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MCQ Legal English & Communication Skills, 105

The document provides a multiple choice questions test with answers on topics related to legal English and communication skills. There are 56 questions in total covering areas like communication process elements, types of communication, legal documents like petitions and their structure, comprehension questions from literary pieces, and Latin legal maxims. The test aims to evaluate students' understanding of key concepts and terminology.

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Shreshth Mudgil
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
308 views22 pages

MCQ Legal English & Communication Skills, 105

The document provides a multiple choice questions test with answers on topics related to legal English and communication skills. There are 56 questions in total covering areas like communication process elements, types of communication, legal documents like petitions and their structure, comprehension questions from literary pieces, and Latin legal maxims. The test aims to evaluate students' understanding of key concepts and terminology.

Uploaded by

Shreshth Mudgil
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Vivekananda School Of Law and Legal Studies

Sub: Legal English & Communication Skills Semester: I


Course: BALLB/BBALLB Paper Code: 105

Multiple Choice Questions with Answer keys

1. What are the elements of communication process?


a) Sender, Encoding, Message, Channel, Decoding, Receiver, Feedback & Noise
b) Sender, Encoding, Message, Channel, Decoding, Receiver.
c) Sender, Message, Channel, Receiver.
d) Sender, Encoding, Message, Decoding, Receiver, Feedback.
2. What do you mean by Noise in the process of communication?
a) Noise on the roads.
b) Disturbance while Communicating.
c) Any barrier in Communication.
d) Network issue.
3. "One must keep in mind orderly management of ideas flowing and progressing to conclusion." Is
denoted by
a) Credibility.
b) Coherent.
c) Completeness.
d) Continuity.
4. Communication can be classified on the basis of which two aspects?
a) on the basis of channels used and purpose & style.
b) on the basis of purpose and style.
c) on the basis of Channels and purpose.
d) None of the above.
5. Which flow of communication can be in the form of ORDERS, INSTRUCTIONS, POLICY
STATEMENTS of Co.’s, NOTICES, CIRCULLARS. Etc.
a) Downward.
b) Upward.
c) Horizontal.
d) Diagonal.
6. Delay and Distortions are Limitations of which Flow of Communication?
a) Upward.
b) Downward.
c) Diagonal.
d) None of the above.
7. Which Flow of Communication helps in settling inter-departmental and intra-departmental
differences without intervention of management.
a) Downward.
b) Upward.
c) Horizontal.
d) Diagonal.
8. Types of Abstracts are
a) Descriptive, Informative & Creative
b) Creative & Informative
c) Descriptive & Informative
d) Descriptive & Creative
9. Precise is usually the
a) 1/2 of the given text.
b) 1/3 of the given text.
c) 1/4 of the given text.
d) No Specific Word Limit.
10. Which of the following Should always been Written in Reported Speech?
a) Summary
b) Abstract
c) Note Making
d) Precise
11. Pointers and sub pointers are used in which of the following?
a) Summary
b) Note-Making.
c) Abstract
d) Petition
12. Which of this is included in Note- Making?
a) Precise
b) Summary
c) Abstract
d) Reports
13. Which document in a Petition gives details of the Parties?
a) Urgent Application.
b) Verification
c) Memo of Parties
d) Information of Parties.
14. What comes after affidavit in a petition?
a) Annexure
b) Verification
c) Urgent Application
d) Vakalatnama
15. The plea or the relief that we ask the judges/court in a case through the petition is known as:
a) Prayer
b) Pleadings
c) No Specific term
d) Relief11.

16. Name the writ petitions under Indian Law


a) Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Certiorari, Prohibition and Quo- Warranto
b) Habeas Corpus, Mandamus & Certiorari
c) Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Certiorari, Prohibition and Warranto
d) Habeas, Mandamus, Certiorari, Prohibition and Quo- Warranto

17. Note-Making is the other name for Summary?


a) Yes
b) No
c) May Be
d) None of the above

18. In a Petition name of the respondent is written first?


a) True
b) False
c) May Be
d) None of the above.

