INTRODUCTION

Sensors and Applications (025201)

Transducers and Sensors

 Transducers convert one form of energy into another
 Sensors are input/output transducers which convert one
form of energy into an observable energy.
 Sensors can be passive (e.g. change in resistance) or active
(output is a voltage or current level)
 Sensors can be analog (e.g. thermocouples) or digital (e.g.
digital tachometer)

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Transducers and Sensors
 Transducer types

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Purpose of Measurement Systems (1)

Human uses various sensation methods to explore our

surrounding world.
Vision: light, color, shape, size, …
Sound: tone, volume, ...
Touch: smooth, rough, ...
Smell: odor, ...
Taste: sweet, salty, ...
Feeling: hot, cold, ...
Motion: move, turning, up, down, vibration, ...

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Purpose of Measurement Systems (2)

Input Measurement Output

True value System Measured value
of variables of variables

Process, Observer
machine or
system being
measured

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Purpose of Measurement Systems (3)

 They are used for many purposes in a wide variety of application
areas:
 Experimental engineering analysis
 Monitoring of processes and Control of processes
 Experimental engineering analysis –
 Engineering research - relies on laboratory experiments to find
solutions for new products or processes.
 Development – Validation and testing on improved products.
 Performance testing – Check reliability, product life and product
performance.
 Semi-active application, needs experimental design
 Monitoring of processes – when the measurement device is being
used to keep track of some quantity, e.g. tracking weather
conditions or engine health conditions – passive application

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 Requirements from life

You will be required to be able to:

 Use basic instruments
 Design measurement systems
 Select right measurement sensing elements
 Design engineering tests
 Perform measurements
 Analyze test data

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What is a Measurement?
 Encyclopedia Encarta

 In classical physics and engineering, measurement generally

refers to the process of estimating or determining the ratio of a
magnitude of a quantitative property or relation to a unit of the
same type of quantitative property or relation.

 Process of measurement involves the comparison of physical

quantities of objects or phenomena …

 Wikipedia

 Measurement is the estimation or determination of extent,

dimension or capacity, usually in relation to some standard or
unit of measurement.
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Essential Elements
Input Measurement Output
True value System Measured value
of variables of variables

Sensing Conditioning Processing Displaying

Element Element Element Element

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Sensing Elements
 In contact with the information carrier or medium
 Giving a signal output related to the quantity being
measured
 Examples:
 strain gauge, R depends on mechanical strain;
 thermocouple, V depends on the temperature;
 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), L depends
on the displacement.

Sensing Conditioning Processing Displaying

Element Element Element Element

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 Signal Conditioning Elements
 Prepare sensor outputs suitable for further processing.
 Mostly use various conditioning circuits.
 Examples:
 deflection bridge, converts resistance change into a voltage
change (strain gauge)
 amplifier, amplifies millivolts to volts
 Filter and attenuation (noise reduction)

Sensing Conditioning Processing Displaying

Element Element Element Element

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Signal Processing Elements

 Converting conditioned output into forms more suitable for
presentation.
 Calculating secondary variable from measurable variables.
 Examples:
 analog-to-digital converter or vice verse
 analog or digital filter
 signal compensation (FFT, averaging)

Sensing Conditioning Processing Displaying

Element Element Element Element

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 Data Display Elements
 Display and/or store measured signals in recognizable form.
 Use of analog and/or digital form.
 Examples:
 visual display units, like Oscilloscope
 analog chart recorders
 digital data array

Sensing Conditioning Processing Displaying

Element Element Element Element

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Measurement Errors

True Measured
Value Value
Sensing Conditioning Processing Presentation
Element Element Element Element
I O
K1 K2 K3 K4

•None of the elements can be perfectly

manufactured and integrated in the system, hence
error.
•Error increases through different measurement
elements from sensor element to output element.

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Measurement errors
 Error in measurement:
 Error = Measured value – true value.
 Types of error in experiments:
 Systematic errors (fixed or bias errors)
 Random errors (precision errors).

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Systematic errors

Systematic errors:
 Defined as the closeness of agreement between a
measured value or an average of measured values and the
true value.
 Examples – calibration errors, linearity errors.
E = measured valve (s) – true valve
= system output – system input

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 Precision errors

 Precision errors: Characterize the degree of mutual

agreement among a series of individual measurements.
 Highly precise measuring system gives same value each
time it read, but it may have large systematic error (not very
accurate).
Examples: Environment (noise, temperature), measurement
systems (need shielding).

