Chapter

3 Relations

Section 3.1: Cartesian Products and Relations

Definition 3.1.1

Let A and B be two sets. An ordered pair is (a, b) 6= {a, b} for a ∈ A and b ∈ B. We say
that (a, b) = (c, d) if and only if a = c and b = d.

Definition 3.1.2

Let A and B be two sets. The (Cartesian or cross) product of A and B, denoted by A × B,
is defined by
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

Moreover, if (a, b) ∈ A × B, then a ∈ A and b ∈ B. If (a, b) 6∈ A × B, then either a 6∈ A or

b 6∈ B.

Remark 3.1.1

Let A and B be two given sets. Then,

1. if A has m elements and B has n elements, then A × B has mn elements.

2. In general, A × B 6= B × A.

Example 3.1.1

Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. Find A × B and B × A.

Solution:

Note that, in general A × B 6= B × A as this example shows.

A×B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)}, and

B×A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}.

39
40 Chapter 3. Relations

B A
3 × ×

b × × × 2 × ×

a × × × 1 × ×

1 2 3
A a b
B
A×B B×A

Example 3.1.2

Let A = [0, 1] and B = {1} ∪ [2, 3). Find A × B.

Solution:

B
3

2
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.
1 • •
0 1
A
A×B

Theorem 3.1.1

If A and B are nonempty set, then A × B = B × A iff A = B.

Proof:

” ⇒ ”: Assume that A 6= φ, B 6= φ and A × B = B × A. Let a ∈ A, then there is b ∈ B such

that (a, b) ∈ A × B = B × A which implies that a ∈ B Thus, A ⊆ B.
Let b ∈ B, then there is a ∈ A such that (b, a) ∈ B × A = A × B which implies that b ∈ A.
Thus, B ⊆ A and therefore A = B.
” ⇐ ”: if A = B, then A × B = A × A = B × A.

Theorem 3.1.2

Let A, B, C, and D be sets. Then





 a. A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C).


b. (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C).


1.



 c. A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C).


d. (A ∩ B) × C = (A × C) ∩ (B × C).


3.1. Cartesian Products and Relations 41

2. (A × B) ∩ (C × D) = (A ∩ C) × (B ∩ D).

3. (A × B) ∪ (C × D) ⊆ (A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D).

Proof:

Proof of (1.a):

(x, y) ∈ A × (B ∪ C) iff x∈A ∧ y ∈B∪C

iff x ∈ A ∧ (y ∈ B ∨ y ∈ C)
iff (x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B) ∨ (x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ C)
iff ( (x, y) ∈ A × B) ∨ ( (x, y) ∈ A × C)
iff (x, y) ∈ (A × B) ∨ (A × C).

Proof of (2):

(x, y) ∈ (A × B) ∩ (C × D) iff (x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B) ∧ (x ∈ C ∧ y ∈ D)
iff (x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ C) ∧ (y ∈ B ∧ y ∈ D)
iff (x ∈ A ∩ C) ∧ (y ∈ B ∩ D)
iff (x, y) ∈ (A ∩ C) × (B ∩ D).

Proof of (3): Let (x, y) ∈ (A × B) ∪ (C × D), then (x, y) ∈ A × B or (x, y) ∈ C × D.

Case(i): (x, y) ∈ A × B implies that x ∈ A and y ∈ B. Then, x ∈ A ∪ C and y ∈ B ∪ D.
Thus, (x, y) ∈ (A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D).
Case(ii): (x, y) ∈ C × D implies that x ∈ C and y ∈ D. Then again x ∈ A ∪ C and y ∈ B ∪ D.
Thus, (x, y) ∈ (A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D).
Therefore, (A × B) ∪ (C × D) ⊆ (A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D).

Remark 3.1.2

Note that (A × B) ∪ (C × D) 6= (A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D): For instance, Let A = B = {0}, and

C = D = {1}. Then, (0, 1) ∈ (A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D) while (0, 1) 6∈ (A × B) ∪ (C × D). Therefore,
(A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D) 6⊆ (A × B) ∪ (C × D).
42 Chapter 3. Relations

Definition 3.1.3

Let A and B be sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset of A × B. In this case, we write

aRb for (a, b) ∈ R and say that ”a is related to b”. Also, aRb means that (a, b) 6∈ R ⊆ A × B.
Moreover, if A = B, then subsets of A × A are called relations on A.

Definition 3.1.4

If R ⊆ A × B is a relation, then the domain of R is Dom(R) = {a ∈ A : (a, b) ∈ R}.

Moreover, the range of R is Rng(R) = {b ∈ B : (a, b) ∈ R}.

Example 3.1.3

Let A = {1, 2, {3}, 4} and B = {a, b, c, d}. Find the domain and range of R, where

R = {(1, c), ({3}, a), (1, d), (2, d)} ⊆ A × B.

Solution:

The Dom(R) = {1, 2, {3}} ⊆ A and the Rng(R) = {a, c, d} ⊆ B. Note that Dom(R) 6= A
and Rng(R) 6= B.

Example 3.1.4

Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7} and B = {2, 6}. Let R ⊆ A × B defined by R = {(a, b) ∈ A × B : a < b}.
Find R along with its domain and range.

Solution:

A B
→
R
R = {(1, 2), (1, 6), (3, 6), (5, 6)} 1•

Dom(R) = {1, 3, 5} 3• •2

Rng(R) = {2, 6}. 5•

•6
7•
3.1. Cartesian Products and Relations 43

Example 3.1.5

Let R = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : y = x2 + 3}. Find the domain and the range of the relation R.

Solution:

Domain: x ∈ Dom(R) iff ∃y ∈ R with y = x2 + 3 which is true for all x ∈ R. Thus,

Dom(R) = R. Range: y ∈ Rng(R) iff ∃x ∈ R with y = x2 + 3 and since x2 ≥ 0, we have
y ≥ 3. Therefore, Rng(R) = [3, ∞).

Definition 3.1.5

For any set A, the relation IA is the identity relation on A and is defined by

IA = {(a, a) : a ∈ A},

with Dom(IA ) = A = Rng(IA ).

