INSTITUTE FOR ADVANCED COMPUTING AND

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT(IACSD),AKURDI

C Programming
PG-DAC Feb 2020
Table of Contents
Introduction to C ................................................................................................................................... 1
Control Statements............................................................................................................................... 9
Arrays ................................................................................................................................................... 12
Functions ............................................................................................................................................. 17
Pointers ............................................................................................................................................... 23
Structures.............................................................................................................................................. 28
Preprocessing in C............................................................................................................................... 33
File Handling ........................................................................................................................................ 36
C Programming

Chapter 1

Introduction to C

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C Programming

Introduction to C
C is a programming language developed at AT& T’s Bell Laboratories of USA in 1972. It was
designed and written by Dennis Ritchie. In the late seventies C began to replace the more
familiar languages of that time like PL/I, ALGOL, etc. ANSI C standard emerged in the early
1980s; this book was split into two titles: The original was still called Programming in C, and
the title that covered ANSI C was called Programming in ANSI C. This was done because it took
several years for the compiler vendors to release their ANSI C compilers and for them to
become ubiquitous. It was initially designed for programming UNIX operating system. Now
the software tool as well as the C compiler is written in C. Major parts of popular operating
systems like Windows, UNIX, Linux is still written in C. This is because even today when it
comes to performance (speed of execution) nothing beats C. Moreover, if one is to extend
the operating system to work with new devices one needs to write device driver programs.
These programs are exclusively written in C. C seems so popular is because it is reliable, simple
and easy to use. often heard today is – “C has been already superseded by languages like C++,
C# and Java.

Structure of C Program
  Comments if any
  Preprocessor directive
  Global variable declaration
  main function( )
  { Local variables; Statements; }
 User defined function

Comment line:
It indicates the purpose of the program. It is represented as /*……………………………..*/
Comment line is used for increasing the readability of the program. It is useful in explaining
the program and generally used for documentation.

Preprocessor Directive:
#include tells the compiler to include information about the standard input/output library. It
is also used in symbolic constant such as #define PI 3.14(value). The header file contains
definition &declaration of system defined function such as printf ( ), scanf ( ) etc.

Global Declaration:
This is the section where variable are declared globally so that it can be accessed by all the
functions used in the program. And it is generally declared outside the function main().
main( ) function:
Every source code has one main () function from where actually program is started and it is
enclosed within the pair of curly braces.

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Syntax: main() { …….. …….. …….. } .

Note that at the end of each line, the semi-colon is given which indicates statement
termination.
/*First c program*/
#include <stdio.h>
void main ( )
{
printf ("Welcome to IACSD.\n");
}
Output: Welcome to IACSD.

Character set
A character denotes any alphabet, digit or special symbol used to represent information.
Valid alphabets, numbers and special symbols allowed in C are

The alphabets, numbers and special symbols when properly combined form constants,
variables and keywords.

Identifiers
Identifiers are user defined word used to name of entities like variables, arrays, functions,
structures etc. Rules for naming identifiers are:
1) name should only consists of alphabets (both upper and lower case), digits and
underscore (_) sign.
2) first characters should be alphabet or underscore .
3) name should not be a keyword .
4) since C is a case sensitive, the upper case and lower case considered differently, for
example code, Code, CODE etc. are different identifiers.
5) identifiers are generally given in some meaningful name such as value, net_salary, age,
data etc. An identifier name may be long, some implementation recognizes only first eight
characters, most recognize 31 characters. ANSI standard compiler recognizes 31 characters.

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Keywords
There are certain words reserved for doing specific task, these words are known as reserved
word or keywords. These words are predefined and always written in lower case or small
letter. These keywords can’t be used as a variable name as it assigned with fixed meaning.
Some examples are int, short, signed, unsigned, default, volatile, float, long, double, break,
continue, typedef, static, do, for, union, return, while, do, extern, register, enum, case, goto,
struct, char, auto, const etc.

Data types
Data types refer to an extensive system used for declaring variables or functions of different
types before its use. The type of a variable determines how much space it occupies in storage
and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted. The value of a variable can be changed any
time. C has the following 4 types of data types
  Basic built-in /primitive data types: int, float, double, char
  Enumeration data type: enum
  Derived data type: pointer, array, structure, union
 Void data type: void

  Size qualifier: short, long

 Sign qualifier: signed, unsigned
The type int means that the variables listed are integers; by contrast with float, which means
floating point, i.e., numbers that may have a fractional part. The range of both intand float
depends on the machine you are using; 16-bits ints, which lie between -32768 and+32767,
are common, as are 32-bit ints. A float number is typically a 32-bit quantity, with at least six
significant digits and magnitude generally between about 10 -38 and 1038.

