Handout

Englis
h
for
Psycholog

BOTTOM-UP
y

Yulian
to Johari
Afrizal

i
 Preface

First of all, thanks to Allah SWT because of the help of Allah, writer
finished writing the handout entitled “English for Psychology” right in the
calculated time.

Although a number of useful books are available on the teaching of

English for Psychology students, this is the first handout to focus specifically on
reading comprehension, cabulary and structure that related to psychology
discipline/
The purpose in writing this handout is to fulfill the need of the first year
students of psychology who take English subject as a compulsory course.

In arranging this handout, the writer truly gets lots challenges and
obstructions but with help of many individuals, those obstructions could pass.
Writer also realized there are still many mistakes in process of writing this
handout.

Because of that, the writer says thank you to all individuals who helps in
the process of writing this handout. Hopefully Allah replies all helps and blesses
you all. The writer realized that this book still imperfect in arrangement and the
content. Then the writer hope the criticism from the readers can help the writer in
perfecting the next handout. Last but not the least hopefully, this handout can help
the readers to gain more knowledge about material of psychology in English.

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 Table of Contents

Preface.............................................................................................................. i
Table of Content............................................................................................... ii

INTRODUCTION

LESSON 1. Psychology at Glance

A. Vocabulary: the Key to Meaning ................................................. 1
B. Recognizing the Structure of Words ............................................. 2
C. How to Use Word Parts................................................................. 7
D. Pronouncing Unfamiliar Words .................................................... 8
Summary ....................................................................................... 9

LESSON 2. Sigmund Freud

A. The Eight Parts of Speeches................................................................10
Noun....................................................................................................11
Pronoun...............................................................................................11
Verb.....................................................................................................12
Adjective.............................................................................................12
Adverb.................................................................................................12
Preposition...........................................................................................12
Conjunction.........................................................................................13
Interjection..........................................................................................13
B. Exercises..............................................................................................14

LESSON 3. Drug Abuse

English Phrases
A. What is a Phrase..................................................................................15
B. Different Types of Phrases..................................................................18
C. Exercise...............................................................................................19

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LESSON 4. What are Emotions and Why Do They Matter
Understanding Sentences
A. Punctuations........................................................................................24
B. Using Context Clues............................................................................28
C. References...........................................................................................34
D. Identifying Core Parts of Sentences....................................................36
E. Types of sentences..............................................................................38

LESSON 5. English Cohesion

A. Theory of Cohesion.............................................................................40
B. Lexical Cohesion.................................................................................40
C. Grammatical Cohesion........................................................................40
D. Exercise...............................................................................................41

LESSON 6. Theme and Rheme

A. Theme............................................................................................ 43
B. Rheme............................................................................................ 41
C. Exercise ......................................................................................... 41
D.
LESSON 7.Understanding Paragraph
A. Identifying Topic.................................................................................45
B. Finding Main Idea...............................................................................46
C. Recognizing Supporting details..........................................................50
D. Transitions...........................................................................................52

LESSON 8. Following Author’s Thought Patterns

A. Thought Patterns.................................................................................55
B. Summary.............................................................................................62

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LESSON 9. Reading Articles/Essay
A. Organization Features.........................................................................63
B. Types of Essays...................................................................................64
LESSON 10. Reading Selections..........................................................................64

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 LESSON 1

PSYCHOLOGY AT A GLANCE

Psychology
is actually a groupstudies the activities
of sciences. On oneofside
individual.
we find The science of
psychology human
investigating the
organs and cells that do the work of the organism, and the other side we see the
social sciences studying nations and groups of mankind. There is room for a
middle science that shall focus its attention on the individual. That middle science
is psychology. Psychology studies the individual's activities through-out his span
of life, from the beginning before birth, up through the end of life. During this life
history, the Man remains the same individual, although his behavior shows
continuity along with many changes. Psychology compares children and adults the
normal and the abnormal and the human and the animal. It is interested in the
differences between one individual and another, and still more interested, if
possible, in the general laws of activity including event of very different
individuals-laws, for example, of growth, learning, thinking and emotion.
Psychology can be defined as the science of the individual's activities.
The word "activity" is used here in a broad sense. It includes not only motor
activities like walking and speaking but also cognitive (knowledge-getting)
activities like seeing, hearing, remembering, thinking, and other emotional
activities laughing and crying, or feeling happy or sad. These last may seem
passive, because they are activities, for they depend on the life of the organism.
Any manifestation of life can be called an activity. No matter how passive an
individual may seem to himself in watching a game or listening to music, he is
really carrying on an activity. The only way to be completely in active is to be
dead.

Answer these following questions

1. What is psychology?
2. Name some individual activities
3. Give example(s) of motor, cognitive, and emotional activities

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4. Is listening to music a kind activities? why? Why not?
5. What is meaning by: the science of human behavior is actuall a group of
science?
6. When do we call an individual completely inactive?
7. The word “activity” is used in a very broad of sense. What does it mean?
8. What kind of activity is happening when you write a letter to your girl or
boy friend?
9. Why do we study human behavior?
10. What causes the differences between individuals?
.
A. VOCABULARY: The Key to Meaning

Joe and Rachel were both taking Psychology course. Joe was doing well in
the course, but Rachel was not. In particular, Rachel was having trouble with the
vocabulary in the textbook. She complained, “I can’t even pronounce some of
these words, much less know what they mean!. There are so many words I don’t
know that I can’t look them all up. And to make things worse, the instructor uses
these same words on exams.”

Rachel asked Joe if he were having the same trouble, Joe agreed that there
were many new and difficult words, but he said he had worked out a way of
handling them. He figured out the meanings of many words from the way they
were used in a sentence. He also used word parts to figure out meanings. To
pronounce hard words, he broke the words into syllables. Then he used a
dictionary to check meanings or pronunciations of which he was unsure.

Joe has acquired a set of skills that are helping him to handle the
vocabulary in college courses. These skills help him improve his overall everyday
vocabulary as well.

Vocabulary development is a skill worth the effort to improve. Your

vocabulary affects not only your reading skills, but your speaking, listening, and
writing skills as well. In speaking, the words you choose affect how well you are
understood, the impression you make, and how people react to you. In writing,
your
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vocabulary determines how clearly and accurately you can express your ideas to
others. In listening, your vocabulary influences how much you understand in class
lecture, speeches, and class discussions.

B. RECOGNIZING THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS

This unit will show you how to

1. Figure out words you do not know
2. Use prefixes, roots, and suffixes

Using word parts to expand your vocabulary

Suppose that you came across the following sentence in a human anatomy
textbook:

Trichromatic plates are used frequently in the text to illustrate the position
of body organs.

If you did not know the meaning of trichromatic, how could you
determine it? There are no clues in the sentence context. One solution is to look
the word up in the dictionary. An easier and faster way is to break the word into
parts and analyze the meanings of the parts. Many words in the English language
are made up of word parts called prefixes, roots, and suffixes. These word parts
have specific meanings that, when added together, can help you determine the
meaning of the word as a whole.

The word trichromatic can be divided into three parts, its prefix, root, and
suffix.

 Prefix – tri (“three”)

 Root – chrome (“color”)
 Suffix – atic (“characteristic of”)

You can see from this analysis that trichromatic means “having three colors.”

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 Here are a few other examples of words that you can figure out by using
prefixes, roots, and suffixes.”

The parent thought the child was unteachable.

un- = not
teach = help someone learn
-able = able to do something
unteachable = not able to be taught

The student was a nonconformist.

non- = not
conform = go along with others
-ist = one who does something
nonconformist = someone who does not go along with others.

The first step is using the prefix-root-suffix method is to become familiar

with the most commonly used word parts. The prefixes and roots listed in the
table 1 and 2 will give you a good start in determining the meanings of thousands
of words without looking them up in the dictionary. For instance, more than
10.000 words can begin with the prefix non-. Not all these words are listed in a
collegiate dictionary, but they would appear in unabridged dictionary. Another
common prefix, pseudo-, is used in more than 400 words. A small amount of time
spent learning word parts can yield a large payoff in new words learned.

Before you begin to use word parts to figure out new words, there are a
few things you need to know:

1. In most cases, a word is built upon at least one root.

2. Words can have more than one prefix, root, or suffix.
a. Words can be made up of two or more roots (geo/logy).
b. Some words have two prefixes (in/sub/ordination).
c. Some words have two suffixes (beauty/ful/ly)
3. Words do not always have prefix and suffix.

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 a. Some words have neither a prefix nor a suffix (read)
b. Others have a suffix but no prefix (read/ing)
c. Others have a prefix but no suffix (pre/read)

4. Roots may change in spelling as they are combined with suffixes (root =
aud/audit, meaning = hear, sample word = audible)
5. Sometimes, you may identify a group of letters as a prefix or root, but find that
it does not carry the meaning of the prefix or root. For example, in the word
internal, the letters inter should not be confused with the prefix inter-, meaning
“between.” Similarly, the letters mis in the word missile are part of the root and
are not the prefix mis-, which means “wrong; bad.”

Prefixes

Prefixes appear at the beginnings of many English words. They alter the
meaning of the root to which they are connected. In Table 1, thirty-two common
prefixes are grouped according to meaning.

Table 1 common prefixes

Prefix Meaning Sample Word

Prefixes referring to amount or number
Bi Two bimonthly
Equi equal Equidistant
Micro small microscope
Mono One monocle
Multi many multipurpose
Poly many polygon
Semi Half semicircle
Tri Three triangle
Uni One Unicycle

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 Prefix Meaning Sample Word
Prefixes meaning “not”
(negative)
a, an, ab Not asymmetrical
Anti against antiwar
Contra against, opposite contradict
Dis apart, away, not disagree
in/il/ir/im Not inactive, Illogical
Non Not nonfiction
Un Not unpopular
Pseudo False pseudoscientific
Mis wrong, bad misunderstand

Prefixes giving direction, location, or placement

Prefix Meaning Sample Word
Circum around circumference
com/col/con with, together compile
De away, from depart
Extra from, out of, former ex-wife
Hyper over, excessive hyperactive
Inter between interpersonal
intro/intra within, into, in introduction
Post After posttest
Pre before premarital
Re back, again review
Retro backward retrospect
Sub under, below submarine
Super above, extra supercharge
Tele Far telescope
Trans across, over transcontinental

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Roots

Roots carry the basic or core meaning of a word. Hundreds of root words
are used to build words in the English language. Thirty of the most common and
most useful are listed in Table 2. Knowledge of the meanings of these roots will
enable you to unlock the meanings of many words. For example, if you know that
the root dic/dict means “tell or say,” then you would have a clue to the meanings
of such words as dictate (speak for someone to write down), dictation (words
spoken to be written down), and diction (wording or manner of speaking).

Table 2 common roots

Root Meaning Sample Word

aud/audit Hear audible
aster/astro Star astronaut
Bio Life biology
Cap take, seize captive
chron(o) Time chronology
Corp body corpse
Cred believe incredible
dict/dic tell, say predict
duc/duct Lead introduce
fact/fac make, do factory
Graph write telegraph
Geo earth geophysics
log/logo/logy study, thought psychology
mit/miss Send dismiss
mort/mor die, death immortal
Path feeling sympathy
Phono sound, voice telephone
Photo Light photosensitive
Port carry transport

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 Pod, ped Foot podiatrist, pedestrian
Polis City metropolis
Scop seeing microscope
scrib/script write inscription
sen/sent Feel insensitive
spec/spic/spect look, see retrospect
tend/tent/tens stretch or strain tension
terr/terre land, earth territory
Theo God theology
ven/vent come convention
vert/vers Turn invert
vis/vid See invisible
Voc Call provoke

SUFFIXES

Suffixes are word endings that often change the part of speech of a word.
For example, adding the suffix y to the noun cloud produces the adjective cloudy.
Accompanying the change in part of speech is a shift in meaning. (Cloudy means
“resembling cloud; overcast with clouds, dimmed or dulled as if clouds.”)

Often, several different words can be formed from a single root word with
the addition of different suffixes.

Examples: Root: class

Root + suffix = class/ify, class/ification, class/ic
Root: right
Root + suffix = right/ly, right/ful, right/ist, right/eous.
If you know the meaning of the root word and the ways in which different
suffixes affect the meaning of the root word, you will be able to figure out a
word’s meaning when a suffix is added.