Definition 3.1.6

For any sets A and B, if R ⊆ A × B is a relation, then the inverse relation is

R−1 = {(b, a) : (a, b) ∈ R} ⊆ B × A,

with Dom(R−1 ) = Rng(R) and Rng(R−1 ) = Dom(R).

Definition 3.1.7

Let R ⊆ A × B be a relation and let S ⊆ B × C be a relation. The composition relation

S ◦ R is defined by
 
S ◦ R = {(a, c) : (∃b ∈ B) (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ S } ⊆ A × C.

Moreover, Dom(S ◦ R) ⊆ Dom(R).

44 Chapter 3. Relations

Example 3.1.6

Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and C = {x, y, z, w}. Let

R = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 2), (c, 3), (c, 4)} ⊆ A × B, and

S = {(1, w), (2, x), (2, z), (3, y), (4, y)} ⊆ B × C.

Find R−1 , and S ◦ R.

Solution:

R−1 = {(1, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, c), (4, c)} ⊆ B × A.

S ◦R = {(a, w), (b, x), (b, z), (c, x), (c, z), (c, y)} ⊆ A × C.

A B C A B
→ → →
R S S ◦R

a• • •x a• •x
1
• •y =⇒ •y
2
b• b•
• •z •z
3
c• • •w c• •w
4

Example 3.1.7

Let R = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : x < y}. Find R−1 .

Solution:

Note that

(x, y) ∈ R−1 iff (y, x) ∈ R

iff y<x
iff x > y.

That is R−1 = { (x, y) ∈ R × R : x > y }.

3.1. Cartesian Products and Relations 45

Example 3.1.8

Let R = { (x, y) ∈ R × R : y = x − 1 } and let S = { (x, y) ∈ R × R : y = x2 }. Find S ◦ R

and R ◦ S.

Solution:

S ◦ R = { (x, y) : ( ∃z ∈ R )( (x, z) ∈ R and (z, y) ∈ S ) }

n  o
= (x, y) : ( ∃z ∈ R ) z = x − 1 and y = z 2
n  o
= (x, y) : ( ∃z ∈ R ) y = (x − 1)2

R ◦ S = { (x, y) : ( ∃z ∈ R )( (x, z) ∈ S and (z, y) ∈ R ) }

n  o
= (x, y) : ( ∃z ∈ R ) z = x2 and y = z − 1
n  o
= (x, y) : ( ∃z ∈ R ) y = x1 − 1

Theorem 3.1.3

Let A, B, C, and D be sets. Let R ⊆ A × B, S ⊆ B × C, and T ⊆ C × D. Then,

1. (R−1 )−1 = R.

2. T ◦ (S ◦ R) = (T ◦ S) ◦ R.

3. (S ◦ R)−1 = R−1 ◦ S −1 .

Proof:

Proof of part(2): Let a ∈ A and d ∈ D so that

h i
(a, d) ∈ T ◦ (S ◦ R) iff (∃c ∈ C) (a, c) ∈ S ◦ R and (c, d) ∈ T
h   i
iff (∃c ∈ C) (∃b ∈ B) (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ S and (c, d) ∈ T
h i
iff (∃c ∈ C)(∃b ∈ B) (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ S and (c, d) ∈ T
h  i
iff (∃b ∈ B) (a, b) ∈ R and (∃c ∈ C) (b, c) ∈ S and (c, d) ∈ T
h i
iff (∃b ∈ B) (a, b) ∈ R and (b, d) ∈ T ◦ S
iff (a, d) ∈ (T ◦ S) ◦ R.
46 Chapter 3. Relations

Proof of part (3): Let a ∈ A and c ∈ C so that

(c, a) ∈ (S ◦ R)−1 iff (a, c) ∈ S ◦ R

h i
iff (∃b ∈ B) (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ S
h i
iff (∃b ∈ B) (b, a) ∈ R−1 and (c, b) ∈ S −1
h i
iff (∃b ∈ B) (c, b) ∈ S −1 and (b, a) ∈ R−1
iff (c, a) ∈ R−1 ◦ S −1 .

Example 3.1.9

Let A = [2, 4] and B = (1, 3) ∪ {4}. Let R be the relation on A × R with xRy iff x ∈ A and
let S be the relation on R × B with xSy iff y ∈ B. Find R ∩ S and R ∪ S.

Solution:

By Theorem 3.1.2 part(2), R∩S = (A×R)∩(R×B) = (A∩R)×(R∩B) = A×B. Therefore,

R ∩ S = A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}. On the other hand, R ∪ S = {(a, b) ∈ R × R :
a ∈ A or b ∈ B}.

5 5
4 • • 4
3 ◦ ◦ 3 • •
2 2
1 ◦ ◦ 1 • •

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

R∩S R∪S

Exercise 3.1.1

Let A and B be two nonempty sets. Show that if A × B ⊆ B × C, then A ⊆ C.

Exercise 3.1.2

Let R ⊆ A × B and S ⊆ B × C be two relations. Show that Dom(S ◦ R) ⊆ Dom(R).

 3.2. Equivalence Relations 47

Section 3.2: Equivalence Relations

Definition 3.2.1

Let A be a set and R be a relation on A. Then R is called an equivalence relation if and

only if:

1. R is reflexive on A: (∀x ∈ A) xRx.

2. R is symmetric on A: (∀x, y ∈ A) if xRy, then yRx.
3. R is transitive on A: (∀x, y, z ∈ A) if xRy and yRz, then xRz.

Example 3.2.1

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R1 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)}, R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2)}, R3 = {(3, 4)},
R4 = {(1, 2), (2, 1)}, and R5 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}. Decide which relation is reflexive,
symmetric, transitive.

Solution:

R5 is reflexive. R4 , and R5 are symmetric. R1 , R2 , R3 , and R5 are transitive. Therefore, R5

is an equivalence relation on A.

Example 3.2.2

Let R = {(x, y) : xy > 0} be a relation on Z. Discuss whether R reflexive, symmetric,

transitive, and equivalence relation.

