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UNIT 1
PARTS OF SPEECH

We can categorize English words into 8 basic types or classes. These classes are called "parts
of speech". Following is an overview of the eight parts of speech, and a quiz to check your
understanding:

PARTS OF SPEECH TABLE

PART OF
NO FUNCTION EXAMPLE WORDS EXAMPLE SENTENCES
SPEECH
EnglishClub.com is a web
(to) be, have, do, like,
1 Verb Action or state site.
work, sing, can, must
I like EnglishClub.com.
pen, dog, work, This is my dog.
2 Noun Thing or person music, town, London, He lives in my house.
teacher, John We live in London.
a/an, the, 69, some,
My dog is big.
3 Adjective Describes a noun good, big, red, well,
I like big dogs.
interesting
My dog eats quickly.
Describes a verb, quickly, silently, well,
4 Adverb When he is very hungry,
adjective or adverb badly, very, really
he eats really quickly.

Tara is Indian.
5 Pronoun Replaces a noun I, you, he, she, some
She is beautiful.

Links a noun to another We went to school on

6 Preposition to, at, after, on, but
word Monday.
I like dogs and I like cats.
Joins clauses or I like cats and dogs.
7 Conjunction and, but, when
sentences or words I like dogs but I don't like
cats.
Short exclamation, Ouch! That hurts!
8 Interjection sometimes inserted into oh!, ouch!, hi!, well Hi! How are you?
a sentence Well, I don't know.

PARTS OF SPEECH EXAMPLES

Here are some sentences made with different English parts of speech:

Noun Verb Adjective Noun

John speaks good English.

Pronoun Verb Preposition Adjective Noun Adverb

She ran to the station quickly.

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Pron. Verb Adj. Noun Conjunction Pron. Verb Pron.

She likes big snakes but I hate them.

Here is a sentence that contains every part of speech:

Interjection Pron. Conj. Adj. Noun Verb Prep. Noun Adverb

Well, she and young John walk to school slowly.

WORDS WITH MORE THAN ONE FUNCTION

Many words in English can have more than one function, or be more than one part of
speech. For example, "work" can be a verb and a noun; "but" can be a conjunction and a
preposition; "well" can be an adjective, an adverb and an interjection. In addition, many nouns
can act as adjectives. To analyze the part of speech, ask yourself: "What function is this word
doing in this sentence?"
In the table below you can see a few examples. Of course, there are more, even for some of
the words in the table. In fact, if you look in a good dictionary you will see that the word but has
six functions to do:

 Verb, noun, adverb, pronoun, preposition and conjunction!

Word Part Of Speech Example

Noun My work is easy.
Work
Verb I work in London.
Conjunction John came but Mary didn't come.
But
Preposition Everyone came but Mary.
Adjective Are you well?
Well Adverb She speaks well.
Interjection Well! That's expensive!
Noun We ate in the afternoon.
Afternoon
Noun acting as adjective We had afternoon tea.

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UNIT 2
SINGULAR-PLURAL FORMS
COUNT-NONCOUNT

SINGULAR AND PLURAL

(a) NOUN + -s: Friends are A final –s or –es is added to make a noun plural
important Friend : a singular noun
NOUNS + -es: I like my Friends: a plural noun
classes

SPELLING : FINAL -s vs –es

For most words (whether a verb or a noun), simply a final –s
(b) Song  songs
is added to spell the word correctly.
(c) Glass  glasses Final –es is added to words that ends in –sh, -ch, -s, -z, and –x
For words that end in –y:
(d) Toy  toys In (d): if –y proceeded by a vowel, only –s is added.
(d) Baby  babies In (e): if –y is preceded by a consonant , the –y is changed
into –i and –es is added

IRREGULAR PLURAL NOUNS

(a) man – men mouse – mice The nouns in (a) have irregular plural
child – children foot – feet forms
Some nouns that end in :
(b) echoes (c) photos (d)mosquitoes  –o add –es to form the plural, as in (b)
heroes pianos /mosquitoes  –o add only –s to form in the plural,
potatoes videos volcanoes as in (c)
 –o add either –es or end –s to form
the plural, as in (d)
(e) knife – knives Some nouns that end in :
half- halves  –e or –fe are changed to –ves in the
plural, as in (e) and (f).
(f) belief – beliefs  –f simply add –s to form the plural,
roof- roofs as in (g)and (h).
- Some nouns have the same singular
(g) deer fish means sheep
and plural form (e.g., One deer is…
series species
Two deer are ….)
(h) criterion – criteria cactus – cacti - Some nouns that English has borrowed
formula – formulae basis – bases from other languages have foreign
index – indices datum - data plurals, as in (h).
phenomenon-phenomena thesis-theses
hypothesis-hypotheses crisis-crises
stimulus- stimuli medium-media
curriculum-curricula syllabus-sillabi

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COUNT NOUN AND NONCOUNT NOUNS

(a) I bought a chair. Sam bought Chair is a count noun, chairs are items that can
three chairs. be counted
(b) We bought some furniture. Furniture is a noncount noun. In grammar
INCORRECT: We bought a furniture furniture cannot be counted
INCORRECT: We bought some
furnitures
SINGULAR PLURAL
COUNT NOUN a chair chairs A count noun:
one chair two chairs (1) may be preceded by a/an in
some chairs the singular
(2) takes a final –s/-es in the
plural
NONCOUNT furniture A noncount noun:
NOUN some furniture (3) is not immediately preceded
by a/an
(4) has no plural form; does not
take a final –s/-es

NONCOUNT NOUNS

Notice in the following: Most noncount nouns refer to a “whole” that is made up of
different parts
(a) I bought some earrings, necklaces, In (a): jewelry represents a whole group
rings and bracelets. In other words, of things that is made up of similar but
I bought some jewelry. separate items.
In (b): sugar and coffee represent whole
masses made up of individual particles or
elements. To express a particular
(b) I put some sugar in my coffee quantity, some noncount nouns may be
preceded by unit expressions: e.g. , a
glass of water, a loaf of bread, a piece of
paper, a bowl of soup, etc.
In (c): luck is an abstract concept, an
(c) I wish you luck abstract “whole”. It has no physical form:
you can’t touch it, you can’t count it.
In (d): phenomena of nature, such as
(d) Sunshine is warm and cheerful sunshine, are frequently used as
noncount nouns.
(e) Ann has brown hair. Some nouns can be as either count nouns
(f) Ann has a hair on her jacket. or noncount nouns, but they have
(g) I opened the curtains to let some different meaning, as in (e), (f), (g), and
light in. (h).
(h) I turned off the lights before I left
my house.

NOTE: for more examples of irregular singular-plural nouns and uncountable nouns, see the
appendices.

NOUNS AS MODIFIERS

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(a) The soup has vegetables in it. It is When a noun is used as a modifier, it is in its
vegetable soup. singular form, as in (a) and (b).
(b) The building has offices in it. It is an office
building.
(c) The test lasted two hours. It was a two- When a noun used as a modifier is combined
hour test. with a number expression, the noun is
(d) His daughter is seven years old. He has a singular and a hyphen (-) is used, as in (c) and
seven-year-old daughter. (d).

SOME COMMON NONCOUNT NOUNS

(a) Whole groups made up of similar items:

Baggage, clothing, equipment, food, fruit, furniture, garbage, hardware, jewelry, junk,
luggage, machinery, mail, money,/cash/change, postage, scenery, traffic.
(b) Fluid: water, coffee, milk, oil, blood, gasoline, etc.
(c) Solid: ice, bread, cheese, meat, gold, iron, silver, glass, paper, wood, wool, etc.
(d) Gases: steam, air, oxygen, smoke, pollution, etc.
(e) Particles: rice, chalk, corn, dirt, grass, hair, salt, sugar, etc.
(f) Abstractions: beauty, confidence, education, fun, happiness, advice, time, homework,
work, grammar, vocabulary, energy, etc.
(g) Language: Arabic, Chinese, English, etc.
(h) Fields of study: chemistry, engineering, history, mathematics, etc.
(i) Recreation: baseball, soccer, chess, etc.
(j) General activities: driving, studying, swimming, walking, etc (other gerunds).
(k) Natural phenomena: weather, dew, fog, heat, rain, snow, thunder, wind, light, sunshine,
electricity, fire, gravity, lightning.

A. State whether the statements are correct or incorrect.

1. a. There are many mouses in our house.
b. There are many mice in our house.

2. a. Some churches in our country are old buildings.

b. Some churchs in our country are old buildings.

3. a. I need to buy some furniture for my new apartment.

b. I need to buy some furnitures for my new apartment.

4. a. If you drink too much coffees, you will feel dizzy.

b. If you drink too much coffee, you will feel dizzy.

5. a. Hendra Wijaya is such an honest boy.

b. Hendra Wijaya is such a honest boy.

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B. Choose the Correct Answer

1. My scissors _____ sharp enough. I am going to buy a new one.

(A) is not (C) does not
(B) are not (D) do not

2. Long before _____ are able to speak or understand a language, they communicate
through facial expressions and by making noises.
(A) child (C) children
(B) childs (D) childrens

3. The police _____ to interview Fred about robbery.

(A) want (C) wants
(B) are wanting (D) were wanted

4. Mathematics _____ my best subject at school.

(A) is not (C) not does
(B) are not (D) do not

5. The trousers you bought for me _____ fit me.

(A) is not (C) does not
(B) are not (D) do not

6. My hometown has _____, thunder, fog, sleet, and snow in the winter months.
(A) rains (C) rain
(B) rained (D) raining

7. It would be better to check your _____ if you go to the post office.

(A) mailing (C) mail
(B) mails (D) mailes

8. We are going to cook these _____ on the barbeque.

(A) steak (C) steakes
(B) steakoes (D) steaks

9. _____ usually inherit some characteristics from their father and some from their mother.
(A) childrens (C) children
(B) childes (D) childs

10.There was not much__________ in the pool so we did not swim.

(A) waters (C) watering
(B) water (D) watered

C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct

1. To make a yummy fruit salad we need some apples, tomatos, water melons, and papayas.
A B C D

2. The informations you gave to the detective was misleading, so you should clarify it soon.
A B C D

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3. Organisms that lack hard parts, such as worms and jelly fishes have left a meager geologic
A B C D
record.

4. Homeworks are not only given to the pupils in Junior high school but also to the children in
A B C D
elementary school.

5. Art of colonial America was very functional, consisting mainly of useful objects such as
A B C
furnitures and household utensil.
D

6. George had a good luck when he first came to a state university.

A B C D

7. In 1959 it was naively predicted that eight or ten computer would be sufficient to handle
A B
all of the scientific and business needs in the United States.
C D

8. After spending most of his life travelling round the world, he is now writing a book about
A B C
his experiences.
D

9. I know I always feel great in bright sunshines, during the summer months.
A B C D

10. I had a pair of knifes on the table, which I was going to use later for dinner. .
A B C D

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UNIT 3
WORD ORDER

WORD ORDER OF ADJECTIVE S IN NOUN PHRASE

Det. Opinion Fact Noun

Size Age Shape Color Origin Material Purpose
A silly young English man
Two huge round metal bowls
Some small red sleeping bags

WORD ORDER IN SENTENCES

Word order for a simple and affirmative sentence.

subject verb(s) object

I speak English
Mary and Jim finish their assignment

subject verb indirect object direct object place time

I will tell you the story at school tomorrow

Word order in a negative sentence.

subject verb indirect object direct place time

object
I will not tell you the story at school tomorrow.

POSITION OF TIME EXPRESSION

subject verb indirect object direct object time

tomorrow, recently,
I will tell you the story now, then,
yesterday.

POSITION OF ADVERBS

1) Adverb of Frequency
These adverbs are usually put before the main verb (except for 'be' as a main verb).

subject auxiliary/be adverb main verb object, place or time

They often go swimming in the evenings.
He doesn't always play tennis.
We are usually here in summer.
I have never been abroad.

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2) Adverb of Manner

direct These adverbs are put behind

subject verb(s) adverb
object the direct object (or behind
He drove the car carefully the verb if there's no direct
He drove carefully object).

3) Adverb of Place

direct
subject verb(s) adverb Like adverbs of manner, these
object
adverbs are put behind the
I didn't see him here
direct object or the verb.
He stayed behind

4) Adverbs of Time

indirect direct Adverbs of time are

subject verb(s) time
object object usually put at the end
I will tell you the story tomorrow of the sentence.

SUBJECT AUXILIARY WORD INVERSION

In normal everyday English, inversion is used :

► to make questions : does he?, can you?
► after so, neither, nor : so do I, neither do I.
In written English, as well as in a very formal style, inversion is used in the following cases :
(a) At no time did she say she would come. After negative adverbial expressions
(b) On the doorstep was a bunch of flowers. After adverbial expressions of place
(c) Seldom have I seen such a beautiful view. After seldom, rarely, never
(d) No sooner had I arrived than they all started After hardly, scarcely, no sooner, when
to argue. one thing happens after another
(e) Only after the meeting did I realize the After adverbial expressions beginning
importance of the subject. with 'only'
(f) Here comes the winner! After exclamations with here and there

A. State whether the statements are correct or incorrect.

1. a. I am interested in buying a wonderful old Italian clock.

b. I am interested in buying an old wonderful Italian clock.

2. a. My husband really wants to have some slim new French trousers.

b. My husband really wants to have some French slim new trousers.

3. a. Sonya always goes to school on foot because her school is very close to her house.
b. Sonya goes always to school on foot because her school is very close to her house.

4. a. Never I have seen such a great movie.

b. Never have I seen such a great movie.

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5. a. Only after the car crash have they become careful drivers.
b. Only after the car crash they have become careful drivers.

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. Tom is very temperamental, and he _____ .

