Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

LABORATORY MANUAL

Name of the Laboratory

PEC 151: Basic Electronics Lab

PREPARED BY

Dr. Anurag Vidyarthi

APPROVED BY

Dr. Md. Irfanul Hasan

Lab Manual: Basic Electronics Lab Page 1

 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

EXPERIMENT NO. 02
Aim: Familiarization of Electronic Measuring Instruments and Components.

Objective:

i. To get brief idea of different electronic passive components such as resistors, capacitors
and inductors.
ii. To understand different electronic active components e.g. p-n junction diode, Zener
Diode, Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs).
iii. Understanding of integrated circuits (ICs) and breadboard.
iv. To get brief idea of different electronic measuring instruments such as Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope (CRO) and Multimeter.

Apparatus Required: Resistors, capacitors, inductors, p-n junction diode, LED, Zener diode,
BJTs, ICs, Bread Board, Multimeter, CRO and connecting cables.

Theory: Electronic components can be categorized into two groups: discrete components and
Integrated Circuits (ICs). Further discrete components can be classified as passive and active
components.

I. Passive components: These components are not capable of amplifying or processing an

electrical signal. e.g. Resistors, capacitors and inductors

a. Resistor is a two-terminal electronic component used to limit the current flow in an electric
circuit. The symbol for resistor in an electronic circuit is shown in Fig. 2.1.

Fig.2.1. Symbol of resistor

A four-band identification is the most commonly used color-coding scheme on all resistors.
It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor as shown in
Fig. 2.2. Resistor values are always measured in ohms (Ω).

Lab Manual: Basic Electronics Lab Page 2

 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

Fig.2.2. Color coding scheme for resistor

 Band A is first significant figure of component value

 Band B is the second significant figure
 Band C is the decimal multiplier
 Band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no color means 20%)
The color codes are given in the following table in Table 2.1.

Table2.1. Color codes for resistor

Band Tolerances
1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band Multiplier x
Color ±%
Black 0 0 0 1
Brown 1 1 1 10 ±1
Red 2 2 2 100 ±2
Orange 3 3 3 1000
Yellow 4 4 4 10,000
Green 5 5 5 100,000 ± 0.5
Blue 6 6 6 1,000,000 ± 0.25
Violet 7 7 7 10,000,000 ± 0.10
Grey 8 8 8 100,000,000 ± 0.05
White 9 9 9 1,000,000,000
Gold 0.1 ±5
Silver 0.01 ± 10
None ± 20

Two main characteristics of resistors are its resistance R (ohms) & power rating W
(watts). These are not polarity sensitive devices.

The relative sizes of resistors change with the wattage (power) rating as shown in Fig.
2.3. The size increases for increased wattage rating in order to withstand the higher
currents and dissipation losses. However, the resistance value is not related to physical
size.
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 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

Fig.2.3. Resistor with different sizes

Applications: In electronic circuits, resistors are used

 to limit current flow,
 to adjust signal levels,
 bias active elements, and
 terminate transmission lines among other uses.

b. Capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy

electrostatically in an electric field. It contains two electrical conductors separated by a
dielectric (insulator) as shown in Fig. 2.4.. The unit for capacitance is Farad (F).

Fig.2.4. Symbol of capacitor

A lot have their values printed on them, some are marked with 3-digit codes, and a few
are color coded as shown in Fig. 2.5.

Fig.2.5. Different types of capacitors

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 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

Mostly used capacitors are electrolytic and ceramic capacitors.

 Electrolytic capacitors: An electrolytic capacitor uses an electrolyte, an ionic

conducting liquid, as one of its plates, to achieve a larger capacitance per unit volume
than other types. They are used in relatively high-current and low frequency electrical
circuits. However, the voltage applied to these capacitors must be polarized; one
specified terminal must always have positive potential with respect to the other. These
are of two types, axial and radial capacitors as shown in Fig. 2.6. The arrowed stripe
indicates the polarity, with the arrows pointing towards the negative pin.

