INTRODUCTION TO CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

AND MINERAL CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

Prof. Dr. ElMetwally Mohamed Lebda

Geology Department
Faculty of Science
Kafrelsheikh University

i
 CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction ------------------------------------------------------- 1
 Why we study Crystallography? --------------------------------------- 1
 Definition ----------------------------------------------------------------- 1
 External characteristics of crystals ------------------------------------ 3
Chapter 2: Elements of crystallographic ---------------------------------- 7
 Crystallographic elements ---------------------------------------------- 7
 Crystal systems ----------------------------------------------------------- 8
 Crystal symmetry -------------------------------------------------------- 9
 Classes of symmetry ----------------------------------------------------14
 Axial ratios-crystal parameters and Miller indices -----------------14
 Methods of Crystal Drawing ------------------------------------------18
 Crystal habit and forms ------------------------------------------------23
Chapter 3: General description of the crystal systems ------------------29
 The Cubic (Isometric) System ----------------------------------------29
 The Tetragonal System -------------------------------------------------37
 The Orthorhombic System ---------------------------------------------44
 The Hexagonal System -------------------------------------------------48
 The Monoclinic System ------------------------------------------------59
 The Triclinic System ---------------------------------------------------63

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Why we study Crystallography?

1- It is useful for the identification of minerals. The later are chemical substances
formed under natural conditions and have crystal forms.
2- Crystallography is of major importance to a wide range of scientific
disciplines including physics, chemistry, molecular biology, materials science
and mineralogy.
3- Study of crystals can provide new chemical information. In laboratories and
industry, we can prepare pure chemical substances by crystallization process.
4- It is very useful for solid state studies of materials.
5- Crystal heating therapy.

Definition
Crystallography can bring you to a greater appreciation of natural mineral
crystals and their forms. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is simply a fancy word meaning
"the study of crystals". At one time the word crystal referred only to quartz crystal,
but has taken on a broader definition which includes all minerals with well expressed
crystal shapes.
Crystallography may be studied on many levels, but no matter how elementary
or in-depth a discussion of the topic we have, we confront some geometry. Oh no, a
nasty 8-letter word! Solid geometry, no less. But stop and think about it, you use
geometry every day, whether you hang sheetrock, pour concrete, deliver the mail, or
work on a computer. You just don't think of it as geometry. Geometry simply deals
with spatial relationships. Those relationships you are familiar with are not
intimidating. The key word here is "familiar". We want this series of articles to help
you become more familiar, and, therefore more comfortable, with the geometry
involved with the study of crystal forms.
Crystallography is easily divided into 3 sections -- geometrical, physical, and
chemical. The latter two involve the relationships of the crystal form (geometrical)

1
upon the physical and chemical properties of any given mineral. In our coarse pf
crystallography we will cover the most significant geometric aspects of
crystallography and leave the other topics for later. During and after reading this
coarse, you will probably want to examine one or two textbooks for more detail about
individual subjects. I recommend two: Klein and Hurlbut's Manual of Mineralogy
(20th edition, 1985) and Ford's Textbook of Mineralogy (4th edition, 1932). Both of
these are based on E. S. Dana's earlier classic publications.
Substances can be classified into: Crystalline Substances and Amorphous
substances. The crystalline substances are characterise by the following properties:
1- Solidity
2- Anisotropy X Isotropy
3- Self-faceting ability
4- Symmetry
Amorphous substances: (in Greek amorphous means “formless”) do not have
overall regular internal structure; their constituent particles are arranged randomly;
hence, they are isotropic, have no symmetry, and cannot be bounded by faces.
Particles are arranged in them in the same way as in liquids, hence, they are
sometimes referred to as supercooled liquids. Examples of amorphous substances are
glass, plastics. Glue, resin, and solidified colloids (gels).
In distinction to crystalline substances, amorphous ones have no clearly
defined melting point. Comparing curves of cooling (or heating) of crystalline
substances and amorphous substances, one can see that the former has two sharp
bend-points (a and b), corresponding to the beginning and end crystallization
respectively, whereas the latter is smooth.
Curve of cooling of a crystalline
subsatnce

60 Curve of cooling of am orphous

50 substances
40

a
To

b 30
20
60
40
To

20
10
0
0
100 50 0
100 50 0
tim e, m in
tim e , m in

First, let's define what we're dealing with. A CRYSTAL is a regular

polyhedral form, bounded by smooth faces, which is assumed by a chemical

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compound, due to the action of its interatomic forces, when passing, under suitable
conditions, from the state of a liquid or gas to that of a solid. A polyhedral form
simply means a solid bounded by flat planes (we call these flat planes CRYSTAL
FACES). "A chemical compound" tells us that all minerals are chemicals, just formed
by and found in nature. The last half of the definition tells us that a crystal normally
forms during the change of matter from liquid or gas to the solid state. In the liquid
and gaseous state of any compound, the atomic forces that bind the mass together in
the solid state are not present. Therefore, we must first crystallize the compound
before we can study its geometry. Liquids and gases take on the shape of their
container; solids take on one of several regular geometric forms. These forms may be
subdivided, using geometry, into six systems.
Crystals can be classified according to the degree of crystallization int:
• Euhedral crystals
• Subhedral crystals
• Anhedral crystals

Euhedral Crystal Subhedral Crystal Anhedral Crystal

But before we can begin to discuss the individual systems and their variations,
let's address several other topics which we will use to describe the crystal systems.
There's also some laws and rules we must learn.

External characteristices of crystals

1- Crystal faces: The crystal is bounded by flat plane surfaces. These surfaces
represent the internal arrangement of atoms and usually parallel to net-planes
containing the greatest number of lattice-points or ions. Faces are two kinds, like and
unlike.

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 2- Edge: formed by the intersection of any two adjacent faces. The position in
space of an edge depends upon the position of the faces whose intersection gives
rise to it.

3- Solid Angles: formed by intersection of three or more faces.

A

Crystal Faces….F
Edges………….E
F
Solid Angles (apices)…..A
E mathematical relation between
them: F + A = E + 2

4- Interfacial angles and their law:

We define the interfacial angle between two crystal faces as the angle between
lines that are perpendicular to the faces. Such lines are called the poles to the crystal
face.
Measurement of Interfacial angle: The interfacial angles of crystals are
measured by the goniometer. Two types of this instrument are used, one termed the
contact-goniometer, the other the reflecting goniometer.
The contact-goniometer consists of two straight-edged arms movable on a
pivot or screw, and connected by a graduated arc, as shown in the following figure:

4
 These two arms are brought accurately into contact with adjacent faces of the
crystal, and the angle between them read off on the graduated arc. In the illustration,
the angle actually measured is the internal angle between the two faces, and this must
be subtracted from 180o to give the interfacial angle used by the crystallographer.
Nicholas Steno (1669), a Danish physician and natural scientist, discovered
one of these laws. By examination of numerous specimens of the same mineral, he
found that, when measured at the same temperature, the angles between similar
crystal faces remain constant regardless of the size or the shape of the crystal. So
whether the crystal grew under ideal conditions or not, if you compare the angles
between corresponding faces on various crystals of the same mineral, the angle
remains the same.
Although he did not know why this was true (x-rays had not yet been
discovered, much less x-ray diffraction invented), we now know that this is so
because studies of the atomic structure of any mineral proves that the structure
remains within a close set of given limits or geometric relationships. If it doesn't, then
by the modern definition of a mineral, we are not comparing the same two minerals.
We might be comparing polymorphs, but certainly not the same mineral! (Polymorphs
being minerals with the same chemistry, like diamond and graphite or sphalerite and
wurtzite, but having differing atomic structure and, therefore, crystallizing in different
crystal systems) Steno's law is called the CONSTANCY OF INTERFACIAL
ANGLES and, like other laws of physics and chemistry, we just can't get away from
it.
Now, some of you may be thinking: I have a mineral crystal that does not
match the pictures in the mineral books. What you may have is a distorted crystal
form where some faces may be extremely subordinate or even missing. Distorted
crystals are common and result from less-than-ideal growth conditions or even
breakage and recrystallization of the mineral. However, remember that we must also