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Table 3 Common suffixes

Suffix Sample Word

Suffixes that refer to a state, condition, or quality
Able touchable
Ance assistance, relevance
Ate activate
Ation confrontation
Ence reference
iIble tangible
Ic aerobic, economic
Ion discussion, fusion
Ism terrorism, vandalism, communism
Ity superiority
Ive permissive
Ment amazement
Ness kindness
Ous jealous
Ty loyalty
Y creamy
Suffixes that mean “one who”
Ee trainee
Eer engineer
Er teacher
Ist activist
Ian librarian
Or advisor
Suffixes that mean “pertaining to or referring to”
Al autumnal
Ship friendship
Hood brotherhood

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 Ward homeward

You can expand your vocabulary significantly by learning the variations in

meaning that occur when suffixes are added to words you already know. When
you find a word that you do not know, look for the root word. Then, using the
sentence the word is in (context), figure out what the word means with the suffix
added. Occasionally, you may find that the spelling of the root word has been
changed. For instance, a final e may be dropped, a final consonant may be
doubled, or a final y may be changed into i. Consider the possibility of such
changes when trying to identify the root word.

Examples: The article was a compilation of facts.

root + suffix
compil(e) + -ation = something that has been compiled,
or put together into an orderly form.
Our college is one of the most prestigious in the state.
root + suffix
prestige(e) +-ious = having prestige or distinction

C. HOW TO USE WORD PARTS

Think of root words as being at the root or core of a word’s meaning.

There are many more roots than are listed in table 2. You already know many of
these, because they are everyday words. Think of prefixes as word parts that are
added before the root to qualify or change its meaning. Think of suffixes as add –
ion that make the word fit grammatically into the sentence in which it is used.

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 When you come upon a word you do not know, keep the following pointer
in mind:

1. First look for the root. Think of this as looking for a word inside a larger
word. Often a letter or two will be missing.
Examples: un/utter/able post/operat/ive
defens/ible non/adapt/able
inter/college/iate im/measure/ability
2. If you do not recognize the root, then you will probably not be able to
figure out the word. The next step is to check its meaning in a dictionary.
For tip on locating words in a dictionary rapidly and easily.
Suppose you are looking up the word loathsome. The guide words
on a particular page are livid and lobster. You know that the word
loathsome will be on that page because, alphabetically, loathsome comes
after livid and before lobster.
3. If you did recognize the root word, next look for a prefix. If there is one,
determine how it changes the meaning of the word
Examples: un/utter/able post/operative
un = not post – after
4. Locate the suffix, if there is one, and determine how it further adds to or
changes the meaning of the root word.
Examples: unutter/able postoperat/ive
-able = able -ive = state or condition
5. Next, try out the meaning in the sentence in which the word was used.
Substitute your meaning for the word and see whether the sentence makes
sense.
Examples: Some of the victim’s thoughts were unutterable at the time
of the crime.
Unutterable = not able to be spoken

My sister was worried about the cost of postoperative care.

Postoperative = state or condition after an operation.

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D. PRONOUNCING UNFAMILIAR WORDS

Most college students, at one time or another, meet words that they are
unable to pronounce. To pronounce an unfamiliar word, sound it out syllable by
syllable (Knowing how to divide words into syllables is useful for typing term
papers and other written materials. When you have to break a word at the end of a
line, it must be split between syllables).

Here are a few simple rules for dividing words into syllables:

1. Each syllable is a separate, distinct speech sound. Pronounce the following

words and try to hear the number of syllables in each.
Example: expensive ex/pen/sive = 3 syllables
recognize rec/og/nize = 3 syllables
punctuate punc/tu/ate = 3 syllables
complicated com/pli/cat/ed = 4 syllables
2. Each syllable has a least one vowel and usually one or more consonants
(The letter a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y are vowels. All other letters are
consonants.)
Examples as/sign re/act cou/pon gen/er/al
3. Divide words before a single consonant.
Examples: hu/mid pa/tron re/tail fa/vor
4. Divide words between two consonants appearing together.
Examples: pen/cil lit/ter lum/ber sur/vive
5. Divide words between prefixes (word beginnings) and roots (base words)
and/or between roots and suffixes (word endings)
Example: Prefix+ Root
Pre/read post/pone
Root + suffix
Sex/ist agree/ment list/ing
6. Divide compound word between the individual words that form the
compound word.

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 Examples: house/broken house/hold space/craft
green/house news/paper sword/fish
7. Divide words between two vowel sounds that appear together.
Example: te/di/ous ex/tra/ne/ous

SUMMARY

When context does not give enough clues to the meaning of an unknown
word, it is helpful to break the word into word part. The beginnings, middles, and
endings of words are called prefixes, roots, and suffixes. Learning the meanings of
the most common prefixes, roots, and suffixes will provide a basis for analyzing
thousands of English words.

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 LESSON 2

SIGMUND FREUD

Sigmund Freud developed ideas about the human mind and ways to help
people with mental illnesses get better. It is known as psychoanalysis.
Freud was born in Moravia (now the Czech Republic) on May 6, 1856. He
and his family moved to Vienna in 1860. In 1873, he went to the University of
Vienna medical school and graduated as a medical doctor in 1881. He decided to
go into private practice to treat people with mental illnesses.
In 1885, he learned how to use hypnosis to treat his patients, but he was
unhappy with the results. He and Josef Breur, another doctor, worked out a new
kind of treatment. Patients would just lie on a couch and talk about what was
bothering them. Later, Freud and Breur would think about what their patients told
them and then work with them to help them get better.
Freud and Breur also decided that many people’s problems began in their
childhood. To get well, patients had to remember and then deal with their
childhood fears. After a few years, Freud and Breur began to disagree and decided
to work alone.
In 1900, Freud wrote a book called The Interpretation of Dreams. In it, he
explained his ideas about the meaning of people’s dreams. Many people think it is
his best work.
Freud also studied how children’s personalities develop. Many of his ideas
had to do with human sexuality. At this time, sex was not discussed publicly, and
many people were unhappy with him. But, by 1908, some scientists began to
agree with Freud’s ideas. He was even asked to give lectures about his work in the
United States.
In 1923, Freud published his theory about how the human mind works,
which became very famous. Over the years, he wrote more than 20 books. Many
people agreed with his ideas, and many did not.
Freud and his family left Vienna in 1937 to escape from the Nazis. They
moved to London, England. Freud died there in 1939 of cancer.

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COMPREHENSION

A. True or False. Read the statements below. If the statement is true, write T
beside the sentence. If it is false, write F. If it is false, correct the information.
1. Sigmund Freud was a medical doctor.
2. Freud graduated in 1873.
3. Freud created a new treatment for people with mental illness.
4. Freud believed that many mental problems begin in childhood.
5. Freud died in 1937.

A. Practice asking and answering the following questions with your partner.
Then write the answers in complete sentences.

1. What kind of ideas did Freud develop?

2. Where did Freud study medicine?
3. After he graduated, what kind of people did he want to treat?
4. Who worked with Freud in developing a new kind of treatment?
5. Explain the new treatment they developed?
6. Why did Freud try to get his patients to talk about their childhood?
7. What is Freud’s treatment of mental illness called?
8. Why were many people unhappy with Freud’s ideas?

B. VOCABULARY REVIEW
Match the words on the left with the correct meaning on the right.
1. mental a. sofa
2. illness b. not have the same opinion
3. treat c. talk for the purpose of teaching
4. hypnosis d. upset, make you worry, make trouble
5. couch e. something you are afraid of
6. bother f. sickness
7. theory g. give medical care
8. disagree h. run away, get free

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 9. interpretation i. idea given to explain something
10. personality j. openly, in front of people, not privately
11. publicly k. of the mind
12. lecture l. person’s character
13. escape m. explanation of meanin
14. fear n. a deep sleep in which someone can control you’re
actions

PARTS OF SPEECH
A. The eight parts of speech

There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun,
verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of
speech indicates how the word functions in meaning as well as grammatically
within the sentence. An individual word can function as more than one part of
speech when used in different circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is
essential for determining the correct definition of a word when using the
dictionary.

1. NOUN

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.

man... Butte College... house... happiness

A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used
with an article (the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a
capital letter; common nouns do not. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or
abstract. Nouns show possession by adding 's. Nouns can function in different
roles within a sentence; for example, a noun can be a subject, direct object,
indirect object, subject complement, or object of a preposition.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then
she quickly disappeared. Oh my God!

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2. PRONOUN

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

She... we... they... it

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually

substituted for a specific noun, which is called its antecedent. In the sentence
above, the antecedent for the pronoun she is the girl. Pronouns are further defined
by type: personal pronouns refer to specific persons or things; possessive
pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize another
noun or pronoun; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and
demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and
then she quickly disappeared. Oh my God!

3. VERB

A verb expresses action or being.

jump... is... write... become

The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and
sometimes one or more helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can
is the helping verb.) A verb must agree with its subject in number (both are
singular or both are plural). Verbs also take different forms to express tense.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then
she quickly disappeared. Oh my God!

4. ADJECTIVE

An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.

pretty... old... blue... smart

An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It

usually answers the question of which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a,
an, the] are usually classified as adjectives.)

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 The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then
she quickly disappeared. Oh my God!

5. ADVERB

An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

gently... extremely... carefully... well

An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb,

but never a noun. It usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why,
under what conditions, or to what degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher,
and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my God!

6. PREPOSITION

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase

modifying another word in the sentence.
by... with.... about... until

(by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)

A preposition is a word placed b efore a noun or pronoun to form a phrase

modifying another word in the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of
a prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrase almost always functions as an
adjective or as an adverb. The following list includes the most common
prepositions:

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then
she quickly disappeared. Oh my God!

7. CONJUNCTION

A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.

and... but... or... while... because

A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the

relationship between the elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect

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grammatically equal elements: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet. Subordinating
conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because, although, while, since,
etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then
she quickly disappeared. Oh my God!

8. INTERJECTION

An interjection is a word used to express emotion.

Oh!... Wow!... Oops!

An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by

an exclamation point.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then
she quickly disappeared. Oh my God!

Exercise 1.
Decide which parts of speech are the underlined words (verb, adverb, adjective,
noun, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, and interjection)

1. You have to believe in yourself if you ever expect to be successful

at something.
2. We left for the mountain just before six in the morning.
3. We first went to the store to buy a few things.
4. We had a breakfast at a café near the rail station.
5. My friend wasn't strong enough to lift his heavy rucksack.
6. I helped him carry it.
7. The weather was very cold.
8. My friend said, "Oh! What a cold weather!"
9. We didn't spend the night there.
10. We got back home late at night but we didn't go to sleep immediately.
We were very hungry.