(A) always gets angry
(B) gets always angry
(C) always angry gets
(D) angry always gets

2. He likes his new job very much, so he _____ every day.

(A) works hardly
(B) hard works
(C) hardly work
(D) works hard

3. My younger brother plays _____.

(A) the piano very well
(B) very good the piano
(C) very well the piano
(D) the piano very good

4. The entertainer Chubby Checker introduced a _____ to New York’s rock’ n ‘ roll fans.
(A) new dance, the twist,
(B) twist, was the new dance,
(C) twist, the new dance,
(D) new dance is the twist,\

5. I think Jane deserved to be fired for her _____.

(A) totally behavior irresponsible
(B) behavior totally irresponsible
(C) irresponsible totally behavior
(D) totally irresponsible behavior

6. _____ appeared to be coming from the science lab next door.

(A) The pungent unpleasant odor of burning plastic
(B) The unpleasant pungent odor of burning plastic
(C) The pungent unpleasant odor of plastic burning
(D) The unpleasant odor pungent of burning plastic

7. One of Farah’s favorite subjects in school is drama because _____ lots of fun and enjoys
being part of it all
(A) has really she
(B) she really has
(C) she really is
(D) is she really

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8. Only after they had completed the analysis to that degree ___ how to apply technology to
the needs of our enterprise.
(A) did they ask to begin
(B) did they begin to ask
(C) they did begin to ask
(D) to ask did they begin

9. The archeologists were astonished to find such _____ at that particular site.
(A) an incredibly rare beautiful artifact
(B) a rare incredibly beautiful artifact
(C) a beautiful artifact incredibly rare
(D) an incredibly beautiful rare artifact

10._____ explores the nature of guilt and responsibility and builds to a remarkable
conclusion.
(A) The written beautifully novel
(B) The beautifully written novel
(C) The novel beautifully written
(D) The written novel beautifully

C. Choose the incorrect answer.

1. Overtime the young students will perfect the art of piano playing. After all such a tuned finely
A B C D
instrument needs delicate handling.

2. In that particular department of the company, production keeps going often day and night.
A B C D

3. The tenants were asked to throw all recyclable trash into the green big plastic bag.
A B C D

4. I know I feel always great in bright sunshines during the summer months.
A B C D

5. Bella is a beautifully girl who always goes to campus by car every day.
A B C D

6. There are some importance points that they are going to discuss tomorrow.
A B C D

7. When my brother was studying abroad he got married to a small Canadian thin lady.
A B C D

8. George gave his wife a beautiful blue boat sailing as a birthday present.
A B C D

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9. Young mothers like cooking with microwave because it can cook fastly.
A B C D

10.Uncle Jim walks with shakily because he is getting old and once he got a tremor.
A B C D

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UNIT 4
DETERMINERS

DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES

ARTICLE “THE” EXPLANATION

(a) An elephant and a mouse fell in love. The a) to refer to something that has already
mouse loved the elephant's long trunk, been mentioned.
and the elephant loved the mouse's tiny
nose.

(b) Could you open the door, please? b) when both the speaker and listener
know what is being talked about, even if
it has not been mentioned before.
(c) My house is the one with a blue door. c) in sentences or clauses where we define
or identify a particular person or object.

(d) The sun sets in the west. d) to refer to objects we regard as unique.

(e) They have their honeymoon in the Yacht to e) with names of geographical areas and
the Caribbean. oceans.
(f) She grew up in the seventies f) with decades, or groups of years.

ARTICLE “A/ AN” EXPLANATION

(a) An elephant and a mouse fell in love. a. to refer to something for the first time
(b) 1. John is a doctor. b. to refer to a particular member of a
2. John is an Englishman. group or class:
3. Sherlock Holmes was playing a violin. 1) with names of jobs
4. I was born on a Thursday. 2) with nationalities and religions
3) with musical instruments
4) with names of days
(c) It was a very strange car. c. to refer to a kind of, or example of
something.
(d) She's such a beautiful lady. d. with singular nouns, after the words
'what' and 'such'.
(e)The burglar took a diamond necklace and a e. meaning 'one', referring to a single
valuable painting. object or person

NO ARTICLE EXPLANATION
(a) Germany is an important economic power a. with names of countries (if singular)..
(But: I'm visiting the United States next
week.)
(b) English uses many words of Latin origin b. with the names of languages
(c) Breakfast is the first meal of the day. c. with the names of meals.
(d) George King is my uncle. d. with people's names (if singular):
(But: we're having lunch with the Morgans John's coming to the party

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tomorrow.)
(e) President Kennedy was assassinated in e. with titles and names
Dallas.
(f) His brother's car.
(g) Engineering is a useful career f. After the 's possessive case
(h) 1948 was a wonderful year. g. with professions
(i) Rice is the main food in Asia. h. with years
(j) Mount McKinley is the highest mountain in i. with uncountable nouns
Alaska. j. with the names of individual mountains,
(k) Victoria Station is in the centre of London lakes and islands
k. with most names of towns, streets,
stations and airports
In some fixed expressions, for example:
by car on foot at school in prison
by train on holiday at work in bed
by air on air at university in church

DEMONSTRATIVES

The demonstratives this, that, these, those show where an object or person is in relation to the
speaker.
This (singular) and these (plural) refer to an object or person near the speaker. That (singular)
and those (plural) refer to an object or person further away. It can be a physical closeness or
distance as in the following examples.

1. This car looks cleaner than that one.

2. This old world keeps turning round
3. I would like some of those cookies on that shelf.
4. These dolls on the table here are very old.

QUANTIFIERS

Expression of quantity Used with count nouns Used with noncount nouns
one one book ø
each each book ø
every every book ø
two /three, etc. two /three books ø
both both books ø
a couple of a couple of books ø
a few a few books ø
several several books
ø
many many books
ø
a number of a number of books
ø
a little ø a little sugar
much ø much sugar
a great deal of ø a great deal of sugar

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not any/no not any/no books not any/no sugar

some some books some sugar
a lot of a lot of books a lot of sugar
lots of lots of books lots of sugar
plenty plenty of books plenty of sugar
most most books most sugar
all all books all sugar

An expression of quantity (many, much, few, little) may precede a noun. Pay attention that
some expressions of quantity are used only with count nouns; some only with noncount nouns;
some with either count or noncount nouns

USING A FEW AND FEW; A LITLLE AND LITTLE

a few  She is a new students but she has a few and a little give a positive
made a few friends. (positive idea: idea; they indicate that something
she has made some friends) exists, is present, as in (a) and (b)
a little  I’m very pleased. I’ve been able to
save a little money this month.
(positive idea: I have save some
money instead of spending all of it)

few I am very sorry for her. She has very few few and little (without a) give a
friends, (Negative idea: she does not negative idea; they indicate that
have many friends; she has almost no something is largely absent.
friends)
little I have very little money. I don’t even very (+few/little) makes the
have enough money to buy food for negative idea stronger, the
dinner. (negative idea: I do not have amount/the number smaller.
much money, I have almost no money)

USING MUCH AND MANY

much (a) I don’t have much money much and many mainly used in
(b) How much water do you consume negative sentences as in (a) and
every day? (c) and questions, as in (b) and (d)

many (c) There aren’t many new species here.

(d) How many cigarettes do you smoke in
a day?

USING SOME AND ANY

Some: we use some in affirmative sentences
Any: we use any in negative sentences and most in questions (but not all).
AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTEROGATIVE
There are some apples. There aren't any apples. Are there any apples?
(We don't know how (The bowl is empty) (We want to know if
many, but the bowl is not the bowl contains apples)
empty)

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USING ENOUGH

(a) I am strong enough to lift that box. I can Enough follows an adjective, as in (c)
lift it.
(b) I have enough strength to lift that box. Enough may precede a noun, as in (d), or
(c) I have strength enough to lift that box. follow a noun as in (c)

A. Choose the correct answer.

1. a. We took a new routes to the beach house.

b. We took a new route to the beach house.

2. a. He gave too many different reasons for his actions.

b. He gave too many different reason for his actions.

3. a. You need to show a little kindness then she will be yours.

b. You need to show a few kindness then she will be yours.

4. a. There are any children playing in the park.

b. There are some children playing in the park.

5. a. There were not much people came to my birthday party.

b. There were not many people came to my birthday party.

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. In __________, the team has begun to show some form again and has won some big
games.
(A) few weeks
(B) few past weeks
(C) the past few weeks
(D) a few weeks since

2. George Washington once said that _______ have virtue enough to withstand the highest
bidder.
(A) few men
(B) the few men
(C) few are the men
(D) the men are few

3. We were fortunate enough to visit the Grand Canyon. It has _____.

(A) beautiful scenery that is much
(B) beautiful sceneries that are many
(C) many beautiful sceneries
(D) much beautiful scenery

4. Do you have _____ to do today? We could have a long lunch if not.

(A) many work
(B) much work
(C) many works
(D) much works

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5. Our company didn't pay _____ for that banner advertisement.

(A) few money
(B) a few money
(C) many money
(D) much money

6. I am familiar with that product. I don't know _____ times I've seen it advertised on TV.
(A) how many
(B) how often
(C) how much
(D) many often

7. We saw quite _____ wild animals while on vacation.

(A) a few
(B) a little
(C) much
(D) some

8. There is an island near ___ Pacific Ocean.

(A) a
(B) an
(C) the
(D) on

9. _____ is currently available to researchers and physicians who study and treat
acromegaly, a glandular disorder characterized by enlargement and obesity.
(A) The little information
(B) Few information
(C) Little information
(D) A few information

10.When your body do not get _____, it cannot make the glucose it needs.
(A) enough food
(B) food as enough
(C) food enough
(D) enough the food

C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct.

1. Lisa wants to drink a water because she is very thirsty.

A B C D

2. Serbian conduct in Bosnia has been strongly condemned by the civilized world, but
A B
little serious actions have been taken against it.
C D

3. The Suvarnabhumi airport, Thailand's new international airport, is the largest in Asia
A B C D

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4. Sperm whale is an unique organism in that it is the largest mammal on earth.

A B C D

5. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, any writers claimed that lists of wonders of the
A B C
world have existed during the Middle Ages.
D

6. Many heavy work that was once done by hand can now be done more easily with the
A B C D
help of compressed air.

7. Peter and Carol don’t have much children, just one daughter and one son.
A B C D

8. His score on the exam was enough good to qualify him for a graduate program.
A B C D

9. This trees will grow very tall if you water them every day.
A B C D

10. Grand Canyon National Park is said to be one of the first National Parks in the United
A B C
States and is predicted to attract much more visitors next year.
D

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UNIT 5
PRONOUNS

SUBJECT PRONOUNS

I you they we Subject pronouns are used in the subject

he she it you position of a sentence, as in (a) and (b).

(a) I am going to the book store next week. Subject pronouns are also used after the verb
be, as in (c).
(b) We have studied for two hours.
(c) It was he who took my book yesterday. Subject pronouns we and you can be followed
(d) We students are going to have the final directly by a noun. In (d), we students makes it
exam tomorrow. clearer who we refer to.
(e) She achieved higher score in the midterm
test than I a couple of days ago. Subject pronouns are also used after than, as,
and that, as in (e).

COMPLEMENT PRONOUNS

me you them us Complement pronouns in complement or

him her it you object position, whether they complement a
verb or a preposition.
(a) They lent her some novels last night. NOTE: You and it are the same for subject or
complement position. The others are different.
(b) The teacher gave him a failing grade last In (a) and (b), the pronouns are the
semester. complement of verbs, while in examples (c) and
(c) To me, what she does is ridiculous. (d), the pronouns are the complement or object
(d) Alex is jogging with me now. of prepositions.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

my your their our Possessive adjectives are NOT the same as

his her its your possessive pronouns. These simply modify,
(a) James is reading his book at present. rather than substitute, nouns. Possessive
(b) I broke my arm. pronouns replace nouns. Possessive forms
show ownership.
(c) She has finished her homework.
The pronouns can also be used before present
(d) My parents did not approve of my going participle, as in (d).
to Bali last week.

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POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

mine yours his hers Possessive pronouns cannot precede a noun.

ours its theirs yours They replace the noun. The noun is
understood from the context and is not
(a) Your tutor is the same as his tutor. Yours is repeated.
the same as his.
(b) I forgot my dictionary. I forgot mine.
(c) The red book is yours and the blue one is
mine.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

myself yourself himself ourselves Reflexive pronouns usually come after the verb
herself itself themselves and show that the subject is both giving and
yourselves receiving the action, as in (a), (b) and (c).

(a) He sent the letter to himself. These pronouns can also be used for emphasis,
(b) They were criticizing themselves. as in (d), (e), and (f). It means that the subject
(c) I served myself in the restaurant. did the action alone. In this case, it normally
(d) We ourselves think that the paper is follows the subject.
good.
(e) You yourself must do your work.
(f) They prepared the meal themselves.

Exercise
A. State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.
1. a. When he comes back from vacation, Bob and me plan to look for another apartment.
b. When he comes back from vacation, Bob and I plan to look for another apartment.

2. a. The bus leaves Ted and she at the corner.

b. The bus leaves Ted and her at the corner.