Solution:

Clearly, xRx for all x ∈ Z except for x = 0, thus R is not reflexive. If xRy, then xy > 0 or
yx > 0 which imples that yRx. Thus, R is symmetric. If xRy and yRz, then xy > 0 and
yz > 0. Considering the cases of y ∈ Z − {0}, we have

1. case 1: y > 0, then x > 0 and z > 0 which implies that xz > 0 and thus xRz.
2. case 1: y < 0, then x < 0 and z < 0 which implies that xz > 0 and thus xRz.

In either cases, R is transitive on Z. Note that R is not reflexive and thus it is not an
equivalence relation on Z.
48 Chapter 3. Relations

Example 3.2.3

Let R be the relation on Z given by xRy iff x − y is even. Show that R is an equivalence
relation on Z.

Solution:

Reflexive: Since x − x = 0 is even, xRx for all x ∈ Z. Thus, R is reflexive.

Symmetric: Assume that xRy, then there is k ∈ Z such that x − y = 2k. Thus, y − x = 2(−k)
which implies that yRx. Thus, R is symmetric.
Transitive: Let xRy and yRz. Then, there are h, k ∈ Z such that x − y = 2h and y − z = 2k.
Adding these two equations, we get x − z = 2(h + k) which is even. Therefore, xRz and R
is transitive.
Therefore, R is an equivalence relation on Z.

Definition 3.2.2

Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. For x ∈ A, define the equivalence class of x

determined by R as
x/R = {y ∈ A : xRy},

which reads ”the class of x modulo R” or ”x mod R. The set of all equivalence classes is
called A modulo R and is defined by

A/R = {x/R : x ∈ A}.

Example 3.2.4

Let R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)} be an equivalence relation on A = {1, 2, 3}. Find:

• 1/R = {1, 2}.

• 2/R = {1, 2}.
• 3/R = {3}.
• A/R = {{1, 2}, {3}}.
3.2. Equivalence Relations 49

Example 3.2.5

Let R be a relation on N so that xRy ⇔ 2 | x + y. Show that R is an equivalence relation

on N. Calculate all the equivalence classes of R.

Solution:

reflexive: Since x + x = 2x, 2 | x + x and thus xRx. So, R is reflexive.

symmetric: if xRy, then 2 | x + y. Thus, 2 | y + x as well and yRx. Therefore, R is
symmetric.
transitive: Assume that xRy and yRz. Then 2 | x + y and 2 | y + z. Thus, 2 | x + z + 2y.
But because 2 | 2y, we have 2 | x + z. Thus, xRz and R is transitive.
Therefore, R is an equivalence relation on N.
For x ∈ N, x/R = {y ∈ N : 2 | x + y}. Thus,

1 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, · · · } = 3 = 5 = · · · , and 2 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, · · · } = 2 = 4 = · · · .

Therefore, N = 1 ∪ 2.

Theorem 3.2.1

Let R be an equivalence relation on a nonempty set A. For all x, y ∈ A,

1. x/R ⊆ A and x ∈ x/R =

6 φ.
2. x R y iff. x/R = y/R.
3. xRy iff. x/R ∩ y/R = φ.

Proof:

1. Clearly, x/R ⊆ A by the definition. SinceR is reflexive, x R x and hence x ∈ x/R.

2. ” ⇒ ”: Suppose x R y. Then y R x (since R is symmetric). To show that x/R = y/R,
we first show that x/R ⊆ y/R: Let z ∈ x/R ⇒ x R z and y R x. Hence, y R z. Hence,
x/R ⊆ y/R. The proof of y/R ⊆ x/R is similar.
” ⇐ ”: Suppose x/R = y/R. Then x ∈ x/R = y/R. That is x R y.
3. ” ⇒ ”: Suppose xRy. We proof by contradiction: Assume that there is z ∈ x/R ∩ y/R.
Then, z ∈ x/R and z ∈ y/R and hence x R z and z R y. Thus, x R y, contradiction.
” ⇐ ”: Suppose x/R ∩ y/R = φ. Then, x ∈ x/R. Thus, x 6∈ y/R and hence xRy.
50 Chapter 3. Relations

Definition 3.2.3

Let m 6= 0 be a fixed integer. Then ”≡m ” denotes the relation on Z and is defined by
 
x≡y mod m or x ≡m y ⇔ m | x − y,

which reads ”x is congruent to y modulo m”. That is x = {y ∈ Z : x ≡m y ⇔ m | x − y},

and the set of equivalence classes for ≡m is Z mod m (denoted Zm ) and is defined by

Zm = {0, 1, 2, · · · , m − 1}.

Example 3.2.6

Find all the equivalence classes of Z3 .

Solution:

Note that Z3 = {0, 1, 2}, where x = {y ∈ Z : x ≡ y mod 3 or 3 | x − y}. Therefore,

• 0 = 0/ ≡3 = {· · · , −9, −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, · · · },

• 1 = 1/ ≡3 = {· · · , −8, −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, 10, · · · },
• 2 = 2/ ≡3 = {· · · , −7, −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, 11, · · · },

Therefore, Z3 = {0, 1, 2}.

Theorem 3.2.2

Let m 6= 0 be a fixed integer. The relation ≡m is an equivalence relation on Z. Moreover, Zm

has m distinct elements: Zm = {0, 1, · · · , m − 1}.

Proof:

We only show that ≡m is an equivalence relation. reflexive: Since x − x = 0 which is divisible

by m, x ≡m x. Thus ≡m is reflexive.
symmetric: Assume that x ≡m y, then m | x − y which implies that m | y − x. Thus, y ≡m x
and ≡m is symmetric.
transitive: Assume that x ≡m y and y ≡m z, then m | x − y and m | y − z. Thus, m |
(x − y) + (y − z) which implies m | x − z. Therefore, x ≡m z and ≡m is transitive. That
shows that ≡m is an equivalence relation on Z.
3.2. Equivalence Relations 51

Exercise 3.2.1

Let m 6= 0. For x, y ∈ Z: Show that x ≡m y if and only if x = y.

Exercise 3.2.2

Let R be a relation on the set A. Prove that R ∪ R−1 is symmetric.

Exercise 3.2.3

Let R be a relation on N so that xRy iff 3 | x + y. Determine whether R an equivalence

relation. Explain.

Exercise 3.2.4

Let R be a relation on N so that xRy iff 3 | x + 2y. Show that R is an equivalence relation
on N. Find the equivalence class of 1.