19. Name of the Judge and court in a petition is written


a) Nowhere in the petition
b) At top of the page
c) At Bottom of the page
d) Only in Memo of Parties
20. The name of the Counsel/ Advocate in a petition is written
a) At top of the page
b) At Bottom of the page
c) Only in Memo of Parties
d) No where
21. Why did Catherine Come to Raina’s room?
a. To inform about defeat of Bulgarian army.
b. To inform bout victory of Bulgarian army.
c. To inform about death of her father.
d. To inform about death of her fiancée.
22. The Title “Chocolate cream boy” was given to?
a. Mr. Petkoff
b. Sergius
c. Buntschli
d. Nauka
23. Why did the chocolate cream boy return to Raina’s house?
a. To return the court.
b. To fight with Sergius
c. To return Raina’s Photo
d. To meet Mr. Petkoff
24. Why were Catherine and Raina shocked to see the chocolate cream boy again in their house?
a. Because they had help him escape.
b. Because they made him caught by police,
c. Because they were afraid of him.
d. Because they were afraid of Mr. Petkoff.
25. What was the reason for victory of the Bulgarian Army?
a. Sergius Bravery.
b. Mr. Petkoff’s Bravery
c. Use of wrong Arms and Ammunitions by the Serbian army
d. Serguis’s Bravery.
26. Serguis had illicit relationship with
a. Raina
b. Catherine
c. Marry
d. Louka
27. Which of the two characters of the play indulge in fight in the play?
a. Raina & Bluntschli
b. Serguis & Nicola
c. Bluntschli & Sergius
d. Louka & Nicola
.
28. What was the relationship between James How and Walter How?
a) Brothers
b) Father and Son
c) Uncle and Nephew
d) Boss and Employee
29. Who forged the Cheque in the office of James How and Walter How?
a) Mr. Cokeson
b) Mr. Honeywill
c) William Falder
d) Davis
30. The Cheque was forged from 9 pounds to
a) 90 Euros
b) 90 Dollars
c) 90 Pounds
d) 90 Rupees
31. Who had gone to Australia for a vacation?
a) Davis
b) Cokeson
c) Falder
d) Wooder
32. Who was the Lawyer or Falder?
a) Mr. Honeywill
b) Hector Frome
c) Harlod Clever
d) Edward Clement
33. Name the prisoners who were with Falder in Jail
a) O'Cleary, Moaney & Clifton
b) Clifton Moaney & Cokeson
c) Moaney. O'Cleary & Wistor
d) Wistor, Clifton & wooder
34. What were the two conditions put up by James How in front of Falder?
a) Falder should forget that any wrong has been done to him.
b) he has to leave Ruth & Country
c) he has to leave Ruth & Falder should forget that any wrong has been done to him.
d) Leave Country & Become his House help
Q35. Who was Daksha?
a. Smita’s Mother
b. Friend of Aruna
c. Another name of Hardika
d. Ramanik’s Wife
36. The Play Final Solutions is highlighting the issue of?
a. Democracy
b. Communalism
c. Freedom
d. Social Welfare
37. Did Javed kill the pujari?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Stabbed him once
d. None of the above
38. Arms and the Man play compares the main character of the play Daupadi with ?
a. Sita of Ramayana
b. Draupadi of Mahabharta
c. Kekayi from Ramayana
d. Kunti from Mahabharta
39. How did Daupadi portayed her angiushment in the play after being raped?
a. By killing the Sennanayak
b. By killing the landlord
c. By walking naked
d. By killing herself
40. What does the term Suo Moto means?
a. On its own motion(by the courts)
b. On action by the advocates
c. On action by the client
d. None of the above
41. ___________ means from the beginning.
a. A priori
b. Ad Volorem
c. Ab Initio
d. Alibi
42. ______________ means right against the world at large.
a. Jus in World
b. Jus in Rem
c. Jus in Personam
d. None of the above
43. Vox Popli means ___________

a. Voice of the court


b. Voice of the client
c. Voice of the people
d. Voice of the Aggrieved
44. Philips C. Jessup is an international Competition for _________.
a. Client Interviewing
b. Client Counselling
c. Judgement writing
d. Moot Court
45. Chronemics is the study of __________.
A. Place
B. Time
C. Eating Habits
D. Eye movements
46. Speaking speed is part of which type of communication?
a. Verbal
b. Non-Verbal
c. Para Language
d. None of the above
47. Probability is a form of communication under _____________
a. Formal Communication
b. Verbal Communication
c. Informal Communication
d. Non-Verbal Communication
48. Gossip under the informal Communication is also known as?
a. Wine Communication
b. Divine Communication
c. Grapevine Communication
d. None of the above
49.. Mahesh Dattani is the author of which play?
a. Final Solutions
b. Draupadi
c. Arms & the Man
d. Justice
50. Meaning of Maxim ' Res ipsa loquitur'

a. The thing shows itself


b. The thing speaks for itself
c. The things does not speak for itself
d. It is necessary to prove the things