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Exercise 2.
1. Choose the correct answer to the following question: Which of the following
words is an example of a preposition?
a. into b. if c. many d. you

2. Choose the correct answer to the following question: Which of the following
words is an example of an interjection?
a. soon b. when c. ouch d. within

3. Choose the correct answer to the following question: Which of the following
words is an example of a conjunction?
a. and b. run c. below d. her
4. Choose the correct answer to the following question: Which of the following
words is an example of a verb?
a. Taste b. late c. not d. slowly

5. Choose the correct answer to the following question: Which of the following
words is an example of an adjective?
a. Ralph b. below c. fifteen d. wait
6. Choose the answer that names the part of speech of the capitalized word in the
following sentence: The usher CLOSED the door.
a. Noun b. pronoun c. verb d. adverb

7. Choose the answer that names the part of speech of the capitalized word in the
following sentence: Farmers had VERY poor crops this year.
a. adjective b. pronoun c. verb d. adverb

8. Choose the answer that names the part of speech of the capitalized word in the
following sentence: EVERYONE met at the field house.
a. noun b. pronoun c. adjective d. preposition

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9. Choose the answer that names the part of speech of the capitalized word in the
following sentence: Have you heard the GOOD news?
a. Pronoun b. verb c. adverb d. adjective

10. Choose the answer that names the part of speech of the capitalized word in
the following sentence: The cat knocked a vase OFF the shelf.
a. Pronoun b. verb c. adverb d. preposition

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 LESSON 3

DRUG ABUSE
Jay Tee, 30, has been a drug addict since he was a teenager. He has tried to
kick the habit many times; going in and out of rehabilitation centers. He managed
to stay clean for a month before suffering a relapse. There are many drug addicts
like Jay Tee. Why are they into it in the first place? It doesn't matter if you are
white or black or Asian or Latin, every race has their share of drug abuse
Problems.
Some people say that it is due to the perception of drugs being "bad and
illegal" and therefore something so irresistible that you just have to try it.
Somehow, teenagers are more curious to discover the "forbidden fruit". Some
manage to kick the habit early but there are many others who are trapped.
For many teenagers, drug abuse is a mere escape. They use drugs to get
out of their misery, pain, confusion and loneliness. Some teenage drug addicts
grow up without guidance from their parents, and so they resort to drugs. Some
are physically or mentally abused and drugs become the only thing that they are
able to count on. Many succumb to drug addiction because of the need to feel like
they belong. They try drugs to please their friends or to be part of a group. Many
teenage drug abusers are also low achievers in schools and have low self-esteem.
There are also teenagers who claim that they were first exposed to
different kinds of drugs at parties and discos. These drugs were distributed freely
the first few times and they kept coming back for more. As a result, many of them
became addicted even before they knew it. In certain cases, these teenagers might
resort to committing crimes to support their expensive habit.
One effective tool in the fight against teen drug abuse is communication.
Troubled teens need some form of outlet from the problems or depression they are
facing. Parents should take time out from their busy schedules to spend time with
their children and listen to their problems. Communication, however, should go
beyond words. Parents should show their children that they really care. Adequate
parental supervision has also been found to be a deterrent to drug use in youth.
Parents should know who their children's friends are and what is going on in their

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social lives. School counselors should also play an active role in providing
information on drug abuse and also provide emotional support.
One common belief is that drug abusers should be able to stop taking
drugs if only they are willing to change their behavior. However, drug addiction is
a disease that affects the brain and because of that, stopping drug abuse is not
simply a matter of willpower. Drug abuse can affect a person's self-control and
ability to make sound decisions, and at the same time send intense impulses to
take drugs. Through scientific advances, we now know that the abuse of drugs
leads to changes in the structure and function of the brain and at the same time, we
also know that drug addiction can be successfully treated to help people get over
their addiction and resume productive lives.
At the end of the day, the best way to prevent drug addiction is by
educating teenagers about it. The more they learn about the bad effects, the less
their excuses to take it. This may even dissuade them from using it.

1. From paragraph 1, who does 'they' refer to ?

2. From paragraph 2, what is the reason cited for teenage drug addiction ?
3. From paragraph 3,
A. WHAT IS A PHRASE?
(a) what are teenage drug abusers escaping from ?
(b) give two other reasons for drug abuse among teenagers.
(c) give two characteristics of teenage drug abusers.
4. From paragraph 5, name one way in which parents could help their
troubled children.
5. In your own words, explain why stopping drug abuse is not simply a
matter of willpower.

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ENGLISH PHRASES

Definition, Examples of English Phrases

Phrase definition: A phrase is a grammatical term referring to a group of words that
does not include a subject and verb.

What is a Phrase? Examples, Definitions

What are phrases? A phrase is a group (or pairing) of words in English. A
phrase can be short or long, but it does not include the subject-verb pairing
necessary to make a clause.

Some examples of phrases include:

 after the meal (prepositional phrase)
 the nice neighbor (noun phrase)
 were waiting for the movie (verb phrase)
None of these examples contains a subject doing an action (subject-verb).
Therefore, each example is merely a group of words called a phrase. A phrase will
always be more than one word.

Phrases vs. Clauses: a Hierarchy of Word Units

A phrase is any group of words that does not contain a subject completing
an action. When a group of words contains a subject doing an action (subject-
verb), it becomes a clause. Phrases can be added to sentences to make them
more complex.

Concepts can begin with a single word and develop into a compound
sentence.

Example:
 meal (word)
 after the meal (phrase)
 that mom prepared (clause)
 After the meal that mom prepared I felt full. (sentence)

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  After the meal that mom prepared, I felt full because I ate too
much. (complex sentence)
 After the meal that mom prepared I felt full, but my brother was
still hungry. (compound sentence)

More Phrase Examples

Before we go into different types of grammatical phrases, let’s look at a
few more examples of phrases.

 In the air (prepositional phrase)

 Beside the bed (prepositional phrase)
 Along the road (prepositional phrase)
 To live and breathe (infinitive phrase)
 Looking stunning (participle phrase)
As you can see, English phrases can be just about any combination of
words so long as they do not contain a subject-verb pairing.

B. DIFFERENT TYPES OF PHRASES

What is a noun phrase? Noun phrases consist of a noun and its modifiers.
 the nice neighbor
 a soft, comfortable bed

What is a verb phrase? Verb phrases consist of a verb and its modifiers.
 were waiting for the movie
 felt a prick on his arm

What is an adverbial phrase? Adverbial phrases are phrases that act as adverbs.
They modify verbs, adverbs, or adjectives.
 around the block (modifying where)
 after the meal (modifying when)
 in silence (modifying how)

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What is a gerund phrase? Gerund phrases are essentially noun phrases that
begin with a gerund.
 running through the woods
 jumping like a kangaroo

What is an infinitive phrase? Infinitive phrases begin with a verb infinitive and
include any modifiers. Infinitive phrases function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
 to run out of food
 to visit to the countryside

What is an appositive phrase? An appositive is essentially a noun phrase but one

that renames another noun in the sentence.
 The tree, a tall redwood, was beautiful.
 The curtains were made of lace, a beautiful and delicate fabric.

What is a participle phrase? A participle phrase begins with a present (-ing) or

past (-ed) participle. A participle phrase includes the participle and its modifiers.
Participle phrases function as adjectives.
 The girls giggling and playing in the park never seemed to tire.
 Fatigued and dehydrated in the desert the men traveled on.


What is a prepositional phrase? A prepositional phrase is a group of words that

includes a preposition and a noun. A prepositional phrase will function as either
an adjective or an adverb.
 before church
 under the stairs
What is an absolute phrase? An absolute phrase includes a noun and a participle
and any modifiers.
 the flag flying at half-mast
 her hair streaked with sunlight

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Summary: What are Phrases?
Define phrase: The definition of phrase is any grouping of words that does not
contain a subject and a verb. A phrase is a very basic word unit in English.
 Phrases Examples:
 Reading a book
 The tall basketball player

C. Exercise 1.
Determine types of phrases of the underlined group of words
1. She liked the shirt given to her by her grandmother.
a. gerund phrase c. participle phrase
b. infinitive phrase d. appositive phrase

2. We all sighed in relief, James having found his passport

a. infinitive phrase c. gerund phrase
b. participle phrase d. absolute phrase

3. Does the captain want us to lower the sails before we enter the harbor?
a. infinitive phrase c. gerund phrase
b. participle phrase d. absolute phrase

4. As a souvenir, Mary bought herself a beautiful oval-shaped, soft pink pearl.

a. noun phrase c. gerund phrase
b. verb phrase d. infinitive phrase

5. To celebrate their arrival at the villa, they all enjoyed a glass Sangria on
the terrace overlooking the sea.
a. participle phrase c. infinitive phrase
b. prepositional phrase d. absolute phrase

6. Before putting to much effort into the project, maybe you should get some
guidance from your advisor.

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 a. infinitive phrase c. appositive phrase
b. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase

7. Tom Hank, star of “Philadelphia”, will be appearing in a new film this holiday
session.
a. infinitive phrase c. appositive phrase
b. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase

8. Fascinated by the stalactities and stalagmites in the cave, the tourists took
many picture.
a. infinitive phrase c. verb phrase
b. noun phrase d. participle phrase

9. Patricia would have gone for a walk to explore the surroundings had others
been interested
a. noun phrase c. verb phrase
b. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase

10. Tom visited India while studying the history of Indian art.
a. appositive phrase c. prepositional phrase
b. infinitive phrase d. noun phrase

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 LESSON 4

What Are Emotions and Why Do They Matter?

How are you feeling? Are you happy or sad?

When asked, it is rather likely that all of us are able to tell which
emotional state we are in at that moment. But what does it mean? Where do
emotions originate and how do they impact our daily life?

Emotions = Feelings?

For most people feelings and emotions are very much the same. Naturally,
we would perceive them as synonyms; two words with the same meaning.
However, even though they are dependent on each other, emotions and feelings
are rather different things.

Emotions describe physiological states and are generated subconsciously.

Usually, they are autonomous bodily responses to certain external or internal
events. By contrast, feelings are subjective experiences of emotions and are driven
by conscious thoughts and reflections. This means that we can have emotions
without having feelings, however, we simply cannot have feelings without having
emotions.

What are our basic emotions?

There are as many alleged emotions as researchers have different opinions

about them. As a rule of thumb, there are seven basic emotions: joy, surprise, fear,
disgust, anger, contempt, and sadness.

Based on these, we build secondary emotions, which can add up to a

number of over 25. However, recent research from the University of Glasgow
suggests that humans have only four rather than seven basic facial expressions.
But this is only one discussion stream, classifying emotions into categories.

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 Other researchers use two well-established orthogonal dimensions when
analyzing emotional responses – arousal (excitement vs. calmness) and valence
(positivity vs. negativity). Arousal refers to the psycho-physiological state of
being awake and reactive to stimuli and is relevant for any kind of regulation of
consciousness, attention, and information processing. Yet, based on the arousal
dimension alone one cannot determine the quality of an emotion. Whether an
emotion is positive (joy) or negative (fear), it is addressed by the valence
dimension.

Which parts of the brain are “emotional”?

Unfortunately, there is no single brain region where all of our positive or

negative emotions are processed. However, several studies identified brain regions
that are obviously involved in the processing of both positive and negative
emotions.

Emotions are generated by synchronization of neural networks throughout

the human brain, involving visual and auditory areas in occipital and temporal
regions that process incoming information as well as self-referential areas in
parietal regions. During the processing of for example joyful stimuli, these areas
closely interact with the medial orbitofrontal cortex.

Further, the nucleus accumbens has been shown to be active when feeling
desire. Negative emotions such as stress, fear, and disgust, on the other hand, are
generally associated with much deeper and older brain structures such as the
amygdala or the insula.

Are emotions really unconscious?

Yes, they are.

Take the example of watching a horror movie at home – even though you
are in a very safe environment and there is nothing to be scared of you might get
nervous and frightened. There is the chance that you might even try to hide. Your

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body responds with stronger respiration, faster heartbeat, and increased pupil
dilation.

Before you can start to consciously become aware of fear or even respond
with a scream, your autonomous nervous system has already pulled the levers and
triggered all bodily changes. This again shows that emotions do not automatically
result in feelings but that they definitely steer our actions.

Do emotions influence our thinking?

Emotions have a certain power over our thoughts. “In essence, our first
‘read’ of a new situation is always centered in our emotions, feelings, and
attitudes. As such, our emotions are laying the groundwork for the thinking that is
to come”, says Ron Richard in his article about dispositions, attitudes, and habits.

The fact that emotions appear “pre-cognitively” (i.e., prior to thoughts) is

actually quite helpful. Under impending threats, there simply is no time to think.
Instead, emotions “take over” and trigger immediate behavioral responses in split
seconds, preventing negative outcomes. Emotions support decision making, serve
as a source of motivation to select and take appropriate action.

Why do we need emotions?

Kendra Cherry, Psychology Expert, summarized the five main purposes of

emotions quite nicely: Emotions help us to take action, to survive, strike and avoid
danger, to make decisions, to understand others. Moreover, they help other people
to understand us.

From an evolutionary standpoint, brain structures that process cognitive

information (such as neocortex) are way younger than other brain areas that are
modulated autonomously (such as brainstem), one could say that the effect of
emotions on human behavior is much greater compared to cognition and rational
decisions.

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 Further, other human’s emotions affect our own by virtue of the
information they convey. When we perceive someone’s facial expression to reflect
fear, we tend to instantly look out for dangerous or hazardous stimuli in the
environment. Likewise, we feel comfortable and safe when sensing happiness in
others. Consequently, emotions, cognitions, and behavior of human beings can
easily be affected by emotional stimuli.

How can emotions be measured?

What emotions are and how they are perceived differ depending on many
factors. Therefore, asking people about their emotions might be tricky since
verbal reports are seemingly driven by one’s awareness of inner states, cultural
impact, and verbal proficiency.