Fig.2.6. Axial and Radial Electrolytic Capacitors

 Ceramic capacitor: Ceramic capacitors are generally non-polarized and almost as

common as radial electrolytic capacitors. Generally, they use an alphanumeric
marking system as shown in Fig. 2.7. The number part is the same as for SMT
resistors, except that the value represented is in pF.

Fig.2.7. Ceramic capacitors

Capacitor has ability to block a steady D.C. voltage while passing a.c. signals, higher
the frequency, less the opposition to a.c. voltage.

Applications:
 In tuned circuits.
 As bypass capacitors to bypass ac through it.
 Blocking capacitor to block dc components.

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 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

c. Inductor is a passive two-terminal electrical component which resists changes in electric

current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a
coil.
When a current flows through it, energy is stored in a magnetic field in the coil. As the
current flowing through an inductor changes, the time varying magnetic field induces a
voltage in the conductor, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which
by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created it.
The unit for inductance is Henry (H).

Fig.2.8. Symbol for inductor

Applications:
 Filter chokes for smoothing and pulsating currents produced by rectifiers.
 Audio frequency chokes, to provide high impedance at audio frequencies.

II. Active components: These components are capable of amplifying or processing an electrical
signal. e.g. Diodes and transistors
a. P-N Junction Diode is made by combining P & N type semiconductor materials to form a
P-N junction. Diode is unidirectional device that allow current to flow through them in one
direction only. The schematic symbol for a semiconductor diode is shown in Fig.2.9.

A K

Fig.2.9. Symbol for p-n junction diode

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 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

Fig. 2.10 shows how to identify the cathode of a diode.

Fig.2.10. Identification of diode cathode end

Applications:

 As switches.
 In rectifiers, clipper and clamper circuits.

b. Zener Diode permits the current to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above
a certain value known as the breakdown voltage/ "Zener knee voltage"/ "Zener
voltage"/"avalanche point"/"peak inverse voltage" denoted by VZ. It allows current to flow
in the forward direction in the same manner as an ideal diode. The symbol for Zener diode
is shown in Fig. 2.11.

The device consists of a reverse biased, highly doped, p-n junction diode operating in
the breakdown region. Conventional diodes and rectifiers never operate in the breakdown
region, but the Zener diode can safely be operated at this point.

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 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

Fig.2.11. Symbol of Zener Diode

Applications: Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators and as voltage reference
standards.

c. Light emitting diode: In LEDs, the recombination of charge carriers across the PN
junction releases optical energy when the electrons fall from the conduction to the valence
band. The heat emission is negligible in light emitting materials like gallium arsenic
phosphide and gallium phosphide.
LEDs must be covered in a transparent or translucent material. The wavelength of the
radiation for a given color is given by the relation λ= 1.24/Eg. Here Eg is the energy gap
between conduction and valence bands. The symbol for LED is given in Fig. 2.12.

Fig.2.12. Symbol of LED

Fig.2.13. Physical appearance of LED

In Fig. 2.13, longer terminal is cathode and the other is anode.

d. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal device having three doped regions
called emitter, base and collector. There are two types of transistors: NPN and PNP as

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 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

shown in Fig. 2.14. Notice that for both types, the base is narrow region sandwiched
between the larger collector and moderate emitter regions.

In NPN transistors, the majority current carriers are free electrons in the emitter and
collector, while the majority current carriers are holes in the base. The opposite is true in
the PNP transistor where the majority current carriers are holes in the emitter and collector,
and the majority current carriers are free electrons in the base.

Collector (C)

(a) (b)

Fig.2.14. Schematic symbols for BJTs (a) NPN transistor (b) PNP transistor.

For a transistor to function properly as an amplifier, the emitter-base junction must be

forward biased and the collector base junctions must be reverse biased.

Fig.2.15. Physical appearance of BJTs

Testing a transistor: To determine whether a transistor is PNP or NPN, the resistance

between the three different leads, Emitter, Base and Collector is measured as shown in
Table 2.2.