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Data Types in C
Type Typical Size in Bits Minimal Range

char 8 –127 to 127

unsigned char 8 0 to 255
signed char 8 –127 to 127
int 16 or 32 –32,767 to 32,767
unsigned int 16 or 32 0 to 65,535
signed int 16 or 32 Same as int
short int 16 -32,767 to 32,767
unsigned short int 16 0 to 65,535
signed short int 16 Same as short int
long int 32 –2,147,483,647 to 2,147,483,647
long long int 64 –(263 –1) to 263 –1 (Added by C99)
signed long int 32 Same as long int
unsigned long int 32 0 to 4,294,967,295
unsigned long long int 64 264 –1 (Added by C99)
1E–37 to 1E+37 with six digits of
float 32
precision
1E–37 to 1E+37 with ten digits of
double 64
precision
1E–37 to 1E+37 with ten digits of
long double 80
precision

Constants
Constant is a any value that cannot be changed during program execution. In C, any number,
single character, or character string is known as a constant. A constant is an entity that doesn’t
change whereas a variable is an entity that may change.

Variables
Variable is a data name which is used to store some data value or symbolic names for storing
program computations and results. The value of the variable can be change during the
execution.

Operators
This is a symbol use to perform some operation on variables, operands or with the constant.
Some operator required 2 operands to perform operation or some required single operation.
Several operators are

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1. Arithmetic Operator
This operator are used for numeric calculation. These are of either Unary arithmetic operator,
Binary arithmetic operator. Where Unary arithmetic operator required only one operand such
as +,-, ++, --,!, tiled. And these operators are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
Binary arithmetic operator on other hand required two operand and its operators are
+(addition), -(subtraction), *(multiplication), /(division), %(modulus).

2. Assignment Operator
A value can be stored in a variable with the use of assignment operator. The assignment
operator (=) is used in assignment statement and assignment expression. Operand on the left
hand side should be variable and the operand on the right hand side should be variable or
constant or any expression.

3. Increment and Decrement

The Unary operator ++, --, is used as increment and decrement which acts upon single
operand. Increment operator increases the value of variable by one .Similarly decrement
operator decrease the value of the variable by one. It again categories into prefix post fix . In
the prefix the value of the variable is incremented 1st, then the new value is used, where as
in postfix the operator is written after the operand (such as m++,m--).
Similarly in the postfix increment and decrement operator is used in the operation. And then
increment and decrement is perform.

4. Relational Operator
It is use to compared value of two expressions depending on their relation. Expression that
contain relational operator is called relational expression. Here the value is assign according
to true or false value. a.(a>=b) || (b>20) b.(b>a) && (e>b) c. 0(b!=7) 5.

5.Conditional Operator
It sometimes called as ternary operator. Since it required three expressions as operand and
it is represented as (? , :).
SYNTAX exp1 ?exp2 :exp3 Here exp1 is first evaluated. It is true then value return will be
exp2 .If false then exp3.
EXAMPLE
void main()
{int a=10, b=2,s; s=
(a>b) ?a:b;
printf(“value is:%d”);
}
Output: Value is:10

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6. Comma Operator
Comma operator is use to permit different expression to be appear in a situation where only
one expression would be used. All the expression are separator by comma and are evaluated
from left to right. EXAMPLE int i, j, k, l;

7. Sizeof Operator
Size of operator is a Unary operator, which gives size of operand in terms of byte that
occupied in the memory. It is also use to allocate size of memory dynamically during execution
of the program

8. Bitwise Operator
Bitwise operator permit programmer to access and manipulate of data at bit level. Various
bitwise operator enlisted are
  one's complement (~)
  bitwise AND (&)
  bitwise OR (|)
  bitwise XOR (^)
  left shift (<<)
 right shift (>>).

9. Logical or Boolean Operator
These operators are used with one or more operand and return either value zero (for false)
or nonzero (for true). The operand may be constant, variables or expressions. And the
expression that combines two or more expressions is termed as logical expression.
  && AND
  || OR
 ! NOT
Where logical NOT is a unary operator and other two are binary operator. Logical AND gives
result true if both the conditions are true, otherwise result is false. And logical OR gives result
false if both the condition false, otherwise result is true.

