of Practice for Tri- ads/DL/EMC_025464_1.pdf
Service Design and Installation”
[47] “EMC: Electromagnetic
[39] “Assessing an EM Environment”, Compatibility”, Jacques Delaballe,
Keith Armstrong, EMC Test Labs Schneider Electric, www.schneider-
Association (www.emctla.co.uk) electric.com/cahier_technique/en/pdf/ect
Technical Guidance Note No. TGN 47, 149.pdf
also available from the ‘Publications and
Downloads’ pages at [48] Keith Armstrong, Cherry Clough
www.cherryclough.com Consultants, www.cherryclough.com,
[email protected],
[40] “EMC Testing”, a series in six parts telephone: +44 (0)1785 660 247
by Tim Williams and Keith Armstrong,
published in the EMC Compliance [49] “Design Techniques for EMC- Part
Journal during 2001-2, and available via 2: Cables and Connectors”, Keith
the ‘Publications and Downloads’ pages Armstrong, The EMC Journal May 2006
at www.cherryclough.com (Issue 64) pages 31-41 and July 2006
(Issue 65) pages 25-38, available from
[41] “On-Site EMC Test Methods”, Keith www.compliance-club.com (search by
Armstrong, EMC Test Labs Association ‘Keith Armstrong’)
(www.emctla.co.uk) Technical Guidance
Note No. TGN 49, also available from [50] ETSI EN 300 253 V2.1.1 (2002-04)
the ‘Publications and Downloads’ pages “Environmental Engineering (EE);
at www.cherryclough.com Earthing and bonding of
telecommunication equipment in
[42] “Achieving EMC Directive telecommunication centres”,
Compliance with a Spreadsheet”, Keith www.etsi.org
Armstrong, Conformity, February 2006,
from archives at www.conformity.com [51] BS EN 50174-2:2001 “Information
technology. Cabling installation.
[43] IEC 61000-5-2:1997 Installation planning and practices inside
“Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) – buildings”
Part 5: Installation and Mitigation
Guidelines – Section 2: Earthing and [52] International Telecommunication
cabling” Union (ITU) Recommendation K.35
(1996): “Bonding configurations and
[44] PD IEC TR 61000-5-6:2002 earthing at remote electronic sites”,
“Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) – www.itu.int
Installation and mitigation guidelines –
Mitigation of external EM influences“ [53] BS EN 50310:2006 “Application of
equipotential bonding and earthing in
[45] NAVAIR AD 115 “Electromagnetic buildings with information technology
Compatibility Design Guide for Avionics equipment”
177
[54] “Bonding Cable Shields at Both [59] The EMC Test Laboratories
Ends to Reduce Noise”, Tony Waldron Association, www.emctla.co.uk.
and Keith Armstrong, EMC + [60] “Engineering and Design -
Compliance Journal, May 2002, pages Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) and
14-27, available via the ‘Publications & Tempest Protection for Facilities”, U.S.
Downloads’ page at Army Corps of Engineers, 31 December
www.cherryclough.com. 1990, Publication Number: EP 1110-3-2,
[55] “Audio-frequency screen current www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/emp/
induced noise is negligible (as long as it toc.htm
is prevented from flowing in the 0V)”, [61] International Telecommunication
Keith Armstrong, Audio Engineering Union (ITU) Recommendation K.27
Society workshop on “Bonding and (1996): “Bonding configurations and
Grounding”, Amsterdam, 23 March earthing within a telecommunications
2003, available via the ‘Publications & building”, www.itu.int
Downloads’ page at
www.cherryclough.com. [63] ANSI/TIA/EIA-607
“Telecommunication Earthing Networks”
[56] “The Benefits of Applying IEC
61000-5-2 to Cable Shield Bonding and [64] Visit www.cortecVpCI.com for
Earthing”, available via the ‘Publications details. The author has no direct
& Downloads’ page at experience of this technique and makes
www.cherryclough.com in two versions, no claims for its effectiveness. But it
one intended for professional audio, and looks very interesting!
one for general industrial and [65] “Design Techniques for EMC- Part
information technology applications as 4: Shielding”, Keith Armstrong, The UK
presented at the IEE’s colloquium on EMC Journal, March 2007 (Issue 69)
“EMC, its all about the cables”, Savoy pages 31-46, May 2007 (Issue 70)
Place, London, UK, 22nd January 2003 pages 32-46, July 2007 (Issue 71) pages
and again at the IEE’s workshop “Its all 35-46, available from www.compliance-
about the cables” at Euro-EMC 2004, club.com (search by ‘Keith Armstrong’)
Eindhoven, Sept 6-10 2004. [66] Laird Technologies Technical Notes,
[57] BS EN 50174 ”Information visit:
technology – Cabling installation” http://www.lairdtech.com/pages/catalogs
Part 1: “Specification and quality /emi.asp and scroll down the page.
assurance” [67] “Analysis of Electromagnetic
Part 2: “Installation planning and Shielding of Cables and Connectors”,
practices inside buildings” Lothar O (Bud) Hoeft,
Part 3: “Installation planning and 2002 IEEE International Symposium on
practices outside buildings” EMC, Minneapolis,