5
be comparing the angles between similar faces. If the faces are not present, then you
cannot compare them. With many crystals we are dealing with a final shape
determined by forces other than those of the interatomic bonding.
During the process of crystallization in the proper environment, crystals
assume various geometric shapes dependent on the ordering of their atomic structure
and the physical and chemical conditions under which they grow. If there is a
predominant direction or plane in which the mineral forms, different habits prevail.
Thus, galena often forms equate shapes (cubes or octahedrons), quartz typically is
prismatic, and barite tabular.

5- Crystal forms: are a number of corresponding faces which have the

same relation with the crystallographic axes. A crystal made up entirely of like faces
is termed a simple form. Simple form occurs in crystal as it can enclose space is
termed a closed form and those that do not (termed open) and can only occur in
combination in crystal.
The term general form has specific meaning in crystallography. In each
crystal class, there is a form in which the faces intersect each crytallographic axes at
different lengths. This is the general form {hkl} and is the name for each of the 32
classes (hexoctahedral class of the isometric system, for example). All other forms are
called special forms.

6- Crystal Habit: the general external shape of a crystal. It is meant the

common and characteristic form or combination of forms in which a mineral
crystallizes. (Tabular habit, Platy habit, Prismatic habit, Acicular habit, Bladed habit)

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 CHAPTER 2
ELEMENTS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
Crystallographic elements
To discuss the six crystal systems, we have to establish some understanding of
solid geometry. To do this, we will define and describe what are called
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AXES and AXIAL ANGLES. Since we are dealing with
3 dimensions, we must have 3 axes and, for the initial discussion, let's make them all
equal and at right angles to each other. This is the simplest case to consider. The
axes pass through the center of the crystal and, by using them; we can describe the
intersection of any given face with these 3 axes.
Mineralogists had to decide what to call each of these axes and what their
orientation in each crystal was so that everyone
was talking the same language. We are going to
draw each axis on a sheet of paper and describe
its orientation (figure 1). All you need for this
exercise is a pencil and paper. Make the first axis
vertical, and we'll call it the c axis. The top is the figure 1
+ end and the bottom is the - end. The second
axis, the b axis, is horizontal and passes through the center of the c axis. It is the same
length as the c axis. The right end is the +, and the left is the -. The third axis is the a
axis and passes at a right angle through the join of the b and c axes.
It is somewhat tricky to draw because, even though the a axis is the same
length as the c and b axes, because it goes from front to back it appears shorter. It is
hard to represent a 3-dimensional figure on the 2-dimensional surface of paper, but
you can do it. You have to use a sense of perspective, as an artist would say. The front
end of a, which appears to come out of the paper, is the + and the back end the -
(appears to be in the background or behind the paper).
This all sounds complicated, but look at Figure 1 if you are having problems
with drawing the final axis. We always refer to the axes in the order - a, b, c in any
type of notation. The point of intersection of the three axes is called the AXIAL
CROSS.

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 Axial angles: we refer to the angles between the crystallographic axes as
following:
• ∝ is the angle between b axis and c axis
• β is the angle between a axis and c axis
• is the angle between b axis and c axis

Perspective is a key to drawing 3 dimensional objects on a flat 2D piece of

paper. Perspective is what makes railroad tracks look like they come together in the
distance. It is also what causes optical illusions when trying to draw axial crosses, or
line drawings of crystal models. Perhaps you've looked at these lines and tried to
decide which one comes forward, and which one recedes, and then have the illusion
flip-flop so that it looks the other way. That's why they are labeled + and -. It can be
confusing, so don't feel like the lone ranger.

Crystal systems
We have now reached the point in our discussion that we can actually mention
the six large groups or crystal systems that all crystal forms may be placed in. We will
use our crystallographic axes which we just discussed to subdivide all known minerals
into these systems. The systems are:

(1) CUBIC (aka ISOMETRIC) - The three

crystallographic axes are all equal in length and intersect
at right angles (90 degrees) to each other. This is exactly
what you drew to obtain Figure 2. However, we now will
rename the axes a1, a2, and a3 because they are the same
length (a becomes a1, b becomes a2, and c becomes a3). Figure 2

(2) TETRAGONAL - Three axes, all at right angles, two of which are equal in length
(a and b) and one (c) which is different in length (shorter or longer).

(3) ORTHORHOMBIC - Three axes, all at right angles, and all three of different
lengths.

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(4) HEXAGONAL - Four axes! We must define this situation since it can not be
derived from our Figure 3. Three of the axes fall in the same plane and intersect at the
axial cross at 120 degrees between the positive ends. These 3 axes, labeled a1, a2, and
a3, are the same length. The fourth axis, termed c, may be longer or shorter than the a
axes set. The c axis also passes through the intersection of the a axes set at right angle
to the plane formed by the a set. Look at Figure 3 to see these relationships more
clearly.
Figure 3
(5) MONOCLINIC - Three axes, all unequal in length, two of which (a and c)
intersect at an oblique angle (not 90 degrees), the third axis (b) is perpendicular to the
other two axes.

(6) TRICLINIC - The three axes are all unequal in length and intersect at three
different angles (any angle not 90 degrees).

Crystal symmetry
Now we are ready to discuss ELEMENTS OF SYMMETRY. These include
PLANES OF SYMMETRY, AXES OF SYMMETRY, and CENTER OF
SYMMETRY. These symmetry elements may be or may not be combined in the
same crystal. Indeed, we will find that one crystal class or system has only one of
these elements!

These parts, when put together, make the planes in figure 6.

Any two dimensional surface (we can call it flat) that, when passed through
the center of the crystal, divides it into two symmetrical parts that are MIRROR
IMAGES is a PLANE OF SYMMETRY. I repeat: any plane of symmetry divides
the crystal form into two mirror images. Planes of symmetry are often referred to as

9
mirror image planes. Let's discuss a cube again. A cube has 9 planes of symmetry, 3
of one set and 6 of another. We must use two figures to easily recognize all of them.
In Figure 5 the planes of symmetry are parallel to the faces of the cube form, in Figure
6 the planes of symmetry join the opposite cube edges. The second set corresponds to
the octahedral crystal form. Planes of symmetry are always possible crystal forms.
This means that, although not always present on many natural crystals, there exists the
possibility that other crystal faces may be expressed. So even though a cube form
does not present an octahedral face, it is always possible that it could have formed
under the right conditions.
The typical human has two hands, right and left. Place them together palms
facing away from you and the tips of the thumbs touching. Assuming that you have
the same number of fingers on each hand, you will note that your right hand is the
mirror image of your left and vise versa. The average person is symmetrical, having
binary symmetry vertically from the head to the feet when viewed from the front or
back (bilateral symmetry).
You can have a lot of laughs with friends and a long mirror using this symmetry
element. You need at least one other person to do this so you both can view the
results! Using Figures 5 and 6 as guides, take a wood or plastic cube and see if you
can draw with a marker all the planes of symmetry that are present. Refer to the two
figures for help.
It is sometimes convenient to designate planes of
symmetry as axial, diagonal, principle, or intermediate. Figure
7 is an example of the 5 planes of symmetry of the tetragonal
system and the proper abbreviated notation.