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Precedence and Associativity of C Operators

Symbol Type of Operation Associativity

[ ] ( ) . –> postfix ++ and postfix –– Expression Left to right

prefix ++ and prefix –– sizeof& * + – ~ ! Unary Right to left

Typecasts Unary Right to left

*/% Multiplicative Left to right

+– Additive Left to right

<<>> Bitwise shift Left to right

<><= >= Relational Left to right

== != Equality Left to right

& Bitwise-AND Left to right

^ Bitwise-exclusive-OR Left to right

| Bitwise-inclusive-OR Left to right

&& Logical-AND Left to right

|| Logical-OR Left to right

?: Conditional-expression Right to left

= *= /= %= Simple and compound Right to left

assignment
+= –= <<= >>=&=

^= |=

, Sequential evaluation Left to right

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Chapter 2

Control Statements

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Control Statement
Generally C program statement is executed in a order in which they appear in the program.
But sometimes we use decision making condition for execution of only a part of program, that
is called control statement. Control statement defines how the control is transferred from
one part to the other part of the program. There are several control statement like if...else,
switch, while, do....while, for loop, break, continue, goto etc.

if…..else ... Statement

it is conditional control statement that contains one condition. Condition may be true or
false, where non-zero value regarded as true& zero value regarded as false. If condition is
satisfy true, then a single or block of statement executed otherwise, if condition is false then
single or block of statement in else is executed. Its syntax is:-

if (condition)
{
Statement1;
Statement2;
}
else
{
Statement1;
Statement2;
}

Loops in C
Loop:-it is a block of statement that performs set of instructions. In loops repeating
particular portion of the program either a specified number of time oruntil a particular no of
condition is being satisfied.
There are three types of loops in c
1.while loop
2.do while loop
3.for loop

while loop
Syntax:-
while(condition)
{
Statement 1;
Statement 2;
}
Or
while(test condition)
Statement;

The test condition may be any expression .when we want to do something a fixed no of times
but not known about the number of iteration, in a program then while loop is used.

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Here first condition is checked if, it is true body of the loop is executed else, If condition is
false control will be come out of loop. It is pretested condition loop.

do while loop
Syntax:-
do
{
Statement;
}
while(condition);

It is post tested condition loop i.e. condition is checked at end of every iteration.
Note: Do while loop used rarely when we want to execute a loop at least once.

for loop
In a program, for loop is generally used when number of iteration are known in advance.
The body of the loop can be single statement or multiple statements.
Syntax:-
for(exp1; exp2; exp3)
{
Statement;
}
Here exp1 is an initialization expression, exp2 is test expression or condition and exp3 is an
update expression. Expression 1 is executed only once when loop started and used to initialize
the loop variables. Condition expression generally uses relational and logical operators. And
updating part executed only when after body of the loop is executed.

Nesting of loop
When a loop written inside the body of another loop then, it is known as nesting of loop.
Any type of loop can be nested in any type such as while, do while, for.

Break statement
Sometimes it becomes necessary to come out of the loop even before loop condition
becomes false then break statement is used. Break statement is used inside loop and switch
statements. It cause immediate exit from that loop in which it appears and it is generally
written with condition.

Continue statement
Continue statement is used for continuing next iteration of loop after skipping some
statement of loop. When it encountered control automatically passes through the beginning
of the loop. It is usually associated with the if statement. It is useful when we want to continue
the program without executing any part of the program.
The difference between break and continue is, when the break encountered, loop is
terminated and it transfer control to the next statement and when continue is encountered
control come back to the beginning of loop.

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Chapter 3

Arrays in C

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ARRAY
Array is the collection of similar data types or collection of similar entity stored in contiguous
memory location. Array of character is a string. Each data item of an array is called an element.
And each element is unique and located in separated memory location. Each of elements of
an array share a variable but each element having different index no. known as subscript. An
array can be a single dimensional or multi-dimensional and number of subscripts determines
its dimension. Subscript always starts with zero.

DECLARATION OF AN ARRAY :
data_type array_name [size];
e.g. intarr[100]; //array only declared& will store garbage
The declaration of an array tells the compiler that, the data type, name of the array, size of
the array and for each element it occupies memory space. Like for intdata type, it occupies 2
bytes for each element and for float it occupies 4 byte for each element etc.

