Introduction to LRFD,

Loads and
Loads Distribution

Thomas K. Saad, P.E.

Federal Highway Administration
Chicago, IL

Evolution of Design
Methodologies

SLD Methodology:
(ft)D + (ft)L ≤ 0.55Fy, or
1.82(ft)D + 1.82(ft)L ≤ Fy
LFD Methodology:
1.3[1.0(ft)D + 5/3(ft)L] ≤ φFy, or
1.3(ft)D + 2.17(ft)L ≤ φFy (φ by judgment)
LRFD Methodology:
1.25(ft)D + 1.75(ft)L ≤ φFy (φ by calibration)
(new live-load model)

Introduction to LRFD 1-1

 Evolution of Design
Methodologies (cont’d)
SLD does not recognize
that some types of loads
are more variable than
others.
LFD provides recognition
that types of loads are
different.
LRFD provides a
probability-based
mechanism to select load
& resistance factors.

Evolution of Design
Methodologies (cont’d)

As a result, LRFD RELIABILITY INDEX

achieves 5

considerable 4
RELIABILITY INDEX

improvement in the 3.5

3

clustering of
reliability indices
2

versus the AASHTO 1

Standard 0
0 30 60 90 120 200
Specifications. SPAN LENGTH (Feet)
LFD
LRFD

Introduction to LRFD 1-2

 Basic LRFD Design Equation
Σ ηiγiQi ≤ φRn = Rr Eq. (1.3.2.1-1)
where:
ηi = ηD ηR ηI
· ηi ≥ 0.95 for maximum γ’s
· ηi = 1 < 1.00 for minimum γ’s
ηηη
D R I

γi = Load factor
φ = Resistance factor
Qi = Nominal force effect
Rn = Nominal resistance
Rr = Factored resistance = φRn

LRFD Limit States

The LRFD Specifications require examination of
several load combinations corresponding to the
following limit states:

„ SERVICE LIMIT STATE

relating to stress, deformation, and cracking
„ FATIGUE & FRACTURE LIMIT STATE relating to
stress range and crack growth under repetitive loads, and material
toughness
„ STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
relating to strength and stability
- (CONSTRUCTIBILITY)
„ EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATE
relating to events such as earthquakes, ice load, and vehicle and
vessel collision

Introduction to LRFD 1-3

 3.3.2 Load and Load Designation
STRENGTH I : without wind.

STRENGTH II : owner design / permit vehicles without wind.

STRENGTH III : wind exceeding 55 mph.

STRENGTH IV : very high dead-to-live load ratios.

STRENGTH V : vehicular use with 55 mph wind.

SERVICE I : normal operational use of the bridge with a 55 mph wind and nominal loads.
Also control cracking of reinforced concrete structures.

SERVICE II : control yielding of steel structures and slip of connections

SERVICE III : control cracking of prestressed concrete superstructures.

SERVICE IV : control cracking of prestressed concrete substructures.

FATIGUE : repetitive vehicular live load and dynamic responses under a single truck.

3.3.2 Load and Load Designation

DD = downdrag
DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure
EL = accumulated locked-in force effects resulting from the construction process, including the
secondary forces from post-tensioning
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = earth fill vertical pressure
BR = braking force
CE = centrifugal force
CR = creep
CT = vehicular collision force
CV = vessel collision force
EQ = earthquake
FR = friction
IC = ice load
IM = dynamic load allowance
LL = live load
LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load
SE = settlement
SH = shrinkage
TG = temperature gradient
TU = uniform temperature
WA = water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load
WS = wind load on structure

Introduction to LRFD 1-4

 Permanent Loads (Article 3.5)

Dead Load (Article 3.5.1):

DC - Dead load, except wearing surfaces & utilities
DC1 - placed prior to deck hardening and acting on
the noncomposite section
DC2 - placed after deck hardening and acting on
the long-term composite section

DW - Wearing surfaces & utilities acting on the long-

term composite section

Load Factors for Permanent

Loads, γp
Load Factor
Type of Load Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and 1.25 0.90
Attachments
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces 1.50 0.65
and Utilities
EH: Horizontal Earth
Pressure
• Active 1.50 0.90
• At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EV: Vertical Earth
Pressure
• Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
• Retaining 1.35 1.00
Structure 1.30 0.90
• Rigid Buried
Structure 1.35 0.90
• Rigid Frames 1.95 0.90