AXES OF SYMMETRY can be rather confusing at

first, but let's have a go at them anyway. Any line
through the center of the crystal around which the crystal
may be rotated so that after a definite angular revolution
the crystal form appears the same as before is termed an
axis of symmetry. Depending on the amount or degrees
of rotation necessary, four types of axes of symmetry are

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possible when you are considering crystallography (some textbooks list five). Given
below are all possible rotational axes:
-When rotation repeats form every 60 degrees, then we have sixfold or
HEXAGONAL SYMMETRY. A filled hexagon symbol is noted on the rotational
axis.
-When rotation repeats form every 90 degrees, then we have fourfold or
TETRAGONAL SYMMETRY. A filled square is noted on the rotational axis.
-When rotation repeats form every 120 degrees, then we have threefold or
TRIGONAL SYMMETRY. A filled equilateral triangle is noted on the rotational
axis.
-When rotation repeats form every 180 degrees, then we have twofold or BINARY
SYMMETRY. A filled oval is noted on the rotational axis.
-When rotation repeats form every 360 degrees, then we use a filled circle as notation.
This one I consider optional to list as almost any object has this symmetry. If you
really want to know the truth, this means NO SYMMETRY!!
Note that rotational axes may be on the plane of the face, on the edge of where two
faces meet, or on the point of conjunction of three or more faces. On a complete
crystal form, the axis must pass through the center of the crystal and exist at the
equivalent site on the opposite side of the crystal as it entered.
Take a solid cube, made of wood or plastic (a clear plastic cube box works
well for this exercise). Mark, using the rotational notation, every four-, three-, and
two-fold axis of rotation that you can find. I think you will be surprised how many
there are! Examine Figure 8 (the cube from hades!) to see how many symbols you
can draw on your cube.
Now I'm sorry that this is not all there is to rotational axes, but there is another
situation that we must consider -- AXES OF ROTARY INVERSION. This is where
the twisted mind has one up on the rest of us (there's a pun in there
somewhere!). We will consider a couple of simple examples.
First, let's examine a crystal as drawn in Figure 9a at left.
Use a piece of "2 by 2" board and make this crystal form by cutting
off the ends so the wood block looks like the drawing. Hold the
block in your left hand with your thumb on the top and in the center
of the 2-face edge join (long axis) and your index finger on the same
Figure 9a

11
join on the underside. Your palm will be toward your body. Align your two fingers so
that you are looking straight down on your thumb and can not see end of your index
finger. The top of the block will appear as 2 equal-sized faces, sloping away from
you. If you rotate the block 180 degrees, the faces will be appear back in the same
position (2-fold axis of rotation), but here's the tricky part -- rotate the specimen 90
degrees and then turn your wrist where your index finger is on top (easiest done by
turning your wrist counterclockwise). You will see that the block's faces appear in the
original position in the original position. You have discovered an axis of rotary
inversion! See the series of photos (Figures 9 b-9 e) if you get confused. Some
textbooks term these axes rotary reflection axes or rotoinversion axes. There may be
1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, and 6-fold rotary inversion axes present in natural crystal forms,
depending upon the crystal system we are discussing. I refer you to Klein and
Hurlbut's Manual of Mineralogy (after J. S. Dana) if you want to sharpen your axes of
rotary inversion skills. With axes of rotation, there is a graphical notation used which
looks like a very bold type-face comma. For axes of rotary inversion, the same
symbol is used, but appears dashed.

Fig 9b: Wooden or Fig 9c: Fig 9d: Block rotated Fig 9e: Block
plastic models are known 90 degrees around the rotated
in a mineralogy class as axis shown by the dot counterclockwise
'idiot blocks'. 180 degrees on the
axis shown by the
arrow.
Both types of symmetrical rotational axes (discussed above) are commonly
plotted on a circle (representing the complete cycle of one 360 degree rotation). The
simple axes of rotation symbol for a face is plotted at the center of the circle and the

12
axes of rotation and rotary inversion are plotted on the circle's boundary at whatever
rotational angle is appropriate. See Figure 10 for examples.

We have finally come to our last topic of geometric crystallography -- the CENTER
OF SYMMETRY. Most crystals have a center of symmetry, even though they may
not possess either planes of symmetry or axes of symmetry. Triclinic crystals usually
only have a center of symmetry. If you can pass an imaginary line from the surface of
a crystal face through the center of the crystal (the axial cross) and it intersects a
similar point on a face equidistance from the center, then the crystal has a center of
symmetry. We may discuss this in a little more detail in the article about the triclinic
system.
We now have to consider the relation of geometrical symmetry to
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYMMETRY. The crystal face arrangement symmetry of
any given crystal is simply an expression of the internal atomic structure. This internal
structure is generally alike in any parallel direction. But we must keep in mind that the
relative size of a given face is of no importance, only the angular relationship or
position to other given crystal faces. Refer back to Steno's law concerning the
CONSTANCY OF INTERFACIAL ANGLES.
Let's consider a crystal in the cubic system with both
cube {001} and octahedral {111} forms represented (Figure 11).
In our figure, we have used the letter designation of -a- for the
cube faces and -o- for the octahedral faces. Despite the initial
observation that both the various cube and octahedral faces are
unequal in size, the example displays all the symmetry elements
and relationships of a crystal from the cubic system. I hope you now begin to grasp
the difficulty of learning crystallography using natural crystals. Due to a variety of
factors, many natural crystals have some degree of distortion to their growth, causing
the faces to vary in size and sometimes shape. In college mineralogy, this problem
was resolved by requiring the classroom use of a set of crystal forms, sometimes
made of wood or plastic or aluminum. These sets were not-so-fondly termed "idiot

13
blocks" by exasperated students. Once you mastered the various forms and
understood symmetry planes, rotational axes, and form names, then you became
recognized as a "complete idiot" and could go on to examine real minerals!

Complete Symmetrical Formula

We can use symbol to write the symmetrical formula as following:
1- Plane of symmetry: m
2- Axis of symmetry: 2, 3, 4, 6 and we can write the number of the axis at up left as 34
3- Center of symmetry: n
For example: the complete symmetrical formula of hexoctahedral class of Isometric
system: 34/m 43 62/m n

Classes of symmetry
Depending upon what elements of symmetry are present, all crystals may be
divided into 32 distinct groups called CLASSES OF SYMMETRY. Remember, we
concern ourselves with the symmetry elements we learned above, not the malformed
crystal shapes of most minerals. Only forms which belong to the same class can occur
in combination together in nature. We can not find a cube face on a hexagonal crystal.
Likewise, we will never discover the rhombic dipyramid termination of a hexagonal
crystal on a tetragonal crystal. So our laws, rules, and symmetry elements previously
discussed prevent chaos in our beautifully symmetrical world of crystallography.
Certainly, when dealing with real crystals, distortion problems can arise! Think of
capillary pyrite. Here you have a cubic crystal which, due to a growth phenomenon,
has one axis nearing infinity in length in relation to the other two. But this is caused
by special conditions during growth, not the crystallography.
There are graphical methods of plotting all possible crystal faces and
symmetry elements on a type of diagram called a stereo net. Stereo nets give a way to
represent three-dimensional data on a two-dimensional surface (a flat sheet of paper)

Axial ratios-crystal parameters and Miller indices

Intercepts
Absolute Intercepts: The distances from the center of the crystal at which the
face cuts the crystallographic axes.