INITIALIZATION OF AN ARRAY:
After declaration element of local array has garbage value. If it is global or static array then it
will be automatically initialize with zero. Explicitly it can be initialize as,
Data_type array_name [size] = {value1, value2, value3…}
e.g.inarr[5]={20,60,90, 100,120}

Array subscript always start from zero which is known as lower bound and upper value is
known as upper bound and the last subscript value is one less than the sizeof array. Subscript
can be an expression i.e. integer value. It can be any integer, integer constant, integer
variable, integer expression or return value from functional call that yield integer value.
So if i & j are not variable then the valid subscript are ar [i*7],ar[i*i],ar[i++],ar[3];

ACCESSING OF ARRAY ELEMENT:

/*Write a program to input values into an array and display them*/

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
intarr[5],i;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf( “enter a value for arr[%d] \n”, I );
scanf(“%d”,&arr[i]);
}
printf(“the array elements are: \n”);
for (i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf(“%d\t”,arr[i]);
}
return 0;
}

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OUTPUT:
Enter a value for arr[0] = 12
Enter a value for arr[1] =45
Enter a value for arr[2] =59
Enter a value for arr[3] =98
Enter a value for arr[4] =21
The array elements are 12 45 59 98 21

Example: From the above example value stored in an array are and occupy
its memory addresses 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 respectively.
a[0]=12, a[1]=45, a[2]=59, a[3]=98, a[4]=21

ar[0] ar[1] ar[2] ar[3] ar[4]

12 45 59 98 21
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

Two dimensional arrays

Two dimensional array is known as matrix. The array declaration in both the arrayi.e.in single
dimensional array single subscript is used and in two dimensional array two subscripts are is
used. Its syntax is
data_typearray_name[row][column];

Or we can say 2-d array is a collection of 1-D array placed one below the other.
Total no. of elements in 2-D array is calculated as row*column.
Example:-
int a[2][3];
Total no of elements=row*column is 2*3 =6
It means the matrix consist of 2 rows and 3 columns.
For example:-
20 2 7
8 3 15

Positions of 2-D array elements in an array are as below

a [0][0] a [0][1] a [0][2] a [1][0] a [1][1] a [1][2]

20 2 7 8 3 15
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Initialization of 2-d array: 2-D array can be initialized in a way similar to that of 1-D array.
For example:-
int mat[4][3]={11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22};
These values are assigned to the elements row wise.

Accessing 2-d array /processing 2-d array

For example
int a[2][3];

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for reading value:-

for(i=0;i<2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
scanf(“%d”, &a[i][j]);
}
}
For displaying value:-
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf(“%d”,a[i][j]);
}
}

String Handling in C
Array of character is called a string. It is always terminated by the NULL character. String is a
one dimensional array of character. We can initialize the string as
char name[]={‘j’,’o’,’h’,’n’,’\o’};
Here each character occupies 1 byte of memory and last character is always NULL character.
Array elements of character array are also stored in contiguous memory allocation.
The terminating NULL is important because it is only the way that the function that
work with string can know, where string end. String can also be initialized as;
char name[]=”John”;
Here the NULL character is not necessary and the compiler will assume it automatically.

String constant (string literal)

A string constant is a set of character that enclosed within the double quotes and is also called
a literal. Whenever a string constant is written anywhere in a program it is stored somewhere
in a memory as an array of characters terminated by a NULL character (‘\o’). The string
constant itself becomes a pointer to the first character in array.
Example- char crr[20]= “Tajmahal”;

1000 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009
T a j M a h a l \0

It is called base address.

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String Library Functions

strlen calculates the length of string

strcat Appends one string at the end of another
strncat Appends first n characters of a string at the end of another
strcpy Copies a string into another
strncpy Copies first n characters of one string into another
strcmp Compares two strings
strncmp Compares first n characters of two strings
strchr Finds the first occurrence of a given character in a string
strrchr Finds the last occurrence of a given character in a string
strstr Finds the first occurrence of a given string in another string

strlen()
This function returns the length of the string. i.e. the number of characters in the string
excluding the terminating NULL character.

strcmp()
This function is used to compare two strings. If the two string match, strcmp()return a value
0 otherwise it return a non-zero value. It compares the strings character by character and
the comparison stops when the end of the string is reached or the corresponding characters
in the two string are not same.
e.g. strcmp(s1,s2)

return a value:<0 when s1<s2

=0 when s1=s2
>0 when s1>s2

strcpy()
This function is used to copy one string to another string. The function strcpy(str1,str2) copies
str2 to str1 including the NULL character. Here str2 is the source string and str1 is the
destination string. The old content of the destination string str1 are lost.

strcat()
This function is used to append a copy of a string at the end of the other string. If the first
string is ”CDAC” and second string is “IACSD” then after using this function the string
becomes “CDACIACSD”. The NULL character from str1 is moved and str2 is added at the end
of str1. The 2nd string str2 remains unaffected.

