Introduction to Soil Testing

Introduction to Soils:

To design a good sampling plan for soil and water testing, one needs to consider the basic
facts related to soil formation and water cycling. For both soil and water, we are dealing
with complex systems, where biological, chemical and physical factors all interact. Also,
soil and water are interconnected, and farming practices affect both soil and water
quality. A brief explanation of some of these basic factors related to soils will be covered
in this section.

Soil Formation and Conservation

The process of soil formation has been going on since the surface of the earth cooled. The
factors that determine what the soil looks like now include; 1) parent material (the rock
from which it formed), 2) time (is this a "young" soil or an "old" soil), 3) climate, 4)
topography, and 5) biological processes.

The parent material, or rock, will often determine the basic chemistry of the soil. Soils
formed from limestone for example, will have a native, or natural pH that is higher than
soil formed from other materials. If one looks at a soil profile, or cross section, you will
find the parent material, or rock in the lower layers. In Kansas, most of our soils have
been formed from limestone, shale, or sandstone. Some soils have been formed from an
original soil that was formed in another region, and then moved. Soil deposited by water,
for example a river, are called alluvium. Wind deposited soils, common in parts of the
great plains, are called loess.

The time that a soil has had to form will often affect the amount of layering, or
differentiation from the top of the profile to the bottom. An older soil will have a
"topsoil" layer, that will be darker, and higher in organic matter (from centuries of
contributed plant and animal matter), and the lower layers will be progressively lighter in
color, and generally lower in organic matter and nutrient content. An example of a
"young" soil would be an area where a river has recently deposited soil, or alluvium, to a
particular area. In parts of the world with active volcanoes, the volcanic ash layers will
begin to form soil layers, and then may be covered again by ash. In some of these areas,
one can find buried soil horizons. A soil that is nearly the same color throughout the
profile, especially when there is little change in the properties of the profile horizons is
probably a young soil.

Climate also affects soil formation. In hot climates, many of the minerals will be
oxidized, and the iron in the soil and clay will be a reddish color, rather than gray or
black. Organic matter will also decompose more rapidly in a hot climate, and within the
great plains region, the native soils in Minnesota will be darker, and much higher in
organic matter than those in Texas. Rainfall also affects soil formation. In areas of
extremely high annual rainfall, some minerals, and in some cases, organic matter will
have been leached from the topsoil to a lower layer. The pH may be lower on these soils,
due to the leaching of calcium from the topsoil. Areas of low rainfall, especially where
annual rainfall is less than the annual evaporation, will accumulate minerals, including
calcium and other salts on the surface.

Topography often affects how much erosion has taken place. Soils on top of hills or on
steep side slopes tend to be thinner, or more eroded than those on the slopes, and at the
bottom or "toe" of a slope, one can find zones of soil accumulation. Management, along
with topography will also affect how much erosion has, and is continuing to take place.
The thinner, or more eroded soils will often be lower in organic matter, since they have
lost their topsoil layer. The clays in the subsoil layers are then on the top. A field that is
"patchy" in color will probably have had some erosion historically.

Biological processes that affect soil have historically been determined by the native or
natural vegetation. Soils that form under forests are very different than those that have
formed in grassland regions. Much of the soil in the great plains was formed when the
region was covered by prairie grasses. This soil is very fertile, and rich in organic matter
compared to soils of other regions. The deep grass roots added organic matter to a depth
of several feet in some cases, leading to the formation of the rich, dark soils that have
made Kansas the "breadbasket" of the world. Tillage, and planting of annual crops on
these soils has halted this addition of organic matter, but reduced tillage and adding
perennial crops into the rotation can help maintain the organic matter that is left.