B. Choose the Correct Answer.

1. The jaw structure of a snake permits it to eat and digest animals much larger than ____ .
(A) it (C) itself
(B) its (D) it has

2. Sports medicine experts agree that ice should be applied immediately when an athlete
suffers an injury to______ leg.
(A) its (C) the
(B) an (D) his

3. One property of radioisotopes is that _______decaying occurs in half-lives over a long period
of time.
(A) they (C) they’re
(B) them (D) their

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4. Since the earth’s crust is much thicker under the continents, equipment would have to be
capable of drilling through 100,000 feet of rock to investigate the mantle ______.
(A) beneath them (C) beneath its
(B) beneath their (D) beneath they

5. There are ten children playing in the yard near my house, but your child is not______.
(A) among them (C) among their
(B) among us (D) among theirs

6. The policemen ordered the suspect not to remove _______ from the hood of the car.
(A) their hands (C) them hands
(B) his hands (D) him hands

7. Caves have preserved the bones of many animals that died in _______ and were
subsequently buried under a blanket of clay or a cover of dripstone.
(A) they (C) their
(B) them (D) themselves

8. The company has so little money that ________ hardly operates anymore.
(A) it (C) its
(B) their (D) they

9. The students were interested in taking a field trip to The National History Museum, but -
_______ were not able to raise enough money.
(A) them (C) they
(B) their (D) theirs

10. His father does not approve of _______ to the banquet without dressing formally.
(A) his going (C) he goes
(B) him to go (D) him going

C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct

1. According to the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, no person should be

A B
compelled to be a witness against him own.
C D

2. According to the theory of natural selection, the man who was able to use the hands
A
and feet most freely to walk and grasp was the one who survived and evolved.
B C D

3. Although Barney Clark lived only a few months with that artificial heart, doctors were
A
able to learn a great deal from him having used it.
B C D

4. According to Amazon legends, men were forced to do all of the household tasks for
A B
the women warriors who governed and protected the cities for they.
C D

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5. After she had bought himself a new automobile, she sold her bicycle.
A B C D

6. Before my parents went home, them had bought me some food.

A B C D

7. Peter and Tom play tennis every morning with Mary and we.
A B C D

8. A mosquito’s wings move about one hundred times per second. Their wing movement
A B C
is the sound we hear when a mosquito is humming in our ears.
D

9. A baby learns the meanings of new words as they are spoken by others and later uses him in
A B C D
sentences.

10. Because Sam and Michelle had done all of the work theirselves, they were unwilling to give
A B C
the results to Joan.
D

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UNIT 6
MODAL AUXILIARIES

The modal auxiliaries in English are:

can, ought to, Modal auxiliaries generally express a speaker’s attitude, or

shall should “moods”. For example, modals can express that a speaker feels
will would something is necessary, advisable, permissible, possible, or
could had better probable. In addition, they can convey the strength of these
may might attitudes. Only are some modals discussed in this chapter.
must be able to

MAY & MIGHT

(a) May I borrow your pen? Modal may is used to express polite requests, as in
(b) He may be sick. (a).
(c) She may have been sick. It also expresses weak degree of certainty both in
(d) She may do well on the test. the present (b), in the past (c), and in the future (d).
(e) She might be at home now. Modal might also expresses weak degree of
certainty, as in (e).

CAN
(a) Can I leave the class early? Modal can in (a) is used to indicate request
(b) Jim cannot be sick. It is impossible. I permission.
just saw him playing football in the
yard. In (b), modal can shows degree of certainty:
(c) My son can play football well. present time negative. In (c), modal can usually
expresses the idea that something is possible. It
combines the idea of possibility and ability.

COMPARE: Both can and be able to are used to express the

(d) Jim can finish his homework on time. idea of ability and possibility, as in (d) and (e).
Be able to is more commonly used in combination
(e) Jim will be able to finish his homework
with other auxiliaries, as in (e). Be able to is
on time.
uncommon in the simple present, as in (f).
(f) I am able to finish the work on time.

COULD

(a) Could you lend me your dictionary? Modal could can be used to express request
(b) You could talk to your tutor. permission, as in (a)
It can also be used to indicate suggestion or
(c) She could be sick.
possibility, as in (b).
(d) She couldn’t be hungry. In (c), it indicates weak degree of certainty in
the present time, but it shows strong degree of

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COMPARE: certainty in negative forms, as in (d).

(e) When he was young, he could jump Modal could in affirmative sentences about
over the bridge. past ability as in (e) means “used to be able to”.
It means that the ability no longer exists.
(f) James was able to run two miles. Modal was/were able to is used, rather than
yesterday without stopping. could, to show an act at a particular time in the
(g) They were not able to/couldn’t reach past, as in (f).
the top of the mountain yesterday. In negative sentences, there is no difference
between using could and was/were able to, as
in (g).

SHOULD & OUGHT TO

(a) The children should study hard. Modals should and ought to can be used to
(b) The children ought to study hard. express advisability, as in (a) and (b).
In (c) and (d), modals should and ought to can
(c) He should do well on the test.
also indicate strong degree of certainty.
(d) He ought to do well on the test.

MUST

(a) I must study hard this week. Modal must in (a) is used to express strong
(b) You must not open the book during the necessity.
test. It can also be used to express prohibition (in
(c) Tom is not in class. He must be sick. negative forms), as in (b).
(d) Tom must have been sick yesterday. In (c), modal must indicates strong degree of
(e) He got A in math. He must have studied certainty or logical conclusion based on some
hard before the exam. evidence in the present time, and (d) and (e)in
the past.

HAVE TO/HAVE GOT TO

(a) I have to go to class today. Modals have to and have got to are used to
(b) I have got to go to class today. express necessity, as in (a) and (b) both
(c) I don’t have to go to class today. affirmative sentences in the present and past.
In (c), modal have to is used to show lack of
necessity in negative sentences.

WILL/BE GOING TO

(a) He will be here at 6.00 Modals will and be going to can express a
(b) Someone is knocking at the door. I will prediction, as in (a) and (d).
open it. Only can modal will be used to show
(c) Will you please wipe off the black willingness, as in (b), and only be going to is
board. used to show a prior plan, as in (e).
(d) He is going to be here at 6.00. Modal will can be used to indicate polite
(e) I am tired of taking the bus to work. He requests, as in (c).
is going to buy a car.

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WOULD

(a) Would you deliver the goods soon? Modal would in (a) expresses a polite request

SHALL

(a) Shall I open the door? Modal shall is used to express a polite question
(b) We shall arrive at the airport at nine. to make a suggestion, as in (a).
In (b), it also expresses future with “I” and “we”
as subjects.

USED TO/ BE USED TO V-ING

(a) I used to live in Miami. To express habitual past, used to is followed by

(b) James is used to living in a cold climate. an infinitive, as in (a).
(c) James is accustomed to living in a cold Be used to and be accustomed to are followed
climate. by an –ing verb form (a gerund), as in (b) and
(c).

HAD BETTER

(a) You had better study hard Modal had better is used to express
(b) You had better be on time. advisability with threat or bad results. Past
form of had better is uncommon.

WOULD RATHER

(a) I would rather not go out now. Would rather expresses preference in
(b) I would rather go to class tomorrow than present and future time, as in (a) and (b).
today. Would rather has the same meaning as
prefer. Would rather must be followed by a
verb, but prefer may or may not be
followed by a verb.

COMPARE: In (c) and (d), when the preference is for

another person or thing, would rather that
(c) I would rather drink tea than coffee.
introduces a clause. The other person or
(d) I prefer drinking tea to drinking coffee. thing is the subject of the clause. Would
(e) I would rather that you drove safely. ((he rather that is followed by the past tense
does not drive safely) when the meaning of the sentence is
(f) I would rather that you had visited her. contrary to the fact just as the rule affects
(you did not visit her) conditional sentences and the verb wish.

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COULD/MAY/MIGHT+ PERFECTIVE

(a) He may have come last night, but I am not These modals + perfective are used to
sure. indicate a past possibility. These modals
(b) The cause of death could have been also can express possibility in the present.
bacteria.
(c) James might have gone to the concert
yesterday.

SHOULD+PERFECTIVE

(a) Alex should have gone to campus this This modal expresses an obligation that was
morning. (He didn’t go to campus) supposed to occur in the past, but for some
(b) Mary shouldn’t have called Andy reason it did not occur.
yesterday. (She did call Andy) NOTE: the expression was/were supposed
(c) Robert should have submitted the final to + (verb in simple form) means much the
assignment on time. (He didn’t submit the same as should + perfective.
final assignment on time) e.g. Alex was supposed to go to campus this
morning. (He didn’t go to campus)

Exercises.
A. State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.

1. a. After you show me the way, I can to go by myself.

b. After you show me the way, I can go by myself.

2. a. He was used to drink too much.

b. He used to drink too much.

3. a. You had better to hurry if you don’t want to miss the bus.
b. You had better hurry if you don’t want to miss the bus.

4. a. If you don’t mind, I’d rather not to serve on the committee.

b. If you don’t mind, I’d rather not serve on the committee.

5. a. Diane would rather that her husband doesn’t working so hard.

b. Diane would rather that her husband didn’t work so hard.

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. By the time a baby has reached his first birthday, he should, without the help of an adult,
_______sit up or even stand up.
(A) to be able to (C) able to
(B) to be able (D) be able to

2. The theory of Continental Drift assumes that there _______ long term climatic changes in
many areas during the past.
(A) must have been (C) must be
(B) must have (D) must

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3. The general public________ a large number of computers now, because prices are
beginning to decrease.
(A) must have been buying (C) must be buying
(B) must have bought (D) must buying

4. Since more than 50 percent of all marriages in the United States end in divorce, about half
of the children in America must _______ in single parent homes.
(A) grow up (C) growing up
(B) to grow up (D) have grown up

5. In a liberal arts curriculum, it is assumed that graduates will ______ about English,
languages, literature, history, and the other social sciences.
(A) know (C) knows
(B) known (D) knowing

6. Harvard________ a school for men, but now it is coeducational, serving as many women
as men.
(A) was used (C) used to be
(B) was used to (D) was used to be

7. To check for acidity, one had better _______litmus paper.

(A) use (C) to use
(B) to use (D) useful

8. The great apes, a generally peaceful species, _______.in groups.

(A) would rather living (C) would rather live
(B) would rather they live (D) would rather lived

9. He told me a lot about the Philippines. He ________ there for a long time.
(A) must have lived (C) might be living
(B) ought to be lived (D) should be living

10. When we got home, we found the front door open. Somebody ______entered the house
while we were away.
(A) must have (C) ought to have
(B) would have (D) should have

C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct.

1. It is said that the American flag has five-pointed stars because Betsy Ross told
A B
General Washington she would rather that he changing the six-pointed ones.
C D

2. Because doctors are treating more people for skin cancer, it is believed that changes
A B
in the protective layers of the earth’s atmosphere must produced harmful effects.
C D

3. Some astronomers contend that in ancient times, the Big Horn Medicine Wheel, an
A

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arrangement of stones in Wyoming, must have serve as sighting points for

B C D
observations of the sun.

4. The Amish people, descended from the Germans and Swiss, would rather using
A
horses than machines for transportation and farm work because they believe that a
B C
simple life keeps them closer to God.
D

5. In today’s competitive markets, even small businesses had better to advertise

A B
on TV and radio in order to gain a share of the market.
C D

6. As television images of the astronauts showed, even for trained professionals who
A B
are used to move about in a lessened gravitational field, there are still problems.
C D

7. The Impressionists like Monet and Manet are used to use color in order to create an
A B C
image of reality rather than reality itself.
D

8. Sheep must have mate in fall since the young are born in early spring every year.
A B C D

9. A patients who suffers from amnesia may had partial or total loss of memory.
A B C D

10. We had better to review this chapter carefully because we will have some questions on
A B C
it.
D

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UNIT 7
CAUSATIVE VERBS

Causative verbs are used to show that one person causes second person to do something for
the first person. It means that he can cause another person to do something for him by paying,
asking, or forcing the person. The causative verbs commonly used are: have, get, make.

(1) ACTIVE
S + have / make* + complement + verb in simple form .......
(any tense) (usually person)
e. g. :
 Gery had Tom clean the floor. (Tom cleaned the floor).
 I have my husband buy me a new car.
 The robber made the teller give him the money. (The robber forced the teller to give
him the money.)
 The president is making his cabinet members sign this document.

* The causative verb make can be followed only by a clause in the active voice. It has stronger
sense than have and get. It means force.

(2) ACTIVE
S + get + complement + to infinitive ................
(any tense) (usually person)
e. g. :
 Gery got Tom to clean the floor. (Tom cleaned the floor)
 I get my husband to buy me a new car.

(3) PASSIVE
S + have / get + complement + V3 (past participle) ............
(any tense) (usually thing)
e. g.:
 Gery got (had) the floor cleaned.
(The floor was cleaned by somebody)
 I have/get the new car bought.

Other examples:

1. The lecturer had the students hand in the term paper on time.
The lecturer got the students to hand in the term paper on time.
The lecturer got/had the term paper handed in.

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2. Dick is having his sister make the bed.

Dick is getting his sister to make the bed.
Dick is getting/having the bed made.

Exercises
A. State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.
1. The teacher made John to leave the class.
2. Ellen got Marley paint the wall.
3. The policeman made the robber lie on the ground.
4. Maria had Gene prepare the meal.
5. We have to have our children to study hard.

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. Nadia will have her friend______ her essay assignment next week.
(A) submit (C) submitting
(B) submitted (D) to submit

2. The students are getting the lecturer _______ the schedule.

(A) change (C) to change
(B) changing (D) changed

3. The attorney had his client_______ the possibility of winning the case.
(A) consider (C) to consider
(B) considering (D) considered

4. All people make the new leader _______the need for justice and equality.
(A) emphasize (C) to emphasize
(B) emphasizing (D) emphasized

5. The instructor had the trainees _______a project report.

(A) making (C) made
(B) make (D) to make

6. The test administrator made us not _______our books until h told us to do so.
(A) open (C) opening
(B) to open (D) opened

7. Jack always gets me _______beside him.

(A) not to smoke (C) not smoking
(B) no smoking (D) not smoke

8. The speaker is getting the audience ______to his speech.

(A) listen (C) listening
(B) listened (D) to listen

9. The principal always has the students _______the school rules.

(A) obey (C) to obey
(B) obeying (D) obeyed

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10. The new government will have the budget of education_______.

(A) increased (C) increase
(B) to increase (D)increasing

C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct.

1. Luis got his sister read his class assignment, and then asked her to write the report
A B
for him because he did not have enough time.
C D

2. The director had them to work in committees to plan a more effective advertising
A B C
campaign for a new product.
D

3. James’ lecturer had him to rewrite his thesis many times before allowing him to
A B C
present it to the committee.
D

4. I always go to the hairdresser’s to have my hair to cut every month.

A B C D

5. Why don’t you make her doing it herself.

A B C D

6. Hendry always gets the room cleanly every day.

A B C D

7. Father will have the mechanic repaired my car before I use it tomorrow.
A B C D

8. The police officer had the suspect to fill the form.

A B C D

9. Nadine usually gets the woman sweep the floor in the morning.
A B C D

10. Father will have the room clean before the guests arrive.
A B C D

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UNIT 8
SUBJUNCTIVE

Subjunctive is used in a noun clause that follows certain verbs and expressions. The sentences
generally stress importance. Subjunctive verbs are used only in their simple form. They do not
have present, past, or future form; they are neither singular nor plural.