Introduction to LRFD 1-5

 Basic LRFD Design Live Load
HL-93 -- (Article 3.6.1.2.1)
Design Truck: ⇒

or or
Design Tandem:
Pair of 25.0 KIP axles
spaced 4.0 FT apart 25.0 KIP 25.0 KIP

superimposed on +
0.64 Kip/ft
Design Lane Load 0.64 KLF
uniformly distributed load

LRFD Negative Moment Loading

(Article 3.6.1.3.1)
For negative moment (between points of
permanent-load contraflexure) & interior-pier
reactions, check an additional load case:

0.9 x

> 50’-0”

Introduction to LRFD 1-6

 LRFD Fatigue Load
(Article 3.6.1.4.1)

Design Truck only =>

„ w/ fixed 30-ft rear-
1
axle spacing
„ Placed in a single

lane

Load Combinations and Load Factors

Load Combination DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use One of These at a

DD IM CR Time
DW CE SH
EH BR EQ IC CT CV
EV PL
Limit State ES LS
STRENGTH-I γp 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - - - -
STRENGTH-II γp 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - - - -
STRENGTH-III γp - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - - - -
STRENGTH-IV - -
EH, EV, ES, DW γp - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 - - - -
DC ONLY 1.5
STRENGTH-V γp 1.35 1.00 0.40 1.00 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - - - -
EXTREME-I γp γEQ 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - 1.00 - - -
EXTREME-II γp 0.50 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - - 1.00 1.00 1.00
SERVICE-I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 0.30 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE - - - -
SERVICE-II 1.00 1.30 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - - - - - -
SERVICE-III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE - - - -
FATIGUE-LL, IM & CE
ONLY - 0.75 - - - - - - - - - - -

Introduction to LRFD 1-7

 Resistance Factors
(Article 6.5.4.2)
Resistance factors, φ, for the strength limit state shall be taken as follows:
• For flexure φf = 1.00
• For shear φv = 1.00
• For axial compression, steel only φc = 0.90
• For axial compression, composite φc = 0.90
• For tension, fracture in net section φu = 0.80
• For tension, yielding in gross section φy = 0.95
• For bolts bearing on material φbb = 0.80
• For shear connectors φsc = 0.85
• For A 325 and A 490 bolts in shear φs = 0.80
• For block shear φbs = 0.80
• For web crippling φw = 0.80
• For weld metal in fillet welds:
• tension or compression parallel to
axis of the weld same as base metal
• shear in throat of weld metal φe2 = 0.80

Resistance Factors
(Article 5.5.4.2)
Resistance factor φ shall be taken as:

• For flexure and tension of reinforced

concrete……………………………….… 0.90
• For flexure and tension of prestressed
concrete……………………………….… 1.00
• For shear and torsion:
normal weight concrete……………… 0.90
lightweight concrete…………………. 0.70
• For axial compression with spirals or ties,
except as specified in Article 5.10.11.4.1b
for Seismic Zones 3 and 4 at the extreme
event limit state…………………………….. 0.75
• For bearing on concrete…………… 0.70
• For compression in strut-and-tie models… 0.70
• For compression in anchorage zones:
normal weight concrete……………… 0.80
lightweight concrete…………………. 0.65
• For tension in steel in anchorage zones….. 1.00
• For resistance during pile driving………….. 1.00

Introduction to LRFD 1-8

 Structural Analysis & Evaluation
(Article 4)

Static Analysis (Article 4.6)

„ Approximate Methods of Analysis (Article 4.6.2)
„ Beam-Slab Bridges (Article 4.6.2.2)

Live-Load Lateral Distribution Factors

TABLE 4.6.2.2.1-1 COMMON DECK SUPERSTRUCTURES COVERED IN ARTICLES 4.6.2.2.2 AND 4.6.2.2.3.