One way to circumvent this is to use physiological measures which are

universal and more objective than verbal reports. Arousal and valence, for
instance, can be measured using several cognitive-behavioral methods such as
EEG, GSR, ECG, facial expression analysis, or eye tracking.

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UNDERSTANDING SENTENCES

Along with words and phrases, sentences are basic units of meaning to
consider when we try to improve reading rate and comprehension. Clear accurate
understanding of sentences is essential to other comprehension skills and to the
effective reading and study of textbook chapter.

A sentence is commonly defined as a group of words that express a

complete thought or idea. Understanding sentences can be used as a
comprehensible input through comprehending punctuations, context clues,
references, and sentence core parts.

Aims of this lesson:

1. This lesson is aimed at providing the students with knowledge and application
of punctuations in order that they are able to read better.
2. After studying this lesson, it is expected that you have good understanding
about punctuations.
3. This lesson contains all important types of punctuations which are needed very
much in catching the writer’s message.

A. PUNCTUATIONS
Punctuation is the set of marks used to regulate texts and clarify their
meanings, principally by separating or linking words, phrases, and clauses.
1. Comma (,)
The comma has a number of different uses. But in each case, it separates
some type of information from other parts of the sentences. The different uses of
the comma are explained below.

a. The introductory use. The comma can be used to separate introductory,

beginning, or opening parts of a sentence from the main part of the sentences.

Examples:

1. To my surprise, most people attending the party were over thirty years old.

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2. At the age of sixteen, he began to give piano concerts.
3. In spite of noise, he was able to sleep.
4. Before the war began, American colonist had already been rebelling for several
years.

b. The Parenthetical Use. The comma can be used to separate additional

information from the main part of the sentence. Writers occasionally interrupt
the core sentence to add some extra (parenthetical information which
important, but not crucial, to the sentence meaning. They use a comma before
and after this parenthetical information. To you as a reader, this use of the
comma should help you to tell important from less important information and
should aid you in identifying the sentence’s core part. You will notice that even
when the parenthetical phrase is left out, the sentence is complete and conveys
meaning.

Examples

1. My daughter, Raida Afifah, plans to go to Bali.

2. Dolphins, as a matter of fact, are very friendly creatures that frequently come
to the rescue of people.
3. Carl Akely, the American Naturalist, led two expeditions in the nineteen-
twenties.
4. The Coal Mine Safety Act, one of the first federal efforts to enforce safety
standards, reduced worker productivity.
5. Drug and alcohol, experts warn, are an unsafe and dangerous combination.

c. The Serial Use. Whenever several items are presented in a list or series, in a
sentence, they are separated by comma. Many different types of items may be
given in series. Single words, such as nouns or adjectives as well as phrases
and clauses are all separated by commas when they are part of list. In all cases,
the items in a series are equal and consistent in how they are connected or
related to the core parts of a sentence. As you are reading, if you notice many
items separated by commas, you might expect that they are a series of related
facts or ideas.
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Examples

1. After I saw the film, I was bored, tired, and angry.

2. The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading, and
writing.
3. Please runs upstairs, go into my bedroom, get my hand phone, and give it to me.
4. Social adjustment requires that an individual maintain himself independently,
to be gainfully employed, and to conform to social standards set by the
community.

d. Related Ideas Use. The comma can be used to joint two closely related and
complete ideas within a single sentence. When used in this way, the comma
must be used with a conjunction or connecting words (and, or, nor, but and
for). This use of the comma tells you that there are actually two complete but
related ideas within a sentence (there are two sets of core parts within the
sentence)

Examples

1. We walked two miles into the woods, but we did not see a single wild animal.
2. We as teachers cannot be held responsible for the differences in ability that
students bring in the classroom, but we are responsible for motivating our
students and for making sure that they are involved in learning.

2. The Semicolon (;)

The primary use of the semicolon is to separate two very closely related ideas
which have been combined in a single sentence. Sentence 1 and 2 in the examples
below can be combined to form sentence 3.

Examples

1. They bought the house at a very low price.

2. The former owner had to sell immediately and move to another city.
3. They bought the house at a very low price; the former owner had to sell

3
immediately and move to another city.

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 You may notice that this use of the semicolon is similar to the use of the
comma to separate complete and related ideas in one sentence. One main
difference is that a conjunction such as and or but must be used along with the
comma, but the semicolon can be used alone – without conjunction. When a
semicolon is used, you know that the two ideas have equal weight or importance.

Examples:

1. The job had to be finished on time; we found we had underestimated the

amount of work involved.
2. A good actor has to spend a lot of time in classes where he studies human
emotions, such as sadness, happiness, or anger; in these classes, he
concentrates on the audience in the theatre.
3. The fisherman caught fifteen trout; they cooked over on open fire.

Occasionally, a semicolon is used to separate sentence parts which, if divided

by comma, would be confusing or difficult to read. To illustrate this use of the
semicolon, the sentence below has been written in two versions.

1. Speakers at the conference included Dr, Frank, a biologist, Dr, Flock, a

philosopher, and Professor Smith, a geneticist.
2. Speakers at the conference included Dr, Frank, a biologist; Dr, Flock, a
philosopher; and Professor Smith, a geneticist.

As you read the first version of the sentence, you are not sure whether the
speakers include Dr. Frank and a biologist or whether it was Dr. Frank who was
being described as a biologist.

3. The Colon (:)

The colon is most often used to introduce a list, statement, or quotation.

The colon tells you, the reader, that some type of additional information which
further explains the main idea of a sentence is to follow. The colon also serves as
a marker indicating that the sentence’s core parts precede the colon.

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Examples

1. Books that I have enjoyed recently include: Pride and Prejudice, Sons and
Lovers, and Bleak House (The colon introduce a list of book titles)
2. The causes of the war can be divided into three categories: social, economic,
and political (a list of categories will follow).
3. Chomsky described two levels of language: One underlying or deep structure
involved with meaning, and a surface level used in ordinary conversation. (The
colon in this example signals that an explanation of the two levels of language
is to follow).

4. The Dash (–)

The dash is most commonly used in a sentence to separate unessential or

parenthetical element from the core sentence, when using a comma would be
confusing. This usage also assists the reader in separating core parts from
supporting information.

Examples

1. At least three sports – basketball, football, and tennis – are continually gaining
television fans.
2. Throughout history, man has been puzzled and exasperated by the strange
duality of his nature – half animal, half angel – and much religious and
philosophic teaching has been an attempt to understand and integrate these two
sides of human nature.

Summary

The sentence, one of the basic units of meaning, is defined as a group of

words that express a complete thought or idea. In order to be complete, a sentence
must contain sufficient information, so the reader is not left to questions what
happened or to whom or to what something happened.

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 All complete sentences must have two essential components; these are called
core parts. First, a sentence must have subject; it must be about person, thing, or
idea. Second, a sentence must express some type of action; something must
happen to or be done by the subject. In long complicated sentences, identifying
the core parts is more difficult because it is necessary to separate the core parts
from other words, phrases, and clauses which provide additional information
about the core parts.

Punctuation is an aid to the reader in comprehending sentence meaning and

identifying the core parts of the sentences. Each types of punctuation mark gives
the reader specific information about the relative importance of ideas and the
location of core parts within the sentence.

B. USING CONTEXT CLUES

1. Figure out the meanings of words from their use in a sentence.
2. Use types of context clues.

What do you usually do when you come to a word you do not know in your
reading?

a. Look it up in the dictionary?

b. Ask your teacher?
c. Ask another students or friends?
d. Try to guess what it means?

If your answered a, b, or c, then you are not reading as effectively and

efficiently as you could be. In fact, the best strategy for dealing with an unknown
word is to try to guess what it means. This strategy:

 is fast because you don’t interrupt your reading.

 helps your comprehension because you stay focused on the general sense
of what you are reading.
 helps build vocabulary because you are more likely to remember the words.
 Allows you to enjoy your reading more because you don’t have to stop
often.

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WHAT IS CONTEXT

Read the following brief paragraph. Several words are missing. Try to
figure out the missing words and write them in the blanks.

Most Americans can speak only one _. Europeans, however,

several. As a result, Europeans think are unfriendly and
unwilling to communicate with them.

Did you insert the word language in the first blank, speak or know in the
second blank, and Americans in the third blank? You could tell from the sentence
what word to put in. The words around the missing words (the sentence context)
gave you clues to what word would fit and make sense. Such clues are called
context clues. Context clues can help you to figure out the meaning of unfamiliar
words.

Words are unit which is a constituent at phrase level and above. It is

sometimes identifiable according to such criteria. Words are the raw materials we
use to write everything from such as email, messages and memos to letter, essays
and textbooks. Therefore, when you do not understand a word an author uses, you
can use several strategies to help you define it. To understand an author’s specific
meaning of a word, you must look at the word in context, how it is used with the
other words in the sentence and surrounding the sentences. This is because word
takes a meaning from their context and has multiple meaning.

Think about definitions of the word medium in these sentences.

1. The internet is a powerful medium for finding information.

2. Copper is a good medium for conducting heat.
3. I asked for my beef burger to be cooked medium more than rare, but less
than well done.
4. At the state fair, we saw a fortuneteller and a medium to try to
communicate with my dead uncle’s spirit.
5. The artist used watercolors on cloth as the medium for her work.

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Explanation

Understanding the way the word is used with the other words in the sentence
helps you understand the specific meaning of medium.

 In sentence 1 medium is a mean of communication.

 In sentence 2 medium is something that carries energy.
 In sentence 3 medium is an intermediate amount.
 In sentence 4 medium is a person who cahnnels communication between
the earthly world and spirit.
 In sentence 5 medium is the technique and material used by an artist.

DEFINING WORD AND PHRASES WHILE READING

To understand the variety of material you are required to read, you must
use the strategies flexibly, choose the strategy or strategies that best fit the
situation, for example, when you come to a word you do not understand, you
might first look for any context clues you can use. On the other hand, if you
recognize a part of the word, perhaps that is the entire clue you need. Or you
might start by looking it up in the dictionary and fitting the meaning back into the
context.

REMEMBERING WORD

 Understanding
Being able to remember something often depends on how thoroughly you
learned it in the first place. You must get or understand something before
you can “forget it”. In this context, understanding means your ability to
translate words and information into ideas that make sense to you.
However, applying several of your senses will help: see it, say it, hear it,
and write it.
 Reviewing and Using
Begin a session by reviewing some of the words you have already learned,
and then tackle new ones. You also have use new information to remember
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 it. In fact, it has been estimated that you must use a new word at least ten
times before it is really “your”. Try to use a few in your writing and
conversations each day.

TYPES OF CONTEXT CLUES

There are many types of context clues in determining word meanings in

textbook material: definition, example/illustration, cause and effect, contrast,
restatement, and modifier.

1. Definition Clues

Many times a writer defines a word, directly or indirectly, immediately

following its use. The writer may define a word directly by giving a brief
definition or providing a synonym (a word that has the same meaning). The words
and phrases such as means, is, are, refer to, can be defined as, can be called, and
are called often use.

Examples
1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
2. Business refers to the production, distribution, and sale of goods and services
for a profit.
3. A markdown is a reduction in the original selling price of a product.

At other times, a writer may define a word indirectly. Indirect definitions

usually follow the word and are set off by commas, parentheses, or dashes. In the
following examples, the boldface word or phrase is defined the underlined part of
the sentence.

Examples

1. A hypochondrium, excessive worry over one’s health, is common among

senior citizen.
2. Some stores offer loss leader (products on which the stores lose money) to gain
new customers.

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3. Probability – the likelihood that an event will occur – is important in the field
of statistics.

2. Example/illustrate Clues

Writers often include examples that help to explain or clarify a word.

Suppose you don’t know the meaning of the word toxic, and you find it used in
the following sentence.

Toxic materials, such as arsenic, asbestos, pesticide, and lead, can cause
bodily damage.

This sentence gives four examples of toxic materials. From the examples
given, which are all poisonous substances, you could conclude that toxic means
“poisonous”.

The words and phrases such as include, for example, for instance, to
illustrate, such as, and like indicate example clues.