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Types of Measurement Errors

Sources of errors Characteristic of errors

 Improper sensing position  Systematic errors

 Improper element calibration  Random errors

 Improper data acquisition method  Parameter tracking

 Improper sampling rate errors

 Elements non-linearity

 Environment effects

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Types of Measurement Errors

Calibration.
Loading.
Non-linearity.
Hysteresis.

systematic error (bias error) = average of readings – true value

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Types of Measurement Errors

Temperature.
Noise.
Environment.
Variability in
components being
measured due to
manufacturing
processes.

random error = reading – average of readings

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Types of Measurement Errors

Either:
• Parameter changes
too rapidly –
sampling rate not
good enough.
• Parameter goes
outside measurement
range – not within
bandwidth.
• Parameter change is
too small to be
observed – poor
resolution in
sampling.

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Performance and terminology

 The desirable features of sensors are:
 Range / span
 Errors and accuracy
 Nonliearity (Hysteresis, Dead band, Saturation)
 Repeatability
 Reliability
 Sensitvity
 Resolution
 Output impedance
 Frequency Response
 Response time
 Calibration

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Performance and terminology
 Range and Span
 Range: lowest and highest values of the stimulus
 Input full scale (IFS) or Span: the arithmetic difference
between the highest and lowest values of the input that being
sensed.
 Output full scale (OFS): difference between the upper and
lower ranges of the output of the sensor.
 Dynamic range: ratio between the upper and lower limits and is
usually expressed in db

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Performance and terminology

LM20

MPXV7002

FS FS
‐55o C 130o C ‐2 kPa 2 kPa

Input range: ‐55 ºC to +130ºC FS = 185 oC Input range: ‐2 kPa to +2 kPa FS = 4kPa

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Performance and terminology

FSO

FSO
MPXV7002

FS
FS  
FSO = 2.2 V FSO = 4.8 V

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Performance and terminology

 Repeatability (reproducibility):
 ability of a sensor to represent the same value under identical
conditions.

[Source:Fraden]
True value

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Performance and terminology

• Which sensor has a smaller repeatability error?

Sensor A Sensor B

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Performance and terminology

 Precision
 Precision refers to the degree of repeatability or reproducibility
of a sensor.

xn  x
1
x

[Source:wikipedia]

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Performance and terminology
 Accuracy
 Capability to obtain values for the stimuli, computed from its
output, close to the ideal or true values at its input. Can only be
determined if some prior knowledge of the true value is
available.

transfer function computed values

signal

true values

stimulus
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Performance and terminology

 Accuracy vs precision

Precise, but not accurate

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Performance and terminology
 Errors
 Error is the highest deviation (positive or negative) of a value
computed from its output from the ideal or true value at its
input.
 Errors: nonlinearity, hysteresis, calibration, repeatability, etc.
  computed values
signal

true values

Highest deviation 2

stimulus

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Performance and terminology

 Different ways to represent inaccuracy (error):
• Absolute:
   measure valued  truevalue

• Relative:


true value

• In terms of full-scale input:  100%
FS
• In terms of full-scale output 

 FSO
FS

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Performance and terminology
 Nonlinearity
 Nonlinearity specified for sensors whose transfer function may
be approximated by a straight line. It is the straightness of a
set of measured points compared to a perfectly straight line.
 The nonlinearity error is the maximum deviation of a real
transfer function from the approximation straight line.
signal

stimulus
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Performance and terminology

 Hysteresis
 Some sensors do not return to the same output value when the
input stimulus is cycled up and down.
 Hysteresis error (h) is maximum deviation.

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Performance and terminology
 Resolution
 Resolution describes the smallest increments of stimulus which
can be detected and reflected at the output.
 Without measurable steps at the output, resolution is said
continuous or infinitesimal.
 Resolution of a sensor must be higher than the accuracy
required for a measurement.
 Example:
 a digital voltmeter with resolution of 0.1V is used to measure the
output of a sensor. The change in input (temperature, pressure,
etc.) that will provide a change of 0.1V on the voltmeter is the
resolution of the sensor/voltmeter system.
 In digital systems generally, resolution may be specified as 1/2N (N
is the number of bit.)