51. Which is not a quality of good Abstract?

a. Inaccurate
b. Erroneous
c. Defective
d. Accurate

52. Which of the following is not a method of note taking?

a. Outlining Method
b. Sentence method
c. Semantic method
d. Cornell Method

53. Which of the following maxim means " a persuasive but not binding comment or reason given by
a judge in his or her decision"?
a. Obiter dictum
b. Parens patriae
c. Noscitur a sociis
d. Nolle prosequi

54. Which of the following means " a principle that allows a court to act as the parent of a child or other
person who needs protection"?
a. Obiter dictum
b. Parens patriae
c. Noscitur a sociis
d. Nolle prosequi

55. Which of the following means " a formal statement that a prosecutor, or in a civil case the claimant,
has decided to drop a case"?
a. Obiter dictum
b. Parens patriae
c. Noscitur a sociis
d. Nolle prosequi

56. What is the meaning of Quantum Meruit?


a. a principle in contract law that states that someone who does not entirely fulfil a contract
deserves payment for the work they have completed
b. done without the usual payment that a lawyer charges
c. formal without arranging a date for another meeting or court hearing
d. beyond or exceeding someone's legal power or authority

57. What is the meaning of Pro bono?


a. principle in contract law that states that someone who does not entirely fulfil a contract
deserves payment for the work they have completed
b. done without the usual payment that a lawyer charges
c. formal without arranging a date for another meeting or court hearing
d. beyond or exceeding someone's legal power or authority
58. Which of the following maxim means "Of the same class, or kind"?
a. Lex Non Cogit Ad Impossiblia
b. Impotentia Excusat Legem
c. Delegatus non potest delegare
d. Ejusdem generis
59. Which of the following is not the purpose of Client Interviewing?
a. To know the facts/story
b. Building Personal Relationship
c. Understanding the expectations of the client
d. Giving client an outline of the legal position
60. In which of the following types of interview, the interviewer uses a set of predetermined questions
and the respondents answer in their own words?
a. Unstructured
b. Structured
c. Semi Structured
d. None of the above
61. Which of the following is an essential of good report?
a. Clarity of Thought
b. Comprehensive but Compact
c. Accurate
d. All of the above
62. In which of the following types of interview, the interviewer has no specific guidelines, restrictions,
predetermined questions, or list of options ?
a. Unstructured
b. Structured
c. Semi Structured
d. None of the above
63. The _______________ is the person who transmits the message.
a. Receiver
b. Driver
c. Sender
d. Cleaner
64. _________ is a technique that involves changing a text-matter so that it is similar to the main source.
a. Note taking
b. Paraphrasing
c. Summarising
d. Précis writing
65. . ________ Means linking words and phrases together so that the whole text is clear and readable.
a. Cohesion
b. Joining
c. Conjunctions
d. Junctions
66. The language of the report should be ________.
a. Formality
b. Formal
c. Casual
d. Loose
67. Environmental barriers are the same as ___________ noise.
a. Physiological
b. Psychological
c. Physical
d. Sociological
68. __________ are problems arising from expression.
a. Cultural barriers
b. Semantic problems
c. Wrong assumptions
d. Selecting perception
69. _______ means to impart understanding of the message.
a. Encoding
b. Receiver
c. Decoding
d. Feedback
70. Which of these must be avoided for effective communication?
a. Sharing of activity
b. Listening
c. Politeness
d. Ambiguity
71. Which of the following are the problems highlighted by play " Justice"?
I. Problem of the administration of criminal justice
II. Problem of the Prison administration
III. Communal hatred
IV. Divorce and Social Morality
V. Romantic view of war
a. I, II and IV are correct
b. I, II, III and IV are correct
c. I, II, III and V are correct
d. I, II, III, IV and V are correct