Exercise 3.2.5

Let R be a relation on R so that x R y iff x = y or xy = 1. Show that R is an equivalence

relation on R. Find the equivalence classes for 2; 0; and − 15 .
 52 Chapter 3. Relations

Section 3.3: Partitions

Definition 3.3.1

Let A be a set and A be a family of subsets of A. A is called a partition of A if and only if:

1. if X ∈ A, then X 6= φ.

2. if X, Y ∈ A, then either X = Y or X ∩ Y = φ.
[
3. X = A.
X∈A

Example 3.3.1

1. The set of even natural numbers and odd natural numbers is a partition of N.

2. Let A0 = {0} and Ai = {−i, i} for all i ∈ N. Then A = {A0 , A1 , A2 , A3 , · · · } is a

partition of Z.

3. The set {0/ ≡3 , 1/ ≡3 , 2/ ≡3 } is a partition of Z.

4. The set {{ male students, female students }} is a partition for the set of all students in
Kuwait University.

5. The collection { Bi : i ∈ Z }, where Bi = [i, i + 1) is a partition of R.

Theorem 3.3.1

Let A 6= φ and let R be an equivalence relation on A. Then, the family A/R = {x/R : x ∈ A}
is a partition of A.

Proof:

Do it your self!
 3.4. Ordering Relations 53

Section 3.4: Ordering Relations

Definition 3.4.1

A relation R on a set A is called antisymmetric if for all x, y ∈ A, if xRy and yRx, then
x = y.

Definition 3.4.2

A relation R on a set A is called a partial order (or partial ordering) for A if R is reflexive,
antisymmetric, and transitive. In that case, A is called a partially ordered set or a poset.

Example 3.4.1

Show that ”⊆” is a partial order relation on P(A) for any set A.

Solution:

reflexive: if X ∈ P(A), then X ⊆ A and hence X ⊆ X and hence xRx.

antisymmetric: Let X, Y ∈ P(A) with XRY and Y RX. Then, X ⊆ Y and Y ⊆ X.
Therefore, X = Y and R is antisymmetric.
transitive: Assume that X, Y, Z ∈ P(A) with X ⊆ Y and Y ⊆ Z. Then X ⊆ Z and hence
XRZ.
Therefore, R is a partial order relation on P(A).

Example 3.4.2

Let R be a relation on N so that aRb ⇔ a | b for all a, b ∈ N. Show that R is a partial order
on N.

Solution:

reflexive: Since a = 1 · a for all a ∈ N, then a | a and aRa. Hence, R is reflexive.

antisymmetric: Assume that a | b and b | a. Then, there are h, k ∈ N such that b = ha
and a = kb. Thus, b = ha = h(kb) = (hk)b. Then, hk = 1 which implies that h = k = 1.
Therefore, a = b and R is antisymmetric.
transitive: Assume that a | b and b | c. Then, Theorem 1.4.1 implies that a | c. Thus, aRc
54 Chapter 3. Relations

and R is transitive. Therefore, R is a partial order on N.

Example 3.4.3

Let R be a relation on N so that aRb iff 2 | a + b with a ≤ b for all a, b ∈ N. Show that N is
a poset with respect to R.

Solution:

reflexive: Since 2 | a + a = 2a with a ≤ a, aRa and R is reflexive.

antisymmetric: Assume that aRb and bRa. Then, 2 | a + b with a ≤ b and 2 | b + a with
b ≤ a. Thus, a ≤ b ≤ a which implies that a = b. Thus, R is antisymmetric.
transitive: Assume that aRb and bRc. Then, 2 | a + b with a ≤ b and 2 | b + c with b ≤ c.
Therefore, by Theorem 1.4.1, 2 | a + 2b + c which implies that 2 | a + c with a ≤ b ≤ c. Thus,
aRc and R is transitive. Therefore, N is a poset with respect to R.

3.4.1 Upper and Lower Bounds

Definition 3.4.3

Let R be a partial order for A and let B be any subset of A. Then,

• a ∈ A is an upper bound for B if for every b ∈ B, bRa. Also, a is called a ”least

upper bound” or ”supremum for B, denoted by sup(B), if:

1. a is an upper bound for B, and

2. aRx for every upper bound x for B.

• a ∈ A is a lower bound for B if for every b ∈ B, aRb. Also, a is called a ”greatest

upper bound” or ”infimum for B, denoted by inf(B), if:

1. a is a lower bound for B, and

2. xRa for every lower bound x for B.

Theorem 3.4.1

If R is a partial order for a set A and B ⊆ A, then if the least upper bound (or greatest lower
bound) for B exists, then it is unique.
3.4. Ordering Relations 55

Proof:

Assume that x and y are both least upper bound for B. Since x is an upper bound and y
is the least upper bound, thus yRx. Similarly, since y is an upper bound and x is the least
upper bound, thus xRy. Since R is antisymmetric, xRy and yRx, implies x = y.

Example 3.4.4

Let A = [0, 6) ⊂ R be a poset with respect to ”≤”, and let B = { 12 , 3, 5} and C = {1, 12 , 13 , · · · }
be two subsets of A. Find sup(B), inf(B), sup(C), and inf(C).

Solution:

sup(B): Note that 5, 5.1, 5.35, 5.9, and so on are all considered upper bounds for B since for
example b ≤ 5 for all b ∈ B. Then, sup(B) = 5 since 5 ≤ x for all upper bounds for B.
inf(B): 0, 12 , 14 , 45
1
and so on are all considered lower bounds for B since for example 1
4
≤ b for
1 1
all b ∈ B. Then, inf(B) = 2
since 2
≤ x for all lower bounds x for B.
sup(C): The set of upper bounds for C consists of {1, 2, 1.5, 3, 5, 5.5, · · · } while the sup(C) =
1.
inf(C): The set of upper bounds for C consists of {0} and the inf(C) = 0.
Note that, if A = (0, 6), then C would has no inf(C).

Example 3.4.5

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and consider P(A) with the partial ordering ”⊆”. Let B =
n o
{1, 2}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 6} . Find sup(B) and inf(B).