[58] “EMC Analysis Methods and www.emcinfo.se/ieee/protokoll/34/EMag
Computational Models”, F M Tesche, M _Shielding_of_Cables_and_Connectors.
V Ianov and Torbjorn Karlsson, John [68] REO Guide to EN 55022 and 55011
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1997, ISBN: 0 471 (Emissions of conducted RF), from
15573 X www.reo.co.uk/knowledgebase
 178
[69] “Design Techniques for EMC- Part Concrete Composites, Vol. 28, Iss. 5,
3: Filtering and Suppressing Transients”, May 2006, pp 468-474
Keith Armstrong, The EMC Journal, [75] “Research on the absorbing
September 2006 (Issue 66) pages 39- characteristics of cement matrix
44, November 2006 (Issue 67) pages composites filled with carbon black-
32-46, and January 2007 (Issue 68) coated expanded polystyrene beads”, J.
pages 26-38, available from Du, S. Liu and H. Guan, Advances in
www.compliance-club.com (search by Cement Research, Vol. 18, No. 4,
‘Keith Armstrong’) October 2006, pp 161–164.
[70] “Choosing and Installing Mains [76] RFI Industries Pty Ltd, Australia,
Filters”, Keith Armstrong and Tim www.rfi-ind.com.au.
Williams, Compliance Engineering
magazine, January/February 2000, [77] “A Guide to BS EN 62305:2006,
pages 68 – 75. Available along with Protection Against Lightning”, published
some other useful articles on choosing by Furse (a Thomas & Betts Company),
filters via the ‘Publications and Furse-SG-0407, www.furse.com
Downloads’ pages at [78] “The Development of High-Power
www.cherryclough.com Electromagnetic (HPEM) Publications in
[71] “The Expanding Role of the IEC: History and Current Status”, Dr.
Architectural Shielding: Four Case William A. Radasky, IEEE EMC Society
Studies”, Fred Helene, ITEM 1995, Newsletter, Issue No. 216, Winter 2008,
http://www.interferencetechnology.com/ http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/n
ArchivedArticles/Architectural_shielding/I ewsletters/emcs/winter08/hpem.html
95Art21.htm?regid= [79] “2007 Update on Intentional
[72] “Electromagnetic Interference and Electromagnetic Interference (IEMI) and
Compatibility, Vol. 3 of a Handbook high-altitude electromagnetic pulse
Series on EMI Control Methods and (HEMP)”, by Dr William A Radasky,
Techniques”, Donald R J White, Ph.D., P.E., Interference Technology’s
published by Don White Consultants, EMC Directory & Design Guide 2007,
Inc. 1973, Library of Congress pages 143-148,
Catalogue Card No. 72-138444. www.interferencetechnology.com.
A similar article: “High-Altitude
[73] “Modelling Shielding Properties of Electromagnetic Pulse (HEMP): A
Concrete”, Ade Ogunsola, Ugo Reggiani Threat to Our Way of Life”, with more
and Leonardo Sandrolini, 17th technical detail and the same list of risks
International Zurich Symposium on as regards the US power grid, is
EMC, Singapore, 27 Feb - 3 Mar 2006, available from:
ISBN: 3-9522990-4-9, www.emc- http://www.todaysengineer.org/2007/Sep
zurich.org. /HEMP.asp.)
[74] “Cement Based Electromagnetic [80] “Just a Normal Town...”, New
Shielding and Absorbing Building Scientist, July 1st 2000, pp 20-24,
Materials”, Hongtao Guan, Shunhua Liu, www.newscientist.com
Yuping Duan and Ji CHng, Cement and
[81] “Information Warfare: Battles in
Cyberspace”, by Richard E Overill, IEE
179
Computing and Control Engineering EN and IEC standards may be
Journal, June 2001, pp125 – 128, purchased from British Standards
www.theiet.org. Institution (BSI) at: orders@bsi-
[82] “Fretting Corrosion in Electrical global.com. To enquire about a product
Contacts”, E M Bock and J H Whitley, or service call BSI Customer Services on
Twentieth Annual Holm Seminar on +44 (0)20 8996 9001 or e-mail them at
Electrical Contacts, October 29-31, [email protected].
1974. Available as Tyco White Paper IEC standards can also be purchased
http://www.tycoelectronics.com/documen with a credit card, in English and many
tation/whitepapers/pdf/p154-74.pdf other languages, from
[83] “Role of Steel Frames of Buildings http://[email protected].
for Mitigation of Lightning-Induced
Magnetic Fields”, S Miyazaki and M Ishii,
IEEE Transaction on EMC, Vol. 50, No.
2, May 2008, pp 333-339
[84] “Gone in 90 seconds”, One solar
storm could destroy power grids all over
the world, with appalling consequences,
warns Michael Brooks, New Scientist, 21
March 2009, pp 31 – 35,
www.newscientist.com
[85] “Report of the Commission to
Assess the Threat to the United States
from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP)
Attack — Critical National
Infrastructures”, April 2008, ISBN 978-0-
16-080927-9,
http://www.empcommission.org/docs/A2
473-EMP_Commission-7MB.pdf
[86] “Report of the Commission to
Assess the Threat to the United States
from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP)
Attack — Volume 1: Executive Report”,
2004,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/librar
y/congress/2004_r/04-07-22emp.pdf
10 Solutions from REO