72. Which of the following maxim means " An act of the court shall prejudice no man"?
a. Actus curiae neminem gravabit
b. Actus dei Nemini facit Injuriam
c. Actus legis nemini facit injuriam
d. None of the above
73. 24. Oral communication ensures________ and__________.
a. fluency; speed
b. adequate attention; immediate response
c. speedy interaction; immediate response
d. speed; attention

74. Unclarified assumptions in a communication can lead to_________ and_________.


a. premature evaluation, poor listening
b. lack of planning, physical barriers
c. information overload, selective perception
d. confusion, misunderstanding
75. Communication through ____ and _____is called verbal communication
a. written material and gestures
b. gestures and spoken words
c. spoken words and written material
d. body language and gestures

76 _________ is the study of touches as non-verbal communication.


a. haptics
b. body language
c. gestures
d. prosody

77. What is meant by debet esse finis litium?


a. A weak foundation frustrates
b. A labour is entitled to wages
c. Justice delayed is justice denied
d. Civil litigation must end
78. Which of the 7C's of communication enunciates that the communicator must be fully clear in his
mind about what he wants to communicate, why he wants to communicate, to whom, when and how he
wants to communicate.
a. Content
b. Clarity
c. Context
d. Consistency
79. 30. Which of the following is a type of Para-language?
a. Volume variation
b. Eyes
c. Gestures
d. Visual Signs

80. Mere silence is also a method of communication.


a. True
b. False
c. May be
d. Never

81. Which of the following is Oral communication?


a. Letters and circulars
b. Forms and Questionnaires
c. Meeting on Zoom App
d. Slides

82. Which of the following is not the type of communication on the basis of direction?
a. Horizontal
b. Diagonal
c. Upward
d. Written

83. Distrust is a _______.


a. Physical barrier
b. Organisational barrier
c. Socio-psychological barrier
d. Semantic Barrier

84. मौलिक अलिकार in English means_________.

a. Constitution
b. Fundamental Rights
c. Legal Right
d. All of the above
85. Qui facit per alium, facit per se means
a. No one transfers better title than he himself have
b. The thing speaks for itself
c. He who acts through another does the act himself.
d. None of the above
86. Amicus curiae means
a. Friend of Party
b. Friend of counsel
c. Friend of litigant
d. Friend of court
87. Cypress means
a. Fresh
b. As near as possible
c. As a matter of legal right
d. As a whole
88. In pari material means
a. Upon the same matter or subject
b. Let justice be done
c. Cause to be done
d. By divine right

89. Which of the ethical principles of Counselling enunciates that the counsellor is to avoid sexual,
financial and emotional or any form of exploitation.
a. Self-Respect
b. Non-maleficence
c. Beneficence
d. Autonomy
90. When was Martin Luther King Jr. Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize?
a.1961
b.1962
c.1963
d.1964
91. The famous speech of Martin Luther King Jr. Is
a. Sisters and brothers of America
b. I have a dream
c. I refuse to accept
d. Give me blood and I promise you freedom
92. Before getting involved in the civil rights movement, what was Martin Luther King Jr. Job?
a. Lawyer
b. Minister
c. Medical Doctor
d. Professor
93. Martin Luther King Jr. Led an important protest against what on April 3, 1968?
a. slavery
b. discrimination
c. poverty
d. starvation in India
94. Which party did Nelson Mandela join?
a. Indian National Congress
b. African National Congress
c. National African Party
d. he did not join any party
95. What change brought international leaders to South Africa?
a. End of Apartheid
b. humanity
c. peace
d. trade negotiations
96. In a case of mistaken identity Bhagat Singh Singh killed John P. Saunders, an Assistant
Superintendent of Police instead of _____________.
a. J. Coldstream
b. G. C. Hilton
c. James A. Scott
d. Horace Williamson
97. Bhagat Singh was sentenced to death in which case?
a. Kakori Case
b. Chauri Chaura Case
c. Assembly bomb case
d. Lahore conspiracy case