14
Relative Intercepts: divided the absolute intercepts by the intercept of the face
with b axis.
Ex: if the absolute intercepts (a:b:c)are 1mm : 2mm : ½ mm, the relative intercepts
will be ½ : 2/2 : ¼ = o.5 : 1 : o.25

Parameters
The parameters of the crystal face are the intercepts of this face divided by the
axes lengths.
EXAMPLE:
The parameters of the unit face abc is
oa ob oc
oa ob oc = 1:1:1

The parameters of the face def is

od oe of = 1/4 : 1/3 :1/2
oa ob oc
a

The parameters of the face anm is

oa on om
: : = 1 : 4/3 : 2
oa ob oc

If the face parallel to the axis,

It's intercept = ∞
It's Parameter = ∞

Indices
We must touch on a type of notation often seen in mineral literature known as
Miller Indices. Before William H. Miller (1801-1880) devised this mathematical
system for describing any crystal face or group of similar faces (forms), there existed
a considerable amount of confusion due to the many different descriptive systems.
Some of these systems used letter symbols to denote crystal faces and forms. Also
different mineralogical "schools" existed as to how a given crystal should be viewed
or oriented before assigning the crystallographic axes and then describing the various

15
 faces and forms present. If you were of the German school, you had one view; from
the English school another thought; from the French school, still another opinion.
So the problem was really one of how to bring order to the literature's chaos. To the
problem, Miller (University of Cambridge) applied relatively simple mathematics -
the Universal Language. To the lettering systems, Miller described the a,b,c (for
hexagonal crystals his notation is four numbers long) intercepts of each planar crystal
form as numbers and also made note of the form letter. His numbering system became
widely accepted and is known as Miller indices. The numbers are presented as whole
numbers (fractions are not allowed) and are the reciprocal of the actual intercept
number, all whole numbers being reduced by their lowest common denominator.
The Miller indices of a face consist of a series of whole numbers which have
been derived from the parameters by their inversion and if necessary the subsequent
clearing of fractions. If the parameters are 111 so the indices will be 111. If the
parameters are 11∞ and on inversion 1/1, 1/1, 1/ ∞ woud have (110) for indices. Faces
which have respectively the parameters 1, 1, ½ would on inversion yield 1/1, 1/1, 2/1
thus on clearing of fractions the resulting indices would be respectively (112). It is
sometimes convenient when the exact intercepts are unkown to use a general symbol
(hkl) for the miller indices.
3-D Miller Indices (an unusually complex example)
c
a b c
unknown face (XYZ) 2 2 2
reference face (ABC) 1 4 3
C
1 4 3
invert 2 2 2 Z

clear of fractions ( 1 4 3)

Miller index of face O

XYZ using ABC as A
the reference face X Y

a b

16
 From the above example we can note that Miller indices always given with 3
numbers A, b, c axes. Larger the Miller index #, closer to the origin. Face parallel to
an axis, intercept is 0 .
Here are a couple of simple examples from the cubic system. Let us first
describe a face of an octahedron and later a cube using Miller's indices. First, we
should realize that an octahedron is an eight-sided crystal form that is the simple
repetition of an equilateral triangle about our 3 crystallographic axes. The triangle is
oriented so that it crosses the a1, a2, and a3 axes all
at the same distance from the axial cross. This unit
distance is given as 1. Dividing 1 into the whole
number 1 (it's a reciprocal, remember?) yields a
value of 1 for each Miller number. So the Miller
indices is (111) for the face that intercepts the
positive end of each of the 3 axes. See Figure 12
for all possible numbers for the 8 faces. Note: A bar
Figure 12
over the number tells me that the intercept was
across the negative end of the particular crystallographic axis. The octahedral form is
given the letter designation of "o".
Now to the cube face. A cube face that intercepts the a3 (vertical) axis on the
+ end will not intercept the a1 and a2 axes. If the
face does not intercept an axis, then we assign a
mathematical value of infinity to it. So we start
with Infinity, Infinity, 1 (a1, a2, a3). Infinity
divided into 0 = 0 (any number divided into zero
equals zero). So the Miller indices of the +a3
intercept face equals (001). See the drawing for Figure 13
all possible Miller indices for the 6 faces of a cube (Figure 13).
I think we should briefly mention cleavage at this point. CLEAVAGE is the
preferred planar direction of breakage that many minerals possess. It is due to planes
of weakness that exist in some minerals because the bonding strength between the
atoms or molecules is not the same in every direction. Because crystals are composed
of orderly arrangements of atoms or molecules, we really should expect cleavage to
be present in many crystals. The notation that denotes cleavage is derived in much the
same manner as Miller indices, but is expressed in braces. So a cubic crystal, say

17
diamond, no matter whether it exhibits cubic {001} or octahedral {111} crystal form,
has an octahedral cleavage form that is given as {111}.
Note: The Miller indices when used as face symbols are enclosed in
parentheses, as the (111) face for example. Form symbols are enclosed in braces, as
the {111} form for example. Zone symbols are enclosed in brackets, [111] for
example and denote a zone axis in the crystal. So in the discussion of cleavage
(above), you must use braces to denote cleavage. Cleavage is analogous to form as
cubic, octahedral, or pinacoidal cleavage and does not refer to just one face of a form.

Methods of Crystal Drawing

Imagine one wishes to represent a cube on paper. There are six square faces but
one cannot see them all at once (unless the cube is transparent!). The hidden edges
may be included in the drawing to indicate their positions as if they were visible.
Only one face will be seen if the cube is viewed centrally and perpendicular to this
face: not a very informative view if one wishes to obtain an overall impression of the
object (which in this case might be a square prism). It is usual to arrange the
viewpoint so that as many faces as possible are visible, or equivalently the object is
turned so that this is the case. There are four methods to represent the object on paper:
1. Clingraphic Projection
2. Orthogonal Projection
3. Spherical Projection
4. Stereographic Projection

1- Clingraphic Projection
In the clinographic projection the cube
is turned through an angle ( ) about a
vertical axis, making both the front and
right hand faces visible. The cube is then
projected on to a vertical plane by parallel
straight lines, which are inclined to the
horizontal so that the top face is brought
into view.