Solution:

Upper bound for B are like {1, 2, 3, 6}, {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}, {1, 2, 3, 5, 6}, and A it self. Therefore,
[
sup(B) = {1, 2, 3, 6} = X. On the other hand, φ, {1}, {2}, and {1, 2} are all lower
X∈B \
bounds for B while the inf(B) = {1, 2} = X.
X∈B
56 Chapter 3. Relations

Exercise 3.4.1

Let R be a relation on N so that xRy iff y = 2k x for some integer k ≥ 0. Show that N is a
poset with respect to R.
 Chapter

4 Functions

Section 4.1: Functions as Relations

Definition 4.1.1

A function f from A to B is a relation from A to B that satisfies

1. Dom(f ) = A,
2. if (x, y) ∈ f and (x, z) ∈ f , then y = z.

Moreover, if A = B, we say that f is a function on A.

Remark 4.1.1: Notations

A function (mapping) f from A to B is denoted by f : A → B. The domain of f is A and

the codomain of f is B.
If (x, y) ∈ f , then y = f (x) where we say that y is the image of x and that x is the preimage
of y. The range of f is a subset of B and is defined as

Rng(f ) = {y ∈ B : ∃x ∈ A with y = f (x)}.

Example 4.1.1

Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}. Let R1 = {(1, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, c)}, R2 =
{(1, a), (2, c), (3, b)}, and R3 = {(1, a), (2, c)} be three relations on A × B. Decide whether
R1 , R2 , and R3 a function.

Solution:

R1 is clearly not a function since (2, b) and (2, c) both are in R1 where b 6= c. R2 satisfies the
conditions of Definition 4.1.1 and so it is a function from A to B.
R3 is not a function from A to B; however, it is a function from {1, 2} to {a, c}.

57
58 Chapter 4. Functions

Example 4.1.2

Let S = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : x2 + y 2 = 1} be a relation on R. Is S a function? Explain.

Solution:

Note that for x = 0, we have y = −1 or y = 1 and so S is not a function. Another reason is

that for x = 5, y 2 = −24 6∈ R.

Example 4.1.3

Let f = {(x, y) ∈ Z × Z : y = x2 }. Determine whether f a function on Z.

Solution:

f : Z → Z is a function with Rng(f ) = {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, · · · }. That is f (x) = x2 is a function

from Z to Z.

? Constant Function: f : R → R such that f (x) = c (c is a constant) for all x ∈ R.

Example 4.1.4

Let f = { ( x, y ) ∈ R × R : y = 2x + 5 }. Show that f is a function from R to R.

Solution:

We first show that Dom(f ) = R. Clearly, Dom(f ) ⊆ R by the definition of f . Next, let
x ∈ R. Then there is y = 2x + 5 ∈ R and hence (x, y) ∈ f . That is x ∈ Dom(f ).
Now assume that (x, y), (x, z) ∈ f , we want to show that y = z. But since y = 2x + 5 and
z = 2x + 5, we have y = z. Therefore, f is a function from R to R.

Theorem 4.1.1

Two functions f and g are equal iff (i) Dom(f ) = Dom(g), and (ii) for all x ∈ Dom(f ),
f (x) = g(x).

Proof:

” ⇒ ”: Assume that f = g. Proof of (i): If x ∈ Dom(f ), then (x, y) ∈ f = g for some y and
hence x ∈ Dom(g). Thus, Dom(f ) ⊆ Dom(g). Similarly, if x ∈ Dom(g), then (x, y) ∈ g = f
4.1. Functions as Relations 59

for some y and hence x ∈ Dom(f ). Thus, Dom(g) ⊆ Dom(f ). Therefore, Dom(f ) = Dom(g).
Proof of (ii): Let x ∈ Dom(f ). Then for some y, (x, y) ∈ f = g. Thus, f (x) = y = g(x).
” ⇐ ”: Assume that Dom(f ) = Dom(g) and that for all x ∈ Dom(f ), f (x) = g(x). Suppose
that (x, y) ∈ f , then there is y such that y = f (x) and x ∈ Dom(f ) = Dom(g). Thus,
y = f (x) = g(x) which implies that (x, y) ∈ g and hence f ⊆ g. Now suppose that (x, y) ∈ g.
Then there is y such that y = g(x) = f (x) for x ∈ Dom(f ). Thus, y = f (x) and (x, y) ∈ f .
Hence g ⊆ f . Therefore, f = g.
 60 Chapter 4. Functions

Section 4.2: Constructions of Functions

Definition 4.2.1

Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two given functions. The composition function g ◦ f is

defined by g ◦ f : A → C where (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) for every x ∈ A. Note that f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f ,
while (f ◦ g) ◦ h = f ◦ (g ◦ h) for any three (appropriate) functions f , g, and h.

Example 4.2.1

Let f (x) = sin(x) and g(x) = 2x + 1 for x ∈ R. Find f ◦ g and g ◦ f .

Solution:

For any x ∈ R, we have

1. (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (2x + 1) = sin(2x + 1).

2. (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(sin(x)) = 2 sin(x) + 1.

Definition 4.2.2

Let f : A → B and let D ⊆ A. The ”restriction of f to D”, denoted by f |D , is a function

with domain D and is defined as

f |D = {(x, y) : (x, y) ∈ f and x ∈ D}.

In that case, we say that f is an extension of f |D .

Example 4.2.2

Let f : A → B be a function where A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {a, b, c}, and f =

{(1, a), (2, a), (3, b), (4, c)}. Find f |A , f |{1} , and f |{2,4} .

Solution:

Clearly, f |A = f , f |{1} = {(1, a)}, and f |{2,4} = {(2, a), (4, c)}.
4.2. Constructions of Functions 61

Remark 4.2.1

Let f : A → B and g : C → D be two functions. Then,

1. f ∩ g is a function with Dom(f ∩ g) = {x ∈ A ∩ C : f (x) = y = g(x) ∈ B ∩ D}.

2. If A ∩ C = φ, then f ∪ g is a function with domain A ∪ B.

Example 4.2.3

Let f = {(1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 2)} and g = {(1, 2), (3, 6), (5, −10)}. Find f ∩ g and f ∪ g and decide
whether either of those relation is a function.