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Performance and terminology

 Sensitivity
 defined as the change in output for a given change in
input, usually a unit change in input.
 Sensitivity represents the slope of the transfer function.

 Also is used to indicate sensitivity to other environment

that is not measured.
 Example: sensitivity of resistance measurement to
temperature change

d aT + b = 1  dR = a 
dR dT C

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Performance and terminology
 Frequency response
 The ability of the device to respond to a harmonic (sinusoidal)
input.
 A plot of magnitude (power, displacement, etc.) as a function of
frequency
 Indicates the range of the stimulus in which the device is usable
(sensors and actuators)
 Provides important design parameters
 Sometimes the phase is also given (the pair of plots is the Bode
diagram of the device)

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Performance and terminology

 Important parameters
 Bandwidth
 Flat frequency range
 Cutoff frequencies
 Resonant frequencies

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Performance and terminology
 Response time
 indicates the time needed for the output to reach steady state
for a step change in input.
 Typically the response time will be given as the time needed to
reach 90% of steady state output upon exposure to a unit step
change in input.
 The response time of the device is due to the inertia of the
device (both “mechanical” and “electrical”).
 Fast response time is usually desirable
 Slow response times tend to average readings

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Performance and terminology

 Reliability
 a statistical measure of quality of a device which indicates
the ability of the device to perform its stated function,
under normal operating conditions without failure for a
stated period of time or number of cycles.
 Given in hours, years or in MTBF

 Usually provided by the manufacturer

 Based on accelerated lifetime testing

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Performance and terminology
 Calibration
 the experimental determination of the transfer function of a
sensor
 Typically, needed when the transfer function is not known or
when the device must be operated at tolerances below those
specified by the manufacturer.
 Calibration is sometimes an operational requirement
(thermocouples, pressure sensors)
 Calibration data is usually supplied by the manufacturer
 Calibration procedures must be included with the design
documents
 Errors due to calibration must be evaluated and specified

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Intrusive and non-intrusive device

Intrusive measurement system – large loading error, e.g.

thermometer used for water temperature measurement.

Non-intrusive – Negligible loading errors, e.g. radar gun.

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Experimental Design
 Experimental design is the first step in any measurement
experiment. It involves developing a measurement test plan
following three steps:
1. Parameter Design Plan – test objective and
identification of process variables and parameters and a
means for their control. You should ask:
 What question am I trying to answer ?
 What variables to be measured ?
 What variables will affect my results ?
2. System and Tolerance Design Plan – selection of
measurement technique, equipment and test procedure
based on some preconceived tolerance limits for error.
You should ask:
 How will I do the measurement and how good do the results
have to be ?

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Experimental Design (cont’d)

3. Data Reduction Design Plan – Plan ahead on how to
analyze, present, and use the anticipated data. You should
ask:
 How will I interpret the resulting data ?
 How will I use the data to answer my question ?

 Step 1 needs the following important concepts:

1. Variables
2. Parameters
3. Noise and Interference
4. Random Tests
5. Replication and Repetition
6. Concomitant Methods

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Variables
 One variable in the measurement system is obviously the
targeted measured variable, but there might be other
variables that affect the outcome
 All known process variables should be listed and evaluated
for any possible cause and effect relationships
 A variable that can be changed independently of other
variables is known as an independent variable
 A variable that is affected by changes in one or more other
variables is known as a dependent variable
 Variables that cannot be controlled during measurements but
that affect the value of the measured variables are called
extraneous variables.
 If the values of a variable can be enumerated it is called
discrete. Otherwise it is called continuous

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Variables
Example: For the following calibration system. Identify the
independent, dependent, and possible extraneous variables.

p  f (V , T ; z1 , z 2 , z3 ), where V  f1 ( x, T )

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Parameters
 A parameter is a function relationship between variables
 A parameter that has an effect on the behavior of the
measured variable is called a control parameter
 A control parameter is completely controlled if it can be set
and held at a constant value during a set of measurements
 Example (Pendulum):

T  f (l , g )  T  K  l   g 
l
s   m
ms 2  

s 1  m    s  2     0.5,   0.5 mg
l
TK (Period)
g
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Noise and Interference