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Chapter 4

Functions in C

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FUNCTIONS
A function is a self-contained block of codes or sub programs with a set of statements that
perform some specific task or coherent task when it is called. Any ‘C’ program contains at
least one function i.e. main().
There are basically two types of function,
1. Library function
2. User defined function

The user defined functions defined by the user according to user requirement. System defined
function can’t be modified; it can only read and can be used. These functions are supplied
with every C compiler. Source of these library function are pre complied and only object code
get used by the user by linking to the code by linker.

Functions Involves:
1. Function Declaration
2. Function Definition
3. Function Calling

In system defined/Library function:

1. Function definition: predefined, precompiled, stored in the library
2. Function declaration: In header file with or function prototype.
3. Function call: By the programmer

For User defined function

Syntax:-
return_typefunction_name(type arg1,type arg2 …. type argn) /*function
declaration*/

main()
{
------
------
Function_name(arg1,arg2,arg3);/* calling function*/
}
/*function definition*/
return_typefunction_name(type arg1,type arg2 …. type argn)
{
Local variable declaration;
Statement1;
Statement2;
.
.
Statement-n;
return value;
}

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EXAMPLE:
/*Sum of first n Natural numbers*/
int sum (int);//function Declaration
void main()
{
int num, ans;
printf(“enter limit”);
scanf(“%d”, &num);
ans =sum(num); //function call
printf(“summation is = %d”, ans);
}

//function definition
int sum(int num)
{
int i,ans;
for(i=0;i<=num;i++)
{
ans=ans+I;
}
return ans;
}

Actual Arguments
The arguments which are mentioned or used inside the function call is knows as actual
argument.
Formal Arguments
The arguments which are mentioned in function definition are called formal arguments or
dummy arguments.

Types of Functions
1. Function with Arguments returning value
2. Function without Arguments returning value
3. Function with Arguments returning no value
4. Function without Arguments returning no value

Advantage of function
 By using function large and difficult program can be divided in to sub programs and
solved.

 When we want to perform some task repeatedly or some code is to be used more
than once at different place in the program, then function avoids this repetition or
 rewritten over and over.
 Fixing errors become easy.
 Due to modular function it is easy to modify and test.

Call by value and call by reference

There are two way through which we can pass the arguments to the function such
as call by value and call by reference.

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1. Call by value
In the call by value, copy of the actual argument is passed to the formal
argument and the operation is done on formal argument.
When the function is called by call by value method, it doesn’t affect content of the actual
argument. Changes made to formal argument are local to block of called function so when
the
Control moves back to calling function the changes made is vanish.
Example:-
swap(int,int);
main()
{
intx,y;
printf(“Enter two values:”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&x,&y);
swap (x ,y);
printf(“Value of x=%d and y=%d”,x ,y);
}
swap(int a, int b)
{
inttemp;
temp=a;
a=b;
b=temp;
}
Output: enter two values: 1223
Value of x=12 and y=23

2. Call by address
Instead of passing the value of variable, address or reference is passed and the
function operates on address of the variable rather than value. Formal argument is copied to
the actual argument, it means formal arguments calls the actual arguments. Example:-

swap(int *,int*);
void main()
{
int a,b;
printf(“Enter two values:”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
swap(&a,&b);
printf(“after changing a=%d and b=%d”,a,b);
}
swap(int *a, int *b)
{
int k;
k=*a;
*a=*b;

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*b= k;
}
Output: enter two values: 12 32
After changing two value of a=32 and b=12

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Storage Classes
Storage class in c language is a specifier, which tells the compiler where and how to
store variables, its initial value and scope of the variables in a program. Table below
shows all storage classes supported by C with its details.

Storage Type Auto Register Static Extern

Keyword auto register static Extern
Life Local Local Within function Within file
block
Scope Within function Within function Through out Through out
block block programme programme
Initial Value Garbage Garbage Zero Zero
Memory On stack CPU registers Data Section Data Section

Recursion
When function calls itself (inside function body) ,again and again then it is called
as recursive function. In recursion calling function and called function are same. It is
powerful technique of writing complicated algorithm in easiest way. According to
recursion problem is defined in terms of itself.