18
 2- Orthogonal Projection
It is a means of representing a three-dimensional object in two-dimensional.
The two-dimensional graphic representation of an object formed by the perpendicular
intersections of lines drawn from points on the object to a plane of projection. Also
called orthographic projection. For example, an orthographic projection of a house
typically consists of a top view, or plan, and a front view and one side view (front and
side elevations)

Orthogonal Projection Clingraphic Projection

3- Spherical Projection
3-Spherical Projection
Imagine that we have a crystal inside
Imagine that we have a crystal
of a sphere. From each crystal face we draw
inside of a sphere.
a line perpendicular From
to the face each
(poles to the
crystal
face). Noteface
that thewe draw
p angle a line
is measured in
perpendicular to the
the vertical plane containing thec axisface
and
(poles
the poletoto the face).
the face, and the angle ф is

Note that the  angle is measured in the vertical plane

measured in the horizontal plane, clockwise
from the b axis. The pole to a hypothetical (010) face will coincide with the b
containing the c axis and the pole to the face, and the 
crystallographic axis, and will impinge on the inside of the sphere at the equator.
angle is measured in the horizontal plane, clockwise
from the b axis.
19
The pole to a hypothetical (010) face will coincide
4- Stereographic Projection
4-Stereographic Projection
Stereographic projection is a method used to depict the
angular relationships between crystal faces.
Imagine that we have a crystal inside of a sphere.
N (001)
This time, however we
(0-11) (011)
will first look at a cross-
section of the sphere as
ρ
shown in the diagram. We (0-10)
W E
orient the crystal such that ρ/2
(010)
the pole to the (001) face
(the c axis) is vertical and
points to the North pole of
the sphere.

For the (011) face we N (001)

draw the pole to the (0-11) (011)
face to intersect the
outside the of the ρ
sphere. Then, we draw W E
(0-10) (010)
a line from the point ρ/2

on the sphere directly

to the South Pole of
the sphere.
Where this line intersects the equatorial plane is
where we plot the point. The stereographic projection
then appears on the equatorial plane.

20
In the right hand-diagram we see the stereographic projection
for faces of an isometric crystal. Note how the ρ angle is
measured as the distance from the center of the projection to
the position where the crystal face plots. The Φ angle is
measured around the circumference of the circle, in a
clockwise direction away from the b crystallographic axis or
the plotting position of the (010) crystal face

N (001)

(0-11) (011)

ρ
(0-10) (0-11) (001) (011)
(010)
W E W E
(0-10) (010)
ρ/2 ρ

The following rules are applied:

1- The Primitive Circle is the circle that cross cuts
the sphere and separates it into two equal parts
(North hemisphere and South hemisphere). It is
drawn as solid circle when represents a mirror
plane.
2- All crystal faces are plotted as poles (lines
perpendicular to the crystal face. Thus, angles
between crystal faces are really angles between
poles to crystal faces.
3- The b crystallographic axis is taken as the
starting point. Such an axis will be perpendicular to
the (010) crystal face in any crystal system. The
[010] axis (note zone symbol) or (010) crystal face
will therefore plot at Φ = 0° and ρ = 90°.

21
4- Mirror planes are shown as solid lines and curves.
The horizontal plane is represented by a circle
match with the primitive circle.
5- Crystal faces that are on the top of the crystal ρ <
90°) will be plotted as "+" signs, and crystal faces on
the bottom of the crystal (ρ > 90°) will be plotted as
open circles “ ".
6- The poles faces that parallel to the c
crystallographic axis lie on the periphery of the
primitive circle and is plotted as "+" signs.
7- The poles faces that perpendicular to the c
crystallographic axis lie on the center of the
primitive circle.
8- The pole face parallels to one of the horizontal
axes will plotted on the plane that perpendiculars to
this axis.
9- The Unit Face (that met with the positive ends of
the three or four crystallographic axes will be
plotted in the lower right quarter of the primitive
circle.
As an example all of the faces, both upper and
lower, for a crystal in the class 4/m2/m in the forms
{100} (hexahedron, 6 faces) and {110}
(dodecahedron, 12 faces) are in the stereogram to
the right +
(-100)

(-1-10)
+ + (-110)
(-10-1) (-101)
+
-- -+
(00-1) (001)
b (0-10) + (0-1-1)+ (0-11)
+ +(011) + (010)
(01-1)

+- ++ +
(10-1) (101)

+
(1-10)
+
(110)

a +
(100)

22
Crystal forms and symmetry classes
Let's discuss CRYSTAL FORMS and the 32 SYMMETRY CLASSES! Again
we must begin with some definitions. Unfortunately, the term "form" is loosely used
by many people to indicate outward appearance. However, we must "tighten up" our
definition when discussing crystallography. HABIT is the correct term to indicate
outward appearance. Habit, when applied to natural crystals and minerals, includes
such descriptive terms as tabular, equidimensional, acicular, massive, reniform, drusy,
and encrusting.

Drusy Quartz in Geode Tabular Orthoclase Feldspar Encrusting Smithsonite

As a crystallographer, I use "form" with a more restricted meaning. A FORM is a

group of crystal faces, all having the same relationship to the elements of symmetry of
a given crystal system. These crystal faces display the same physical and chemical
properties because the ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT (internal geometrical
relationships) of the atoms composing them is the SAME. The relationship between
form and the elements of symmetry is an important one to grasp, because no matter
how distorted a natural crystal may be, certain key elements will be recognizable to
help the student discern what form or forms are present. The term general form has
specific meaning in crystallography. In each crystal class, there is a form in which the
faces intersect each crytallographic axes at different lengths. This is the general form
{hkl} and is the name for each of the 32 classes (hexoctahedral
class of the isometric system, for example). All other forms are
called special forms.
Let's look at an octahedron as an example (fig. 2.1). All the
crystal faces present are the expression of the repetition of a
single form having the Miller indices of {111} about the three
crystallographic axes (remember those from the first article?). Each face on a natural
crystal (octahedral galena or fluorite are examples), when rotated to the position of the

23
(111) face in the drawing, would have the same shape and orientation of striations,
growth pits or stair steps, and etch pits, if present.
The presence of these features is true whether or not the crystal is well formed
or distorted in its growth. Note that I did NOT state that the faces are necessarily the
same size on the natural crystal!
In fact, due to variations in growth conditions, the faces are usually not. In the
literature, you may see a notation, given as {hkl}. This is the notation, presented as
Miller indices for general form. The octahedral form is given as {111}, the same as
the face that intersects all positive ends of the crystallographic axes. A single form
may show closure, as with an octahedron, or may not, as in a pinacoid (an open two-
faced form). So every form has an {hkl} notation. In the case of general notation
concerning the hexagonal system, it is {hk-il} and is read as "h, k, minus i, l".
Before leaving this discussion of form, here are a couple of examples of how
knowledge of the interrelationships of forms and crystal systems may be used.
Someone gives you a quartz crystal and says, "Look at this crystal. It's not normal."
Normal to this person, we assume means an elongate (prismatic), 6-sided crystal form
with a 6-faced termination on the free-growth end. When you examine the "abnormal"
crystal, it is highly distorted, broken, and has regrowth faces.
Prism faces on quartz crystals almost always have striations
at right angles to the c crystallographic axis and parallel to
the plane of the a1, a2, and a3 axes. These striations are due
to the variable growth rates of the terminal faces as the
mineral crystallized. Knowing about the striations and their
orientation, you examine the surface of the specimen and,
with reflected light, find the prism faces by their striations.
Terminal (or pyramidal) faces on quartz crystals often exhibit triangular pits or
platforms. By finding them, you can then determine if any other faces that would be
really unusual are present. Not finding any unusual faces, you can return the specimen
to the person with the comment, "Well, your crystal is certainly interesting, but it does
not have any unusual forms. What it does display is a complex growth history
reflected by its less than ideal crystal shape."