SUPPORTING COMPONENTS TYPE OF DECK TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION

Steel Beam Cast-in-place concrete slab,

precast concrete slab, steel
grid, glued/spiked panels,
stressed wood

Closed Steel or Precast Concrete Cast-in-place concrete slab

Boxes

Open Steel or Precast Concrete Cast-in-place concrete slab,

Boxes precast concrete deck slab

Cast-in-Place Concrete Multicell Monolithic concrete

Box

Cast-in-Place Concrete Tee Beam Monolithic concrete

Precast Solid, Voided or Cellular Cast-in-place concrete

Concrete Boxes with Shear Keys overlay

Precast Solid, Voided, or Cellular Integral concrete

Concrete Box with Shear Keys and
with or without Transverse
Posttensioning

Introduction to LRFD 1-9

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
For Moments – Interior Beams
Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1 Distribution of Live Loads Per Lane for Moment in Interior Beams.

Applicable
Cross-Section
from Table Range of
Type of Beams 4.6.2.2.1-1 Distribution Factors Applicability
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and also One Design Lane Loaded: 3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16.0
Grid, Partially Filled i, j 0.4 0.3 0.1
20 ≤ L ≤ 240
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ Kg ⎞
Grid, or Unfilled Grid if sufficiently 0.06 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
Deck Composite with connected to ⎝ 14 ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ 12.0 Lts ⎠ 4.5 ≤ ts ≤ 12.0
Reinforced Concrete Slab act as a unit Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: Nb ≥ 4
on Steel or Concrete 0.6 0.2 0.1
10,000 ≤ Kg ≤
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ Kg ⎞
Beams; Concrete T- 0.075 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟ 7,000,000
Beams, T- and Double T- ⎝ 9.5 ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ 12.0 Lts ⎠
Sections use lesser of the values obtained from the Nb = 3
equation above with Nb = 3 or the lever rule

Notes: 1) Units are in LANES and not WHEELS!

2) No multiple presence factor

Introduction to LRFD 1-10

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
For Shear – Interior Beams
Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams.

Applicable
Cross-Section
Type of from Table One Design Lane Two or More Design Lanes Range of
Superstructure 4.6.2.2.1-1 Loaded Loaded Applicability
Concrete Deck, a, e, k and also S S ⎛ S ⎞
2.0 3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16.0
Filled Grid, i, j if 0.36 + 0.2 + −⎜ ⎟
25.0 12 ⎝ 35 ⎠ 20 ≤ L ≤ 240
Partially Filled sufficiently
Grid, or Unfilled connected to 4.5 ≤ ts ≤ 12.0
Grid Deck act as a unit Nb ≥ 4
Composite with
Reinforced
Concrete Slab on
Steel or Concrete
Beams; Concrete Lever Rule Lever Rule Nb = 3
T-Beams, T-and
Double T-Sections

Notes: 1) Units are in LANES and not WHEELS!

2) No multiple presence factor

Live-Load Distribution Factors

Design Example

Introduction to LRFD 1-11

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
Example

POSITIVE FLEXURE (END SPAN)

Calculate Kg:
„ n=8
eg
„ N.A. is 39.63 in. from
the top of the steel.

9.0
eg = + 3.5 + 39.63 − 1.0 = 46.63 in.
2
( ) ( )
Kg = n I + Ae2g = 8 62,658 + 75.25(46.63)2 = 1.81x 106 in.4

Introduction to LRFD 1-12

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
M+ , Interior Girder
tS

S
L

Article 4.6.2.2.2b:
One lane loaded: 0 .1
⎛ S⎞
0 .4
⎛S⎞
0 .3
⎛ Kg ⎞
0.06 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 14 ⎠ ⎝L⎠ ⎜ 12 .0Lt 3 ⎟
⎝ S⎠

Two or more lanes loaded:

0.1
⎛ S ⎞
0.6
⎛S⎞
0.2
⎛ Kg ⎞
0.075 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 9.5 ⎠ ⎝L⎠ ⎜ 12.0Lt 3 ⎟
⎝ S⎠

Live-Load Distribution Factors

M+ , Interior Girder - (cont’d)

One lane loaded:

0.1
⎛ 12.0 ⎞
0. 4
⎛ 12.0 ⎞
0.3
⎛ 1.81 x 106 ⎞
0.06 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 0.528 lanes
⎝ 14 ⎠ ⎝ 140.0 ⎠ ⎜ 12.0(140.0 )(9.0 )3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Two or more lanes loaded:

0 .1
⎛ 12.0 ⎞
0.6
⎛ 12.0 ⎞
0 .2
⎛ 1.81 x 106 ⎞
0.075 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 0.807 lanes (governs)
⎝ 9 .5 ⎠ ⎝ 140.0 ⎠ ⎜ 12.0(140.0 )(9.0 )3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Introduction to LRFD 1-13

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
V , Interior Girder

Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1
One lane loaded:
S
0.36 +
25.0
12.0
0.36 + = 0.840 lanes
25.0

Two or more lanes loaded:

2
S ⎛S⎞
0 .2 + −⎜ ⎟
12 ⎝ 35 ⎠
2
12.0 ⎛ 12.0 ⎞
0 .2 + −⎜ ⎟ = 1.082 lanes (governs)
12 ⎝ 35 ⎠

Live-Load Distribution Factors

M- , Interior Girder
L = 0.5(140+175)
= 157.5 ft.

One lane loaded:

0 .1
⎛ 12.0 ⎞
0 .4
⎛ 12.0 ⎞
0 .3
⎛ 2.65 x 106 ⎞
0.06 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 0.524 lanes
⎝ 14 ⎠ ⎝ 157.5 ⎠ ⎜ 12.0(157.5)(9.0 )3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Two or more lanes loaded:

0. 1
⎛ 12.0 ⎞
0. 6
⎛ 12.0 ⎞
0. 2
⎛ 2.65 x 106 ⎞
0.075 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 0.809 lanes (governs)
⎝ 9 .5 ⎠ ⎝ 157.5 ⎠ ⎜ 12.0(157.5)(9.0 )3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Introduction to LRFD 1-14

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
Moments – Exterior Beams
Table 4.6.2.2.2d-1 Distribution of Live Loads Per Lane for Moment in Exterior Longitudinal Beams.

Applicable Cross- Two or More

Section from Table One Design Lane Design Lanes Range of
Type of Superstructure 4.6.2.2.1-1 Loaded Loaded Applicability
Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, a, e, k and Lever Rule g = e ginterior -1.0 < de < 5.5
Partially Filled Grid, or also i, j de
e = 0.77 +
Unfilled Grid Deck Composite if sufficiently connected 9.1
with Reinforced Concrete Slab to act as a unit
on Steel or Concrete Beams;
Concrete T-Beams, T- and
Double T- Sections use lesser of the Nb = 3
values obtained
from the equation
above with Nb = 3
or the lever rule

Notes: In beam-slab bridges with diaphragms or cross-frames, the distribution

factor for the exterior beam shall not be taken to be less than that which would
be obtained by assuming that the cross-section deflects and rotates as a rigid
cross-section.
NL X ∑ NL e
R= + extN 2
Nb ∑ bx

Live-Load Distribution Factors

Shear – Exterior Beams
Table 4.6.2.2.3b-1 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams.

Applicable Cross-
Section from Table One Design Lane Two or More Design Range of
Type of Superstructure 4.6.2.2.1-1 Loaded Lanes Loaded Applicability
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and Lever Rule g = e ginterior -1.0 < de < 5.5
Grid, Partially Filled also i, j d
Grid, or Unfilled Grid if sufficiently connected e = 0.6 + e
10
Deck Composite with to act as a unit
Reinforced Concrete Slab
on Steel or Concrete Lever Rule Nb = 3
Beams; Concrete T-

Notes: In beam-slab bridges with diaphragms or cross-frames, the distribution

factor for the exterior beam shall not be taken to be less than that which would
be obtained by assuming that the cross-section deflects and rotates as a rigid
cross-section.
NL X ∑ NL e
R= + extN 2
Nb ∑ bx

Introduction to LRFD 1-15

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
M, Exterior Girder

For bending moment (Article 4.6.2.2.2d):

One lane loaded: Use the lever rule

Number Multiple
Consider multiple of Loaded Presence
presence factors when: Lanes Factors "m"
- # of lanes of traffic 1 1.20
on the deck must be 2 1.00
considered in the 3 0.85
analysis (Art. 3.6.1.1.2) > 3 0.65