(a) The teacher demands that we be on time.  In (a): be is a subjunctive verb.

(b) I insisted that he pay me the money.  Negative: not + simple form, as in (c).
(c) I recommended that she not go to the  Passive: simple form of be + past
concert. participle, as in (d).
(d) It is important that they be told the truth.
(e) I suggested that she see a doctor. Should is also possible after suggest and
(f) I suggested that she should see a doctor. recommend.

Common verbs and expressions followed by the subjunctive in the noun clause
Verbs It + is (other form of be) + adjective
demand ask
insist urge vital obligatory suggested
suggest advise mandatory proposed imperative
recommend propose advised required important
request necessary urgent

Exercise
A. State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.
1. Mr. Adams insisted that we be careful in our writing.
2. It is essential that no one will be admitted to the room without proper identification.
3. It is vital that no one else know about the secret government operation.
4. I requested that I permit to change my class.
5. Her advisor recommended that she takes five courses.

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. It is imperative that he_____ home immediately.
(A) returns (C) will return
(B) return (D) shall return

2. The government proposed that a new highway _____.

(A) is built (C) builds
(B) will be built (D) be built

3. She specifically asked that I ______anyone else about it.

(A) not tell (C) will not tell
(B) does not tell (D) do not tell

4. It is imperative that the government _____ poverty.

(A) eradicate (C) not eradicates
(B) eradicates (D) does not eradicate

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5. It is necessary that calcium ______for the development of strong bones and teeth.
(A) be used (C) is used
(B) will be used (D) used

6. The judge insisted that the jury ________ a verdict immediately.

(A) return (C) returned
(B) returning (D) returns

7. The university requires that all its students _______ this course.
(A) taking (C) take
(B) took (D) are taking

8. Congress had recommended that the gasoline tax _______ abolished

(A) be (C) was
(B) is (D) to be

9. It is imperative that the committee ________ discussion on this issue

(A) suspended (C) suspend
(B) suspending (D) suspends

10. It is advised that you ________ the prerequisites before registering for this course.
(A) takes (C) take
(B) took (D) to take

C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct

1. It is essential that the temperature is not elevated to a point where the substance
A B
formed may become unstable and decompose into its constituent elements.
C D

2. When a patient’s blood pressure is much higher than it should be, a doctor usually
A B C
insists that he will not smoke.
D

3. He insisted that the food is canned for later consumption.

A B C D

4. The instructor recommended that everyone takes the placement test.

A B C D

5. The government urged that all citizens will vote in the next election.
A B C D

6. It is most important that he speaks to the dean before leaving for his vacation.
A B C D

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7. It was suggested that Pedro studies the materials more thoroughly before
A B
attempting to pass the exam.
C D

8. The doctor advised Mr. Andrew that he lies in bed for a few days as a precaution
A B C
against further damage to the tendons.
D

9. It is urgent that the committee will study the proposals before making a decision.
A B C D

10. The director suggested that his staff to plan a more effective advertising campaign
A B C
for the new product.
D

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UNIT 9
TENSES

PRESENT TENSE

Tense Examples Meaning

Simple Present (a) It snows in Alaska. In general, simple present
(b) I read newspaper every morning. expresses events or
situations that exist always,
usually, or habitually. They
exist now, have existed in the
past, and probably will exist
in the future.
Present (a) John is eating dinner now. Present progressive is used to
Progressive (b) We are leaving for the theater at indicate present time (now)
(Continuous) seven o’clock. with all (a).
It is also used to indicate
future time (b).
Present Perfect (a) John has travelled around the world. Present perfect is used to
(b) George has seen this movie three indicate an action that
times. happened at an indefinite
(c) John has lived in the same house for time in the past (a).
twenty years. (he still lives there) It is also used to indicate an
action that happened more
than once in the past (b).
It is also used to indicate an
action began in the past and
is still occurring in the present
(c).

Present Perfect (a) I have been waiting for her since Present perfect continuous is
Continuous you left used to indicate an action
(b) I have been thinking about that began in the past and
changing my major. still occurring in the present
(present perfect rules) or
duration, as in (a). It is usually
used with time words such as
for, since, all morning, all day,
all week, etc.
When the tense is used
without any specific mention
of time, it expresses a general
activity in progress recently,
lately, as in (b).

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PAST TENSE

Tense Examples Meaning

Simple Past (a) John went to Spain last year. Simple past is used for a
(b) Bob bought a new bicycle completed action that
yesterday. happened at one specific time
(c) Maria washed the dishes last in the past.
night It began and ended in the past.
Past Progressive (a) When Mark came home, Martha Past progressive is used to
(Continuous) was watching television. indicate an action which was
(b) Martha was watching television occurring in the past and was
while John was reading a book. interrupted by another action,
as in (a).
It is also used to indicate two
actions occurring at the same
time in the past, as in (b).
Past Perfect (a) John had gone to the store The past perfect is used to
before he went home. indicate an action that
(b) Until yesterday, I had never heard happened before another
about the news. action in the past as in (a) or
time in the past as in (b); there
usually are two actions in the
sentence.
When either before and after
COMPARE:
is used in (c), the past perfect
(c) Jack had already left before I got
is often unnecessary because
there.
the time relationship is clear.
(d) Jack left before I got there The simple past may be used,
as in (d).
Past Perfect (a) The police had been looking for The past perfect continuous
Continuous the criminal for two years before focuses on the duration of an
they caught him. activity that was in progress
(b) Her hair was still wet because she before another activity or time
had been swimming. in the past, as in (a).
It also expresses an activity in
progress recent to another
time or activity in the past, as
in (b).

FUTURE TENSE

Simple Future (a) I will have a test tomorrow Will or be going to is used to
(b) I am going to have a test express future time.
tomorrow.
(c) We will eat dinner after we get In (c) and (d), sentences after we get
home. home and until they come are time
(d) I will wait until they come clause. A time clause begins with
such words as when, before, after,
as soon as, until and includes a
subject and a verb. Will or be going

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to is NOT used in a time clause. The

meaning is future, but the simple
present tense is used.
Future (a) I will begin to study at seven. You The future progressive expresses an
Progressive will come at eight. activity that will be in progress at a
I will be studying when you come time in the future. Will or be going
(b) Don’t call me at nine because I to may be used.
won’t be home.
I am going to be studying at the
library.
Future Perfect I will have finished my work by the The future perfect expresses an
time I go out tonight. activity that will be completed
before another time or event in the
future.
Future Perfect When Prof. Jones retires next month, The future perfect progressive
Progressive he will have been teaching for 40 expresses the duration of an activity
years. that will be in progress before
another time or event in the future.

Exercise
A. State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.
1. Please, be quiet. I am trying to concentrate.
2. Kathy is always washing her hair every other day.
3. I called Mary last night.
4. In her whole life time, I have never see snow.
5. She will probably attends the meeting.

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. A: “ Can I borrow your magazine?”

B: “ I’ am sorry, my sister ______it.
(A) is still reading (C) has been reading
(B) will still read (D) still reads

2. “ Oh dear! I forgot to bring my dictionary”.

“ That’s all right. I ______you mine.”
(A) am lending. (C) am going to lend
(B) will lend (D) will be lending

3. “Where is my dictionary? It was on my desk.”

“Perhaps, somebody ______it.”
(A) takes (C) has taken
(B) is taking (D) had taken

4. In the years between 1937 and 1952, author Margaret Wise Brown not only ______more
than a hundred books but also wrote the lyrics for 21 children's records.
(A) produce (C) produced
(B) produces (D) was producing

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5. Political demonstrations on American campuses have abated_______.

(A) after 1970 (C) in 1970
(B) for 1970 (D) since 1970

6. People who have very little technical background have______ to understand computer
language.
(A) learn (C) learning
(B) learned (D) learns

7. Before the Angles and Saxons ______to England, the Ibarians had lived there.
(A) came (C) comes
(B) had come (D) has come

8. My nephew______ working for me about ten years ago.

(A) begun (C) begin
(B) have begun (D) began

9. Doctoral students who are preparing to take their qualifying examinations have been
studying in the library every night _______the last three months.
(A) since (C) until
(B) before (D) after

10. The internal Revenue service ______their tax forms by April 15 every year.
(A) makes (C) make
(B) is making (D) has made

C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct.

1. Before she died, Andrew Jackson’s daughter, who lives in the family mansion, used
A B C
to take tourists through her home.
D

2. In 1867, The United Stated will purchased Alaska from the Russians for $7.2 million.
A B C D

3. Amanda Way's career as a social reformer begins in 1851 when, at an antislavery meeting
A B C
in Indiana, she called for a state woman's rights convention.
D

4. Robert E. Lee surrenders the Confederate army to General Grant in 1865 at the
A B C D
Appomattox.

5. Before dinosaurs became extinct, plant life is very different on earth.

A B C D

6. When Columbus seen the new world, he thought that he had reached the East
A B C
Indies by way of a Western route.
D

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7. Nerve impulses will send sensation to the brain at a speed of about one hundred
A B C
yards per second.
D

8. In 1970, according to the National Center for Health Statistics, the average life
A B
expectancy for American people is 72.4 years.
C D

9. The professor had already given the homework assignment when he

A
had remembered that Monday was a holiday.
B C D

10. John lived in New York from 1990 to 2000, but he is now lives in Detroit.
A B C D

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UNIT 10
PASSIVE VOICE

We make passive verb forms with the verb BE + PAST PARTICIPLE

Be includes: am, is, are, was, were, be, and been.
USES
(a) To focus on something that happens to someone rather than the person who does the
action.
Over 36% of Guatemalan workers are employed in the agricultural sector.

(b) To talk about systems and processes

Many of the world’s diamonds are mined in South Africa. The stones are sent to
Amsterdam, where they are sold to international dealers. The stone are cut in Antwerp,
and they are then sold on to jewelers.

(c) To have business correspondence, because it is less personal.

Compare:
 Peter Jason, who opens our post at this branch, received your letter yesterday. He
has forwarded it to Head Office. (Active)
 Thank you for your letter which was received at this branch yesterday. It has been
forwarded to Head Office, as complaints are dealt with there. (Passive)

(d) To describe changes

The factory is completely different. The whole place has been modernized and
computerized, and a lot of people have been made redundant.

(e) To have scientific writing or lab reports.

The new species of dinosaurs, one a quick-moving meat-eater and the other a giant-
plant-eater, have been discovered in Antarctica. The 70 million years old fossil of the
carnivore would have rested for millenniums at the bottom of the Antarctica Sea, while
the remains of the 30 meters long plant-eater were found in the top of mountain.

FORMS

TENSE ACTIVE PASSIVE

SIMPLE PRESENT The committee reviews the The proposal is reviewed by the
proposal. committee.
SIMPLE PAST The committee reviewed the The proposal was reviewed by the
proposal. committee.
SIMPLE FUTURE The committee will review the The proposal will be reviewed by the
proposal. committee.
PRESENT CONTINOUS The committee is reviewing the The proposal is being reviewed by the
proposal. committee.
PAST CONTINOUS The committee was reviewing The proposal was being reviewed by
the proposal. the committee.

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BE GOING TO The committee is going to The proposal is going to be reviewed

review the proposal. by the committee.
PRESENT PERFECT The committee has reviewed The proposal has been reviewed by
the proposal. the committee.
PAST PERFECT The committee had reviewed The proposal had been reviewed by
the proposal. the committee.
FUTURE PERFECT The committee will have The proposal will have been reviewed
reviewed the proposal. by the committee.
MODAL The committee must review the The proposal must be reviewed by the
proposal. committee.

STATIVE PASSIVE

(a) The door is locked. The passive form may be used to describe an
(b) The window is broken. existing situation, as in (a) and (b). No action is
taking place. The action happened before.
There is no “by phrase”. The past participle
functions as an adjective.
(c) I am interested in Chinese art. Stative passive verbs are often followed by a
(d) I am satisfied with her job. preposition other than by, as in (c), (d), and (e).
(e) Lyn is married to Andy.
(f) I am done with my work. (f) and (g) are the examples of idiomatic usage
(g) I am finished with my work. of the passive form. The sentences have no
(h) I cannot find my book. It is gone. equivalent active sentences.

THE PASSIVE WITH GET

(a) I stopped working because I got tired Get may be followed by a past participle. The
(b) They are getting married next week. past participle functions as an adjective, it
(c) I got worried because he was two hours describes the subject.
late.

PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES

(a) It is a confusing problem. (the problem The present participle conveys an active
confuses the students) meaning. The noun it modifies does something,
(b) They are confused students. (the students as in (a) and (c).
are confused by the problem)
(c) It is an amusing story. (the story amuses The past participle conveys a passive meaning.
the children) The noun it modifies receives the action, as in
(d) They are amused children. (the children (b) and (d).
are amused by the story)

NEED

(a) My computer needs to be repaired. Verb need may be followed by to be +V-3 or

(b) My computer needs repairing. V-ing without any differences in meaning

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Exercise
A. State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.

1. a. My wedding ring made of yellow and white gold.

b. My wedding ring is made of yellow and white gold.
2. a. Laura was born in Iowa.
b. Laura born in Iowa.
3. a. Most of us are sponsored from our parents.
b. Most of us are sponsored by our parents.
4. a. The car was inspected for customs.
b. The car was inspected by customs.
5. a. Her watch needed repaired.
b. Her watch needed repairing.

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. If more than five thousand dollars in monetary instruments is transported into the United
States, a report needs ________with the customs office.
(A) file (C) file
(B) to file (D) to be filed

2. The famous architect, Frank Wright, was greatly _______., who wanted him to study
architecture.
(A) influenced by his mother (C) from his mother’s influence
(B) his mother influenced him (D) influencing for his mother.