24
Most people and many collectors recognize unusual habits, but not unusual forms.
They note that the shape of a crystal is odd looking, but don't have the background in
crystallography to know if the crystal is truly unusual. A broken and regrown quartz
crystal is not particularly special, but a quartz crystal with a c pinacoidal termination
is worth noting, as it is a very uncommon form for quartz. I
have only seen a few from one locality. Being the skeptic
that I am, I purchased one crystal which had another
mineral coating the termination. I mechanically removed
the coating mineral with the edge of a pocket knife. There
for my examination was the c pinacoid termination
{0001}, satisfying me that it was a natural growth form!
A crystal's form may be completely described by use of the Miller's indices and the
Hermann-Mauguin notation of its POINT GROUP SYMMETRY. The latter
notation tells us how to orient the crystal, in each specific crystal class, to recognize
which axis (a, b, or c) is designated as having the highest symmetry. It also tells us
what other symmetry elements may be present and where they are in orientation to the
other elements.

Types of Crystal Forms

Note that there are TWO GENERAL TYPES OF FORMS: those that by
repetition close on themselves creating a complete form (termed closed) and those
that do not (termed open).
Every form has a name and there are many of them. You already know a few
of them, particularly some of the closed forms because we have been using them in
our previous discussions. The cube and octahedron are examples. There are 32 (some
say 33) forms in the nonisometric (noncubic) crystal systems and another 15 forms in
the isometric (cubic) system. Let's start to familiarize ourselves with them by making
a tabulation and including the number of faces (below). I begin the listing with the
isometric forms first, all of them being closed forms.

25
Isometric Crystal Forms
Number Number
Name of Faces
Name of Faces

(1) Cube 6 9)Tristetrahedron 12

(2) Octahedron 8 (10) Hextetrahedron 24

(3) Dodecahedron 12 (11) Deltoid dodecahedron 24

(4) Tetrahexahedron 24 (12) Gyroid 24

(5) Trapezohedron 24 (13) Pyritohedron 12

(6) Trisoctahedron 24 (14) Diploid 24

(7) Hexoctahedron 48 (15) Tetartoid 12

(8) Tetrahedron 4

26
Non-Isometric Crystal Forms

Name Number
of Faces
Name Number
of Faces

(16) Pedion* 1 (32) Dihexagonal pyramid 12

(17) Pinacoid** 2 (33) Rhombic dipyramid 8

(18) Dome or Sphenoid 2 (34) Trigonal dipyramid 6

(19) Rhombic prism 4 (35) Ditrigonal dipyramid 12

(20) Trigonal prism 3 (36) Tetragonal dipyramid 8

(21) Ditrigonal prism 6 (37) Ditetragonal dipyramid 16

(22) Tetragonal prism 4 (38) Hexagonal dipyramid 12

(23) Ditetragonal prism 8 (39) Dihexagonal dipyramid 24

(24) Hexagonal prism 6 (40) Trigonal trapezohedron 6

(25) Dihexagonal prism 12 (41) Tetragonal trapezohedron 8

(26) Rhombic pyramid 4 (42) Hexagonal trapezohedron 12

(27) Trigonal pyramid 3 (43)Tetragonal scalenohedron 8

(28)Ditrigonal pyramid 6 (44) Hexagonal scalenohedron 12

27
 (29) Tetragonal pyramid 4 (45) Rhombohedron 6

(30) Ditetragonal pyramid 8 (46) Rhombic disphenoid 4

(31) Hexagonal pyramid 6 (47) Tetragonal disphenoid 4

*Pedion may appear in several crystal systems

**Pinacoid drawing displays 3 pairs of pinacoid faces from the Orthorhombic system.
Pinacoids appear in several crystal systems.

Now you know why mineralogy students hate idiot blocks! It is important to
note that these are simply the possible INDIVIDUAL FORMS, not the combinations
of forms seen on a single natural crystal.
Fig. 2.4 Peruvian Pyrite, Various Crystal Forms
Pyrite is a common mineral which often exhibits
several forms on a single crystal. One form is usually
dominant, presenting the largest faces on the crystal.
Peruvian pyrite commonly has cubic, octahedral, and
dodecahedral forms on a single crystal; sometimes
even pyritohedral and diploid faces may be present. Any of these individual forms
may be the dominant one. Crystals with the same forms present, but with different
dominant forms will each appear very different (fig. 2.4). As we explore each crystal
system, there will be illustrations displaying most of the ideal forms and some
drawings showing combinations of forms often exhibited by individual mineral
crystals.

28
 CHAPTER 3
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF
THE CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

THE CUBIC (ISOMETRIC) SYSTEM

Now you are ready to consider the first of our 6 crystal systems. There are 15
forms, all closed, in the ISOMETRIC CRYSTAL SYSTEM-- more than in any
other single system we will examine. You may wish to briefly refer back to the first
chapter, when we built an axial cross. In the isometric system, all 3 crystallographic
axes are at right angles to each other and are the same length. The axes are renamed
a1, a2, and a3. We need to remember that a3 is vertical, a2 is horizontal, and a1 is
front to back.
Crystal forms in the isometric system have the highest degree of
SYMMETRY, when compared to all the other crystal systems. Did you know that
there is only ONE object in the geometrical universe with perfect symmetry?
Consider the sphere (fig. 3.1). Infinite planes of symmetry pass
through its center, infinite rotational axes are present, and no matter
how little or much you rotate it on any of its infinite number of axes, it
appears the same! A sphere is the HOLY GRAIL of symmetry!!
No crystal system even approaches a sphere's degree of symmetry, but
the isometric system is often quickly recognizable because some of the forms and
combinations of forms somewhat approach sphericity (or, at least, roundness),
especially when the faces begin to be curved, due to the high degree of symmetry in
the isometric system.

There are 7 possible forms which may be present in the Hexoctahedron class:
Cube {001} Dodecahedron {011} Trapezohedron {hhl} Hexoctahedron {hkl}
Octahedron {111} Tetrahexahedron {0kl} Trisoctahedronv {hll}

For these forms, the 3 crystallographic axes are axes of 4-fold rotation. There are also
4 diagonal axes of 3-fold rotary inversion that pass through the form at the point
where the cube's 3 faces would join. Furthermore, there are 6 directions of 2-fold

29
symmetry (at the center of the line formed by the intersection of 2 planes). There is
also a center of symmetry. There are 9 mirror planes (see figs. 1.5 and 1.6 in first
chapter). This combination of symmetry elements defines the highest possible
symmetry of crystals 34/m -43 62/m n
In a textbook, my notation (-3) is presented as the number 3 with a negative
sign above it, but due to computers and web browsers, I can't place this special
notation properly in cyberspace, so don't get confused if you look this up in a
mineralogy book! It should be pronounced as "negative 3" or "bar3". In this instance,
the -3 is the notation for the 3-fold axis of rotary inversion. I will consistently use the
negative sign before the number when it is necessary. The same stands true for my
notation when dealing with Miller indices or general form notation.
Crystallographers group forms by their symmetry notation, the first seven we
will consider have the same symmetry 34/m -43 62/m n

CUBE-- The cube is composed of 6 square faces at 90 degree angles to each other.
Each face intersects one of the crystallographic axes and is parallel to the other two
(fig. 3.2). This form, {001}, is one of the easiest to recognize and many minerals
display it with little modification. Think of galena, pyrite, fluorite, perovskite, or
halite cubes!