Example :- /*calculate factorial of a no. using recursion*/

int fact(int);//function declaration

void main()
{
int num, result;
printf(“enter a number”);
scanf(“%d”,&num);
result=fact(num); //function call
printf(“factorial is =%d”,result);
}
//function definition
fact (intnum)
{
If (num==0||num==1)
return 1;
else return(num*fact(num-1));}

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Chapter 5

Pointers in C

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POINTER
A pointer is a variable that store memory address or that contains address another
variable where addresses are the location number always contains whole number. So,
pointer contains always the whole number. It is called pointer because it points to a
particular location in memory by storing address of that location. Syntax:

data_type *pointer_ name;

Note :Here * before pointer indicate the compiler that variable declared as a pointer to
specified data type.

e.g.
int *ptr1; //pointer to integer type
float *ptr2; //pointer to float type
char *ptr3; //pointer to character type
When pointer declared, it contains garbage value i.e. it may point to any value in the memory.
Two operators are used in the pointer i.e. address operator (&) and indirection operator or
dereference operator (*).Indirection operator gives the values stored at a particular address.

Example:
void main()
{
int i=100;
int *ptr;
ptr=&i; //ptr points to variable i of type
integer printf(“value of i=%d”,*ptr);
printf(“value of i=%d”,*(&i)); printf(“address
of i=%d”,&i); printf(“address of i=%d”,ptr);
printf(“address of p=%u”,&ptr);

Pointer Arithmetic
Pointer arithmetic is different from ordinary arithmetic and it is perform relative to
the data type(base type of a pointer).
Example:-
If integer pointer contains address of memory location 2000 on incrementing we get
address of 2002 ,instead of 2001, because, size of the integer is of 2 bytes (16-bit compiler).

Note:-When we move a pointer, somewhere else in memory by incrementing or decrement

or adding or subtracting integer, it is not necessary that, pointer still pointer to a variable of
same data, because, memory allocation to the variable are done by the compiler.

Pointer to pointer
Address of pointer variable stored in some other variable is called pointer to pointer
variable.
Syntax:-
data_type **ptr_name;

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Example :
void main()
{
Int i=100;
int *ptr=&i;
int **pptr=&ptr;

printf(“value of i=%d”,i);
printf(“value of i=%d”,*ptr);
printf(“value of x=%d”,*(&i));
printf(“value of x=%d”,**pptr);
printf(“value of ptr=%u”,&ptr);
printf(“address of ptr=%u”,pptr);
printf(“address of i=%u”,ptr);
printf(“address of pptr=%u”,&pptr);
printf(“value of ptr=%u”,ptr);
printf(“value of ptr=%u”,&i);
}

Pointer & Arrays

In C there is a very close connection between pointers and arrays. In fact they are more or
less one and the same thing! When you declare an array as:
int a[10];
You are in fact declaring a pointer ‘a’ to the first element in the array. That is, a is exactly the
same as &a[0]. The only difference between array and a pointer variable is that the array
name is a constant pointer - you cannot change the location it points at. To be more
precise, a[i] is exactly equivalent to *(a+i) i.e. the value pointed at by (a + i) . In the same
way *(a+ 1) is the same as a[1] and so on.
Example :
void main()
{
int arr[]={10,20,30,40,50};
int *ptr;
ptr=&arr[0]; //same as ptr=arr

for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf(“%d”,arr[i]);
//alternative way of printing array elements by using pointer
printf(“%d”,*ptr); ptr++;
printf(“%d”,*(ptr+i));
printf(“%d”,ptr[i]);
}
}

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Array of Pointers

We can declare an array of ints or an array of floats, similarly there can be an array
of pointers. Since a pointer variable always contains an address, an array of pointers would
be nothing but a collection of addresses.
Example :
#include <stdio.h>
void main () {

/* names is an array of pointers storing addresses of names of students */

char *names[] = {
“Sana kale”,
"Esha lele",
"Neha mane ",
"Yash Roy" };

for ( i = 0; i < 4; i++) {

printf("Names[%d] = %s\n", i, names[i] );
}
}

Dynamic Memory Allocation

Dynamic memory allocation in c language allows the C programmer to allocate
memory at runtime. It can be achieved by library function like,

malloc() : The malloc() function allocates single block of requested memory. It doesn't
initialize memory at execution time, so it has garbage value initially.

calloc(): The calloc() function allocates multiple block of requested memory. It initializes all
bytes to zero.

realloc(): If memory is not sufficient you can reallocate the memory by realloc() function.

free():The memory must be released by calling free() function.