Solution:

Clearly, f is a function from A = {1, 3, 4} to B = {2, 5} while g is a function from C = {1, 3, 5}

to D = {2, 6, −10}. So,

• f ∩ g = {(1, 2)} which is clearly a function from Dom(f ∩ g) = {1} to {2}.

• f ∪ g = {(1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 2), (3, 6), (5, −10)} which is not a function (by the definition)
since 3 maps to two different values, namely 5 and 6.
 62 Chapter 4. Functions

Section 4.3: Functions That are Onto; One-to-One Functions

Definition 4.3.1

A function f : A → B is onto (surjective mapping) B iff Rng(f ) = B. Also, f is called a

onto
surjection. In that case, we write f : A −−→ B.

Remark 4.3.1

Since Rng(f ) ⊆ B is always true, f is a surjection iff B ⊆ Rng(f ). Thus,

onto
f : A −−→ B ⇐⇒ (∀b ∈ B)(∃a ∈ A)(f (a) = b).

Example 4.3.1

Let f (x) = x + 2 and g(x) = x2 + 1 for all x ∈ R. Determine whether f and g are onto R.

Solution:

• f is onto: Let y ∈ R (in the range of f ), then there exists x ∈ R such that y = x + 2 or
x = y − 2. Thus, f (x) = f (y − 2) = (y − 2) + 2 = y. Thus, f is onto R.
√
• g is not onto: Let y ∈ R, then y = x2 + 1 so x = ± y − 1. So, y must be greater than
or equal to 1. If we choose y = 0, then x 6∈ R and hence g is not onto R.

Example 4.3.2

Let f : N × N → N be a function defined by f (m, n) = 2m−1 (2n − 1). Show that f is onto N.

Solution:

We show that N ⊆ Rng(f ). That is, for all s ∈ N, there exists (m, n) ∈ N × N such that
f (m, n) = s. We consider the following two cases of s.

(i) if s is even: s can be written as 2k t, where k ≥ 1 and t is odd. Since t is odd, t = 2n − 1

t+1
or n = 2
for some n ∈ N. Choosing m = k + 1, we have

f (m, n) = 2m−1 (2n − 1) = 2k t = s.

Thus, N ⊆ Rng(f ).
4.3. Functions That are Onto; One-to-One Functions 63

(ii) if s is odd: s = 2n−1 for some n ∈ N. Choosing m = 1, we have f (m, n) = 20 (2n−1) =

s. Thus, N ⊆ Rng(f ).

Therefore, f is onto N.

Theorem 4.3.1

Let A, B, and C be three sets. Then,

onto onto onto

1. If f : A −−→ B and g : B −−→ C, then g ◦ f : A −−→ C. That is, the composite of
surjective functions is a surjection.

onto
2. If f : A → B, g : B → C, and g ◦ f : A −−→ C, then g is onto C.

Proof:

1. We show that for every c ∈ C, c ∈ Rng(g ◦ f ). Since g is onto C, there exists b ∈ B

such that g(b) = c. but since f is onto B, there exists a ∈ A such that f (a) = b. Thus,
(g ◦ f )(a) = g(f (a)) = g(b) = c. Thus, c ∈ Rng(g ◦ f ).

2. We show that again C ⊆ Rng(g ◦ f ). Let c ∈ C. Since g ◦f is onto C, there exists a ∈ A

such that (g ◦ f )(a) = c. Let b = f (a) ∈ B. Then, (g ◦ f )(a) = g(f (a)) = g(b) = c.
Thus, there exists b ∈ B such that g(b) = c and hence g is onto.

Definition 4.3.2

A function f : A → B is said to be ”one-to-one” (injective mapping) iff (a1 , b) ∈ f

and (a2 , b) ∈ f imply that a1 = a2 . Also, f is called an injection. In that case, we write
1−1
f : A −−→ B.

Remark 4.3.2
1−1
A function f : A −−→ B is one-to-one if and only if

f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) ⇒ a1 = a2 or equivalently a1 6= a2 ⇒ f (a1 ) 6= f (a2 ).

64 Chapter 4. Functions

Example 4.3.3

Let f : R → R given by f (x) = 5x − 1. Show that f is one-to-one.

Solution:

Assume that f (a) = f (b), then 5a − 1 = 5b − 1 ⇒ 5a = 5b ⇒ a = b. Thus, f is 1-1.

Example 4.3.4

1
Determine whether f : R → R is one-to-one, where f (x) = .
x2 +1

Solution:

Assume that f (a) = f (b), then

1 1
= 2 ⇒ a2 + 1 = b2 + 1 ⇒ a2 = b2 ⇒ a = ±b.
a2 +1 b +1

Therefore, f is not 1-1. For instance, f (1) = f (−1) while 1 6= −1.

Example 4.3.5

Let f : N × N → N defined by f (m, n) = 2m−1 (2n − 1). Show that f is one-to-one.

Solution:

Assume that f (a, b) = f (x, y) for (a, b), (x, y) ∈ N × N. Then, 2a−1 (2b − 1) = 2x−1 (2y − 1).
Consider the following cases:

1. if a > x: 2a−1 (2b − 1) = 2x−1 (2y − 1) ⇒ 2a−x (2b − 1) = (2y − 1) which is impossible.
| {z } | {z }
even odd

2. if a < x: 2a−1 (2b − 1) = 2x−1 (2y − 1) ⇒ (2b − 1) = 2x−a (2y − 1) which is impossible.
| {z } | {z }
odd even

3. if a = x: 2a−1 (2b − 1) = 2x−1 (2y − 1) ⇒ (2b − 1) = (2y − 1) ⇒ b = y.

Thus, the only possible case is the third case which suggests that (a, b) = (x, y). Therefore,
f is 1-1.
4.3. Functions That are Onto; One-to-One Functions 65

Theorem 4.3.2

Let A, B, and C be three sets. Then,

1−1 1−1 1−1

1. If f : A −−→ B and g : B −−→ C, then g ◦ f : A −−→ C.

1−1 1−1
2. If f : A → B and g : B → C, and g ◦ f : A −−→ C, then f : A −−→ B.