(-100)

+
+
(0-10) + + + (010)
+

+
(100) 1- Cube (Hexahedron)

OCTAHEDRON-- The octahedron is a form composed of 8 equilateral triangles.

+
These triangle-shaped faces intersect all 3 crystallographic axes at the same distance, +
thus the form notation of {111} (fig. 3.3). Minerals commonly exhibiting the simple
+
octahedral form are magnetite, chromite, franklinite, spinel, pyrochlore, cuprite, gold,
+
and diamond. Sometimes fluorite, pyrite, and galena take this form. +
Stereographic projection of Cubic System
Forms.
3- Rh
30
 (-100)

+
+ +
(0-10) + + + (010)
(-100) + +
(111)
+
+
(100) 1- Cube (Hexahedron) 2- Octahedron
+ +
(0-10) + + + (010)
DODECAHEDRON (AKA Rhombic Dodecahedron) -- This form is composed of 12
+ +
+ + +faces intersects two of the
rhomb-shaped faces (fig. 3.4). Each of these rhomb-shaped
(111)
axes at equidistance and is parallel to the 3rd axis, thus the notation {011}. The
+ +
+ mineral species of the garnet group often display
different
+
this form. Magnetite and
(100) sometimes
sodalite 1- Cubeexhibit
(Hexahedron)
this form. 2- Octahedron
+ + (110)
Stereographic projection of Cubic System
Forms.
3- Rhombic dodecahedron
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ + (110)
Stereographic projection of Cubic System
Forms.
3- Rhombic dodecahedron

TETRAHEXAHEDRON-- This form has 24 isoceles triangular faces. The easiest

way to understand its shape is to envision a cube that on each face has 4 equal-sized
triangular faces (fig. 3.5) that have been raised from the center of the cube face. Each
triangular face has its base attached to the edge of the cube and the apex of the two
equal-length sides rises to meet the 4-fold axis. Because of the variation of inclination
to this axis, there exists a number of possible tetrahexahedral forms, but all meet the
general notation of {0hl}.

+ +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ +
+ + + + +
+ +
+ + + + + (221)
+ +
+ + (210)
4- Tetrahexahedron 5- Trisoctahedron

31 + + + +
+ + + + + ++ ++ +
++ ++
+ + + +
The most common form is {012}. It is interesting to note that as the combination of
each set of 4 faces rise along the axis, this form approaches the dodecahedron. As
they fall, the form approaches a cube. The tetrahexahedron is rarely the dominant
form on natural crystals, instead being subordinant to the cube, octahedron or
dodecahedron (fig. 3.6). Cubic minerals on which you may sometimes see this form
exhibited include fluorite (cube and
tetrahexahedron), magnetite or copper
(octahedron and tetrahexahedron) and
garnet (dodecahedron and
tetrahexahedron).

TRAPEZOHEDRON (AKA Tetragon-trioctahedron) -- This form has 24 similar

trapezium-shaped faces. If my Webster's is correct, a trapezium is a 4-sided plane that
has no sides parallel. Each of these faces intersects a crystallographic axis at a unit
distance and the other two axes at equal distances, but those intersections must be
+ +
greater than the unit distance. It sounds pretty complicated,+but see the drawing (fig. + + + +
+ + +
3.7). Because there may be various intercepts distances + +
+ +on +
the +two axes, the form
+
+ +
symbol {hhl} in general is used. The most common + mineral form+ is {112}. Two + + + (221)
+ +
+ (210)trapezohedrons.
silicate minerals, analcime and leucite, usually crystallize+as simple
4- Tetrahexahedron 5- Trisoct

+ + + +
+ + + + + ++ ++ +
++ ++
+ + + + ++ ++
+ +(211) + ++ ++ +
+ +
(321)

6-Trapezohedron 7- Hexaoct

This form is not uncommon, varying from

dominant to subordinate, on many varieties of
garnet, where it is often combined with the
dodecahedron (fig. 3.8).

TRISOCTAHEDRON (AKA Trigonal Trisoctahedron ) -- This is another 24-faced

form, but the faces are isoceles triangles. Each face intersects two crystallographic

32
axes at unity, and the third axes at some multiple of unity; hence the form notation in
general of {hll}.
+ +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ +
+ + + + +
+ +
+ + + + + (221)
+ +
+ + (210)
4- Tetrahexahedron 5- Trisoctahedron

To more easily visualize what a trisoctahedron looks like, first think of an

octahedron. +
+
Each octahedral face is divided into+3+isoceles
+ + triangles by drawing 3
+ + + + + + + +
+ + face+and
lines, each originating at the center of the octahedral + reaching the 3 corners
+ + +
+ Repeat
of that face. this operation for the remaining
+ ++ on
+ +7+ faces + an octahedron and you
+ +(211) (fig. 3.9). As a dominant
have a trisoctahedron + ++ the
+ + form,
(321)
trisoctahedron is scarce, most commonly being reported for
6-Trapezohedron 7- Hexaoctahedron
diamond, usually as a subordinant form (fig. 3.10).
It has recently been demonstrated that trisoctahedral
diamond is probably not a true crystal form (true crystal forms are
growth forms), but instead a solution form caused by the
differential dissolving of octahedral diamond during its transport from the mantle to
the crust, but that's another story altogether! As a subordinant form, it has been
reported in combination with the octahedron for fluorite and magnetite and in
combination with cube and octahedron on complex crystals of galena.

+ +
+
HEXOCTAHEDRON-- This form has 48 triangular faces,
+ + + + 6 faces appearing to be
+ +
raised from+each face of a simple octahedron. + + be envisioned by drawing a
These may
+ + + + +
line from the + an octahedral
+ center of each of the 3 edges of face, through the face
+ + + +
(221)
center to the+ opposite corner. Repeat this for+the remaining
+ 7 faces of an octahedron
+ + (210)
and you have a hexoctahedron (fig. 3.11).
4- Tetrahexahedron 5- Trisoctahedron

+ + + +
+ + + + + ++ ++ +
++ ++
+ + + + ++ ++
+ +(211) + ++ ++ +
+ +
(321)

6-Trapezohedron 7- Hexaoctahedron
33
 Just like the trisoctahedral form, this form is most often seen
on diamond, where it is thought to represent a solution form derived
from an octahedron, not true crystallization. With both the tris- and
hexoctahedron, the faces are often curved, resulting in a near
spherical shape. The combination of dominant dodecahedron and
subordinant hexoctahedron is not uncommon for garnet (fig. 3.12)

We have 8 remaining forms in the isometric system to consider. The next 4 have the
Hermann-Mauguin notation of -43m. These are the tetrahedron, tristetrahedron,
deltoid dodecahedron, and hextetrahedron.