Example :
void main()
{
int range,i,*ptr;
printf("Enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d",&range);
ptr=(int*)malloc(range*sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using malloc
if(ptr==NULL)
{
printf("Error in memory allocation");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter data for elements : ");
for(i=0;i<range;i++)

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{
scanf("%d",(ptr+i));
}
for(i=0;i<range;i++)
{
printf("%d",*(ptr+i));
}
free(ptr);
}
Pointers to Functions
Just as we declare a pointer to an int, similarly we can declare a pointer to a function
(or procedure). For example, the following declares a variable ptr whose type is a pointer to
a function that takes an int as a parameter and returns void as result.
void (*ptr)(int);
That is, ptr is not itself a function, but rather is a variable that can point to a function, which
actually stores the start of executable code. A function pointer points to code, not data.
Example :
void display(int a)
{
printf("Value of a is %d\n", a);
}

void main()
{
void (*fun_ptr)(int) = &display; //store address of fun in pointer
fun_ptr(100); //call fun using pointer
}

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Chapter 6

Structures & Unions

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Structures
A structure contains a number of data types grouped together. These data types may
or may not be of the same type.
Example:
struct Employee
{
int eno; //structure members
char ename[20];
double bsalary;
}
This defines a new data type called struct Employee. We can declare vars of this type as,
struct Employee e1,e2,e3;
This will allocate memory for vars e1,e2,e3 in memory , 32 bytes each.
Like primary variables and arrays, structure variables can also be initialized as,
struct Employee e1 = { 101,”Rama",50000 } ;

Memory Allocation of Structure vars

eid ename bsalary

101 Rama 50000
1000 1004 1025

To access structure members we can use dot(.) operator.

Example : we can access id of employee by e1.eid & name by e1.name etc…

Array of Structures
To declare array of structures we write,
struct Employee e[10];
Here err is array of size 10 storing data of 10 employees in memory in continuous memory.
To access employees in err we can write e[0].eid,e[0].ename etc… for first employee & so
on….
Example:
/* Array of structures */
struct Employee
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
double bsalary;
};

void main( )
{
struct Employee e[10] ;
int i ;
for ( i = 0 ; i <10 ; i++ )
{

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printf ( "\nEnter id, name & salary of employee " ) ;

scanf ( "%d %s %lf", &e[i].id, &e[i].name, &e[i].salary ) ;
}
printf(“\n Emloyee Details are….\n”);
for ( i = 0 ; i <10 ; i++ )
{
printf ( "\n%d %s %lf", e[i].id,e[i].name, e[i].salary ) ;
}
}

Nested structure
When a structure is within another structure, it is called Nested structure. A structure
variable can be a member of another structure and it is represented as, Example:

struct date
{
int dd,mm,yy;
};
struct Employee
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
double bsalary;
struct date dob;
};

Structure Pointers:
We can have a pointer pointing to a struct. Such pointers are known as ‘structure pointers’.
Example :
struct Employee
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
double bsalary;
};

void main( )
{
struct Employee e1 = { 101,”Rama",50000 } ;
struct Employee *ptr ;
ptr = &e1 ; //ptr stores address of Employee var e1
printf ( "\n%d %s %lf", ptr->id, ptr->name, ptr->salary ) ; //accessing data in e1 using pointer
ptr
}

Note : To access data members of structure using pointers we have to use arrow (->)
operator.

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Passing structure elements to function

We can pass each element of the structure through function but passing individual element
is difficult when number of structure element increases. To overcome this, we use to pass
the whole structure through function instead of passing individual element. Example:

struct Employee
{
int eno;
char ename[20];
double bsalary;
};

void display(struct Employee);

void main()
{
struct Employee e1 = { 101,”Rama",50000 } ;
display(e1);
}
display(struct Employee e)
{
printf(“\n Id=%d, \n Name=%s ,\n Salary=%lf”, e.id, e.name, e.bsalary);
}

UNION
Union is derived data type which is collection of dissimilar elements. Its same as that of
structure , but instead of keyword struct the keyword union is used, the main difference
between union and structure is that each member of structure occupies the separate
memory, but in the union members share memory. Union is used for saving memory and
concept is useful when it is not necessary to use all members of union at a time. Example :

union DateOfBirth
{
int age;
char dob[12];
};
union DateOfBirth U;

Note : Either date of birth or age can be input to variable U and will have memory allocation
of 12 bytes only , which can hold only one value among given 2 members, i.e. age or dob;

Enumerations
Enumerations are unique types with values ranging over a set of named constants
called

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enumerators. Enumeration (or enum) is a user defined data type in C. It is used to assign
names to integral constants..
Example :

enum DayOfWeek{Mon, Tue, Wed, Thur, Fri, Sat, Sun};

void main()
{
enum DayOfWeek day;
day = Tue;
printf("%d",day);
}

Output : 1

Note : In above code Mon is default initialized to 0, Tue is initialized to 1 & so on…Also we can
initialize any random value to defined constants in enum like Sat=10 then depending on that
all next constants get value initialized like Sun will get auto initialized to 11.