98. Who joined Bhagat Singh in a hunger strike in prison?


a. Jay Lahore
b. Jatin Das
c. Raj King
d. Raja Singh
99. How old was Bhagat Singh when he was executed?
a. 27
b. 19
c. 55
d. 23
100. Martin Luther King Jr. was the advocate of
a. Civil Rights movement
b. Political rights movement
c. Social movement
d. All of the above
101. "The structure they created formed the basis of one of the harshest, most inhumane, societies the
world has ever known." What structure is Mandela talking about?
A) Racial domination against the black skinned
B) Poverty and suffering
C) Discrimination against the poor
D) oppression of women
102. Who, according to Mandela is not free?
A) oppressor
B) oppressed
C) both 1 and 2
D) none of the above
103. How did Mandela's hunger for freedom change his life?
A) turned from frightened to bold
B) turned from law-abiding attorney to a criminal
C) turned a life-loving man to live like a monk
C) all of the above
104. What realisations did Mandela have of his boyhood freedom?
(a) it is just an illusion
(b) he was born free
(c) freedom was meant for kids
(d) he had no realisations
105. In “I Have a Dream”, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., urges his followers to
a. work toward gradual change
b. demand equality and justice now
c. use any means necessary
c. distrust white people
106. In what city did King deliver his "I Have a Dream" speech?
a. Birmingham
b. Atlanta
c. New York
d. Washington, D.C.
107. By which name Bhagat Singh is often referred to?
a. Veer Bhagat Singh
b. Azad Bhagat Singh
c. Saheed Bhagat Singh
d. Lokmanya Bhagat Singh
108. In his prison cell, Bhagat Singh wrote a pamphlet in response to him being accused of vanity by
not accepting God in the face of death. What is the title of that pamphlet?
a) Why I am an Atheist
b) Why India wants freedom
c) India’s Struggle
d) Jai Hind Jai Bharti
109. In a case of mistaken identity Bhagat Singh Singh killed John P. Saunders, an Assistant
Superintendent of Police instead of _____________.
a) J. Coldstream
b) G. C. Hilton
c) James A. Scott
d) Horace Williamson
110. Bhagat Singh was sentenced to death in which case?
a) Kakori Case
b) Chauri Chaura Case
c) Assembly bomb case
d) Lahore conspiracy case
111. Who joined Bhagat Singh in a hunger strike in prison?
a) Jay Lahore
b) Jatin Das
c) Raj King
d) Raja Singh
112. Bhagat Singh’s father Kishan Singh and uncles Ajit Singh and Swaran Singh were members of
which party?
a) Naujawan Bharat Sabha
b) Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
c) Ghadar Party
d) Kirti Kisan Party
113. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in Lahore on
a. March 23rd 1930
b. March 23rd 1929
c. March 23rd 1931
d. None of the above
114. Mr. Saunders, an Englishman was killed by Bhagat Singh and others in vengeance of
a. Jallianwalla Bagh massacre
b. death of Lala Lajpat Rai
c. hanging of Ram Prasad Bismil
d. encounter of Chandershekhar Azad
115. Who of the following assassinated Michael O’ Dwyer, the Governor of Punjab during the
Jallianwala bagh massacre?
a. Udham Singh
b. Khudiram Bose
c. Madanlal Dhingra
d. Ramprasad Bismil
116. Who among the following is considered the author of the poem "Sarfaroshi Ki tamanna ab hamare
dil mein hai"?
a. Bhagat Singh
b. Sachindranath Sanyal
c. Ram Prased Bismil
d. Chandershekhar Azad
117. Who was considered the mastermind behind the Kakori Train Dacoity?
a. Bhagat Singh
b. Khudiram Bose
c. Ram Prasad Bismil
d. Udham Singh
118. Who of the following threw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly along with Bhagat Singh?
a. Rajguru
b. B.K. Dutt
c. Sukhdev
d. Jatin Das
119. "The sword of revolution is sharpened on the whetting stone of ideas" is a statement attributed to

a. Bhagat Singh
b. Ram Prasad Bismil
c. Ashfaqulla Khan
d. Khudiram Bose
120. Who was considered the mastermind behind the Kakori Train Dacoity?