Proof:

1. Assume that (g ◦ f )(x) = (g ◦ f )(y) for some x, y ∈ A. Then, g(f (x)) = g(f (y)). Since,
g is 1-1, f (x) = f (y), and since f is 1-1 as well, x = y. Therefore, g ◦ f is 1-1.

2. Assume that f (x) = f (y) for x, y ∈ A. Then g(f (x)) = g(f (y)) implies that (g ◦f )(x) =
(g ◦ f )(y). Since g ◦ f is 1-1, x = y. Thus, f is 1-1.

Remark 4.3.3

Horizontal Line Test: Let f : A → B be a given function. Then,

1. f is onto B iff for all b ∈ B, the horizontal line y = b intersects the graph of f at least
once.

2. f is one-to-one iff for all b ∈ B, the horizontal line y = b intersects the graph of f at
most once.

Example 4.3.6

Let f : R → R and g : R → R be two function. Use the Horizontal line test to decide whether
f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x3 are onto, one-to-one, or neither.

Solution:

We apply the horizontal line test on both f and g. In f , we see that on one place the line
crosses the curve in two points, so f is not one-to-one, and it does not cross the curve in
another place so it is not onto. However, in g, the line crosses the curve exactly once in any
place, so it is one-to-one and onto.
66 Chapter 4. Functions

f (x) = x2 g(x) = x3

f is not 1-1
• • •

•
f is not onto

f is neither onto nor 1-1 g is onto and 1-1

Definition 4.3.3

Let f : A → B be a function. If the inverse relation f −1 of f is a function, then we say

that f −1 is the inverse function of f . In particular, if f −1 is a function, then f −1 : B → A
is defined by
f −1 = {(y, x) : (x, y) ∈ f }.

Example 4.3.7

Let f = {(1, 2), (4, 2)} be a function. Decide whether f −1 is a function.

Solution:

No. Since f −1 = {(2, 1), (2, 4)} where 2 is mapped to two distinct elements.

Theorem 4.3.3

Let f : A → B and g : B → A. Then, g = f −1 iff f ◦ g = IB and g ◦ f = IA , where IA : A → A

is the identity function defined by IA (x) = x for all x ∈ A.

Example 4.3.8

x−1
Let f (x) = 2x + 1 and let g(x) = . Show that g = f −1 .
2

Solution:
4.3. Functions That are Onto; One-to-One Functions 67

For all x ∈ R, (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f ( x−1

2
) = 2 x−1
2
+ 1 = x − 1 + 1 = x = IR . Therefore,
g = f −1 .

Theorem 4.3.4

Let f : A → B be a function. Then,

1. f −1 is a function from Rng(f ) to A iff f is one-to-one.

2. If f −1 is a function, then f −1 is one-to-one.

Proof:

1. ” ⇒ ”: Assume that f −1 is a function. Let f (x) = f (y) = z, then (x, z), (y, z) ∈ f .
Thus, (z, x), (z, y) ∈ f −1 . Since f −1 is a function, x = y. Therefore, f is 1-1.
” ⇐ ”: Assume that f is 1-1. Let (x, y), (x, z) ∈ f −1 (we need to show that y = z).
Then, (y, x), (z, x) ∈ f . Since f is 1-1, y = z. Thus, f −1 is a function. By Definition
3.1.6, Dom(f −1 ) = Rng(f ) and Rng(f −1 ) = Dom(f ).
2. Assume that f −1 is a function. Let f −1 (x) = f −1 (y) = z, then (x, z), (y, z) ∈ f −1 .
Thus, (z, x), (z, y) ∈ f and since f is a function, x = y. Therefore, f −1 is 1-1.

Definition 4.3.4

A function f : A → B is called a 1-1 corresponding or a bijection if it is both 1-1 and

1−1
onto B. In that case, we write f : A −−→ B.
onto

Theorem 4.3.5

1−1 1−1
Let f : A −−→ B and g : B −−→ C. Then,
onto onto
1−1
1. g ◦ f : A −−→ C is a bijection.
onto

1−1
2. f −1 : B −−→ A is a bijection.
onto

Proof:
1. By Theorem 4.3.1 and Theorem 4.3.2, if f and g are one-to-one and onto, the composite
function g ◦ f is also one-to-one and onto.

2. By Theorem 4.3.4, if f is one-to-one, then f −1 is a function and hence it is a one-to-one

68 Chapter 4. Functions

function. To show that f −1 is onto A, let a ∈ A. Then, f (a) = b ∈ B. Thus, (a, b) ∈ f

and hence (b, a) ∈ f −1 and therefore f −1 (b) = a.
 4.4. Images of Sets 69

Section 4.4: Images of Sets

Definition 4.4.1

Let f : A → B. If X ⊆ A, the image of X or image set of X is

f (X) = {y ∈ B : y = f (x) for some x ∈ X}.

If Y ⊆ B, then the inverse image of Y is

f −1 (Y ) = {x ∈ A : f (x) = y for some y ∈ Y }.

A B
f −1

f −1 (Y ) Y

X f (X)
f

Example 4.4.1

Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = 2x + 2. Find f ({1, 4}), f ([1, 2]), f (N), f −1 ({2, 3}), and
f −1 ([2, 4]).

Solution:

f (x) = 2x + 2
• f ({1, 4}) = {4, 10}.
6
• f ([1, 2]) = [4, 6]. 5
4
3
• f (N) = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12, · · · }.
2
1
• f −1 ({2, 3}) = {0, 21 }.
1 2 3 4

• f −1 ([2, 4]) = [0, 1].

f ([1, 2])
70 Chapter 4. Functions

Example 4.4.2

Let f (x) = x2 be a function from R to R. Find f ([1, 2]), f ([0, 1]), f ({2}), f ([−2, −1] ∪ [1, 2]),
and f −1 ([1, 4]).

Solution:

f (x) = x2

• f ([1, 2]) = [1, 4].

6
• f ([0, 1]) = [0, 1]. 5
4
• f ({2}) = f ({2, −2}) = {4}. 3
2

• f ([−2, −1] ∪ [1, 2]) = [1, 4]. 1

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
• f ([1, 4]) = [−2, −1] ∪ [1, 2].

f ([−2, −1] ∪ [1, 2]) and f −1 ([1, 4])

Example 4.4.3

Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = x2 . If X = [−2, −1] and Y = [1, 2], find f (X ∩ Y ),

f (X) ∩ f (Y ), f (X ∪ Y ), and f (X) ∪ f (Y ).