1. Unconditioned responses, including heartbeat, blinking, and breathing, occur

naturally in all humans.
2. Mark experienced several traumas in early childhood, including the divorce of
his parents and the death of his grandma.
3. Most condiments, such as pepper, mustard, and catsup, are used to improve the
flavor of foods.
4. Reports such as the check-and-earnings statement are essential to operating a
business.

3. Cause and Effect Clues

The words and phrases such as because, consequently, so, due to, as a result
indicate cause and effect relationships.

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Examples

1. Mary’s eyes had been sore for almost a week, so her mother decided to take her
to an oculist for treatment.
2. John was energetic enough to work sixteen hours at hospital because he had a
restful week end.
3. Computer is very expensive, so we cannot afford to buy it.

4. Contrast Clues

It is sometimes possible to determine the meaning of an unknown word

from a word or phrase in the context that has an opposite meaning. The words and
phrases such but, although, even though, yet, on the other hand, whereas,
nevertheless, and on the contrary indicate contrasting ideas.

Examples

1. During the ceremony, the graduates were quiet, but afterward they became
boisterous.
2. I loathe dogs even though most of my family loves them.
3. Most of graduates were elated, although a few felt sad and depressed.
4. I am certain that the hotel will hold our reservation, but if you are dubious, call
to make sure.

5. Inference Clues/ Logic of a Passage

Many times you can figure out meaning of unknown word by using logic
and reasoning skills. For Instance, look at the following sentence.

John is quite versatile; he is a top athlete, an excellent car mechanic, and a

gourmet cook.

You can see that John is successful at many different types of activities,
and you could reason that versatile means “capable of doing many things
competently”.

4
 Some of questions now before us are empirical issues that are requiring
evidence directly bearing on the question.

From the way empirical is used in the sentence, you know that an
empirical issues is one that require direct evidence, and from that information you
can infer, or reason, that empirical has something to do with proof or supporting
facts.

6. Restatement

The words and phrases such as or, in other word, that is to say, that is and
the signals, commas, parentheses, and dashes indicate restatement.

1. The instructors also teach the culture (the idea and beliefs of society).
2. Students memorize information; in other word they learn and remember
basic rules and facts.
3. Communicating or getting our message across is concerned not only of a
second language teacher but also all in our daily lives in whatever
language we happen to use.
4. An awareness of body language – the subtle messages conveyed by
posture, hand movement, eyes, and smiles – is one among the many
avenues to improve communication by adult.
5. Ancient Egyptians wrote hieroglyphics – pictures used to represent words.

7. Modifier

The phrase or clause after a noun modifies the noun.

1. They have city manager, who runs all the service departments of the
government and takes charge of buying, for the city.
2. An Illiterate person, being unable to read and write, is often cheated

4
8. Sentence/Paragraph

The sentence or sentences that come before or after the sentence

containing word explain the word. The paragraph in which an unknown word
appears may also explain the word.

1. At six on faster morning, the bell in the church began its sonorous ring. The
full, deep, rich ring of the bell could be heard in the empty street as the sun
came up.
2. Language learning strategies are not always readily observable to the human
eye. Many aspects of cooperating a strategy in which learner works with
someone else to achieve a learning goal, can be observed, but the act of making
mental association, an important memory strategy, can not be seen.
3. Children’s capabilities include both reception and production. They can
understand and they can communicate.

Exercise

1. They were conscientious workers, never stopping until they had taken care of
every detail so that everything was done correctly and precisely.
Conscientious means …
2. We feared that the new prime minister would be a menace to society, but she
turned out to be great peacemaker.
Menace means …
3. He jumped into fray and enjoyed every minute of the fight.
Fray means …
4. Fatty deposits on artery walls combine with calcium compound to cause
arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).
5. Servers in restaurant depend on customers to leave a gratuity for their services.
Without tips, waiters could not make a living.
Gratuity means …
a. Money b. compliment c. recommendation
6. In searching for food, homeless people often have to scavenge in dumpsters.
Scavenge means …
a. Sleep b. hunt c. hide
4
C. REFERENCE

Understanding reference words in reading is an essential skill in order to

understand the passage in reading, so read this lesson carefully!

Take a look at this sentence – what wrong with it?

Some people believe that a university education should be available to

everyone as a university education will help with employment.

The problem here is that ‘university education’ has been repeated – the sentence
would have been better presented using a reference word like this:

Some people believe that a university education should be available to

everyone as this will help with employment.

Reference words (words that refer back to a previous word or phrase but
without repeating it) are very common in reading, and can often cause some
confusion. An important part of understanding a text is being able to identify the
reference words and their relationship to other words, phrases or sentences in the
passage.

References are words which substitute for other words or phrases. They
usually refer back to the ideas that have already been expressed; they sometimes
refer forward to the ideas yet to be stated.

The term The word reference is derived from Middle English referren,
from Middle French référer, from Latin referre, "to carry back", formed from
the prefix re- and ferre, "to bear". A number of words derive from the same root,
including refer, referee, referential, referent, referendum.

4
Exercise 1

Test your skills – what do the underlined words refer to?

New Zealand is becoming an increasingly popular destination for overseas

visitors. It attracts tourists and people on business, but the vast majority comes as
students. Mostly from Asian countries, they stay for anything from a few weeks to
a few years or more, studying at language schools, colleges and universities. New
Zealand can offer good homestay accommodation, a clean and beautiful
environment and a reasonable cost of tuition. These factors attract an ever-
increasing number of overseas students, accounting for millions of dollars in
revenue for New Zealand.

It :

They :

These factors :

Exercise 2

Test your skills – what do the underlined words refer to?

A small group of scientists do not believe that dinosaurs became extinct because
they were big, clumsy beasts. Through their painstaking studies, these researchers
are trying to prove what really happened to these giants of yesteryear on the basis
of a theory that will astonish many: they think the cause of their demise came
from outer space.

they :

their :

these giants of yesteryear :

they :

their :

4
D. IDENTIFYING CORE PARTS OF SENTENCES

DEFINITION OF A SENTENCE

A sentence is a group of words that express a complete thought that always

contains subject and verb as its core parts. When you read, you must understand
the sentences in order to get the information that the author is telling in his
writing. For understanding the information, you need to look the key words in a
sentence. The key words are the subject and the verb. The subject tells who or
what the sentence is about. The verb tells what the subject does.

Example

Rachel lives in Pekanbaru

The subject of his sentence is Rachel. The sentence is about Rachel.

The verb in this sentence is lives.

The following exercise will help you learn how to find the important parts
of sentences

A B

1. Rachel is drinking a bus

2. Carol is cooking in a chair
3. Sam is driving near the door
4. Sergio is sitting coffee
5. Laura is standing a book
6. Don Pablo is reading dinner

When a group of words does not have subject or verb, that is not a
sentence, but it is called sentence fragment.

4
Example

 The man in the black suit

 Ate all the roast beef
 Running in the corridor
 When the race was over

E. TYPES OF SENTENCES
1. Simple sentence

A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject

and verb, and it expresses a complete thought.

Simple Sentence:
 Has 1 independent clause
 Can stand alone
 Does NOT mean it is simple or easy
Examples
1. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon.
2. Pekanbaru is a beautiful town.
3. Padang, the capital of West Sumatera province, is a beautiful town.
4. Will John go to Padang next week?
5. Are you students?

2. Compound sentence

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a

coordinator. The coordinators are as follow: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
(FANBOYS).

Compound Sentence:
 Has 2 or more independent clauses (ones that can stand alone)
 Sentences combined with a conjunction (FANBOYS)

5
Examples
1. I went to the movie theatre on Saturday, and the movie “Gundala”
was great.
2. Alejandro played football, but Maria went shopping.

3. Complex sentence
A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more
dependent clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as,
because, since, after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or
which.

Complex Sentence:
 Has 1 independent clause (stand
alone) AND
 Has 1 or more dependent clauses (a part that cannot stand alone)
Examples
1. When I got home, the door was locked.
2. Do all of your homework, before you go out to play.
3. The girl who sits next to me is beautiful.
4. The town where I grew up is in Indonesia.

4. Compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses
joined by one or more dependent clauses
Compound-Complex Sentence:
 Has 2 or more independent clauses (stand
alone) AND
 Has 1 or more dependent clauses (a part that cannot stand alone)
Example
1. Because we are future English teachers, some people expect us to speak
perfectly, and other people expect us to write perfectly.

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 2. Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I
haven't found anyone with whom to go.

CORE PART OR KEY IDEAS OF A SENTENCE

The two core part of a sentence – the subject and the verb, must be present
for a group of words to convey a complete thought. To be considered as a
sentence in written English, a group of words must fulfill three conditions. It must
(1) contain a subject, (2) contain a verb, and (3) express a complete thought.
To read and understand s sentence, you should be able to quickly identify these
three core parts.
In a simple sentence, the core parts are easy to identify, because, it often
has only the core part and a few additional descriptive words or phrases. Read this
sentence: The ship sank. It consists of the core part: the subject – Ship and the
verb or action – sank. Now read this sentence: After the battle, the ship sank. The
core parts are still easy to identify – ship and sank. However in condition to
conveying the basic message that the ship sank, the sentence contains one
additional place of information – when it sank.

Object

In some sentences, the verb has an object or thing it refers to that

completes the meaning of the sentence. You might think of the object as the
person, place, or thing upon whom or to which the action is performed. The object
is often called the receiver of the action. Here are a few sentences in which the
object is underlined.

The psychology instructor discussed a theory of motivation.

- A theory of motivation is what the instructor discussed.
Researchers have investigated the differences in communication style.
- Differences in communication style are what researchers have
investigated.

Sentence Modifier
Once you have identified the core parts of a sentence, the next step is to
5
determine how the meaning of those core parts is changed or modified by the

5
remainder of the sentence. These remaining parts, called modifier, provide you
with further information about one of the core parts. Notice how each of the
underlined modifiers expands, alters, or limits the meaning of the following
sentences.
After showing the film, the instructor gave a quiz.
- The modifier tells when the quiz is given.
Dr. Ling, my philosophy instructor, assigns one chapter per week.
- The modifier indicates who Dr. Ling is.
Everyone except engineering major is required to take a philosophy course.
- The modifier limits by giving an exception

In many long and complicated sentences, the key idea is not as obvious as
in the previous examples. To find the key idea, ask:

1. Who or what is the sentence about?

2. What is happened in the sentence?

Examples

1. Intelligence, as measured by IQ, depends on the kind of test given, the

skill of the examiner, and the cooperation of the subject.
2. Violence in sports, both at amateur and professional level, has increased
dramatically over the past ten years.

Identifying Core parts in Complicated Sentences

Many sentences are short, direct, and straightforward and, as such, are
easy to comprehend. Other, however, are complicated by the addition of
numerous facts and the expression of complex relationships.

Identifying core parts as you read becomes more difficult as sentences

become longer and more complicated and as additional information is added.

Simple sentence:

Abnormal behavior is the product of biochemical processes in the

brain

5
Complicated sentence:

Many professionals in the field of psychology, especially those

with medical backgrounds, believe that most, if not all, abnormal
behavior is the product of biochemical processes in the brain of
the affected individual.

The sentence is complicated by the addition of three pieces of information: (1)

who believe abnormal behavior is biochemically caused – “many professionals in
the field of psychology, especially with medical background”; (2) the qualifying
statement “most, if not all”; and (3) whose brain – “of the affected individual.”

5
 LESSON 5

ENGLISH COHESION

A. THEORY OF COHESION

Since the term of cohesion in paragraph refers to the content relationship,

Michael Halliday and Ruquaiya hasan propose five cohesive devices in English
(1976) as a mark of cohesion in discourse. Cohesion has role of building up
sentences in any given text. This comes through the linking of different parts of a
text to each other so that it gives a structure to a text. It helps in hanging sentences
together in a logical way, for having a right meaning. So, cohesion has a relation
with the broader concept of coherence.

B. Lexical Cohesion

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 6) classify cohesion in English

into two broad categories: grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion.
Grammatical cohesion is the surface marking of semantic link between clauses
and sentences in written discourse and between utterances and turn in speech.
Then, lexical cohesion refers to how the writer uses lexical items such as verb,
adjectives, nouns and adverbs to relate to the text consistently to its area of focus
(Eggins, 1994). It is signaled by means of lexical elements/vocabularies.