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Chapter 7

Preprocessors

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Preprocessing
Preprocessors are a way of making text processing with your C program before they
are actually compiled.
Preprocessor is a program that processes our source program before it is passed to
the compiler. A preprocessor performs macro substitution, conditional compilation, and
inclusion of named files. Lines beginning with # communicate with this preprocessor.

Macro Definition and Expansion

1. #define : Syntax is,
# define identifier token-sequence //defines a macro
It causes the preprocessor to replace subsequent instances of the identifier with the given
sequence of tokens. Macros are not type checked. EXAMPLE : #define ABSDIFF(a, b) ((a)>(b)
? (a)-(b) : (b)-(a))
This defines a macro to return the absolute value of the difference between its
arguments.

2. #undef : Syntax is,

#undef identifier //cancels a macro definition
This directive cancels a previous definition of the identifier by #define.

File Inclusion
# include <filename>
It causes the replacement of that line by the entire contents of the file filename.
For example, on encountering a #include <stdio.h> directive, it replaces the directive with the
contents of the stdio.h header file.
If using angle brackets like the example above, the preprocessor is instructed to search for
the include file along the development environment path for the standard includes.
# include “MyHeader.h”
If you use quotation marks (" "), the preprocessor is expected to search in some
additional, usually user-defined, locations for the header file, and to fall back to the standard
include paths only if it is not found in those additional locations.

Conditional Compilation
Six directives are available to control conditional compilation. They delimit blocks of
program text that are compiled only if a specified condition is true

#if #if constant-expression This directive checks whether

the constant-expression is true (nonzero)
#ifdef #ifdef identifier This directive checks whether the
identifier is currently defined.
#ifndef #ifndef identifier This directive checks to see if the identifier
is not currently defined.
#else #else This directive delimits alternative source
text to be compiled if the condition tested
for in the corresponding #if , #ifdef ,
or #ifndef directive is false
#elif #elif constant-expression The #elif directive performs a task similar

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to the combined use of the else-

if statements in C.
#endif #endif This directive ends the scope of
the #if , #ifdef , #ifndef , #else ,
or #elif directive.

Pragmas
# pragma token-sequence
This causes the preprocessor to perform an implementation-dependent action. An
unrecognized pragma is ignored.

Predefined names
Several identifiers are predefined, and expand to produce special information. They,
and also the preprocessor expansion operator defined, may not be undefined or redefined.
1. __LINE__ A decimal constant containing the current source line number.
2. __FILE__ A string literal containing the name of the file being compiled.
3. __DATE__ A string literal containing the date of compilation, in the
form "Mmmm dd yyyy"
4. __TIME__ A string literal containing the time of compilation, in the form "hh:mm:ss"

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Chapter 8

File Handling

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C Programming

File Handling
A file represents a sequence of bytes on the disk where a group of related data is
stored. File is created for permanent storage of data. It is a readymade structure.
In C language, we use a structure pointer of file type to declare a file.
FILE *fp;
C provides a number of functions that helps to perform basic file operations.

Function description
fopen() create a new file or open a
existing file
fclose() closes a file
getc() reads a character from a file
putc() writes a character to a file
fscanf() reads a set of data from a file
fprintf() writes a set of data to a file
getw() reads a integer from a file
putw() writes a integer to a file
fseek() set the position to desire
point
ftell() gives current position in the
file rewind() set the position
to the beginning point
fseek() It is used to move the reading
control to different positions
ftell() It tells the byte location of
current position of cursor in
file pointer
rewind() It moves the control to
beginning of the file.

Opening a File or Creating a File

The fopen() function is used to create a new file or to open an existing
file. Syntax is,
*fp = FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode);
Here filename is the name of the file to be opened and mode specifies the purpose of opening the
file. Mode can be (r,w,a,r+,w+,a+) .*fp is the FILE pointer , which will hold the reference to the opened
(or created) file.

Closing a File
The fclose() function is used to close an already opened file.
Syntax : int fclose( FILE *fp );
Input/Output operation on File
getc() and putc() are simplest functions used to read and write individual characters to a file.
Example:
main()
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;
fp = fopen("my.txt", "w");
printf("Enter data");
while( (ch = getchar()) != EOF)

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{
putc(ch,fp);
}
fclose(fp);
fp = fopen("my.txt", "r");
while( (ch = getc()) != EOF)
{
printf("%c",ch);
}
fclose(fp);
}

Similarly we can use functions mentioned in above table for performing input or output operation.

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