Solution:

Note that X ∩ Y = φ. Thus, f (X ∩ Y ) = φ. However, f (X) = [1, 4] = f (Y ) and thus

f (X) ∩ f (Y ) = [1, 4]. Therefore, f (X ∩ Y ) 6= f (X) ∩ f (Y ).
On the other hand, f (X ∪ Y ) = [1, 4] = f (X) ∪ f (Y ).

Theorem 4.4.1
n o n o
Let f : A → B and let Xi : i ∈ I ⊆ A and Yi : i ∈ I ⊆ B. Then,
!
\ \
1. f Xi ⊆ f (Xi ).
i∈I i∈I
!
[ [
2. f Xi = f (Xi ).
i∈I i∈I
4.4. Images of Sets 71

!
−1
f −1 (Yi ).
\ \
3. f Yi =
i∈I i∈I
!
−1
f −1 (Yi ).
[ [
4. f Yi =
i∈I i∈I

Proof:
!
\ \
Proof of (1): Let b ∈ f Xi , then b = f (a) for some a ∈ Xi . Thus, a ∈ Xi for every
i∈I i∈I \
i ∈ I so that b = f (a). Hence, for every i ∈ I, b ∈ f (Xi ). Therefore, b ∈ f (Xi ).
i∈I
Proof of (2):
!
[ [
Let b ∈ f Xi ⇔ b = f (a) for some a ∈ Xi
i∈I i∈I
⇔ b = f (a) for some a ∈ Xi for some i ∈ I

⇔ b ∈ f (Xi ) for some i ∈ I

[
⇔ b∈ f (Xi ) .
i∈I

Proof of (3):
!
−1
a = f −1 (b) for some b ∈
\ \
Let a ∈ f Yi ⇔ Yi
i∈I i∈I
⇔ a = f −1 (b) for some b ∈ Yi for every i ∈ I

⇔ a ∈ f −1 (Yi ) for every i ∈ I

f −1 (Yi ) .
\
⇔ a∈
i∈I

Example 4.4.4

Let f : N × N → N be defined by f (m, n) = 2m−1 (2n − 1), and let Y = {3, 10}. Find the
inverse image of Y .

Solution:

By Theorem 4.4.1, f −1 (Y ) = f −1 ({3} ∪ {10}) = f −1 ({3}) ∪ f ({10}). Then,

• f −1 ({3}) = (m, n) such that 3 = f (m, n) = 2m−1 (2n − 1). Since 2 - 3, 2m−1 = 1.
Then m − 1 = 0 or m = 1. In that case, 3 = 2n − 1 and hence n = 2. Therefore,
f −1 ({3}) = (m, n) = (1, 2).
72 Chapter 4. Functions

• f −1 ({10}) = (m, n) such that 10 = f (m, n) = 2m−1 (2n − 1). After factoring 10, we get
10 = 21 · 5. Thus, 2 | 10 and hence 2m−1 = 21 . Then, m − 1 = 1 and so m = 2. As a
result of that, 10 = 22−1 (2n − 1). Thus, 10 = 2(2n − 1) which implies n = 3. Therefore,
f −1 ({10}) = (2, 3).

Therefore, f −1 ({3, 10}) = {(1, 2), (2, 3)}.

Example 4.4.5

Let f : A → B and let X, Y ⊆ A. Show that f is 1-1 if and only if f (X) ∩ f (Y ) = f (X ∩ Y ).

Solution:

” ⇒ ”: Assume that f is 1-1. By Theorem 4.4.1, we have f (X ∩ Y ) ⊆ f (X) ∩ f (Y ). So, we

only show that f (X) ∩ f (Y ) ⊆ f (X ∩ Y ). Assume that b ∈ f (X) ∩ f (Y ), then b ∈ f (X) and
b ∈ f (Y ). Thus, b = f (a1 ) for some a1 ∈ X and b = f (a2 ) for some a2 ∈ Y . Since f is 1-1,
b = f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) implies a1 = a2 =: a. Thus, b = f (a) for some a ∈ X ∩ Y . Therefore,
b ∈ f (X ∩ Y ) and hence f (X) ∩ f (Y ) ⊆ f (X ∩ Y ). Thereforem f (X) ∩ f (Y ) = f (X ∩ Y ).
” ⇐ ”: Let x, y ∈ A with x 6= y. Then, {x} ∩ {y} = φ. Thus, f ({x} ∩ {y}) = φ which implies
that f ({x}) ∩ f ({y}) = φ.
That is, {f (x)} ∩ {f (y)} = φ and hence f (x) 6= f (y). Therefore, f is 1-1.

Example 4.4.6

1−1
Let f : A −−→ B. Prove that if X ⊆ A, then f (A − X) = f (A) − f (X).

Solution:

” ⊆ ”: Let y ∈ f (A − X), then there exists x ∈ A − X such that y = f (x). That is, x ∈ A and
x∈
/ X. Thus, f (x) ∈ f (A) and f (x) ∈
/ f (X) (since f is 1-1). Therefore, f (x) ∈ f (A) − f (X)
and hence y ∈ f (A) − f (X).
” ⊇ ”: Let y ∈ f (A) − f (X). Then, y ∈ f (A) and y ∈
/ f (X). Thus, there exists x ∈ A such
that y = f (x) and x ∈
/ X (since if x ∈ X, then f (x) ∈ f (X) which is not the case). Thus,
x ∈ A − X and thus f (x) ∈ f (A − X) which implies y ∈ f (A − X).
4.4. Images of Sets 73

Exercise 4.4.1

Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = x2 . Find f ({ −2, 2 }); f ( [1, 2] ); f ( [−1, 2] ); and

f −1 ( { 4, 16 } ).

Exercise 4.4.2

Let f : A → B be a function and let Y ⊆ B. Show that f (f −1 (Y )) ⊆ Y . If moreover f is

onto B, then f (f −1 (Y )) = Y .