C. Grammatical Cohesion

Grammatical cohesion includes devices such as reference, substitution, ellipsis,

and conjunction (Tanskanen, 2006: 15). Reference refers to items of language that
instead of being interpreted semantically in their own right, make reference to
other item for which the context is clear to both sender and receiver. In written
text, reference indicates how the writer introduces participant and keeps track of
them throughout the text. According to Halliday and Hasan, (1976:37) there are
three main types of references: personal reference, demonstrative reference, and
comparative reference. The category of personal reference includes: 1) personal
pronouns, e.g I, me, you, him, she, he, her, we, us, they, them, it; 2) possessive

5
determiners, e.g my, yours, their, its, our, his, her; 3) possessive pronouns, e.g.
mine, yours, hers, theirs, ours. The categories of demonstrative reference include
three classes namely: nominative demonstrative (this, that, these, those),
circumstantial demonstrative (here, there, now, then) and definite article (the).
The classification of comparative reference into two kinds, namely: “general” and
“particular” comparison. General comparison deals with comparison which is
simply in terms of likeness and unlikeness, without respect to any particular
property: two things may be the same, similar or different (where “different”
includes both “not the same” and “not similar”)

According to Halliday and Hasan emphasize that substitution is a relation

in the wording rather than in the meaning. They also explain that there are three
types of substitution, namely: nominal (one/ones), verbal (do) and clausal (so, not)

Ellipsis is omission of elements normally require by the grammar which

the speaker/writer assumes as obvious from the context and therefore need not to
be raise. Halliday and Hasan (1976: 146) clasify Ellipsis into three types; Nominal
ellipsis, Verbal ellipsis, and Clausal ellipsis

Mather & Jaffe (2002: 1) state that conjunction represent semantic relation
that expresses how a clause or statement is relate in meaning to a previous clause
or statement; it is signal by a specific connecting word or phrase. Halliday and
Hasan also classify conjunction into four types, namely adversative, additive,
temporal and causal

According Halliday and Hasan (1976) divide lexical cohesion into two
major categories, namely: reiteration and collocation. Reiteration is a mechanism
of producing cohesion in a text by means of repetition of two or more lexical
items that are observable at the surface of the text. The following is example of
the use of reiteration which was quote from Halliday and Hasan (1976: 279)

There is a boy climbing a tree

a. The boy is going to fall if he doesn’t take care (repetition)

b. The lad is going to fall if he doesn’t take care (synonym)

5
c. The child is going to fall if he doesn’t take care (super ordinate)
d. The idiot is going to fall if he doesn’t take care (general word)

D. Exercise 1
Identify and analyze grammatical cohesion (reference, conjunction, ellipsis and
substitution) of the sentences below!

1. In my composition I don’t touch upon the question of death penalty, because

it is a complicated one.
2. The children will carry the small boxes, the adults _ the large.
3. I give two shirts to Dona, how many should I give to Raida? Give same to her.
4. I never met him before. My friends said that he is a kind and helpful
professor. I wish I can see Professor William soon.
5. She hugged and _ kissed her baby
6. Do you think that the assignment will due this week? I hope not! I haven’t
written anything!
7. What have you been doing? _ Swimming.
8. She was 5 minutes late submitting her final project. As a result, she lost 5% of
her final score
9. Who was playing the piano? John was_.
10. Daughter : Mom, what do you think about this dress?
Mom : Oh dear, I think that’s too short for you.

Exercise 2
Identify and analyze lexical cohesion (synonym, repetition, antonym, and
hyponym) of the following sentences.

1. A conference will be held on national environmental policy. At this

Conference, the issue of salinity will play an important role.
2. A conference will be held on national environmental policy. This environmental
symposium will be held primarily a conference dealing with water.

5
3. The meeting commenced at seven thirty. But from the moment it began, it was
clear that all was not well.
4. We were in town today shopping for furniture. We saw a lovely table.
5. There was a fine old rocking chair that his father used to sit in, a desk where he
wrote letters, a nest small table and dark, imposing bookcase. Now all this
furniture was to be sold, and with it his own past.
6. Although Tom was anxious about the test, Tina was not worried at all.
7. Wise men should speak. Fools are much less interesting to listen to.
8. John caught a snake underneath a bucket. The serpent is going to suffocate if
he does not let it go.
9. He was just wondering which road to take when he was started by a noise from
behind him. It was the noise of trotting horses . . . He dismounted and led his
horse as quickly as he could along the right-hand road. The sound of the
cavalry grew rapidly nearer …

5
 LESSON 6

THEME AND RHEME

A. Theme (in some sources, also “topic,” “background,” or “presupposition”)

is the semantic point of departure of a clause (or more broadly, discourse) about
which some information is provided:
1) Tom likes travelling.
2) Our friends have invited us.
In these examples, theme (Tom/our friends) is in the initial position. This
is the most common position for theme in English. Due to SVO (subject-verb-
object) structure of a typical English sentence, theme is often the subject of the
sentence; however, passive voice violates this rule. It is worth mentioning that in
some other languages (e.g. Japanese), the common place for theme is the end of a
sentence. In languages with free word order (e.g. Ukrainian), theme can be found
in the middle of a sentence.

B. Rheme (in some sources, also “comment,” “focus,” or “pre dictation”) is the
destination where the presentation moves after the departure point:
3) Tom likes travelling.
4) Smoking is harmful for our health.

In examples 3 and 4, rheme is represented by “like travelling” and “is

harmful for our health”. Structurally, rheme usually follows theme in English.
Theme – rheme relationship produce cohesion making parts of a sentence a
communicative whole.

C. Exercise 1
Identify and analyze theme-rheme in each sentence or clause of the text
below. Put theme-rheme in the table provided.

Oprah Gail Winfrey is a great talk show host from America. Her
well-known talk show “The Oprah Winfrey Show” was the highest-rated

6
 television program from 1986 to 2011. Because of this phenomenal talk
show, she dubbed as the “Queen of All Media”. She has also been ranked
the richest African-American and greatest black philanthropist in
American history.
Oprah was born on January 29, 1954 in Mississippi, United States.
By 2019, her age is 64 years old. She has 169 centimeters tall while her
weight is 77 kilograms. During her career, she successfully lost her
weight. But then, she gained much weight again. She has brown eyes &
black hair. Oprah Winfrey was born into poverty in rural Mississippi. She
was molested by her cousin, uncle, as well as a family friend when she was
nine years old. At 14, she became pregnant but her son was born
prematurely and died shortly after birth. Then, she moved to her
father’s house and landed a job in radio. Her consistent efforts led her
into the successful
African-American.

No Theme Rheme
1 Oprah Gail Winfrey is a great talk show host from America
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

6
 LESSON 7

UNDERSTANDING PARAGRAPHS

Understanding paragraph can be used as a comprehensible input through

comprehending paragraph components (topic, topic sentence, supporting details,
and transitions) and paragraph pattern.

1. Identify main ideas in paragraphs.

2. Pick out the key details.
3. Use transitions to make reading easier.

When you go to see a movie, the first thing you want to know is: “What is
it about?” As the movie begins, various characters interact. To understand this
interaction, you have to know who the characters are and understand what they
are saying. Then you have to note how characters relate to one another. To grasp
the point the film is making, you have to realize what all of the conversation and
action, taken together, means.

Understanding a paragraph is similar in ways to understanding a movie.

The first thing you need to know is what the paragraph is about. Then you have to
understand each of the sentences and what they are saying. Next, you have to see
how the sentences relate to one another. Finally, to understand the main point of
the paragraph, you have to consider what all the sentences, taken together, means.

The one of the whole paragraph is about is called the topic. The point that
the whole paragraph makes is called the main idea. The sentences that explain the
main idea are called details. To connect their ideas, writers use words and phrases
known as transitions.

A paragraph, then, is a group of related sentences about a single topic. It

has four essential parts: (1) topic, (2) main idea, (3) details, and (4) transitions. To
read paragraph most efficiently, you will need to become familiar with each part
of a paragraph and be able to identify and use these parts as you read.

6
GENERAL AND SPECIFIC IDEAS

To identify topics and main ideas in paragraphs, it will help you to

understand the difference between general and specific. A general idea is a broad
idea that applies to a large number of specific items. The term clothing is general
because it refers to a large collection of specific items – slacks, suits, blouses,
shirts, scarves, and so on. A specific idea or term is more detailed or particular. It
refers to individual items. The word scarf, for examples, is a particular term. The
phrase red scarf is even more specific.

Now we will apply the idea of general and specific to paragraphs. The
main idea is the most general statement the writer makes about the topic. Pick out
the most general statement among the following sentences.

1. People differ according to height.

2. Hair color distinguishes some people from other.
3. People differ in a number of different ways.
4. Each person has his own personality.

What sentence is the most general statement? Now we will change this list
into a paragraph, rearranging the list and adding a few facts.

People differ in a number of different ways. They differ according to physical

characteristics, such as height, weight, and hair color. They also differ in
personality. Some people are friendly and easygoing. Others are more
reserved and formal.

In this paragraph, the main idea is expressed in the first sentence. All the
other sentences or statements are specific details that explain this main idea.

A. IDENTIFYING THE TOPIC

The topic is the one thing a paragraph is about. Every sentence in a

paragraph in some way discusses or explains this topic. To find the topic of a
paragraph, ask yourself: What is the one thing the author is discussing throughout
the paragraph.

6
 Flextime, which began in the mid-1960s as an alternative work schedule
experiment, will be a fact of life in many industries in the 21st century. We’ll
work not according to traditional work schedules but according to our
biological and emotional rhythms. The night owls among us will be
delighted to work the lobster shifts and let the rest of us work during the day.
The number of hours worked won’t be as significant as what you accomplish
when you work.
The advantage of flextime is that it permits flexible, cost-effective work
arrangements.

In this example, author is discussing one topic – flextime – throughout the

paragraph. Notice that the words flexible and flextime are used several times.
Often the repeated use of a word can serve as a clue to the topic.

B. FINDING THE MAIN IDEA

The main idea of a paragraph is what the author wants you to know about
the topic. It is the broad, important idea that the writer develop throughout the
paragraph. The entire paragraph, then, explains, develops, and supports this main
idea. A question that will guide you in finding the main idea is, “What is the
author saying about the topic?”

The Topic Sentence

Usually one sentence expresses the main idea. This sentence is called the topic
sentence.

In the following paragraph, the topic is the effect of alcohol on the brain.
Read the paragraph to find out what the writer wants you to know about how
alcohol affects the brain. Look for one sentence that states this.

The effects of alcohol are achieved through a depression of brain function.

It is a common misconception that alcohol is a stimulant. The liveliness of
people who have had one or two drinks at a party is the result of sedation of
portions of the brain that normally exercise judgment or control. At slightly
higher concentrations, alcohol affects portions of the brain that control

6
muscular

6
 coordination. At higher concentrations yet, the ability of the brain to receive
pain messages is impaired, and body metabolism is slowed down, in extreme
cases to the point of coma or death.

The first sentence states that alcohol depresses the function of the brain. The
remainder of the paragraph explains how the brain reacts to varying amounts of
alcohol.

Where to Find the Topic Sentence

The topic sentence can be located everywhere in the paragraph. However, there
are several positions where it is most likely to be found..

TOPIC SENTENCE FIRST

The most common placement of the topic sentence is first in the

paragraph. In this type of paragraph, the author states the main idea at the
beginning of the paragraph and then elaborates on it. For example:

The good listener, in order to achieve the purpose of

acquiring information, is careful to follow specific steps to achieve
accurate understanding. First, whenever possible the good listener
prepares it advance for the speech or lecture he or she is going to
attend. He or she studies the topic to be discussed and finds out
about the speaker and his or her beliefs. Second, on arriving at the
place where the speech is to be given, he or she chooses a seat
where seeing, hearing, and remaining alert are easy. Finally, when
the speech is over, he or she reviews what was said and react to and
evaluates the ideas expressed.

Usually, in this type of paragraph, the author is employing a deductive

thought pattern in which a statement is made at the beginning and then supported
through the paragraph.

6
TOPIC SENTENCE LAST

The second most likely place for a topic sentence to appear is last in the
paragraph. When using this arrangement, a writer leads up to the main point and
then directly states it at the end.