= R x 9 / 12

Introduction to LRFD 1-16

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
M, Exterior Girder - (cont’d)

One lane loaded: Using the lever rule

9.0
= 0.750
12.0

Multiple presence factor m = 1.2 (Table 3.6.1.1.2 - 1)

1.2(0.750 ) = 0.900 lanes

Number Multiple
of Loaded Presence
Lanes Factors "m"
1 1.20
2 1.00
3 0.85
> 3 0.65

Live-Load Distribution Factors

M, Exterior Girder - (cont’d)

Two or more lanes loaded:

Modify interior-girder factor by e

de
e = 0 .77 + (Table 4.6.2.2.2d-1)
9.1
2.0
e = 0 .77 + = 0 . 990
9.1
0 . 990 (0.807 ) = 0.799 lanes

Note: 1) The multiple presence factor is not applied.

Introduction to LRFD 1-17

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
M, Exterior Girder - (cont’d)

Special Analysis: for beam-slab bridges with

diaphragms or cross frames

Assuming the entire cross-section rotates as a

rigid body about the longitudinal centerline of the
bridge, distribution factors for one, two and three
lanes loaded are computed using the following
formula:

NL X ext ∑ NL e
R= + Eq. (C4.6.2.2.2d-1)
Nb ∑ Nb x 2

Live-Load Distribution Factors

M, Exterior Girder - (cont’d)

Special Analysis:
NL X ext ∑ NL e
R= + Eq. (C4.6.2.2.2d-1)
Nb ∑ Nb x 2

R = reaction on exterior beam in terms of lanes

NL = number of loaded lanes under consideration
e = eccentricity of a lane from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders (ft)
x = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to each
girder (ft)
Xext = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to the
exterior girder (ft)
Nb = number of beams or girders

Introduction to LRFD 1-18

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
M, Exterior Girder - (cont’d)
One lane loaded: X ext ∑ N L e
NL
R= +
Nb ∑ Nb x 2

R=
1
+
(18.0 )(15.0 ) = 0.625
15’-0”
(
4 2 18.0 2 + 6.0 2 )
m1 R = 1.2(0.625) = 0.750 lanes

Number Multiple
of Loaded Presence
Lanes Factors "m"
1 1.20
18’-0”
2 1.00
3 0.85
> 3 0.65

Live-Load Distribution Factors

M, Exterior Girder - (cont’d)
Two lanes loaded: NL X ext ∑ N L e
R= +
Nb ∑ Nb x 2
2 (18.0 )(15.0 + 3.0 )
R= + = 0.950
4 2(18.0 2 + 6.0 2 )
15’-0” m2 R = 1.0(0.950) = 0.950 lanes (governs)

Number Multiple
of Loaded Presence
Lanes Factors "m"
1 1.20
2 1.00
3 0.85
> 3 0.65

Introduction to LRFD 1-19

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
M, Exterior Girder - (cont’d)
Three lanes loaded: NL X ext ∑ N L e
R= +
Nb ∑ Nb x 2
3 ( 18.0 )(15.0 + 3.0 - 9.0 )
R= + = 0.975
4 (
2 18.0 2 + 6.0 2 )
- m3 R = 0.85(0.975 ) = 0.829 lanes
15’-0”

Number Multiple
of Loaded Presence
Lanes Factors "m"
1 1.20
2 1.00
3 0.85
> 3 0.65

Live-Load Distribution Factors

V, Exterior Girder - (cont’d)

For shear (Article 4.6.2.2.3b):

One lane loaded: Use the lever rule
0.970 lanes

Two or more lanes loaded:

Modify interior-girder factor by e
de
e = 0 .6 +
10 (Table 4.6.2.2.3b-1)
2. 0
e = 0 .6 + = 0.80
10
0.80(1.082 ) = 0.866 lanes

Introduction to LRFD 1-20

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
V, Exterior Girder - (cont’d)

Special Analysis:

The factors used for bending moment are also used

for shear:
One lane loaded: 0.750 lanes

Two lanes loaded: 0.950 lanes (governs)

Three lanes loaded: 0.829 lanes

All factors used for both pos. & neg. flexure.