a. Bhagat Singh
b. Khudiram Bose
c. Ram Prasad Bismil
d. Udham Singh
121. Which mythological character does Mahasweta Devi portray Dopdi Mehjen’s character in the
play?
a. Sita
b. Draupadi
c. Hidimba
d. Ahalya
122. Which of the following statements is not true of Mahesh Dattani's Final Solutions?
a. The play centres around a middle class Hindu family during a communal riot.
b. It challenges communalism.
c. It is concerned with homosexual relationship.
d. It promotes religious pluralism in South Asia.
123. Ubi jus, ibi remedium
a. The sovereign never dies
b. The thing perishes to its owner, the laws falls on the owner.
c. An accessory follows the principal.
d. When there is a right there is a remedy.
124. Mala fide means
a. In good faith
b. In bad faith
c. In utmost good faith
d. Man of Faith
125. Actio personalis moritur cum persona means
a. A personal right of action dies with the person
b. Personal Care of citizens.
c. An action directed toward a Criminal for reformation.
d. An action is not given to him who is not injured
126. One of the basic tenets of criminal liability is "actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea". What does
this mean in English?
a. The act is not guilty unless the mind is guilty
b. The guilty mind and guilty act are the same thing
c. If a person does a criminal act, he will be found guilty
d. A guilty act is not required in criminal law
127. Tort seems to be full of catchy Latin phrases - what does this one mean? "Volenti non fit injuria"
a. Violence is never the answer
b. No injury is done to a willing victim
c. Consent is never a defence
d. A person must do an act willingly
128. What is meant by Quid pro quo?
a. Nothing for nothing
b. Cheap bargain
c. Illegal agreement
d. Something for something/ consideration.
129. What is meant by doctrine of restitution?
a. Law doctrine gains based recovery
b. Law doctrine which bars recovery
c. Law doctrine which allows mercy petitions
d. Law doctrine based on death penalty
130. Who was considered as “outlaws” in South Africa?
a. The whites
b. The people
c. The black
d. The Anglo Indians
131.The play ‘Draupadi’ by Mahashveta Devi was originally written in which language?
a)English
b)Hindi
c)Bengali
d)Marathi
132. The play ‘Draupadi’ focus on which revolutionary group?
a)Maoists
b)Naxalites
c)Socialists
d)Separatists

133. Mahesh Dattani’s play ‘Final Solutions’ was written after which event in India?

a) Babri Masjid demolition


b) Bombay riots
c) 1947-India’s Independence
d) Gujarat Riots
134. Which theme is NOT dealt with in play ‘Final Solutions’ by Mahesh Dattani?

a) Patriarchy
b) Gender Bias
c) Communalism
d) Communism

135. What was the main theme of John’s Galsworthy play ‘Justice’?

a) Conflict between individual and society


b) Communalism
c) Gender inequality
d) Politics

136. What reform was introduced after the play ‘Justice’ by Galsworthy?

a) Reservation
b) Reduced Solitary confinement
c) Reduced voting age
d) Amended marriage laws

137. The play in ‘Arms and the Man’ by George Bernard Shaw was written in background of
which war?

a) Serbo-Bulgarian War
b) First World War
c) Second World War
d) Russo-Japanese War

138. What was Nelson Madela fondly called?

a) Madiba
b) Nessie
c) Mendeley
d) Mdingane

139. Nelson Mandela became the President of which African country?

a) Kenya
b) South Africa
c) South America
d) Zimbabwe
140. Nelson Mandela received which award for his contribution to the humanity?

a) Booker Prize
b) Pulitzer Prize
c) Magsaysay Award
d) Nobel prize

141. Martin Luther King Jr. was bestowed with Nobel Prize in which category?

a) Medicine
b) Literature
c) Peace
d) Physics

142. Who wrote ‘Why am I an Aethist’?

a) Bhagat Singh
b) Rajguru
c) Sukhdev
d) Chandrashekhar Azad

143. Bhagat Singh belonged to which revolutionary group?

a) Ghadar Party
b) Rashtra Sewa Sangh
c) Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
d) Socialist Party

144. In which landmark legal case it was held that preamble is not a part of the Indian
Constitution?
a. Berubari Union(I), Re
b. Keshavnanada Bharti v. State of Kerala
c. S.R Bommai v. Union of India
d. T.M.A Pai v. Union of India
145. The ratio decidendi of a case refers to?
a. A statement said by the way.
b. The reason for deciding a case.
c. The principle whereby lower courts are bound by the decisions of higher courts.
d. The process whereby a court avoids a binding precedent on the ground that the
current case differs materially from the precedent.

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