The nutrient content of soil now will be a combination of; 1) the starting natural fertility
of the parent material (Kansas soils, for example, tend to be naturally high in potassium),
2) the subtraction of nutrients as a result of erosion and crop use since the land has been
tilled (generally for the past 100 years or so), and 3) additions of fertilizer sources such as
manures, composts, legumes, and mineral fertilizers. When designing a soil sampling
program, one needs to consider all of these factors. Knowing the soil type (from soil
survey maps), topography, and field histories (crops grown and fertility sources) will help
you design a plan to answer specific farm management questions

Soil tests for macronutrients, pH, organic matter and infiltration

Soil testing has been around as a science for almost 100 years, and is commonly used to
determine if nutrients are sufficient for crop growth and optimal yield. Macronutrients are
those required by the crop in the largest amounts. These are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)
and potassium (K). These tests are widely available through KSU, crop consultants, and
independent laboratories. Micronutrient tests are also available from many labs. These
are also required for crop growth, but in smaller amounts than the macronutrients. These
are usually only a problem in specific situations, for example on an unusual soil type. The
pH, or acidity of the soil is also important to measure, since the pH affects crop growth,
and has an influence on the availability of both macro and micronutrients. A pH near
neutral, or 6.0 to 7.0 is optimal for most crops, and also is the range in which most
nutrients are available.

Soil quality is a generalized term, that includes the soil nutrient status, but also considers
other factors such as how well the soil takes in water, holds onto water, and other factors
sometimes lumped under the term "tilth." Soil quality considers a combination of soil
biological, chemical, and physical properties. One of the most important aspects of soil
quality is the organic matter content of the soil. By measuring this factor in your soil, and
by repeatedly measuring it over a period of years, you can get an idea of whether your
soil quality is improving or degrading as a result of your cropping and soil amendment
practices.

The soil organic matter is not a uniform pool of material, but can be divided into the
readily available organic matter, the slowly available, and the non-available pools. These
three together make up the total organic matter measured in most soil tests. However, it is
the readily available organic matter that is most important for promoting nutrient cycling,
and for creating what are known as "water stable aggregates" in your soil, which help the
soil take in water. Lab tests are known for this readily available pool, sometimes called
the particulate organic matter, but are not commercially available yet. Also, a water stable
aggregate test is sometimes performed in research labs, but is also not commercialized. A
“quick test” can be done on your soil however, to see if your soil takes in water, and this
will help you to know if your soil has water stable aggregates.

Soil tests recommended in this handbook as “quick tests” include: pH, and the
macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. These tests will help to quantify the
fertility of your soil, and if the tests show extremely high levels of nitrogen or
phosphorus, you will also know that run-off from your field may be contributing to water
quality problems. Also included in this handbook is a generalized test for organic matter.
None of the “quick tests” are as accurate as laboratory tests, so if you would like to know
in more detail about any of these factors in your soil, we suggest submitting soil samples
to a professional lab for verification, and for more accurate readings.

Two soil quality tests are also included, to help you evaluate how well your soil is taking
in water. A 6-inch diameter section of pipe, when pounded into the ground, can serve as
an infiltrometer for field readings. Water is poured into the infiltrometer, and a stop-
watch is used to record the amount of time it takes for one inch of water to soak into the
ground in a specific spot.
Figure 1. Illustration of an Infiltrometer.

The second test is also an infiltration reading, but will serve primarily as an indicator of
whether there are water stable aggregates in the surface of your soil. A representative
sample of soil (see sampling section for details) is collected, and a small scoop (either 1/8
cup or ¼ cup) of soil is placed on a filter paper in a suspended cone or funnel. Then a
scoop (same size as first scoop) of distilled water is poured onto the surface, and the stop
watch is used to record the time until the water disappears. With the same soil sample, a
second scoop of water is added, and again the time is recorded. In soils with good
structure, or water stable aggregates, you will see that the appearance of the surface of the
soil doesn't change much, and the soil aggregates, which are about the size of large sand
particles, stay in place, and the water drains quickly, usually about 30 seconds for the first
scoop, and one or two minutes for the second scoop of water. A soil without water stable
aggregates may take in the first scoop of water quickly, especially if the soil is dry. When
the second scoop is added, you will see the surface of the soil seal over, as the aggregates
break up, and clay particles wash down and plug the channels used for drainage. The
surface of this soil will become smooth. The water will take five minutes or more to drain
in soil without good structure, provided by water stable aggregates. The surface
characteristics of the soil, current soil moisture condition, and sub-surface compaction all
influence this reading, but both infiltration tests together give you an indication of what
may happen during your next rainfall, and whether it will soak in, or run off.