3. In the stringed instruments, the toners _______ by planting a bow across a set of strings
that may be made of wire or gut.
(A) they produce (C) producing
(B) are produced (D) that are producing

4. Romeo and Juliet ________ by William Shakespeare most probably in 1594 or 1595.
(A) was written (C) is written
(B) were written (D) are written

5. Hundreds of houses and other buildings ________ by the raging tropical storms which later
developed into a hurricane.
(A) were developing (C) were developed
(B) are developing (D) are developed

6. The biology class will _______into two sections to prevent overcrowding in his classroom.
(A) be divided (C) be divide
(B) divide (D) be dividing

7. We arrived at the store to purchase the dishwasher which _________ in the local
newspaper.
(A) has been advertised (C) have been advertised
(B) had been advertised (D) is advertised

8. A great deal of property _______ by hurricanes each year.

(A) is destroyed (C) was destroyed
(B) destroyed (D) destroy

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9. Next week, some new equipment _______ by the company to increase the production.
(A) will be ordered (C) was ordered
(B) is ordered (D) ordered

10. These contracts _______ by the manager in the next meeting.

(A) will be signed (C) was signed
(B) be signed (D) signed

C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct.

1. Work is often measure in units called foot pounds.

A B C D

2. In the ionosphere, gases have been partly ionize for high frequency radiation from
A B C
the sun and other sources.
D

3. Because the interstate highway system linking roads across the country was built
A B
about thirty-five years ago, most of the roads in the system now need repaired.
C D

4. It is believe that most of the earthquakes in the world occur near the
A B C
youngest mountain ranges-----the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Sierra Nevada.
D

5. With special enzymes that are call restriction enzymes, it is possible to spilt off
A B
segments of DNA from the donor organism.
C D

6. All participants of the seminar have been informing by the committee.

A B C D

7. He is sent an e –mail last week to inform him about the new schedule.
A B C D

8. We are suppose to read chapter seven and answer the questions for
A B C
tomorrow’s class
D
9. The house were renovated by some workers several weeks ago.
A B C D

10. We should have been informed Janis about the change in plans regarding our
A B C
weekend trip to the mountains.
D

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UNIT 11
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

In all patterns, there must be an agreement of subject and verb. Avoid using a verb that agrees
with the modifier of a subject.

USING EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY (BE AS A VERB)

SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB

(a) Some of the book is (c) Some of the books are The verb is determined by the
good. good. noun (or pronoun) that follows
(b) A lot of the equipment (d) A lot of my friends are of in most expressions of
is new. here. quantity. Notice in (a) and (c)
Some of + singular noun +
singular verb (it is singular when
you are talking about part of one
thing)
Some of + plural noun + plural
verb
(e) One of my friends is EXCEPTION:
here one of, each of, every one of
(f) Each of my friends is take singular verbs.
here
(g) Every one of my friends one of, each of, every one of +
is here plural noun + singular verb
(h) None of the boys is (i) None of the boys are Subjects with none of are
here here. (informal) considered singular in very
formal English, but plural verbs
are often used in informal
speech and writing.
((9 COMPARE:
(j) The number of students (k) A number of students In (j) the number is the subject.
in the class is fifteen. were late for class In (k) a number of is an
expression of quantity, meaning
“a lot of.” It is followed by a
plural noun and a plural verb.

Exercise: State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.

1. a. The facilities at the new research library, including an excellent microfilm file, is among
the best in the country.
b. The facilities at the new research library, including an excellent microfilm file, are among
the best in the country.

2. a. Since the shipment of supplies for our experiments were delayed, we will have to
reschedule our work.
b. Since the shipment of supplies for our experiments was delayed, we will have to
reschedule our work.

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USING MAIN VERB

SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB

(a) The student always (d) The students always If a main verb is used:
borrows the book. borrow the book. Singular noun + main verb+
(b) The book has a good (e) The books have good s/es
story. story. Plural noun + main verb
(c) The child usually sleeps at (f) The children usually sleep (without s/es)
9 am. at 9 am.

Exercise: State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.

1. a. Several pets, two dogs and a cat, needs to be taken care of while we are gone.
b. Several pets, two dogs and a cat, need to be taken care of while we are gone.

2. a. State University, the largest of the state-supported schools, have more than 50,000
students on main campus.
b. State University, the largest of the state-supported schools, has more than 50,000 students
on main campus

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT: SOME IRREGULARIES

SINGULAR VERB
(a) The news is interesting. Sometimes a noun that ends in –s is singular.
(b) Mathematics is easy for her. Physics Notice the examples: If the noun is changed to a
is easy for her, too. pronoun, the singular pronoun it is used (not the
(c) Ghosts is the best film I have ever plural pronoun they).
watched.
(d) The United Nations has its Note: Fields of study, as in (b), that end is -ics
headquarters in New York City. take singular verbs.
(e) Eight hours of sleep is enough. Expression of time, money, and distance usually
(f) Ten dollars is too much too pay. take a singular verb.
(g) Five thousand miles is too far to
travel.

PLURAL VERB
(a) Those people are from Canada People and police do not end in –s but are plural
(b) The police have been called. nouns and take plural verbs

SINGULAR-PLURAL VERB

SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB

(a) English is spoken in (c) The English drink In (a): English – language
many countries. tea. In (c): the English – people from
(b) Chinese is his native England
language (d)The Chinese have an Some nouns of nationality that end
interesting history in –sh, -ese, and –ch can mean either
language or people.
e.g. English, Spanish, Chinese,

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Japanese, Vietnamese, Portuguese,

French
(e) The poor have many A few adjectives can be preceded by
problems. the and used as a plural noun
(f) The rich get richer. (without final –s) to refer to people
who have this quality.
Other examples:
the young, the old, the living, the
dead, the blind, the deaf, the
handicapped.

GERUNDS AS SUBJECTS

(a) Dieting is very popular today. If a sentence begins with gerunds (verb+ing),
(b) Washing with a special cream is the verb must be singular.
recommended for scalp infection.
(c) Writing many letters makes me happy.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS: AGREEMENT WITH COLLECTIVE NOUNS

The following are examples of collective nouns:

audience class committee couple crowd faculty group
family government group public staff team club
COMPARE: When a collective noun refers to a single
(a) My family is large. It consists of ten impersonal unit, a singular pronoun (it, its) is
members. used, as in (a).
(b) My family is (are) loving and supportive. When a collective noun refers to a collection of
They are always ready to help me. various individuals acting separately, a plural
pronoun (they, them, their), as in (b).
When the collective noun refers to a collection
of individuals, the verb may be singular or
plural, as in (b).

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT: USING THERE + BE

There and here introduce verb-subject order. The verb agrees with the subject following it.

There Verb Subject

There are a lot of people in the park.

Here Verb Subject

Here is the result of the discussion
FORMS OF OTHER

(a) The students in the class come from Forms of other are used as either adjectives (e.g.
many countries. One of the another student and other students) or pronouns (e.g.
students is from Cambodia. another and others), as in (a).
Another student is from Iran. The meaning of another: one more in addition to
Another is from Indonesia. Other one(s) already mentioned.
students are from Argentina. The meaning of other/others (without the): several
Others are from Egypt. more in addition to the one (s) already mentioned.
(b) I have three novels. Two are mine. The meaning of the other (s): all that remains from a

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The other book is yours (the other given number; the rest of a specific group.
is yours).
(c) I have three pens. One is yours. The
others are mine (the other pens
are mine).
(d) We write to each other every Each other and one another show a reciprocal
month. relationship, as in (d) and (e).
(e) We write to one another every
month.
(f) I will be here for another three Another is used with expressions of time, money, and
days. distance, even if these expressions contain plural
nouns.
Avoid using a verb that does not agree with the subject.

EXERCISES
A. State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.
1. a. I think there was ten people in line.
b. I think there were ten people in line.

2. a. There has been very little rain this summer.

b. There have been very little rain this summer.

3. a. Statistics is a difficult subject for me.

b. Statistics are a difficult subject for me

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. A group of tissues, each with its own function, ____ in the human body.
(A) it makes up the organs
(B) make up the organs
(C) they make up the organs
(D) makes up the organs

2. Cupid, one of the ancient Roman gods, ____.

(A) were a little winged child
(B) representing as a little winged child
(C) was represented as a little winged child
(D) a little winged child

3. In a suspension bridge, ____ that carry one or more flexible cables firmly attached at each
end.
(A) there is two towers on it
(B) there are two towers
(C) two towers there are
(D) towers there are two

4. The Palo Verde tree ____ in spring.

(A) has beautiful yellow blossoms
(B) beautiful yellow blossoms
(C) having beautiful yellow blossoms
(D) with beautiful yellow blossoms

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5. Nine of every ten people in the world ____in the country in which they were born.
(A) living
(B) they are living
(C) lives
(D) live

6. The average temperature of rocks on the surface of the earth ____55 degrees F.
(A) be
(B) are
(C) is
(D) been

7. All of the people at the AAME conference are ____

(A) mathematic teachers
(B) mathematics teachers
(C) mathematics teacher
(D) mathematic’s teachers

8. Oscillatona, one of the few plants that can move about, ____ a wavy, gliding motion.
(A) having
(B) has
(C) being
(D) with

9. In the ocean, ____ more salt in the deeper water.

(A) is there
(B) it may be
(C) there is
(D) it is

10.The yearly path of the sun around the heavens ____.

(A) is known as the ecliptic
(B) known as the ecliptic
(C) it is known to be ecliptic
(D) knowing as the ecliptic

C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct

1. Columbus, Ohio, the capital of the state, are not only the largest city in Ohio but also a
A B C
typical metropolitan area which is often used in market research.
D

2. There is about 600 schools in the United States that use the Montessori Method to
A B C
encourage an individual initiative.
D

3. A thunderhead, dense clouds that rise high in the sky in huge columns, produce hail,
A B C D
rain, or snow.

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4. Not one in one hundred children exposed to the disease are likely to develop
A B C D
symptoms of it.

5. Both a term paper and a final exam is required for Chemistry 320.
A B C D

6. Studies of job satisfaction are unreliable because there is so many variables and because
A B C
the admission of dissatisfaction may be viewed as a personal failure.
D

7. The popularity of soccer in the United States were increased significantly by the playing
A B C
of the World Cup in cities throughout the country in1994.
D

8. Two of the players from the Yankees has been chosen to participate in the All Star
A B C D
game.

9. The information officer at the bank told his customers that there was several different
A B C D
kinds of checking accounts available.

10. Many people in the United States has been interested in soccer.
A B C D

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UNIT 12
GERUNDS & INFINITIVES

A gerund is the –ing form of a verb (e.g., speaking, understanding, playing) which is used as a
noun, i.e. as a subject and an object of both a verb or a preposition.
An infinitive is to + the simple form of a verb (e.g., to speak, to understand, to play).

GERUNDS

(a) Climbing is challenging. In (a) and (b): climbing and jogging are
(b) Jogging makes me healthy. gerunds. They are used as the subject of the
sentences.
(c) I enjoy reading novels. In (c) and (d): the words reading and seeing are
(d) He always avoids seeing me. gerunds which are used as objects of verbs
enjoy and avoid respectively.
(e) I am looking forward to studying overseas A gerund is often used as the object of a
. preposition
(f) I object to changing my plan. In (e), (f) and (g): to and about are prepositions,
(g) I talked about not taking this topic. not part of an infinitive form, so a gerund
follows.
In (g): for negative form, not precedes a
gerund.
COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS

enjoy appreciate mind quit (give up)

finish (get through) stop avoid postpone (put off)
delay keep (keep on) consider (think about) discuss (talk about)
mention suggest

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

VERB + INFINITIVES Some verbs are followed immediately by

(a) I want to buy a new notebook. an infinitive, as in (a) and (b).
(b)I promise not to disturb you. Negative form: not precedes the infinitive.
VERB + (PRO)NOUN + INFINITIVES Some verbs are followed by a (pro)noun
(c) Mr Ted allowed me to use his car. and then an infinitive, as in (c) and (d).
(d)My teacher always encourages me to study
hard.
(e) I was told to be here at nine o’clock. These verbs are followed immediately by
(f) The thief was ordered not to move. an infinitive when used in the passive, as in
(e) and (f).
(g)I expect to visit my grandma. Ask, expect, would like, want, and need,
(h)I expect Susan to help me. may or may not be followed by a
(pro)noun object. Compare:
(i) I think I will pass the exam
(j) I think Susan will help me

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GROUP A: VERB+INFINITIVES

hope to promise to seem to ask to

plan to agree to appear to expect to
intend to offer to pretend to would like to
decide to refuse to need to want to
GROUP B: VERB+(PRO)NOUN + INFINITIVE

tell someone to invite someone to require someone to ask someone to

advise someone to permit someone to order someone to expect someone to
encourage someone to allow someone to force someone to would like someone to
remind someone to warn someone to want someone to need someone to

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY EITHER INFINITIVES OR GERUNDS

Some verbs may be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund, sometimes with no difference un
meaning and sometimes with a difference in meaning.
GROUP A: VERB +INFINITIVES OR GERUND (WITH NO DIFFERENCE IN MEANING)
begin like hate start love
can’t stand can’t bear continue prefer

(a) It began to rain (c) It started to work

(b) It began raining (d) It started working
GROUP B: VERB +INFINITIVES OR GERUND (WITH A DIFFERENCE IN MEANING)
remember forget regret try stop

(a) Jane always remembers to lock the door In (a) and (c): remember and forget to perform
(b) Jane remembers seeing the strange man responsibility, duty, or task.
(c) Kim will never forget to clean his room In (b) and (d): remember and forget something
(d) Kim often forgets lending me money that happened in the past.

Exercises
A. State which sentences are correct and incorrect.
1. Alice is not interested to look for a job.
2. I am accustomed to have a big breakfast.
3. Instead of studying, Mary went to a ball game with some of her friends.
4. Simon objected to work with me.
5. Fred keeps researching learning strategies.

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. It is hot here. Would you mind _____ the window?