 The way of extraneous variables affects measured data can
be classified into noise and interference
 Noise is a random variation of the value of the measured
signal as a consequence of the variation of the extraneous
variables
 Interference produces undesirable deterministic trends on
the measured value because of extraneous variables
 Example:
5.5

5 signal y(t)
signal+interference
signal+interf.+noise
4.5

y (t )  2  sin( 2t ) 4

3.5

i (t )  t
3

2.5

n(t )  random noise 1.5

1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

time

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Random Tests

• It is important to minimize the effects of extraneous variables

in a measurement using random tests
• A random test is defined by a measurement matrix that sets a
random order in the value of the independent variable applied
to measure the dependent variable
• Example:
Extraneous
Variable Pressure
Independent p, V , T Transducer
Varables + Voltmeter
Dependent
Variable
p  f (V , T ; z ), V  f 1 ( x , T ), V1  V 2  V 3  V 4  V 5  V 6
Apply Random Sequence
(holding temperature constant)
V2 V5 V1 V4 V6 V3
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Random Tests (cont’d)

 Assuming that we can hold the temperature fixed, applying a
random sequence of volume values rather than a sequential
sequence will allow us to average out the effects of
extraneous variables
 When the measurement system is subject to hysteresis,
applying an increasing sequence of values for the
independent variable produces a different result as
compared to the case of applying the same set of values in a
decreasing order
 A random sequence enables us to deal with this effect by
providing a unique value of the independent variable for
each value of the dependent variable in the random
sequence
 After applying several random sequencies the results are
averaged out to find a best-fit curve
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Random Tests (cont’d)
 We have seen that random tests are effective for the local
control of extraneous variables that change in a continuous
manner
 Discrete extraneous variables can also be dealt with by
performing a random test
 The use of different instruments and different test operators
are examples of discrete extraneous variables that can affect
the outcome of a measurement
 These effects are usually reduced by randomizing a test
matrix by using random blocks
 A block consists of a data set of the measured variable in
which the control variable is varied but the extraneous
variable is fixed
 The extraneous variable is then varied between blocks

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Example: Randomized Matrix

 The manufacture of a particular composite material requires
mixing a percentage by weight of binder with resin to produce a
gel. The gel is used in a lay-up procedure to impregnate the fiber.
The strength  will depend on both the percent binder in the gel
and the test operator performing the lay-up.
 Formulate a test matrix to find the percent binder influence on
strength   f (binder ; operator )
 Solution: Pick three different bider-gel ratios A, B, C and three
typical operators z1 , z 2 , z 3 to produce N separate composite
test samples for each of the 3 ratios
 Create the following test pattern: Test1 Test 2 Test 3
z1 A B C
z2 A B C
z3 A B C
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Replication and Repetition
 In general the estimated value of a variable improves with
the number of measurements. The mean over
measurements is taken as the estimated value
 Repeated measurements made during any single test run or
on a single batch are called repetitions. It allows for
quantifying the variation in a measured variable as it occurs
during any one test or batch while the operating conditions
are held under nominal control
 An independent duplication of a set of measurements using
similar operating conditions is referred to as a replication. It
allows for quantifying the variation in a measured variable as
it occurs between different tests, each having the same
nominal values of operating conditions

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Concomitant Methods
 A good strategy is to incorporate the use of concomitant
methods in a measurement plan. The goal is to obtain two or
more estimates for the result, each based on a different
method, which can be compared as a check for agreement

 Example: Establish the volume of a cylindrical rod of known

material.

 Method 1: Measure the diameter and length

 Method 2: Measure the weight and compute volume
based on specific weight of material

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Error Reduction Techniques (1)

The most effective

method of reducing
measurement error
(systematic)
is to:
Set the sensing element
at the right position.
Area with low stress
gradient and low
temperature.
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Error Reduction Techniques (2)

An effective and useful method of reducing measurement

error (systematic)
is to:
Calibrate each element to eliminate or reduce
bias. DC shift.

Offs
et
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Error Reduction Techniques (3)

Another effective method

of reducing measurement
error (systematic)
is to:
Setup a proper sampling

rate for data acquisition.
At least 2 times of the
highest frequency of
interest.