180
REO is an original manufacturer of high Product Examples
quality power equipment, including
electronic controllers, components and RFI filters and line reactors up to
electrical regulators, all backed by the 2000A..
application expertise demanded by
specialised, industrial sectors,
such as …..
Controllers designed specifically for use
in the parts and materials handling
industry, together with a wide range of
electromagnets for driving vibratory
feeders.
Power controllers for adjusting and
regulating voltage, current, frequency or
power, as well as its long established
variable transformers (variacs) up to
1MVA and sliding resistors of all types.
These are complemented by a range of
modern, electronic, variable power
supplies.
Components for adapting variable speed
drives employed in non-standard
applications; including inductors, EMC
filters and braking resistors. The range
of inductive devices extends into railway REO combi filter, with integrated
components for electrical traction and differential mode
rolling stock, which includes chokes and choke
high-frequency transformers.
Special, toroidal transformers used in
safety, medical and energy-saving
systems plus high-frequency
transformers used in switch-mode power
supplies.
Test equipment such as load banks and
variable AC/DC power supplies,
REO actively searches for development
partners, particularly in niche markets,
and considers this to be an essential
stimulus for creating new and original
ideas.

View further products on-line @ www.reo.co.uk

181

Buy on-line @ www.reo.co.uk/shop

11 The Author

182
past chairman of the IEE’s Professional
Group (E2) on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, is a member of the IEEE’s
EMC Society, the EMC Test Labs
Association [59], the EMC Industries
Association (www.emcia.org), and chairs
the IEE’s Working Group on 'EMC and
Functional Safety'.
Contact: Keith Armstrong by email at
[email protected] or
visit the Cherry Clough website
www.cherryclough.com.

See www.reo.co.uk/
guides for many other
practical guides, similar
to this one, relating to
Keith Armstrong from Cherry Electromagnetic (EM)
Clough Consultants
phenomena.
Keith Armstrong graduated in electrical
engineering with a B.Sc (Hons.) from
Imperial College London in 1972, If you would like to be
majoring in analogue circuit design and kept informed about new
electromagnetic field theory, with a
Upper Second Class Honours (Cum guides as soon as they
Laude). Much of his life since then has become available, then
involved controlling real-life interference
problems in high-technology products, all you have to do is sign
systems, and installations, for a variety up as a member by going
of companies and organisations in a
range of industries. to www.reo.co.uk/
Keith has been a Chartered Electrical members
Engineer (UK) since 1978, a Group 1
European Engineer since 1988, and has
written and presented a great many
papers and articles on EMC. He is a
1 2 R E O - M a rk e t S e c to rs

1 8 3

T r a in S y s te m s In d u c tiv e C o m p o n e n ts

C h o k e s a n d h ig h C h o k e s , r e s is to r s a n d
fre q u e n c y tra n s fo rm e rs tra n s fo rm e rs

T e s t S y s te m s P o w e r E le c tr o n ic s

P o w e r s u p p lie s a n d lo a d P h a s e - a n g le a n d
b a n k s fr e q u e n c y c o n tr o lle r s

D r iv e S y s te m s M e d ic a l S y s te m s

F ilte r s a n d b r a k in g
r e s is to r s M e d ic a l T r a n s fo r m e r s
 1 8 4

A u to m a tio n S y s te m s C o m m u n ic a tio n S y s te m s

C o n tr o lle r s fo r v ib r a to r y
F ie ld b u s a n d g s m
fe e d e rs

C la s s ic s R e n e w a b le S y s te m s

R h e o s ta ts a n d v a r ia c s S o la r tr a n s fo r m e r s

M o to r C o n tro l S y s te m s

S o ft-s ta rts
 R E O (U K ) L T D , U n its 2 - 4 C a llo w H ill R o a d , C r a v e n A r m s
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T e l: 0 1 5 8 8 6 7 3 4 1 1 F a x : 0 1 5 8 8 6 7 2 7 1 8
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