(A) opening
(B) to open
(C) opens
(D) opened

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2. I enjoy _____ the newspaper every morning while I am having my first cup of tea.
(A) reading
(B) to read
(C) read
(D) to read

3. Sometimes teenagers get into trouble with their parents by _____.

(A) disobeying what their parents want
(B) disobey what their parents want
(C) disobeys what their parents want
(D) to disobey what their parents want

4. Where are you considering _____ for vacation?

(A) going
(B) to go
(C) to be going
(D) went

5. The teacher reminded the students _____.

(A) submitting their assignment on time
(B) to submit their assignment on time
(C) submitted their assignment on time
(D) to be submitted their assignment on time

6. Fred did not have any money, so he decided _____.

(A) to take a job
(B) taking a job
(C) he takes a job
(D) he took a job

7. The students were expected _____.

(A) taking part in the seminar
(B) to take part in the seminar
(C) they take part in the seminar
(D) they took part in the seminar

8. Our teacher encourages the students _____ a dictionary when they find unfamiliar words.
(A) not to look up
(B) not looking up
(C) do not look up
(D) not look up

9. All applicants are required _____ an entrance examination.

(A) to take
(B) taking
(C) takes
(D) take

10. After a brief and rude interruption, the professor stopped _____ and left the class.
(A) lecturing
(B) lecturer
(C) to lecture
(D) to be lecturing

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C. Choose the incorrect answer.

1. Sometimes students avoid to look at the teacher if they do not want to answer a question.
A B C D

2. Liza encouraged me throwing away my old running shoes and to buy a new pair without holes
A B C D
in the toes.

3. In the fairy tale, the wolf threatened eating a girl named Little Red Riding Hood.
A B C D

4. How many times does your mother have to remind you hanging up your coat when you get
A B C D
home from school?

5. I finally managed persuading Jane to stay in school and finish her degree.
A B C D

6. When a student asks a question, the teacher always tries explaining the problem as clearly as
A B C D
possible.

7. I cannot ever forget to watch our team score the winning goal in the last seconds of the game
A B C
to capture the national championship.
D

8. Before I left home to go away to college, my mother reminded me write a letter at least once
A B C D
a week.

9. Jane and David were considering to get married in June, but they finally decided to postpone
A B C D
it until August.

10. I am looking forward to eat my mother’s cooking and sleeping in my own bed.
A B C D

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UNIT 13
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE & ADJECTIVE PHRASE

An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or noun phrase. It describes,
identifies, or gives further information about a noun/noun phrase. An adjective clause is also
called a relative clause. An adjective clause commonly uses relative pronouns such as who, which,
that, whom, where, when.

USING SUBJECT PRONOUNS: WHO, WHICH, THAT

(a) The vendors will be relocated to the central Clauses (a) and (b) make up a sentence with
park. an adjective clause (clause c)
(b) The vendors sell on the main street. The italic clauses are adjective clause which
(c) The vendors who (that) sell on the main modifies the noun “the vendor” and
street will be relocated to the central park. “mobile phone” respectively.
(a) Mobile phones are kept in the customs
office. Who : used for people as subject
(b) Mobile phones were smuggled to Indonesia. Which : used for things as subject or object
(c) Mobile phones which (that) were smuggled That : used for both people and things
to Indonesia are kept in the customs office.

USING OBJECT PRONOUNS: WHO(M), WHICH, THAT

(a) The man was a chronically late employee. The clauses (a) and (b) make up a sentence
(b) The new boss fired him. with an adjective clause using object
pronouns.
(c) The man (who)m the new boss fired was a
chronically late employee.
The italic clause is an adjective clause.
(d) The man that the new boss fired was a Notice: the adjective clause pronoun (clause c
chronically late employee. and d) is put as close as possible to the noun
(e) The man Ø the new boss fired was a it modifies.
chronically late employee.
In clause (e) the object pronoun is omitted
from the adjective clause without changing
the meaning. (Subject pronouns may not be
omitted).

USING WHOSE AND OF WHICH

(a) Audience applauded the speaker. The italic clause is an adjective clause using whose.
(b) His presentation was very excellent. Whose is used to show possession. It has the same
(c) Audience applauded the speaker meaning as other possessive pronouns used as
whose presentation was very adjectives: his, her, its, and their. Like the adjective
excellent. pronouns, whose is linked with a noun:
his presentation becomes whose presentation

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(d) We have an antique table. Both whose and the noun it is connected to are
(e) The top of it has jade inlay. placed at the beginning of the adjective clause.
(f) We have an antique table, the top of Whose may not be omitted.
which has jade inlay. An adjective clause may include a noun + of
which (e.g. thea. top of which). The pattern has
the meaning of whose(e.g. We have an
antique table whose top has jade inlay). This
pattern is used in adjective clause that
modifies a “thing” and is used mainly in formal
written English. Commas are used.

USING WHERE

(a) The apartment is near my dad’s office. Where is used in an adjective clause to modify
(b) My family live there. a place (city, country, room, house, town,
(c) The apartment where my family live is near school, etc.)
my dad’s office. If where is used, a preposition is not included
in the adjective clause. And if where is not
used, the preposition must be used.

USING WHEN

(a) I will never forget the day. When is used in an adjective clause to
(b) We first met on the day. modify time(hour, day, date, month, year,
(c) I will never forget when we first met. etc.).

CHANGING AN ADJECTIVE CLAUSE TO AN ADJECTIVE PHRASE

(a) The girl who is helping my mom is my The adjective clause in (a) can be reduced to
sister. the adjective phrase in (b). (a) and (b) have the
(b) The girl helping my mom is my sister. same meaning.
Only adjective clauses that have a subject
pronoun – who, which, that- that can be
reduced to modifying adjective phrases.
There are two ways to change an adjective
clause into an adjective phrase.
(a) CLAUSE: The man who is sitting next to (1) If the adjective clause contains the be form
me is from Korea. of a verb, omit the pronoun and the be
PHRASE: The man sitting next to me is form, as in examples (a) and (b).
from Korea.
(b) CLAUSE: The arguments which are
presented in the paper are
convincing
PHRASE: The arguments presented in the
paper are convincing.
(c) CLAUSE: English has an alphabet which (2) If there is no be form of a verb in the
consists of 26 letters. adjective clause, it is sometimes possible to
PHRASE: English has an alphabet omit the subject pronoun and change the

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consisting 26 letters. verb to its -ing form, as in (c).

(d) CLAUSE: George Washington, who was If the adjective clause requires commas as in
the first president of the United States, (d), the adjective phrase also requires commas,
was a wealthy colonist and a general in as in (e).
the army.
(e) PHRASE: George Washington, the first
president of the United States, was a
wealthy colonist and a general in the
army.
(f) Paris, the capital of France, is an exciting Adjective phrases in which a noun
city. follows another noun, as in (f) and (g ), are
(g) I read a book by Mark Twain, a famous called "appositives".
American author.

Exercises
A. State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.

1. The students who have taken the test today are tired.
2. My sister who living in Paris is a biologist.
3. The film that we are watching is really scary.
4. The bed that I slept on was very soft.
5. At the party there were many people I did not know.

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. A crystal is a piece of matter_______ are naturally formed plane surface.

(A) whose boundaries (C) which boundaries
(B) boundaries (D) when boundaries

2. Let ABC be a triangle ________.

(A) which sides are of equal length (C) that sides are of equal length
(B) whose sides are of equal length (D) where sides are of equal length

3. The man ________ was the manager of the supermarket.

(A) which hired Robert (C) hiring Robert
(B) hired Robert (D) who was hired Robert

4. The tornado ________ destroyed several homes.

(A) which was struck the town (C) striking the town
(B) that was being struck the town (D)whose town was struck

5. John admired the dresser ________.

(A) where Alice kept her sheets. (C) of which Alice kept her sheets.
(B) which Alice kept her sheets. (D) when Alice kept her sheets.

6. The scientist ________ was from Sweden.

(A) which was awarded the Nobel prize (C) whose award the Nobel prize
(B) awarded the Nobel prize (D) that the Nobel prize awarded

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7. Edward bought a car_________ to Susan.

(A) that Fred had previously sold (C) where Fred had previously sold
(B) in which Fred had previously (D) to whom Fred had previously sold
sold

8. The books ________ was very helpful.

(A) we bought last night (C) which we bought the books last night
(B) that we bought the books last night (D) whose we bought last night

9. The guy _________ is my future husband.

(A) whose car is red (C) in which car is red
(B) by which car is red (D) who car is red

10.The car ________ has a very powerful engine.

(A) that Ted bought the car (C) which Ted bought
(B) by which Ted bought (D) when Ted bought

C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct.

1. A foreign investor bought stocks in a cigarette manufacturer which profits had increased
A B C
dramatically for the last three quarters.
D

2. The cars which trying to enter the freeway system are lined up for blocks.
A B C D

3. The archeologist found an ancient manuscript who had beautiful illustrations.

A B C D

4. A cloud’s reservoir of negative charge extends upward from the altitude at when the
A B C
temperatures hit the freezing point.
D

5. The bills when were passed by the House yesterday died in the Senate.
A B C D

6. Senators were familiar with details of the proposal believe that it has a good chance of
A B C
passing.
D

7. Sir Andrew is considered to be a prophet which is descended from heaven.

A B C D

8. It is believed that any man, whose loves children and dogs, would make a good husband.
A B C D

9. The author who books have been sold well is few and far between.
A B C D

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10. The research report on urban life in which submitted and published was far from the fact
A B C D
and criticized.

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UNIT 14
NOUN CLAUSE

Like a noun, a noun clause is also used as a subject or an object. In other words, a noun clause is a
clause used in the same way as a noun.

(a) Her presentation was convincing. In (a): presentation is a noun. It is used as the
(b) What she presented was convincing. subject of the sentence.
In (b) what she presented is a noun clause. It is
also used as the subject of the sentence. The
noun clause has its own subject she and verb
presented.
(c) I cannot understand her complaint. In (c): complaint is a noun. It is the object of the
(d) I cannot understand what she verb understand.
complained. In (d): what she complained is a noun clause. It
is the object of the verb understand.
WORDS USED TO INTRODUCE NOUN CLAUSES
(1) question words: when, where, who, why, how, which, whom, what, whose
(2) whether, if
(3) that

NOUN CLAUSES WHICH BEGINS WITH A QUESTION WORD

QUESTION NOUN CLAUSE EXPLANATION

Where does he (a) I do not know where he works. In (a) where he works is the object of
work? (b) Did you know what time she the verb know. You may not use
What time did she came. question word order in a noun clause.
come? Notice: does and did are used in
questions but not in noun clauses.
Who helped you? (c) Tell me who helped you. In (c) and (d): The word order is the
What was wrong? (d) I do not know what was same in both the question and the
wrong. noun clause because who and what
are the subjects in both.
Who are you? (e)I know who you are. In (e) and (f) you and that are the
Whose book is that? (f) I know whose book that is. subjects, so they must be placed in
front of the verb are and is in the
noun clauses.
What did you give? (g) What you gave makes me In (g) and (h): What you gave and
offended. How she behaved are the subjects of
How did she (h) How she behaved is the sentences.
behave? embarrassing. Notice: a noun clause takes a singular
verb (e.g. –s and is)

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NOUN CLAUSES WHICH BEGIN WITH WHETHER OR IF

YES/NO QUESTIONS NOUN CLAUSES EXPLANATION

Will she study? (a) I do not know whether When a yes/no question is
Did he come? she will study. changed to a noun clause,
(b) I wonder if he came. whether or if is used to
introduce the noun clause.
Whether is more acceptable in
formal English, but if is quite
common, especially in speaking.

NOUN CLAUSES WHICH BEGIN WITH THAT

STATEMENT NOUN CLAUSES EXPLANATION

Ted is a great artist (a) I think that Ted is a great In (a) and (b): that Ted is a great
He is a successful teacher artist. artist and that) he is a
(b) I think (that) he is a successful teacher are noun
successful teacher. clauses. They are the objects of
the verb think
The word that, when used to
introduce noun clauses, has no
meaning in itself. It may be
omitted.
She is good at mathematics (c) That she is good at In (c): the noun clause is used as
mathematics is surprising. the subject of the sentence.
(d) It is surprising that she is In (d): the noun clause is used as
good at mathematics. the object of the sentence.

A. State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.

1. It is unfortunate that the meal is not ready yet.
2. She told me when should I pick up the children.
3. The instructor explained where was the computer lab located.
4. We could not believe what he did to us.
5. I want to know if is it going to rain tomorrow.
6. We never know whether we will get paid or not.
7. This evening you can decide what do you want to do.
8. The manager explained how he wanted the work done.
9. The map showed where the party would be held.
10. Can you tell me why was the mail not delivered today?

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. Scientists cannot agree on ____________ related to other orders of insects.

(A) that fleas are
(B) how fleas are
(C) how are fleas
(D) fleas that are

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2. It was in 1875 _________________ joined the staff of the astronomical observatory at

Harvard University.
(A) that Anna Winlock
(B) Anna Winlock, who
(C) as Anna Winlock
(D) Anna Winlock then

3. ___________ is a narrow strip of woods along a stream in an open grassland.

(A) Ecologists use the term “gallery forest”
(B) What do ecologists call a “gallery forest”
(C) “Gallery forest” is the term ecologists use
(D) What ecologists call a “gallery forest”

4. ________ so incredible is that these insects successfully migrate to places that they have
never even seen.
(A) That makes the monarch butterflies’ migration
(B) The migration of the monarch butterflies is
(C) What makes the monarch butterflies’ migration
(D) The migration of the monarch butterflies, which is

5. In order to grow vegetables properly, gardeners must know _______________.

(A) what the requirements for each vegetable are
(B) that the requirements for each vegetable
(C) what are each vegetable’s requirements
(D) that is required by each vegetable

6. For many years people have wondered ___________ exists elsewhere in the universe.
(A) that life
(B) life which
(C) whether life
(D) life as it

7. ______________ was caused by breathing impure air was once a common belief.
(A) Malaria
(B) That malaria
(C) Why malaria
(D) Because malaria

8. One basic question psychologists have tried to answer is __________________ .

(A) people learn
(B) how do people learn
(C) people learn how
(D) how people learn

9. The judges had an extremely hard time deciding _______ .

(A) who's painting was the best
(B) whose painting was the best
(C) painting who was the best
(D) the best painting was who

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10.No one is sure ……..