Whenever possible the good listener prepares it advance for

the speech or lecture he or she is going to attend. He or she studies
the topic to be discussed and finds out about the speaker and his or
her beliefs. Second, on arriving at the place where the speech is to
be given, he or she chooses a seat where seeing, hearing, and
remaining alert are easy. Finally, when the speech is over, he or she
reviews what was said and react to and evaluates the ideas
expressed. Thus, an effective listener, in order to achieve the
purpose of acquiring information, is careful to follow specific steps
to achieve accurate understanding.

The thought pattern frequently used in this type of paragraph is inductive. That is,
the author provides supporting evidence for the main idea first, and then states it.

TOPIC SENTENCE IN THE MIDDLE

Another common placement of the topic sentence is in the middle of the

paragraph. In this case, the author builds up the main idea, states it in the middle
of the paragraph, and then goes on with further elaboration and detail.

Whenever possible the good listener prepares it advance for

the speech or lecture he or she is going to attend. He or she studies
the topic to be discussed and finds out about the speaker and his or
her beliefs. An effective listener, as you are beginning to see, takes
specific steps to achieve accurate understanding of the lecture.
Furthermore, on arriving at the place where the speech is to be
given, he or she chooses a seat where seeing, hearing, and
remaining alert are easy. Finally, when the speech is over, he or she
reviews what was said and react to and evaluates the ideas
expressed.
6
TOPIC SENTENCE FIRST AND LAST

Sometimes an author uses two sentences to state the main idea or state the
main idea twice in one paragraph. Usually, in this type of paragraph, the writer
states the main idea as the beginning of the paragraph, then explains or supports
the idea, and finally restates the main idea at the very end. For example:

The good listener, in order to achieve the purpose of

acquiring information, is careful to follow specific steps to achieve
accurate understanding. First, whenever possible the good listener
prepares it advance for the speech or lecture he or she is going to
attend. He or she studies the topic to be discussed and finds out
about the speaker and his or her beliefs. Second, on arriving at the
place where the speech is to be given, he or she chooses a seat
where seeing, hearing, and remaining alert are easy. Finally, when
the speech is over, he or she reviews what was said and react to and
evaluates the ideas expressed. Effective listening is an active
process in which a listener deliberately takes certain actions to
ensure that accurate communication has occurred.

INFERRING UNSTATED MAIN IDEAS

Although most paragraphs do have a topic sentence, some do not. This type of
paragraph contains only details or specifics that, taken together, point to the main
idea. In paragraphs in which no one sentence clearly expresses the main idea, you
must figure it out.

Reading paragraph in which the main idea is unstated is similar to doing a

math problem. It is a process of adding up the facts and deciding what they mean
together. To solve this math problem you add the numbers and come up with a
total sum.

46 fact
74 fact
89 fact
+22 +fact
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 231 main idea

Think of a paragraph without a topic sentence in a similar way. It is a list of

facts or details that you add up or put together to determine the meaning of the
paragraph as a whole.

Use the following steps as a guide to finding unstated main ideas.

1. Find the topic. Ask yourself: “What is the one thing the author is
discussing throughout the paragraph?”
2. Decide what the writer wants you to know about the topic. Look at each
detail and decide what larger idea each explain.
3. Express this idea in your own words.

Read the following paragraph; then follow the three steps listed above.

In the past, most individuals were educated during a specific period of

their lives. By the time they reached their mid-20s, they could retire their
notebooks, textbooks, carbon paper, scratch pads, and pencils and pens and
concentrate on building their careers. Tomorrow’s workers will have to hold
on to their training paraphernalia because they can expect to be retrained
throughout their working lives. It may mean taking company-sponsored
courses every few months, after- work seminars, or spending a number of days
or weeks in a nearby university attending lecturers at different points during
the year.

Exercise 4

Directions: Read each of the following paragraphs and underline the topic sentence.

1. As societies become industrialized, the distribution of workers among

various economic activities tends to change in a predictable way. In the
early stages, the population is engaged in agriculture and the collection of
war materials for food and shelter. But as technology develops,
agricultural workers are drawn into manufacturing and construction.

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 2. In parts of Africa, people are dying of hunger by the tens of thousands.
Famine is partly caused by increased population. Advances in medicine
have increased life expectancies, keeping more people active for longer
period of time. Agricultural technology has not made substantial advances
in increasing the food supply. Due to the growth of cities, populations
have become denser, and agricultural support for these population centers
is not available. In some part of the world, famine is a constant human
condition and exists due to a variety of causes.

C. RECOGNIZING SUPPORTING DETAILS

Supporting details are those facts and ideas that prove or explain the main idea
of a paragraph. While all the detail in a paragraph do support the main idea, not all
details are equally important. As you read, try to identify and pay attention to the
most important details. Pay less attention to details of lesser importance. They key
details directly explain the main idea. Other details may provide additional
information, offer an example, or further explain one of the key details. What are
the main facts the author uses to back up or prove what he or she said about the
topic?

The following diagram shows how details relate to the main idea and how details
range in degree of importance. In the diagram, more-important details are placed
toward the left; less-important details are closer to the right.

Most Important lesser important

MAIN Detail
IDEA

Detail

Detail

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Read the following paragraph and study the diagram that follows.
The skin of the human body has several functions. First, it serves as a
protective covering. In doing so, it accounts for 17 percent of the body weight.
Skin also protects the organs within the body from damage or harm. The skin
serves as a regulator of body functions. It controls body temperature and water
loss. Finally, the skin serves as a receiver. It is sensitive to touch and temperature.

Skin has several functions

protective covering

17 percent of body weight

protects organs

Regulates body functions

temperature

water loss

Receiver
touch

temperature

TYPES OF SUPPORTING INFORMATION

Authors use various types of supporting information to explain a

controlling idea of a topic sentence or a textbook section. Recognizing these types
of supporting information is the key to understanding how author develops and
connect his or her ideas.

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Examples/illustration

Usually a writer gives an example to make an idea practical and

understandable. An example shows how a principle, concept, problem, or process
works or can be applied in a real situation.

The situations consumers find themselves in can also have direct

influence on their purchase behavior. Consider, for example, the consumer
behavior of a person who has a tire blow out one block away from a
service station. …

Description

An author uses description to help you visualize the appearance,

organization, or composition of an object, a place, or a process. Descriptions are
usually detailed and are intended to help you create a mental picture of what is
being described. Read the following description of the stylistic features of various
artists’ work.

To turn now to our central topic, style in art, we can all instantly
tell the differences between a picture by Van Gogh and one by Norman
Rockwell or Walt Disney, even though the subject matter of all three
pictures is the same, for instance, a seated woman. How can we tell? By
the style, that is, by line, color, medium, and so forth─all of the things we
talked about earlier in this chapter. Walt Disney’s figure tend to be built
up out of circle (think of Mickey Mouse), and the color shows no modeling
or traces of brush strokes; Norman Rockwell’s methods of depicting
figures are different, and Van Gogh’s are different in yet other ways. …

Fact and Statistic

Another way to support an idea is to include facts or statistics that provide

information about the main idea or controlling idea. Read the following passage,
and notice how facts and statistics are used to support the idea that age is a
limiting factor in the war against poverty.

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 Another limitation of the success of the War on Poverty involves
age rather than residence or region. Most of the people, who officially
moved out of poverty, especially in the 1070s, were older. And even their
relative gains began to be reversed in the early 1980s.

Between 1970 and 1978, the number of poor people over 65

dropped by almost a million and a half. Most of this decline resulted from
improved Social Security benefits. …

Citation of Research Evidence

In many field of study, authors support their ideas by citing research that
has been done on the topic. Authors report the result of surveys, experiment, and
research studies to substantiate theories or principles or to lend support to a
particular viewpoint. The following excerpt from a social problems textbook
report the result of research conducted to described the extent of family violence.

One of the most extensive recent studies of family violence,

conducted by the sociologists Murray Strauss, Richard Gelles, and
Suzanne Steinmetz, concluded that “violence between family members is
probably as common as love” …

D. TRANSITIONS

Transitions are linking words or phrases that a writer uses to lead the order
from one idea to another. If you get in the habit of recognizing transitions, you
will see that they often guide you through a paragraph, enabling you to read it
more easily.

In the following paragraph, notice how the underlined transitions lead you (a
reader) from one important detail to the next.

The principle of rhythm and line also contributes to the overall unity of the
Landscape design. This principle is responsible for the sense of community
between different areas of the Landscape. One way in which this continuity

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can

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be developed is by extending planting beds from one area to another. For
example, shrub beds developed around the entrance to the house can be
continued around the sides and into the backyard. Such an arrangement helps
to tie the front and rear areas of the property together. Another means by
which rhythm is given to a design is to repeat shapes, angles, or lines between
various areas and elements of the design.

Table 1 COMMON TRANSITIONS

Types of Transitions Example What they Tell the Reader

Time-Sequence First, later, next, finally The author is arranging ideas
in the order in which they
happened
Example for example, for instance, to An example will follow
illustrate, such as
Enumeration first, second, third, last, The author is marking or
another, next identifying each major point
(sometimes these may be
used to suggest order of
importance
Continuation Also, in addition, and, The author is continuing with
further, another the same idea and is going to
provide additional
information.
Contrast On the other hand, in The author is switching to a
contrast, however different, opposite, or
contrasting idea than
previously
Comparison Like, likewise, similarly The writer will show how the
previous idea is similar to
what follow

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 Cause-Effect Because, thus, therefore, The writer will show a
since, consequently connection between two or
more things, how one thing
caused another, or how
something happened as a
result of something else

Summary

A paragraph is a group of related sentences about a single topic. It has four

essential parts.

1. TOPIC: The one thing the entire paragraph is about.

2. MAIN IDEA: The most important idea the writer wants the reader to know
about the topic.
3. DETAILS: Facts and ideas that prove or explain the main idea.
4. TRANSITIONS: Words and phrases that lead the reader from one idea to
another
A paragraph, then, provides explanation and support for a main idea about a
particular topic. The sentence that expresses this main idea is called the topic
sentence. A topic sentence may be located anywhere in a paragraph, but the most
common positions are first, last, middle, or both first and last.
While most paragraphs contain a topic sentence, occasionally a writer will
write a paragraph in which the main idea is not stated in a single sentence. Instead,
it is left up to the reader to infer, or reason out, the main idea. To find main idea
when it is instated, ask yourself the following questions: What is the one thing
(topic) this paragraph is about, and what is the author saying about this thing
(main idea)?

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 LESSON 8

FOLOWING THE AUTHOR’S THOUGHT PATTERNS

A. THOUGHT PATTERN
1. Improve your understanding and recall by recognizing thought
patterns.
2. Identify five commonly used thought patterns

a. Study each of these drawings for a few seconds (count to ten as you
look at each one.

b. Cover up the drawings and try to draw each from memory.

c. Check to see how many you had exactly corrected.

Most likely you draw all but the fourth correctly. Why did you get that
one wrong? How does it differ from the others?

Drawing 1, 2, 3, and 5 have patterns. Drawing 4, however, has no

pattern; it is just a group of randomly arranged lines.

From this experiment you can see that it is easier to remember drawings
that have a pattern, some understandable form of organization. The same is
true of written material. If you can see how paragraph is organized, it will be
easier to understand and remember. Writer often present their ideas in a
recognizable order. Once you can organize the organizational pattern, you will
remember more what you read.

The following are more common patterns that writers use and shows how
to recognize them: (1) Illustration-example, (2) definition, (3) comparison-

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 contrast, (4) cause-effect, (5) classification, and (6) chronological order-
process.

1. ILLUSTRATION-EXAMPLE
One of the clearest, most practical and most obvious ways to explain
something is to give an example. Usually a writer will state the idea first and
then follow with examples. Several examples may be given in one paragraph,
or separate paragraph may be used for each example.

Electricity is all around us. We see it in lightning. We receive electric

shock when we walk on nylon rug on a dry day and then touch something
(someone). We can see sparks fly from a cat’s fur when we pet it in the
dark. We can rub a balloon on a sweater and make a balloon stick on the
wall or the ceiling. Our clothes cling together when we take them from the
dryer.
These are all examples of static electricity. They happen because
there is build up of one of the two kinds of electrical charge, either
positive or negative ….

In the preceding passage, the concept of static electricity was explained through
the use of everyday examples. We can visualize the selection as follows:

Electricity is all around us.