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Error Reduction Techniques (4)

Another effective method of reducing measurement error

(systematic and random) is to:

compensate the environmental effects

 Environmental effects
isolation:

I total  I true

 Environmental input
cancellation:

I actual  I total  I Environmen tal

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Random error reduction (5)
 Random errors – Originate from measuring systems
and experimental systems.
 In measuring systems – Temperature effects on
amplifier performance.
 Environmental causes – Electrical noise from
electric and magnetic field around the equipments.
 Solution – Proper shielding or grounding the
measuring systems – Minimise electrical noise.
 Statistical analysis – Large number of samples.

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Unknown
system

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Standards
 The first step before performing a measurement is
instrument calibration
 When a measurement system is calibrated it is
compared with some standard whose value is
presumably known
 The standard may be a piece of equipment, an object
having a well-defined physical attribute to be used as
a comparison, or a well accepted technique known to
produce a reliable value
 The accuracy of a standard needs to be higher than
the one of the instrument being calibrated.
 A rule often followed is that the calibrated standard
has an accuracy four times better than the instrument
being calibrated
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Basic Dimensions: Standards, Units

 The basic dimensions are:
 Mass - Kg
 Time - Second
 Length - meter
 Temperature – Celsius, Kelvin (0 K = -273.15C) and
Fahrenheit
 Electric Current (Amp)
 .....

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Calibration
 Relationship between measurement and true value
is the first task performed in a measurement:
calibration
 Calibration - Applying known input value (standard)
to unknown measurement system for the purpose of
observing the output and establishing an input-
output relationship.
 Applying a range of known values for the input and
observing the output – Develop a direct calibration
curve.
 Use the calibration curve in later measurements to
ascertain the unknown input value (actual value)
based on the output value.
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Calibration
• Calibration:
• A test in which known values of the input are applied to a
measurement system (or sensor) for the purpose of observing the
system (or sensor) output.
• Static calibration:
• A calibration procedure in which the values of the variable involved
remain constant (do not change with time or change slowly) – static
weights.
• • Dynamic calibration:
• When the variables of interest are time dependent and time-based
information is need. The dynamic calibration determines the relationship
between an input of known dynamic behavior and the measurement
system output – Accelerometers.

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Static Calibration
 In performing a static calibration, the following steps are
necessary:
1. Examine the construction of the instrument and identify
and list all the possible inputs.
2. Decide, as best as you can, which of the inputs will be
significant in the application for which the instrument is
to be calibrated – Establish range.
3. Find an apparatus that will allow you to vary all the
significant inputs over the ranges considered
necessary. Find standards to measure inputs.
4. By holding some inputs constant and varying others,
record the output and develop the desired static input-
output relation as a best-fit curve.
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Best-fit Curve
 If the output data of a measurement system is to give a
meaningful description of the measurement process, the
data must form what is called a random sequence.
 In a calibration we specify that certain inputs must be
held constant within certain limits. Those are the inputs
that hopefully will have the most influence in the
measurement.
 However, there are many extraneous input variables
that are uncontrolled – environment effects.
 A reasonable assumption is that the aggregate of their
effect on the instrument output will be of a random
nature.
 We can then apply the least-squares method to find the
best-fit curve – ‘Eye-ball’ approach.
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Best-fit Line

R = 1.290W –
0.374

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Static calibration - Deviation

Max.
repeatabili
ty error –
UP cycles

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Static calibration - Average deviation

Max.
systemat
ic error

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Static calibration – Error summary

 Several cycles before data recording. Typical 5 cycles
recommended for static calibration. ANSI/ISA(1979).
 Establish best fit curve (eye-ball).
 Output span:
 W = 0 lb., R = -0.374 lb. and W = 5 lb., R = 6.076 lb.

 O/S = 6.076 – (-0.374) = 6.45 lb.

 Accuracy limits – Max and min deviations from best fit line.
 +0.45 lb. at 0 lb. (down cycle), 7% of output span;

 -0.40 lb. at 2 lb (up cycle) - -6.2% of O/S.

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Static calibration – Error summary
 Non-linearity – Average of all data taken for each weight
value in both up and down cycles – Solid dots in Fig.
E2.3(d).
 Max. = 0.41 lb. (6.4% of O/S) at 0 lb.

 Repeatability error – Max variability of successive

measurements of same input value approached same
loading direction – Fig. E2.3(c)
 At 1 lb. up cycle - Range -0.14 to -0.31 – 0.17 lb.