(A) what did it happen in front of the building.
(B) what it happened in front of the building.
(C) what does it happen in front of the building.
(D) what happened in front of the building.

C. Choose the incorrect answer.

1. A test pilot tries out new kinds of aircraft to determine if are they safe.
A B C D

2. Art critics do not all agree on what are the qualities that make a painting great.
A B C D

3. Exactly when was the wheel invented is not known.

A B C D

4. The new student is not sure which it is the most important course in the program.
A B C D

5. We thought about whom would we choose as the best vice president of our company.
A B C D

6. Don had an elaborate excuse for being late for his class, but the lecturer did not believe
A B C
what did he explain.
D

7. It is obvious that is English the principal language of the business community

A B C
throughout much of the world.
D

8. There are several reasons why are millions of students studying English in the world.
A B C D

9. That will be carried in the next space shuttle payload has not yet been announced.
A B C D

10. The people of the town protested why were they given no warning of the approaching
A B C D
tornado.

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UNIT 15
ADVERB CLAUSES

Adverb clauses are clauses which serve as adverb. They may be preceded by words showing time,
cause and effect, opposition, and condition, as presented below.

(a)When we were in Jakarta, we attended aWhen we were in Jakarta is an adverb clause. It

seminar. is a dependent clause. Therefore, it cannot stand
(b)We have to study hard because we will alone and must be connected to an independent
have an exam next week. clause.
When an adverb clause precedes an
independent clause, as in (a), a comma is used
to separate the clauses.
SUMMARY LIST OF WORDS USED TO INTRODUCE ADVERB CLAUSES
TIME CAUSE AND EFFECT OPPOSITION CONDITION
after Because even though if
before now that although unless
when since though only if
while as whereas whether or not
as as/so long as while even if
by the time inasmuch as providing (that)
since so that provided (that)
until in order that in case (that )
as soon as in the event (that)
whenever
every time (that)
the first time (time)
the last time (that)
the next time

USING ADVERB CLAUSES TO SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT

(a) Because he was sleepy, he went to bed. An adverb clause may precede or follow the
(b) Since he is not interested in soccer, he independent clause. Since and in as much as
decided not to the stadium. mean because.
(c) In as much as the two government leaders
could not reach an agreement, the Because of and due to are prepositions which
possibility for peace is still remote. are followed by a noun clause, while because
(d) Because the weather is cold, we stayed introduces an adverb clause which is followed
home. by a subject and verb.
(e) Because of the cold weather, we stayed
home.
(f) Due to the cold weather, we stayed home.

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OTHER WAYS OF EXPRESSING CAUSE AND EFFECT: SUCH ….THAT AND SO ….. THAT

(a) Because the weather was nice, we went to Examples (a), (b) and (c) have the same
the zoo. meaning.
(b) It was such nice weather that we went to the
zoo.
(c) The weather was so nice that we went to the
zoo
(d) It was such good coffee that I had another Such …..that encloses a modified noun:
cup.
(e) It was such a foggy day that we could not see Such +adjective + noun + that
the road.
(f) The coffee is so hot that I cannot drink it. So …..that encloses an adjective or adverb:
(g) He walked so quickly that I could not keep up
with him So + adjective/adverb+ that
(h) He made so many mistakes that she failed the So….that is used with many, few, much,
exam. and little.
So +many/few/much/little+ noun+that

EXPRESSING PURPOSES: SO THAT AND IN ORDER TO

(a) I turned off the TV in order to enable my In order to expresses purpose, but it is not
roommate to study in peace. followed by a sentence.
(b) (b) I turned off the TV so (that) my So that also expresses purpose. The word that
roommate could study in peace. is often omitted.

REDUCTION OF ADVERB CLAUSES TO MODIFYING PHRASES::

Some adverb clauses may be changed to modifying phrases IF THE SUBJECT OF THE ADVERB
CLAUSE AND THE SUBJECT OF THE MAIN CLAUSE ARE THE SAME. A modifying phrase, a
reduction of an adverb clause, modifies the subject of the main clause. There are two ways to
change adverb clauses into modifying phrases.
1. Omit the subject of the dependent clause and the be form of the verb.
(a) ADVERB CLAUSE : While I was reading a novel, I was listening to music
(b) MODIFYING CLAUSE: While reading a novel, I was listening to music
2. If there is no be form of a verb, omit the subject and change the verb to –ing.
(a) ADVERB CLAUSE : Before I left for work, I had breakfast
(b) MODIFYING CLAUSE: Before leaving for work, I had breakfast

CHANGING TIME CLAUSES TO MODIFYING PHRASES

(a) CLAUSE: Since Mary came to this country, Adverb clauses beginning with after, before,
she has made many friends. while, and since can be changed into
(b) PHRASE: Since coming to this country, Mary modifying phrases.
has made many friends.
(c) CLAUSE: After he (had) finished his In (c), there is no difference in meaning
homework, he went to bed. between after he finished and after he had
(d) PHRASE: After finishing his homework, he finished.
went to bed. There no difference in meaning between (d)
(e) PHRASE: After having finished his and (e). A modifying phrase may follow the

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homework, he went to bed. main clause, as in (f).

(f) PHRASE: He went to bed after finishing his
homework.
(g) While I was walking down the street, I ran While is sometimes omitted without changing
into an old friend. the meaning. (g), ((h), and (i) have the same
(h) While walking down the street, I ran into meaning and show the idea of “during the
an old friend. same time.”
(i) Walking down the street, I ran into an old
friend.

EXPRESSING CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS IN MODIFYING PHRASES

(a) Because she needed some money to buy a An –ing phrase is often at the beginning of a
note book, Ann cashed a check. sentence gives the meaning of “because”. (a)
(b) (b) Needing some money to buy a and (b) have the same meaning.
notebook, Ann cashed a check. Because is not used in a modifying phrase. It is
omitted, but the resulting phrase expresses a
cause and effect relationship.
(c) Having seen that movie before, I do not Having + past participle gives the meaning not
want to go again. only of “because” but also “before”.
(d) Having seen that movie before, I did not
want to go again
(e) Because she was unable to afford a car, she A form of be in the adverb clause is often
bought a bicycle. changed to being. The use of being makes the
(f) Being unable to afford a car, she bought a cause and effect relationship clear.
bicycle.
(g) Unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.

USING UPON +-ING IN MODIFYING PHRASES

(a) Upon reaching the age of 25, I got married. Modifying phrases beginning with upon +-ing
(b) When I reached the age of 25, I got usually have the same meaning as adverb
married. clauses introduced by when. (a) and (b) have
(c) On reaching the age of 25, I got married. the same meaning.
Upon can be shortened to on, as in (c) without
changing the meaning.

Exercises
A. State whether the sentences are correct or incorrect.

1. Before I went to bed, I read a novel.

2. We stayed there until we finish our work
3. By the time he comes, we will already have left
4. Before stolen this morning, I put the book on my desk.
5. We will have a big party providing that I had had much money.

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B. Choose the correct answer.

1. __________, the children were bored.
(A) To have nothing to do
(B) Had nothing to do
(C) Because of they had nothing to do
(D) Because they had nothing to do

2. ___________ a married man, I have many responsibilities

(A) Be
(B) Being
(C) Due to
(D) Because of

3. By the time I leave this city, __________.

(A) I will already be here for four months
(B) so I will already have been here for four months
(C) as I will already have been here for four months
(D) I will already have been here for four months

4. ____________ , his nose gets red.

(A) Until James gets angry
(B) In the event that James gets angry
(C) Although James gets angry
(D) Whenever James gets angry

5. Jane’s contact lens popped out _____________.

(A) while she was playing basketball.
(B) as soon as she was playing basketball.
(C) until she was playing basketball.
(D) although she was playing basketball.

6. __________ , I am going to rest a few days and then take a trip.

(A) Before the semester is finished
(B) Now that the semester is finished
(C) By the time the semester is finished
(D) Though the semester is finished

7. Football teams don't play in the Super Bowl championship _________ either the National or
the American Conference.
(A) unless they win
(B) but they win
(C) unless they will win
(D) but to have won

8. __________ show the relations among neurons, they do not preclude the possibility that
other aspects are important.
(A) Although neural theories
(B) However neural theories
(C) Neural theories
(D) A neural theory

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9. ____________ was late, I missed the appointment.

(A) I
(B) Because
(C) The train
(D) Since he

10. Usually boys cannot become Boy Scouts ___________.

(A) unless they complete the fifth grade
(B) if they completed the fifth grade
(C) unless they completed the fifth grade
(D) if they complete the fifth grade

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UNIT 16
PARALLEL STRUCTURE

One use of a conjunction is to connect words or phrases that have the same grammatical
function in a sentence. This use of conjunctions is called parallel structure. The conjunctions
used in this pattern are and, but, or, and nor.

(a) Steve and Joe are coming to dinner. In (a): noun + and + noun
(b) Susan raised her hand and snapped her In (b): verb + and + verb
fingers.
(c) He is waving his arms and (is) shouting In (c): verb + and + verb ( The second auxiliary may
at us. be omitted if it is the same as the first auxiliary
In (d): adjective + but + adjective
(d) These shoes are old but comfortable In (e): infinitive + or + infinitive (the second to may
(e) He wants to watch TV or (to) listen to be omitted)
some music. In (f): phrase or phrase
(f) They must put the book on the table or
the chair. In (g) clause + and + clause
(g) We know where he went and what he
did. In (h): both ……..and ………….
(h) Both my brother and my sister are
doctors. In (i): neither ………nor …………
(i) Neither Paul nor Linda lives in New York.
In (j): either …………..or ……………
In (k): not only ……….but also ……….
(j) You can either sit there or wait here.
(k) Jane went to the post office not only to
buy stamps but also to send letters.
(l) Steve, Joe, and Alice are coming to A parallel structure may contain more than two
dinner parts. In a series, commas are used to separate each
(m) Susan raised her hand, snapped her unit. The final comma that precedes the conjunction
fingers, and asked a question. is optional but is customarily used. (No commas are
(n) The colors in that fabric are red, gold, used if there are only parts to a parallel structure).
black, and green.

Exercises
A. State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.
1. a. We learned to read the passage carefully and underlying the main idea.
b. We learned to read the passage carefully and to underline the main idea.
2. a. She is not only famous in the United States, but also in Indonesia.
b. She is famous not only in the United States, but also in Indonesia.
3. a. The students are obliged to write and reporting the results of their field study.
b. The students are obliged to write and report the results of their field study.
4. a. He is neither helpful nor polite.
b. He is neither help nor polite.
5. a. He is still confused with both the first question and the second one.
b. He is still confused with both the first question or the second one.

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B. Choose the correct answer.

1. A hot and sunny climate can be neutralized by eating less, drinking more liquids, and
_______ .
(A) wears lighter clothing (C) to wear lighter clothing
(B) wearing lighter clothing (D) wear lighter clothing

2. Both historically and _______, Ontario is the heartland of Canada

(A) in its geography (C) also its geography
(B) geographically (D) geography

3. He knows where she lives and ________.

(A) what she does (C) she does
(B) her address (D) her job

4. Peter is not reading a novel but ________.

(A) to wait her (C) type a report
(B) writing a letter (D) wash his car

5. A vacuum will neither conduct heat nor ________.

(A) transmit sound waves (C) sound waves are transmitted
(B) transmitting sound waves (D) the transmission of sound waves

6. North Carolina is well known not only for the Great Smoky Mountains National Park
________.for the Cherokee Indian settlements.
(A) also (C) but also
(B) and (D) because of

7. To generate income, magazine publishers must decide whether to increase the subscription
price or ________.
(A) to sell advertising (C) selling advertising
(B) if they should sell advertising (D) sold advertising

8. When teenagers finish high school, they have several choices: going to college, getting a job,
or ___________.
(A) joining the army (C) joins the army
(B) to join the army (D) join the army

9. Collecting stamps, playing chess, and _______ beautiful butterflies are Derrick’s hobbies.
(A) to mount (C) mounting
(B) mounts (D) mount

10. The chief of police demanded from his assistants an orderly investigation, a well-written
report, and _______.
(A) that they work hard (C) working hard
(B) hard work (D) work hard

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C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct

1. The essay which Paul wrote is rather short but impressively.

A B C D
2. They want to know where she went and did two days ago.
A B C D

3. My friend is interested not in books but in watching films.

A B C D

4. I think they can explain clearly neither when they go nor they do.
A B C D

5. The books and the magazine might be the bag or under the chair.
A B C D

6. Both Linda or Mary usually go to the cinema on Saturdays.

A B C D

7. Either Elisa nor Eriana really wanted to see them last week.
A B C D

8. They can go there either at the end of July or they can go there at the end of August.
A B C D

9. The aims of the Common Market are to eliminate tariffs member countries; developing
A B
common policies for agriculture, labor, welfare, trade, and transportation; and
C
to abolish trust and cartels.
D

10. The puppy stood up slowly, wagged its tail, blinking its eyes, and barked.
A B C D

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UNIT 17
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

REAL CONDITIONS (POSSIBLY TRUE)

FUTURE TIME → type 1

If + subject + simple present tense, subject + will (can) + (verb in simple form)
+V-1(s/es)(to indicate a fact)

e. g.
1. If I have enough time, I will write to my parents every week
2. If water is kept in a refrigerator, it becomes cool

UNREAL CONDITIONS (NOT TRUE)

PRESENT OR FUTURE TIME → type 2

If + subject + simple past tense, subject + would (could) + (verb in simple form)

e. g.
1. If I had the time, I would go to the beach with you this weekend.
Fact: ( I don’t have the time) (I’m not going to the beach with you)

2. He would tell you about it if he were here.

Fact: (He won’t tell you about it.) (He’s not here)

3. If he didn’t speak so quickly, you could understand him.

Fact: (He speaks very quickly.) (You can’t understand him).