Lightning

Nylon rug

Cat’s fur

Balloon
Clothing from dryer

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2. DEFINITION

Another way to provide an explanation is to offer a definition. Let’s say

that you see an opossum while driving in the country. You mention this to a
friend. Since your friend does not know what an opossum is, you have to give a
definition. Your definition should describe an opossum’s characteristics or
features. The definition should have two parts: (1) tell what general group or
class an opossum belongs to – in this case, animals.(2) Explain how opossum is
different or distinguishable from other items in the group.

An opossum is an animal with a ratlike tail that lives in trees. It

carries its young in a pouch. It is active at night and pretends to be dead
when trapped.

TERM OPOSSUM

General class or group Animal

Distinguishing feature Ratlike tail

The following passage was written to define the term ragtime music

Ragtime music feature

Distinguishing is a piano style that developed at trees
Lives in the turn of the
twenty century. Ragtime music usually has four themes. The themes are
Distinguishing feature Young in pouch
divided into four musical sections of equal length. In playing ragtime
music, the left hand play chords and the right hand plays the melody.
There is an uneven accenting between the two hands.

As you read passages that use the definition pattern, keep these questions in mind:

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 1. What is being defined?
2. What general group or class does it belong to?
3. What makes it different from others in the group?

COMPARISON-CONTRAST

Often a writer will explain something by using comparison or contrast –

that is, by showing how it is similar to or different from a familiar object or idea.
Comparison treats similarities, while contrast emphasizes differences.

Comparison

If a writer is concerned only with similarities, he or she may identify the

items to be compared and then list the ways in which they are alike. The following
paragraph shows how chemistry and physics are similar.

Although physics and chemistry are considered separate fields of

study, they have much in common. First, both are physical sciences and
are concerned with studying and explaining physical occurrences. To
study and record these occurrences, each field has developed a precise set
of signs and symbols. These might be considered a specialized language.
Finally, both fields are closely tied to the field of mathematics and use
mathematics in predicting and explaining physical occurrences.

Such a pattern can be diagrammed as follows:

ITEM A ITEM B CHEMISTRY PHYSICS

Similarity 1 Physical science

Similarity 2
Use signs and symbols
Similarity 3
Require mathematics background

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Contrast

A writer concerned only with the differences between sociology and

psychology might write the following paragraph.

Sociology and psychology, although both social sciences, but are

very different fields of study. Sociology is concerned with the structure
organization, and behavior of group. Psychology, on the other hand,
focuses on individual behavior. While a sociologist would study
characteristics of group of people, a psychologist would study the
individual motivation and behavior of each group member. Psychology
and sociology also differ in the manner in which research is conducted.
Sociologists obtain data and information through observation and survey.
Psychologists obtain data through carefully designed experimentation.

ITEM A ITEM B SOCIOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY

Difference 1 Sociology is concerned with groups; psychology focuses on indiv

Difference 2
Sociological data are obtained through
surveys and observation; psychological
data are obtained through

Comparison and Contrast

In many passages, writers discuss both similarities and differences.

Suppose you wanted to write a paragraph discussing the similarities and
differences between sociology and psychology. You could organize the
paragraph in several different ways.

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 ITEM A ITEM B OR
ITEM A

Similarities
Similarities
Differences Differences
ITEM B

Similarities

Differences

Read the following passage and decide whether it discusses similarities,

differences, or both

A program must be written in a form that a computer can

understand. Every instruction must be prepared according to specific rules.
The rules form a language that we use to instruct the computer. Humans
use natural languages such as English and Spanish to communicate with
each other. When we communicate with a computer, we use a computer
programming language.

To write a sentence in a natural human language, we form words

and phrases from letters and other symbols. The construction of the
sentence is determined by the grammar rules of the language. The meaning
of the sentence depends on what words are used and how they are
organized. A computer programming language also has rules that describe
how to form valid instructions. These rules are called the syntax of the
language. The meanings of effects of the instructions are called the
semantics of the language.

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CAUSE – EFFECT

The cause – effect pattern is used to describe an event or action that is

caused by another event or action. A cause - effect passage explains why or hw
something happened. For example, a description of an automobile accident would
probably follow a cause – effect pattern. You would tell what caused the accident
and what happened as a result.

Basically, this pattern describes four types of relationships:

1. Single cause – single effect

Example:

Got part time job More spending money

Missed the bus Late for class

2. Single cause – multiple effects
Missed two classes

GOT FLAT TIRE DRIVING TO CAMPUS Cost $ 10 to repair

Got clothes
dirty changing

3. Multiple causes –single effect

Attending class

GOOD
Taking good notes
EXAM

Studying the textbook

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 4. Multiple causes – multiple effects
Missing classes Low exam grades

Losing notes Failing the course

Read the following paragraph and determine which of the previous four
relationships it describes.

Research has shown that mental illnesses have various causes, but the
causes are not fully understood. Some mental disorders are due to physical
changes in the brain resulting from illness or injury. Chemical imbalances in
the brain may cause other mental illnesses. Still other disorders are mainly due
to conditions in the environment that affect a person’s mental state. These
conditions include unpleasant childhood experiences and severe emotional
stress. In addition, many cases of mental illness probably result from a
combination of two or more of these causes.

CLASSIFICATION

A common way to explain something is to divide the topic into parts and
explain each part. For example, you might explain how a home computer work by
describing what each major component does. You would explain the function of
the monitor (screen), the disc drive, and the central processing unit. Or you might
explain the kinds of course taken in college by dividing the courses into such
categories as electives, required basic courses, courses required for a specific
major, and so on and then describing each category.

The following paragraph explains horticulture. As you read, try to identify

the categories into which the topic of horticulture is divided.

Horticulture, the study and cultivation of garden plants, is a large

industry. Recently it has become a popular area of study. The horticulture

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 field consists of four major divisions. First, there is pomology, the science
and practice of growing and handling fruit trees. Then, there is
Olericulture, which concerned with growing and storing vegetables. A
third field, Floriculture, is the science of growing, storing, and designing
flowering plants. The last category, Ornamental and Landscape
horticulture, is concerned with using grasses, plants, and shrubs in
Landscaping.

This paragraph approached the topic of horticulture by describing its four

areas or fields of study. You could diagram the paragraph as follows:

TOPIC HORTICULTURE

Part 1 Pomology
Ornamental/Landscapp

Part 2 Olericulture
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER – PROCESS

The Part
terms Floriculture
3 chronological order and process both refer to the order in
which something is done. Chronological order, also called sequence of events, is
Part 4
one of the most obvious patterns. In a paragraph organized by chronology, the
details are presented in the order in which they occur in time. That is, the even
that happened first, or earliest in time, appears first in the paragraph, and so on.
Process refers to the steps or stages in which something is done.

Both chronological order and process pattern can be diagrammed as

follows:

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 EVENT OR PROCESS

3. Action or step

2. Action or step

1. Action or step

Read the following paragraph, paying attention to the order of the actions or steps.

In the early 1930s, the newly established Federal Bureau of

Narcotics took on crucial role in the fight against marijuana. Under the
directorship of Harry J. Anslinger, a rigorous campaign was waged against
the drug and those using it. Bt 1937 many states had adopted a standard
bill making marijuana illegal. In that same year, the federal government
stepped in with the Marihuana Tax Act, a bill modeled after the Harrison
“Narcotics” Act. Repressive legislation continued, and by the 1950s severe
penalties were imposed on those convicted of possessing, buying, selling,
or cultivating the drug.

SUMMARY

Recognition of an author’s thought, or organizational, pattern is an aid to

comprehension and recall. There are six of the most common ways paragraphs are
organized:

1. Illustration-example. An idea is explained by providing specific instances

or experiences that illustrate it.
2. Definition. An object or idea is explained by describing the general class
or group to which it belongs and how the item differs from other in the
same group (distinguishing features)
3. Comparison-Contrast. A new or unfamiliar idea is explained by showing
how it is similar to or different from a more familiar idea.

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4. Cause-effect. Connections between events are explained by showing what
caused an event or what happened as a result of a particular event.
5. Classification. An object or idea is explained by dividing it into parts and
describing or explaining each.
6. Chronological Order-Process. Events or procedures are described in the
order in which they occur in time.

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 LESSON 9

READING ARTICLES AND ESSAYS

This part will show you how to

1. Use organizational features of articles and essays

2. Recognize various types of articles and essays and read them more
effectively.

Most college students expect to be given textbook reading assignment.

However, many are surprised when their instructors assign other types of reading
as well. Many instructors assign supplementary (additional) readings in books or
magazines. Others distribute reading lists or place material on reserve in the
library. These assignments add to the information the textbook provides. Some
may present a particular viewpoint on a controversial issue. Others may update
information in the text. Still others may know a particular application of concepts
and theories learned in the course.

When reading assigned articles and essays, you must comprehend the
material. Becoming familiar with organizational features will make
comprehension easier. Reading will also be easier if you know what type of article
or essay you are reading and how to approach it.

ORGANIZATIONAL FEATURES

Most articles and essay follow a basic organizational pattern. Once you
familiar with the pattern, reading articles and essays will be easier task. With few
exceptions, articles and essays have five basic parts.

1. Title
2. Introduction
3. Thesis statement
4. Supporting information (body)

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 5. Conclusion or summary

Title

There are two basic kinds of titles, descriptive and interest catching.
Descriptive title announces what article will be about. Interest catching title does
not tell the subject of the article.

Introduction

When reading article, it is tempting to rush through the first paragraph in order
to get right into the main part of the article. Actually, the introduction is one of the
most important parts of an article because it usually:

- Introduces the topic of the essay.

- Gives a general background of the topic
- Indicates the overall “plan” of the essay.
- Arouse the reader’s interest in the topic.

The introductory paragraph consists of two parts a few general statements

about the subject to attract reader’s attention, and a thesis statement, to state the
specific subdivision of topic. A thesis statement for an essay is just like a topic
sentence for a paragraph: it names the specific topic and the controlling ideas or
major subdivisions of the topic.

Example:

A person born in the twentieth century has seen a lot of changes take place
in almost all areas of human life. Some people are excited by the challenges
that these changes offer; others want to return to the simpler, less automated
life style of the past. Living in the twentieth century has certain advantages,
such as a higher standard of living, but it also has some disadvantages, such
as a polluted environment, the depersonalization of human relationship, and
weakening of spiritual values.

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 The first sentence in an introductory paragraph should be a very general
comment about the subject. Its purpose is to attract the reader’s attention and to
give background information on the topic. Each subsequent sentence should
become more specific than the previous one and finally into thesis statement.

General Statement: 1. introduces the topic of the essay

2. gives background information on the topic.
Thesis Statement

Thesis statement is the one important sentence in the introduction. It sates the
specific topic and lists the major subtopic that will be discussed in the body of the
essay. Furthermore, it often indicates the method of organization, such as
chronological order, logical division, cause and effect, comparison and contrast,
and so forth

Thesis Statement:

1. states the main topic

2. lists the subdivision of the topic
3. may indicate the method of organization of the entire paper.
4. Is usually the last sentence in the introductory paragraph.

To sum up, an introductory paragraph is like a funnel: very wide at the top,
increasing narrow in the middle and very small at the neck or bottom.

Supporting Information

You know a paragraph contains details that explain the main idea. Similarly,
an article or essay contains supporting ideas that explain the thesis statement.
Again, as is true in paragraphs, not all supporting ideas are of equal importance. A
quick rule of thumb is that you can expect at least one major supporting idea per
paragraph. As you read supporting ideas, keep one question in mind: How does
this information support the thesis of the selection.

Most writers use various types of supporting information. Often this

information is organized by means of one or more of the pattern described in the

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previous material. In addition to these common patterns, writers may support their
ideas by giving description, or by citing facts, statistics, or research.

Conclusion or Summary

An article or essay is usually brought to a close with a summary or conclusion.

Each in its own way brings together the ideas expressed in the article.

A summary provides a review of importance ideas. It can be thought of as an

outline in paragraph form. The order in which the information appears in the
summary reflects the organization of the article itself.

A conclusion is a final statement about the subject of the article. A conclusion

does not review content as a summary does. Instead, a conclusion usually suggests
a new or further direction of thought. It most always introduces an idea that has
not been stated previously or a new way of looking at what has been stated.

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 LESSON 10

READING SELECTIONS

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