Aqueous Solutions

A solution is a homogenous mixture of 2 or more

substances

The solute is(are) the substance(s) present in the

smaller amount(s)

The solvent is the substance present in the larger

amount

Solution Solvent Solute

Soft drink (l) H2O Sugar, CO2
Air (g) N2 O2, Ar, CH4
Soft Solder (s) Pb Sn

4.1
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of a
solute that will dissolve in a given solvent at a specific
temperature.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the
solvent has the capacity to dissolve at a specific
temperature.
A supersaturated solution contains more solute than is
present in a saturated solution at a specific temperature.
Sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a seed crystal is
added to a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate.

13.1
Three types of interactions in the solution process:
• solvent-solvent interaction
• solute-solute interaction
• solvent-solute interaction

DHsoln = DH1 + DH2 + DH3 13.2

 “like dissolves like”

Two substances with similar intermolecular forces are likely

to be soluble in each other.

• non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar solvents

CCl4 in C6H6
• polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents
C2H5OH in H2O
• ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents
NaCl in H2O or NH3 (l)

13.2
An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in
water, results in a solution that can conduct electricity.
A nonelectrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved,
results in a solution that does not conduct electricity.

nonelectrolyte weak electrolyte strong electrolyte

4.1
 Conduct electricity in solution?

Cations (+) and Anions (-)

Strong Electrolyte – 100% dissociation

H 2O
NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Weak Electrolyte – not completely dissociated

CH3COOH CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

4.1
 Ionization of acetic acid

CH3COOH CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

A reversible reaction. The reaction can

occur in both directions.

Acetic acid is a weak electrolyte because its

ionization in water is incomplete.

4.1
Hydration is the process in which an ion is surrounded
by water molecules arranged in a specific manner.

d-

d+
H2O 4.1
Nonelectrolyte does not conduct electricity?

No cations (+) and anions (-) in solution

H 2O
C6H12O6 (s) C6H12O6 (aq)

4.1
 Precipitation Reactions
Precipitate – insoluble solid that separates from solution
precipitate

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

molecular equation

Pb2+ + 2NO3- + 2Na+ + 2I- PbI2 (s) + 2Na+ + 2NO3-

ionic equation

Pb2+ + 2I- PbI2 (s)

PbI2
net ionic equation
Na+ and NO3- are spectator ions
4.2
 Precipitation of Lead Iodide
Pb2+ + 2I- PbI2 (s)

PbI2

4.2
Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve
in a given quantity of solvent at a specific temperature.

4.2
 Writing Net Ionic Equations
1. Write the balanced molecular equation.
2. Write the ionic equation showing the strong electrolytes
completely dissociated into cations and anions.
3. Cancel the spectator ions on both sides of the ionic equation
4. Check that charges and number of atoms are balanced in the
net ionic equation

Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of silver

nitrate with sodium chloride.

AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Ag+ + NO3- + Na+ + Cl- AgCl (s) + Na+ + NO3-

Ag+ + Cl- AgCl (s) 4.2

 Sample on Ionic reactions

1. Barium chloride + sodium sulphate

2. Silver nitrate + sodium carbonate
3. Zinc nitrate + sodium hydroxide
4. ferric chloride + sodium hydroxide
5. copper (II) nitrate + sodium iodide
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
- The amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent or
solution

Molarity (M)
- The number of moles of solute per liter of solution

moles solute
Molarity 
volume of solution L 

- A solution of 1.00 M (read as 1.00 molar) contains 1.00 mole of

solute per liter of solution
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 2.56 g of
NaCl (MM= 58.44 g/mol) in enough water to make 2.00 L of solution

- Calculate moles of NaCl using grams and molar mass

- Convert volume of solution to liters
- Calculate molarity using moles and liters
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
After dissolving 1.56 g of NaOH (MM= 40 g/mol) in a certain
volume of water,
the resulting solution had a concentration of 1.60 M. Calculate the
volume of the resulting NaOH solution

- Convert grams NaOH to moles using molar mass

- Calculate volume (L) using moles and molarity
CONCENTRATION OF IONS

Consider

1.00 M NaCl: 1.00 M Na+ and 1.00 M Cl-

1.00 M ZnCl2: 1.00 M Zn2+ and 2.00 M Cl-

1.00 M Na2SO4: 2.00 Na+ and 1.00 M SO42-

 CONCENTRATION OF IONS

Calculate the number of moles of Na+ and SO42- ions in 1.50 L

of 0.0150 M Na2SO4 solution

0.0150 M Na2SO4 solution contains:

2 x 0.0150 M Na+ ions and 0.0150 M SO42- ions
 PERCENT COMPOSITION

mass of solute
Mass Percent (wt%)  x 100%
total mass of solution

- May also be represented by %(m/m)

mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent

 PERCENT COMPOSITION

A sugar solution is made by dissolving 5.8 g of sugar in

82.5 g of water. Calculate the percent by mass concentration
of sugar.