PAST TIME → type 3

If + subject + past perfect, subject + would (could) + have + (verb in past participle)

e. g.:
1. If we had known that you were there, we would have written you a letter.
Fact: (We didn’t know that you were there.) (We didn’t write you a letter.)
2. She would have sold the house if she had found the right buyer.
Fact: (She didn’t sell the house.) (She didn’t find the right buyer.)
3. If we hadn’t lost our way, we would have arrived sooner.
Fact: (We lost our way) (We didn’t arrive sooner)

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OMITTING IF

(a) Were I you, I wouldn’t do that. With were, had (past perfect), and should, sometimes
(b) Had I known, I would have told you. if is omitted and the subject and verb are inverted.
(c) Should anyone call, please take a In (a): Were I you = If I were you
message. In (b): Had I known = If I had known
In (c): Should anyone call = If anyone should call
* In the negative, not follows the subjects. It is not contracted with the auxiliary verb:
CORRECT: Had I not seen it with my own eyes, I wouldn’t have believed it.
INCORRECT: Hadn’t I seen it with my own eyes, …

IMPLIED CONDITIONS

(a) I would have gone with you, but I had to Often the “if clause” is implied, not stated, as in
study. (implied condition: …if I had not (a), (b), and (c). Conditional verbs are still used
had to study) n the “result clause.”
(implied condition: ….. if I had not had to
study) Conditional verbs are often used following
(b) I never would have succeeded without your otherwise. In (c), the implied “if clause” is if
help. she had not run.
(implied condition: …..if you had not
helped me)
(c) He ran; otherwise, he would have missed
his bus.

MIXED TIME IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

The time in the” if clause” and the time in the “result clause” are often different. One clause
may be in the present and the other in the past.
(a) TRUE : I did not eat breakfast several hours ago, so I am hungry now.
(b) CONDITIONAL : If I had not eaten breakfast several hours ago, I would not be hungry now.
(a) TRUE : He is not a good student. He did not study for the test yesterday.
(b) CONDITIONAL : If he were a good student, he would have studied for the test.

VERB FORMS FOLLOWING WISH

VERB FORM IN VERB FORM

“TRUE” SENTENCE FOLLOWING WISH
A wish (a) She will not tell me.I wish (that) she would tell Wish is used when the
about the me. speaker wants reality to be
future (b) He isn’t going to be I wish he were going to be different, to be exactly the
here. here. opposite. Verb forms
(c) She can’t come I wish she could come similar to those in
tomorrow. tomorrow. conditional sentences are
used. Notice the examples.
A wish (d) I don’t know French. I wish I knew French.
about the (e) It is raining right I wish it weren’t raining Wish is followed by a noun
present right now. clause. The used of that is
now.
(f) I can’t speak I wish I could speak optional. Usually it is
Japanese. omitted in speaking.
Japanese.

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A wish (g) John didn’t come. I wish John had come.* * Sometimes in very
about the (h) Mary couldn’t come. I wish Mary could have informal speaking: I wish
past come. John would have come.
COMPARE: The verb hope and wish are similar in meaning, but are
(a) We hope that they will come. (we nor not at all the same grammatically. Hope is used to
do not know if they are coming) indicate something that possibly happened or will
(b) We wish that they could come. happen, whereas wish is used to indicate something that
(they are not coming) definitely did not happen or will not happen.

USING WOULD TO MAKE WISHES ABOUT THE FUTURE

(a) It is raining. I wish it would stop. Would is usually used to indicate that the speaker
(I want it to stop raining.) wants something to happen in the future. The wish may
(b) I’m expecting a call. I wish the or may not come true (be realized).
phone would ring. (I want the
phone to ring)
(c) It’s going to be a good party. I wish In (c) an (d): I wish you would ….. is often used to make
you would come. (I want you to a request.
come.)
(d) We’re going to be late. I wish you
would hurry. (I want you to hurry.)

USING AS IF/AS THOUGH

(a) I looks like rain. Notice in (a): like is following by a noun object.
(b) It looks as if it is going to rain. Notice in (b) and (c): as if and as though are followed by
(c) It looks as though it is going to a clause.
rain.
(d) It looks like it is going to rain. Notice in (d): like is followed by a clause. This use of like
(informal) is common in informal English but is not generally
considered appropriate in formal English. As if or as
though is preferred. (a), (b), (c), and (d) all have the
same meaning.
“TRUE” STATEMENT VERB FORM AFTER AS IF/AS
THOUGH
(e) He is not a child.  She talked to him as if he Usually the idea
were a child. following as if/as
(f) She did not take a shower with her  When she came in from the though is untrue
clothes on. rainstorm, she looked as if she
had taken a shower with her In this case, verb
clothes on. usage is similar to
(g) He has met her.  He acted as though he had that in conditional
never met her. sentences. Notice
(h) She will be here.  She spoke as if she wouldn’t the examples.
be here.

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Exercises
A. State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.
1. a. If you had studied hard, you would pass the exam.
b. If you had studied hard, you would have passed the exam.
2. a. If we do not have English class today, we would go home.
b. If we did not have English class today, we would go home.
3. a. We will wait if you wanted to go.
b. We will wait if you want to go.
4. a. If you made your bed in the morning, your room looks better when you got back in the
afternoon.
b. If you made your bed in the morning, your room would look better when you got back
in the afternoon.
5. a. If we had had the money, we would have bought a new stereo system.
b. If we had the money, we would have bought a new stereo system.

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. If water is heated to 212 degrees F, ______as team.
(A) it boiled and escape (C) it is boiling and escaping
(B) it boils and escapes (D) it would boil and escape

2. If services are increased, taxes________.

(A) would probably go up (C) probably goes up
(B) probably go up (D) probably going up

3. If American ate fewer foods with sugar and salt, their general health ______better.
(A) be (C) is
(B) will be (D) would be

4. According to some historians, if Napoleon had not invaded Russia, he ______the rest of
Europe.
(A) had conquered (C) would conquer
(B) would have conquered (D) conquered

5. If humans were deprived of sleep, they _______.hallucinations, anxiety, coma, and

eventually death.
(A) would experience (C) would have experienced
(B) experience (D) had experienced

6. If footballs teams play in the Super bowl Championship, ______ either the National or the
American Conference.
(A) they win (C) they won
(B) they will win (D) they have won

7. If I had known her address, I _____her.

(A) could see (C) would have visited
(B) would visit (D) will visit

8. If I were Jane, I ______leave the man.

(A) am (C) have
(B) would (D) will

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9. If I have time, I ______visit you.

(A) would (C) would have
(B) will (D) would be

10. If you _______ the plant in a cooler location, the leaves would not have burned.
(A) had set (C) has set
(B) have set (D) set

C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct.

1. Boys can become Scouts if they completed the second grade .

A B C D

2. If dinosaurs would have continued roaming the earth, men would have evolved quite
A B C
differently.
D

3. If we were to consider all of the different kinds of motion in discussing the movement of
A
an object, it is very confusing, because even an object at rest is moving as the earth turns.
B C D

4. If drivers obeyed the speed limit, fewer accidents occur.

A B C D

5. If you sat in that position for too long, you will get a cramp in your leg.
A B C D

6. If you don’t register before the last day of regular registration, you paying a late fee.
A B C D

7. If you started doing it now, you will finished it in time.

A B C D

8. We would have bought a new car if we have had a lot of money.

A B C D

9. If biennials were planted this year, they will be likely to bloom next year.
A B C D

10. If Monique had not attended the conference, she never would meet her old friend
A B
Dan, whom she had not seen in years.
C D

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UNIT 18
COMPARISONS

EQUAL COMPARISONS

Subject + verb + as +(adjective/adverb) + as + (noun/pronoun)

(a) My book is as interesting as yours. An equal comparison shows that two entities
(b) Kim sings as well as his sister. are (are not) exactly the same.
(c) James is not so tall as his brother. Occasionally, so is used instead of as before the
adjective or adverb in negative comparisons, as
in (c).

Subject +verb+ the same +(noun) + as + (noun/pronoun)

Subject 1 and subject 2 +verb+ the same

(d) My house is the same height as his. The same and the same as convey equal
(e) The coat is the same as mine. comparisons, as in (d), (e), and (f).
(f) Your book and my book are the same.

Subject + verb + different from + (noun/pronoun)

(g) My nationality is different from hers The opposite of the same as is different from.
Never use different than
Subject + verb + like + noun/pronoun
Subject 1 and subject 2 +verb + alike
(h) The girl is like her sister Like and alike are used in general comparisons.
(i) The girl and her sister are alike. Like is followed by a noun/pronoun, whereas
alike is not.

UNEQUAL COMPARISON

Subject + verb + adjective /adverb+ -er + than + noun/pronoun

Subject + verb+ more/less+ adjective/adverb + than + noun/ pronoun

(a) An essay test is more difficult than a More or less is used when the adjective or
multiple choice test. adverb has two or more syllables, -er is used
(b) My room is narrower than yours. when the adjective or adverb has only one
(c) She speaks English more fluently than I. syllable or two syllables ending in –y, -ow, and
(d) I visit my grandparents less frequently -er.
than she does. A few adverbs are added with –er: faster,
quicker, sooner, and later.
Only the subject pronoun is used after than, as
in (c) and (d).
Subject + verb + far/much + adjective /adverb+ -er + than + noun/pronoun
Subject + verb+ far/much + more/less+ adjective/adverb + than + noun/ pronoun

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(e) Andy’s t-shirt is far more expensive than Unequal comparisons can also be intensified by
mine. adding much or far before the comparative
(f) The movie I saw last night was much less form,
interesting than the one on television
(g) They dance much more gracefully than
other teams.

Subject + verb + as + many/much/little/few + noun + as + noun/pronoun

Subject + verb + more/fewer/less+ noun + than + noun/pronoun

(a) He has more books than she. Nouns can also be used in comparisons.
(b) I have as little money as my sister. Determiners must be used correctly
(c) My job allows me less freedom than theirs depending on whether the adjectives are
does. countable or uncountable.
(d) February has fewer days than March.

ILLOGICAL COMPARISONS

(a) His drawings are as perfect as his An illogical comparison is one in which unlike
instructors. (INCORRECT) entities have been compared. The items
(b) His drawings are as perfect as his being compared must be the same. These
instructor’s. forms can be divided into: possessives (b),
(c) The salary of a professor is higher than a that of (d), and those of (f).
secretary. (INCORRECT)
(d) The salary of a professor is higher than
that of a secretary.
(e) The duties of a policeman are more
dangerous than a teacher. (INCORRECT)
(f) The duties of a policeman are more
dangerous than those of a teacher.

MULTIPLE NUMBER COMPARATIVES

Subject + verb+ number multiple+ as + much/many+(noun)+ as + noun/pronoun

(a) The dictionary costs twice as much as the Number multiples can include: half, twice,
other one. four times, etc.
(b) John has half as many records now as I NOTE: it is incorrect to say twice more than.
had last year.

DOUBLE COMPARATIVES

the +comparative+subject+ verb+ the+ comparative+subject+verb

(a) The sooner you leave, the earlier you will The sentences begin with a comparative
arrive. construction, and thus the second clause
(b) The more you study, the cleverer you will must also begin with a comparative.
become.
(c) The more he rowed the boat, the farther
away he got.

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SUPERLATIVES

Subject + verb + the + adjective +-est + in + singular count noun.

+ most + adjective + of + plural count noun
+ least + adjective +
(a) James is the shortest boy in the team. In superlative degree, three or more entities
(b) The books are the least expensive of all. are compared, one of which is superior or
(c) Of the three shirts, this one is the inferior to the others.
prettiest. After the expression one of the +superlative,
(d) One of the greatest footballers is the noun is plural and the verb is singular, as
Ronaldo. in (d).

Exercise:

A. State whether the sentences below are correct or incorrect.

1. Your car is almost the same like mine.

2. The watch in the window is a little different than this one.
3. This one is better, but it costs three times as much as the other one.
4. This field is larger than the other one.
5. She is most prettiest of all the girls in our class.

B. Choose the correct answer.

1. Although we often use “speed” and “velocity” interchangeably, in technical sense,

“speed” is not always _______”velocity”.
(A) alike (C) the same as
(B) similar (D) as

2. Although they are smaller, chipmunks are_______ most other ground squirrels.
(A) like to (C) like with
(B) like as (D) like

3. A nursery school is ______ a day care center.

(A) different from (C) different than
(B) different (D) different as

4. The rent at College Apartment is only half ________ you pay here.
(A) than (C) as many as
(B) as much as (D) from

5. The main library has_______ one millions volumes.

(A) more as (C) more than
(B) most than (D) least than

6. There are ______fifteen thousand students attending summer school.

(A) as many as (C) as many
(B) as much as (D) as much

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7. The bill which we received was________ than the estimate.

(A) most higher (C) higher
(B) the higher (D) more higher

8. The Disney amusement park in Japan is _______Florida or California.

(A) the largest than the ones in (C) larger than the ones in
(B) larger the ones in (D) the largest of the ones

9. The greater the demand, _______the price.

(A) higher (C) high
(B) the higher (D) the high

10. The teacher gave Mike a failing grade on her term paper because it was______ Ardian’s.
(A) the same as (C) the same with
(B) the same like (D) the same

C. Choose the letter of the underlined word that is not correct.

1. When two products are basically the same as, advertising can influence the public’s
A B C D
choice.

2. The first living structure to appear on earth thousands of years ago were alike viruses.
A B C D

3. Although business practices have been applied successfully to agriculture, farming

A B C
is different other industries.
D

4. With American prices for sugar at three times as much the world price,
A
manufacturers are beginning to use fructose blended with pure sugar, or sucrose.
B C D

5. It is generally accepted that the common cold is caused by as much as forty strains
A B C
of viruses that may be present in the air at all times.
D

6. The diesel engine that runs on oil is efficient than most other engines because it
A B C
converts the useful energy stored up in the fuel.
D

7. The books for my engineering course are cheap than those books for my other courses.
A B C D

8. The more important theorem of all in plane geometry is the Pythagorean Theorem.
A B C D

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9. Although there are a number of interesting findings, a most significant results are in
A B C D
the abstract.

10. The climate here is more milder than that of New England.
A B C D

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