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 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

Table 2.2. Transistor Resistance Values for the PNP and NPN transistor types

III. Integrated Circuit is a piece of specially prepared silicon (or another semiconductor) into
which a very complex electronic circuit is etched using photographic techniques. The chip
is very fragile and so is normally surrounded by a tough plastic package, and electrical
contact with the chip is provided through metal legs sticking out of the package as shown
in Fig. 2.16.

There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: low cost and better
performance.

Fig.2.16.2-D view of NAND gate IC

IV. Breadboard is the platform (or chassis) on which any circuit can be ringed up to provide
inter connections between electronics components and devices. The advantage of bread
board is that the components can be connected (or) disconnected easily.
A picture of breadboard is shown in Fig. 2.17(a) and the connection details on its rear side
are shown in Fig. 2.17(b). It has holes both horizontally and vertically. The horizontal holes
at the top and bottom are having internal shorts where as in the remaining part vertical
holes are shorted internally.
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 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

The five holes in each individual column on either side of the central groove are
electrically connected to each other, but remain insulated from all other sets of holes. In
addition to the main columns of holes, however, there are four sets or groups of holes along
the top and bottom.

Fig.2.17. (a) A typical Breadboard and (b) its connection details

Each of these consists of five separate sets of five holes each, for a total of 25 holes. These
groups of 25 holes are all connected together on either side of the dotted line indicated on
Fig.2.17 (a) and needs an external connection if the entire row is to be connected. This
makes them ideal for distributing power to multiple ICs or other circuits.

V. Measuring Instruments: Various measuring instruments are used in electronic circuits

like multimeter and CRO.
a. Digital Multimeter is an electronic device that is used to make various electrical
measurements, such as AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It
combines the functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. Multimeter may also
have other functions, such as diode test, continuity test, and transistor test.
Parts of Multimeter: A multimeter has three parts:
 Display
 Selection Knob
 Ports

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 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

The display usually has four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. The
selection knob allows the user to set the multimeter to read different things such as
milliamps (mA) of current, voltage (V) and resistance (Ω).

Fig.2.18. Digital Multimeters

Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit as shown in Fig.
2.18. COM stands for common and is almost always connected to Ground or ‘–’of a
circuit. The COM probe is conventionally black but there is no difference between the
red probe and black probe other than color. 10A is the special port used when
measuring large currents (greater than 200 mA). mAVΩ is the port that the red probe is
conventionally plugged in to. This port allows the measurement of current (up to
200mA), voltage (V), and resistance (Ω).
The probes have a banana type connector at the end that plugs into the multimeter.
b. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) consists of a vacuum tube which contains a
cathode; anode, grid, X&Y-plates and a fluorescent screen (Fig. 2.19 below). When the
cathode is heated (by applying a small potential difference across its terminals), it emits
electrons. Having a potential difference between the cathode and the anode
(electrodes), accelerate the emitted electrons towards the anode, forming an electron
beam, which passes to fall on the screen. When the fast electron beam strikes the
fluorescent screen, a bright visible spot is produced.
The grid, which is situated between the electrodes, controls the number of electrons
passing through it thereby controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X&Y-
plates are responsible for deflecting the electron beam horizontally and vertically. A
sweep generator is connected to the X-plates, which moves the bright spot horizontally
across the screen and repeats that at a certain frequency as the source of the signal. The

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 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

voltage to be studied is applied to the Y-plates. The combined sweep and Y voltages
produce a graph showing the variation of voltage with time.

Fig.2.19. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Fig.2.20.Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (Experimental View)

Result: Study of various electronic measuring instruments and components has been completed.

Result Analysis & Discussion: This section should be written individually by each student.

Inferences & Conclusion: This section should be written individually by each student.

Precautions:
1. Connecting electrolytic capacitors in reverse polarity can easily damage or destroy the
capacitor.

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 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, UK

2. Breadboard sockets are sturdy and rugged, and can take quite a bit of handling.
3. Be sure the test leads and rotary switch are in the correct position for the desired
measurement using multimeter.

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