5.8 g
Mass Percent (wt%)  x 100%  6.6 %
(5.8 g + 82.5 g)
 PERCENT COMPOSITION

volume of solute
Volume Percent (vol%)  x 100%
total volume of solution

- May also be represented by %(v/v)

- Due to the way molecules are packed and differences in
distances between molecules (bond lengths), the volume
of the resulting solution is almost always less than the sum
of the volume of solute and the volume of solvent
 PERCENT COMPOSITION

Calculate the volume percent of solute if 345 mL of ethyl

alcohol is dissolved in enough water to produce 1257 mL
of solution

345 mL
Volume Percent (vol%)  x 100%  27.4 %
1257 mL
PARTS PER MILLION (PPM)

Percent can be defined as parts per hundred

mass of substance
ppm  x 10 6
mass of sample

1 ppm ≈ 1 µg/mL or 1 mg/L

 PARTS PER MILLION (PPM)
If 0.250 L of aqueous solution with a density of
1.00 g/mL contains 13.7 μg of pesticide, express
the concentration of pesticide in ppm

ppm = µg/mL
0.250 L = 250 mL
Density = 1.00 g/mL
Implies mass solution = 250 g

13.7 μg
ppm   0.0548 ppm
250 mL
PARTS PER BILLION (PPB)

mass of substance
ppb  x 10 9
mass of sample

1 ppb ≈ 1 ng/mL or 1 µg/L

 PARTS PER BILLION (PPB)
If 0.250 L of aqueous solution with a density of
1.00 g/mL contains 13.7 μg of pesticide, express
the concentration of pesticide in ppb

ppm = µg/L
Volume of solution = 0.250 L
Density = 1.00 g/mL
Implies mass solution = 250 g

13.7 μg
ppb   5.48 ppb
0.250 L
 DILUTION

- Consider a stock solution of concentration

M1 and volume V1

- If water is added to dilute to a new concentration

M2 and volume V2

- moles before dilution = moles after dilution

- Implies that M1V1 = M2V2

 DILUTION

Calculate the volume of 3.50 M HCl needed to prepare

500.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl
 MOLALITY (m)

Moles of solute per kg of solvent

Unit: m or molal

moles solute
m
kg solvent
 MOLALITY (m)

What is the molality of a solution that contains

2.50 g NaCl (MM=58.44 g/mol) in 100.0 g water?

- Calculate moles NaCl

- Convert g water to kg water
- Divide to get molality
 Analytical and Equilibrium
Concentrations
• They are not the same!
• Analytical Molarity, Cx = sum of all species
of the substance in solution
• Equilibrium Molarity, [X] = concentration
of a given dissolved form of the substance
 The units ppm or ppb are used to express trace concentrations.
These are weigh or volume based, rather than mole based.

©Gary Christian, Analytical Chemistry, 6th Ed. (Wiley)

 The equivalents (based on charge) of cations and anions are equal.

©Gary Christian, Analytical Chemistry, 6th Ed. (Wiley)

CONVERTING CONCENTRATION UNITS
Calculate the molarity of a 6.75 %(m/m)
solution of ethanol (C2H5OH, MM= 46.08 g/mol) in water
CONVERTING CONCENTRATION UNITS
- Molarity is temperature dependent
(changes with change in temperature)
- Volume increases with increase in temperature
hence molarity decreases

On the other hand

- Molality
- Mass percent
- Mole fraction
are temperature independent
Normality is the number of equivalent weights
(EW) per unit volume
•independent of speciation
An equivalent weight is defined as the
ratio of a chemical species’ formula weight (FW)
to the number of its equivalents

Consequently, the following simple relationship

exists between normality and
molarity.
N=nxM
 In normality calculations, the number of equivalents is the number of
moles times the number of reacting units per molecule or atom.

©Gary Christian, Analytical Chemistry, 6th Ed. (Wiley)

 Sample Problems for concentrations
and solutions

Calculate the analytical and equilibrium molar

concentrations of the solute species in an
aqueous solution that contains 285 mg of
trichloroacetic acid, Cl3CCOOH (163.4 g/mol), in
10.0 mL (the acid is 73% ionized in water).
 Sample Problems for concentrations
and solutions
Calculate the equivalent weight and normality
for a solution of 6.0 M H3PO4 given the following
reactions:

(a)H3PO4(aq) + 3OH–(aq)  PO43–(aq) + 3H2O(l)

(b) H3PO4(aq) + 2NH3(aq)  HPO4 2–(aq) + 2NH4+(aq)
(c) H3PO4(aq) + F–(aq)  H2PO4–(aq) + HF(aq)
 Sample Problems for concentrations
and solutions
Describe how you would prepare the following three
solutions:

(a) 500 mL of approximately 0.20 M NaOH using solid

NaOH;
(b) 1 L of 150.0 ppm Cu2+ using Cu metal;
(c) 2 L of 4% v/v acetic acid using concentrated glacial
acetic acid.
 Sample Problems for concentrations
and solutions
A laboratory procedure calls for 250 mL of an
approximately 0.10 M solution of NH3.
Describe how you would prepare this solution using a
stock solution of concentrated NH3 (14.8 M). (Ans.=1.7
mL)
 Sample Problems for concentrations
and solutions
Conversion of units:
1. A concentrated solution of aqueous ammonia is
28.0% w/w NH3 and has a density of 0.899 g/mL.
What is the molar concentration of NH3 in this
solution? (Ans: 14.8 M)

2. The maximum allowed concentration of chloride in a

municipal drinking water supply is 2.50 x 102 ppm
Cl–. When the supply of water exceeds this limit, it
often has a distinctive salty taste. What is this
concentration in moles Cl–/liter? (Ans.: 7.05 x 10-3)
 Sample Problems for concentrations
and solutions
Conversion of units:
3. What is the molarity of K+ in a solution that contains
63.3 ppm of K3Fe(CN)6 (329.3 g/mol)? (5.77 x 10-4)

4. Describe the preparation of 100 mL of 6.0 M HCl from

a concentrated solution that has a specific gravity of
1.18 and is 37% (w/w) HCl (36.5 g/mol). (50 mL)