SUMMARY
Live-Load Distribution Factors
Strength Limit State
AASHTO LRFD - Positive Flexure:
Interior Girder Exterior Girder
Bending Moment 0.807 lanes 0.950 lanes
Shear 1.082 lanes 0.950 lanes

AASHTO LRFD - Negative Flexure:

Interior Girder Exterior Girder
Bending Moment 0.809 lanes 0.950 lanes
Shear 1.082 lanes 0.950 lanes

Introduction to LRFD 1-21

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
Fatigue Limit State

The fatigue load is placed in a single lane.

Therefore, the distribution factors for one-
lane loaded are used. (see Article 3.6.1.4.3b)
Multiple presence factors are not to be
applied for fatigue. Thus, the distribution
factors for one-lane loaded must be
modified by dividing out the multiple
presence factor of 1.2 specified for one-lane
loaded. (see Article 3.6.1.1.2)

SUMMARY
Live-Load Distribution Factors
Fatigue Limit State - Design Example

AASHTO LRFD - Positive Flexure:

Interior Girder Exterior Girder
Bending Moment 0.440 lanes 0.750 lanes
Shear 0.700 lanes 0.750 lanes

AASHTO LRFD - Negative Flexure:

Interior Girder Exterior Girder
Bending Moment 0.437 lanes 0.750 lanes
Shear 0.700 lanes 0.750 lanes

Introduction to LRFD 1-22

 Live-Load Distribution Factors
Skew Correction Factors

For bending moment (Article 4.6.2.2.2e):

The skew correction factor for bending moment reduces the
live-load distribution factor. For skew angles less than 30°,
the correction factor is equal to 1.0. For skew angles
greater than 60°, the correction factor is computed using an
angle of 60°. The difference in skew angle between two
adjacent lines of supports cannot exceed 10°. Dead-load
moments are currently not modified for the effects of skew.
0.25
⎛ Kg ⎞ ⎛ S⎞
0.5
c1 = 0.25⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (Table 4.6.2.2.2e-1)
⎝ Lts ⎠ ⎝L⎠
Correction factor = 1 − c1(tanθ)1.5

Live-Load Distribution Factors

Skew Correction Factors – (cont.)

For shear (Article 4.6.2.2.3c):

The skew correction factor increases the live-load
distribution factor for shear in the exterior girder at the
obtuse corner of the bridge. The correction factor is valid
for skew angles less than or equal to 60°. The factor may
be conservatively applied to all end shears. Dead-load
shears are currently not modified for the effects of skew.
0 .3
⎛ Lt 3 ⎞
Correction factor = 1.0 + 0.20⎜ s ⎟ tan θ
⎜K ⎟
⎝ g⎠
(Table 4.6.2.2.3c-1)

Introduction to LRFD 1-23

 Load for Optional Live-Load
Deflection Evaluation (Article 3.6.1.3.2)

The larger of:

- The design truck, or

- 25% of the design truck + 100% of

the design lane load.

Live-Load Deflection
(Article 2.5.2.6.2)

Use the SERVICE I load combination & multiple

presence factors where appropriate.
For straight-girder systems, all lanes should be
loaded and all supporting components should be
assumed to deflect equally.
For composite design, the stiffness used for
calculation of the deflection should include the
entire width of the roadway, and may include the
structurally continuous portions of the railings,
sidewalks and barriers.

Introduction to LRFD 1-24

 Distribution Factor
for Live-Load Deflection

For the design example:

⎛N ⎞
DF = m3 ⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟
⎝ Nb ⎠
⎛3⎞
= 0.85⎜ ⎟ = 0.638 lanes
⎝4⎠

Number Multiple
of Loaded Presence
Lanes Factors "m"
1 1.20
2 1.00
3 0.85
> 3 0.65

Dynamic Load Allowance

(Impact - IM) – (Article 3.6.2.1)

IM = 33% (for truck or tandem only; not

for lane).

Exceptions are:
Deck joints: IM = 75%
Fatigue limit state: IM = 15%

Introduction to LRFD 1-25

 QUESTIONS?

Thomas Saad, P.E.

FHWA, Suite 301
19900 Governors Drive
Olympia Fields, IL 60461
Ph: 708.283.3521
E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction to LRFD 1-26