 2.6% of O/S, +/-1.3% of output span.

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Static calibration – Error summary

 Max hysteresis error – Max difference between the
Up and the correspond Down reading for any
calibration cycle – Table E2.3(b).
 – Cycle 3 at 2.5 lb., -0.39 lb. in up cycle, -0.13 lb.,
in down cycle.
 Total = 0.52 lb., 8.1% of O/S, +/-4.05% of O/S.

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Static calibration – Error summary
 Max. systematic error – Max deviation of the
averaged calibrated values (average of up and
down readings) for all cycles – Fig. E3.2(d).
 At 0 lb., +0.41lb, +6.4% of O/S.
 At 2.5 lb., -0.35lb, -5.4% of O/S.

 Max. random error – repeatability error – same

input and same loading direction.
 At 1 lb. in up cycles,
 Cycle 3 = -0.14 lb., Cycle 5 = -0.31 lb.

 Range = 0.17 lb, 2.6% of O/S, +/- 1.3% of O/S.

Sensors and Applications (025201) 73

Choosing sensors
 DuoTech
 1. Accuracy & Precision
 2. Environment: in which the instrument will be operated
 3. Excitation: require power to produce an output signal
 4. Signal Conditioning
 5. Conversion: digital/analog data, units
 6. Processing: methods and algorithms that can be used to
compensate for the errors or to extract the best possible signal
from the system

Sensors and Applications (025201) 74

Choosing sensors
 AutomationWorld
 1. Measuring range
 2. Weather watch
 3. Load cells important
 4. Need flexibility
 5. Select for technology, conditions
 6. Digital lowers costs
 7. Faulty cables
 8. Intelligent sensors
 9. Advance warning
 10. More sensor tips

Sensors and Applications (025201) 75

Choosing sensors
 APPLIED MEASUREMENTS LIMITED
 What is the pressure medium?
 What pressure will the sensor measure?
 How will the sensor interface mechanically?
 What is the temperature range (operating/storage)?
 How accurate does the sensor need to be?
 Does the sensor need to be temperature compensated?
 Is stability over time a critical factor?
 Do sensors need to be interchangeable from unit to unit?
 Does the operating environment demand extra ruggedness?
 Is size (for fitting purposes) an issue?
 What are the excitation voltage and current applicable?
 Is the signal output appropriate for the application?
 What electrical connections are required?
 Are pressure spikes and/or overload situations possible?
 Do you require any approvals?
Sensors and Applications (025201) 76
Choosing sensors
 AUTOMATION INSIGHTS
 1) Type of Sensing: measurement’s object
 2) Composition of Target: material composition of the object
 3) Distance to Target
 4) Form Factor
 5) Control Interface
 6) Special Requirements
 7) Electrical Connection

Sensors and Applications (025201) 77

Choosing sensors
 FESTO
 Temperature range
 Size
 Protection class
 Voltage range
 Discrete or analog output
 Response speed
 Sensing range
 Repetition accuracy
 Electrical connection
 Mounting type
 Answering the question: Is on-sensor visual display
required?
Sensors and Applications (025201) 78
Choosing sensors
 Control Engineering
 Define what is to be sensed and differentiate between the
two major areas of applications for sensing, machine
position and conditions and quality of product.
 Define where sensors can be located and constraints.
 List methods, technologies, and considerations for sensor
applications.
 Outline fundamentals of specifying process sensors.
 Describe several process sensor technologies and their
application.
 Provide lessons learned from installed applications.

Sensors and Applications (025201) 79

Choosing sensors
 SILICONEXPERT
 1. Consider what is being sensed
 2. Environmental condition
 3. Range
 4. Control interface
 5. Resolution
 6. Composition of the target
 7. Repeatability
 8. Form factor
 9. Special requirements

Sensors and Applications (025201) 80

Choosing sensors
 Using website of vendors to choose sensors
 KEYENCE
 Endress Hausser
 Festo
 Mouser
 The selection of sensors
J Shieh, J.E Huber, N.A Fleck, M.F Ashby
Progress in Materials Science, vol. 46, Issues 3–4, pp. 185-
504 (2001)
 Basics of Sensor Selection
Panasonic-TI course

Sensors and Applications (025201) 81