The implications of these infiltration tests on water quality on your farm may not be
obvious at first, but what it means is that when you get rainfall on fields with good
infiltration, you will have less run-off, less soil erosion, and also fewer nutrients will run
off your field into ponds, rivers and streams. It also means that you will have more water
going into the rooting zone for your crops, and the soil will hold on to the nutrients that
you need to have there for good crop growth.
How to sample the soils on your farm:

The most important thing about collecting a soil sample is that it should be representative
of the area that you are interested in, a field for example. It should also help you answer a
specific question. One question might be: "is this soil deficient in any nutrients that
would limit my crop growth?" Another question might be: "is this soil high enough in
some nutrients, for example nitrogen, or phosphorus, from previous applications of
fertilizers or manure, that I don't need to apply any more of this nutrient this year?"

The answer to these questions will help you save money. First of all, you may save
money if you find out that you don't need to apply a particular nutrient for this cropping
year. If you rotate with legumes, you may find that the legume fixed, or left enough
residual nitrogen for at least one, if not two or three cropping seasons. You may also
make more profit if you find out that your nutrient levels are too low to grow an optimal
crop, then you can plan for nutrient additions for that specific field.

Another question, that will relate to water quality on your farm, is: "are there excess
nutrients on this field, that may wash off into a nearby stream or other water source?" If
nutrient levels are in excess, they may be gradually lowered by cropping, and removing
some of the nutrients in the crop as grain, hay, or silage. You may also want to plan a
buffer strip for this field, if it is near to, or drains into a stream, pond, or lake.

Sampling to get representative data starts with looking at your field maps. Find a map
with the field boundaries on it, and then compare it to the soil series map in your county
soil survey book. These may be obtained from your local NRCS office, if it isn't already
in your file. Also look at the topography of the field. Consider collecting a sample from
all of the various sub-field areas that may be different. In the map in figure 2, this field
has been divided into three distinct areas for sampling. There is an eroded hilltop, a slope
with a different soil type, and a low-lying area, where some soil from erosion has
accumulated over the years.

This field is identified as field #14 in the illustration. Collect 10 subsamples, or soil cores
from the hilltop, labeled as field 14A, and combine them in a bucket. Stir them together
well, and then pour the entire sample, or a representative amount of soil into a bag, and
label it as sample #14A. Then collect 10 subsamples or cores from the slope, combine
them, and label them as sample 14B. The low area of the field will be similarly sampled,
with the 10 subsamples combined, and labeled as 14C.
Figure 2. Example Field Map for Soil Sampling. (Note: the 10 subsample locations
are illustrated for field area 14 A, as an example, but not for the other field
sections).

The depth of sampling is also important. The highest nutrient content, and also organic
matter content, will be on the surface, and will decrease as you go deeper into the profile.
A good representative sample will be the top 12 inches. You may also sample only the
top 8 or 10 inches. Even though crop roots may go much deeper, this surface, or "plow
layer" sample is where the majority of the crop roots will be located, and where the crop
will get most of its nutrients.

The sample may be collected with a soil probe, which will collect a soil core, with equal
amounts of soil from each depth in the core. Samples may also be collected with a spade
or garden trowel. If these tools are used, just be sure to collect a vertical core with the
same volume of soil from the throughout the depth of the profile, and from each location.
If more is collected from the surface, your sample will give you an erroneously high
reading. If more is collected from the deeper sections, your sample will be in error on the
low side.

For research purposes, samples are often separated into two, three, or more layers and
sampled simultaneously. For example, a common sampling scheme is to separate the top
six inches (0-6), the layer from 6 to 12 inches, and a third layer from 12 to 24 inches. If
you choose to sample in this way, you will gather even more information about where the
nutrients are in the soil profile, and how much reserve is in the lower depths of your soil.
In this handbook, we recommend sampling the 0-6 inch layer and also the 6-12 inch layer
simultaneously, as shown in figure 3. If this is too laborious, either sample just the 0-6
inch layer, or else the 0-12 inch layer.
Figure 3. Illustration of Depth of Soil Sampling.

Once samples are gathered, they should be analyzed as soon as possible, especially if
one is interested in the nitrogen content. If they can't be analyzed right away, either put
them in the refrigerator, or spread them out on newspapers where they can quickly air
dry. The phosphorus, potassium, and pH values will not change much, but nitrogen is
constantly being transformed from one form to another, and microbial activity may tie up
nitrogen, or in some cases, may release nitrogen from the organic matter. Either
refrigeration or drying will slow or stop the microbial activity, so that you can get an
accurate picture of the nitrogen content in your soil at this particular point in time. Keep
in mind that a month from now, the nitrogen content may be different in the field, so
sample for nitrogen close to the time you are planting the crop, or at the time of
maximum crop need for nitrogen, so that you will know whether more nitrogen is needed
for the crop. It is also a good idea to sample ahead of opportunities to apply manures,
compost, fertilizers or other nutrient sources.

You may also want to plan ahead for future soil sampling, to see if the nutrient levels are
going up or down over the next few cropping seasons. Crops will slowly deplete
nutrients, and fertilizer and manure additions will raise the nutrient levels. Some
fertilizers react with soil to lower the pH, so your pH levels may change over time as
well, especially on the surface of the soil. To create a time series of soil samples, plan to
collect samples at the same time of year each year. If your initial, or baseline samples
were collected in the spring, try to collect subsequent samples in the spring also. Keep
your soil series and soil sampling maps in a file, so you can sample the same
representative areas each time as well. It won't do you much good to compare sample
#14A from the first year, to a sample of the entire field #14 area the next year, so
compare sample #14A in one year to sample #14A from later years. Sample to the same
depth each time also. Keep your field history documents in the file with your soil
sampling maps, so that if nutrient levels do change, you'll know why.
Soil Tests -- General Instructions

This section will cover the details of how to run each of the recommended tests. To
become proficient at testing and interpretation, please read the entire handbook, since
important details about each test are contained in the “how to sample” and “how to
interpret” sections, in addition to this section on “how to run” the tests.

All of these tests may be run on fresh soil samples. However, the accuracy of the tests
depends on getting a representative subsample, often using a very small scoop, to run
each test. If the soil you have sampled is dry and crumbly, or dry and can be crushed to a
fine dust, you may proceed without further processing. If the soil is moist, but still
crumbly, you may also proceed, but use care to get an accurate and representative
subsample in each scoop. If the soil is dry and cloddy, or very wet, you may need to do
the following steps. First, air dry the sample until completely dry. Then crush the sample,
using either a hammer on a hard surface, mortar and pestle, or other method. Finally,
sieve the sample through a coarse screen, so that you have a representative, but finely
ground sample to work with.

Other general guidelines to note:

1) Keep all reagents, tablets, etc. out of reach of children. Avoid contact with skin, eyes,
and wash hands before and after conducting tests.

2) Do not pour reagents back into the bottle once they have been removed. If excess is
poured, discard it, don't return it to the bottle. Do not touch the tablets or powders with
your hands, but dispense the tablet into the cap, and then into the test tube.

3) Used up reagents may be disposed of into a sanitary sewer or septic system. Do not
discard on the ground, storm drain, lake, pond, river or stream. Pour down the sink and
flush with water.

4) Tighten all caps immediately after use. Do not interchange caps.

5) Keep all test kit components at room temperature. Avoid exposure to direct sunlight or
freezing temperatures.

6) After using the test tubes, rinse well with running water, and clean with the test tube
brush provided. Drain and air-dry. Do not use detergents, as they may contain
phosphorus, which could interfere with future tests.

Reading the Color Charts

Most of the tests in this section, and many of the tests in the water testing section rely
upon matching a color from a reaction to a standardized color chart. If you know or
suspect that your ability to distinguish colors is limited, work with a partner or friend on
these tests. Other general tips for distinguishing colors are when matching a test color
with a color chart, stand with the light source behind the chart and hold the test tube
approximately one-half inch away from the color chart. If the color of a test reaction falls
between two standard colors on a color chart, the midpoint between the two standard
values is taken as the test result. For example, a pH test color reaction falling between the
standard colors for pH 4.0 and 5.0 represents a test result of 4.5. In the other tests, color
reactions may either match, fall between, or fall above or below the three standard colors
representing "low," "medium," and "high." Therefore, eight different test results are
possible; 1) none, 2) very low, 3) low, 4) medium low, 5) medium, 6) medium high, 7)
high, and 8) very high.