TETRAHEDRON-- The tetrahedron includes both a positive and negative form with
the notation {111} and {1-11}, respectively. These are simple mirror images of one
another. A tetrahedron is a 4-faced form, each face being an equilateral triangle.
Each face intersects all 3 crystallographic axes at the same
distance. You may derive this form from an octahedron by
extending alternate faces until they meet (this also shrinks the
opposing set of alternate faces until they disappear).
Figure 3.13 displays the orientation of the tetrahedral form in
relation to the cube. We aren't just speculating that both the
positive and negative forms exist because they are often seen
together (fig. 3.14) on a single crystal!
If both positive and negative forms are equal sized on a single
crystal, then the initial appearance of the crystal form is
INDISTINGUISHABLE from an octahedron. Here is where the
differences in and orientation of surface features become exceedingly important in
form study. One mineral so commonly has this crystal form that the mineral was
named after the form itself - tetrahedrite. Other examples are diamond, helvite, and
sphalerite.

TRISTETRAHEDRON-- By now, I think you might be able to tell

me from my previous examples how to derive this form. Yep, take a
tetrahedron and raise 3 isoceles triangle-shaped faces on each of the
4 tetrahedral faces. So this form has 12 triangular faces (fig. 3.15).

34
 Just like the tetrahedron, there are both positive and negative forms,
designated as {hhl} and {h-hl}, respectively.This is only a relatively
common form on tetrahedrite, usually subordinant to the tetrahedron
(fig. 3.16), but has also been reported on sphalerite and boracite.
The possibility of it being present on diamond can't be overlooked,
but as mentioned, it may be the result of solution processes, rather
than crystallization.

HEXTETRAHEDRON-- Again, we take a tetrahedron and, in similar manner as the

hexoctahedron, we raise 6 triangular faces having a common apex
from the center of the equilateral triangular face of the tetrahedron.
Repeating this on the entire tetrahedron results in 24 faces (fig.
3.17). There are both positive and negative forms, designated as
{hkl} and {h-kl}, respectively. This form has been reported on
tetrahedrite, but rarely on sphalerite. Also a possible solution form on diamond.

DELTOID DODECAHEDRON-- This is a 12-faced form, derived

by raising 3 4-sided faces on the each face of a tetrahedron (fig.
3.18). The shape of the resultant faces are rhombic. There are both
positive and negative forms, designated as {hll} and {h-ll},
respectively. This form is sometimes seen as a subordinate one on
tetrahedrite or sphalerite, where it would appear as a set of 3 rhombic faces modifying
the corners of the dominant tetrahedral shape.

Now we have only 4 remaining forms to discuss in the isometric system. The
first to consider is the gyroid.
GYROID (Pentagon-trioctahedron)-- This form
has no center of symmetry! The Hermann-
Mauguin notation is 432. There are two forms,
based on right- and left-handed symmetry (fig.
3.19). Older mineral textbooks state that this is a
rare form, sometimes reported on cuprite. But most recent textbooks indicate that a
restudy of cuprite's crystallography showed cuprite to probably be hexoctahedral. If

35
this is so, then we have no natural mineral that crystallizes with this form, although
some laboratory-grown crystals with this form are known.
Two of the 3 remaining forms have 3 2-fold rotational axes, 4 3-fold rotary inversion
axes, and 3 of the axial planes are mirror planes of symmetry. The Hermann-Mauguin
notation is 2/m-3. These forms consist of the pyritohedron and the diploid.

PYRITOHEDRON (Pentagonal dodecahedron)-- There are 12 pentagonal faces,

each of which intersects one crystallographic axis at unity, intersects a second axis at
some multiple of unity, and is parallel to the third axis. There are
positive and negative forms, designated as {h0l} and {0kl},
respectively. There are a number of pyritohedral forms, differing
due to the degree of inclination of the faces. The most common
form is the {102}, the positive form (fig. 3.20). Pyrite is the only
common mineral that displays this form. It is often subordinate, combining with the
cube, diploid (below), or octahedron.

DIPLOID (Didodecahedron)-- There are 24 faces (fig. 3.21), each face corresponding
to one-half of the faces of a hexoctahedron. This is a rare form.
You should compare figures 3.20 and 3.21. The diploid looks like
a pyritohedron where two faces are made from each pentagonal
face of the pyritohedron. The resulting faces are trapezia. There
are both positive and negative forms, designated as {hkl} and
{khl}, respectively. Pyrite is the only common mineral that
exhibits the diploid form.

TETARTOID (pentagon-tritetrahedron)-- The Hermann-Mauguin

notation is 23. It has 3 2-fold rotation crystallographic axes and 4
diagonal axes that have 3-fold rotational symmetry. There are
actually 4 separate forms in this class: positive right {hkl},
positive left {khl}, negative right {k-hl}, and negative left {h-kl}.
See figure 3.22 for the positive right form. Cobaltite, an uncommon mineral, often
crystallizes in this form. The tetartoid may be present as a subordinate form in
combination with the cube, dodecahedron, pyritohedron, tetrahedron, and deltoid
dodecahedron.

36
 Do you remember the naturalist Steno from the 16th century?? We mentioned him
in the introductory article. Well, here's some information that he and later
crystallographer's discovered about isometric crystals and the interfacial angles of
some of the different forms. This information could come in handy when you are
deciding which of the common forms you have present on complex isometric crystals.
 The angle between two adjoining cube faces is 90 degrees.
 The angle between two adjoining octahedral faces is 70 degrees 32 minutes.
 The angle between two adjoining dodecahedral faces is 60 degrees.
 The angle between a cube (100) and a octahedron (111) is 54 degrees 44
minutes.
 The angle between a cube (100) and a dodecahedron (110) is 45 degrees.
 The angle between an octahedron (111) and a dodecahedron (110) is 35
degrees 16 minutes.

THE TETRAGONAL SYSTEM

Our discussion of the TETRAGONAL SYSTEM

starts by examining the tetragonal axial cross and comparing it
to the isometric axial cross. Remember that in the isometric
system all 3 axes were the same length and at right angles to
each other. In the tetragonal system, we retain the same
angular relationships, but vary the length of the vertical axis,
allowing it to be either longer or shorter than the other two.
We then relabel the vertical axis as c, retaining the same
positive and negative orientation of this axis (see fig. 4.1a and
4.1b)
As to the Hermann-Mauguin notation for the tetragonal
system, the first part of the notation (4 or -4) refers to the c
axis and the second or third parts refer to the a1 and a2 axes
and diagonal symmetry elements, in that order. The ditetragonal bipyramid class
(tetragonal prism and pyramid forms) have the symmetry notation 4/m 22/m 22/m.

37
 First, I want to consider the tetragonal prisms. There are 3 of these open
forms consisting of the 1st order, 2nd order, and ditetragonal prisms. Because they are
not closed forms, in our figures we will add a simple pinacoid termination,
designated as c. The pinacoid form intersects only the c axis, so its Miller indices
notation is {001}. It is a simple open 2-faced form.

+ +
(00-1)
+ (001)

+ + (110)
1- Basal Pinacoid 2- Tetragonal prism of 1st order
+
+ + + +
+ + (00-1)
+
(001) (001)

Stereographic projection of Tetragonal

System Forms.
+ + (110) + + +(
(100)
1- Basal Pinacoid 2- Tetragonal prism of 1st order 3- Tetragonal Prism of 2nd Order 1- Basal Pinacoid 2- Tetragonal prism of
+ +
The first order prism is a form having 4 faces that are parallel to the c axis and
having
+ each face intersect
+ the a1 and a2 axes at the same distance (unity). These faces +
are designated by the letter m (given with Miller indices in fig. 4.2a and by m in fig.
ection of Tetragonal Stereographic projection of Tetragonal
4.2c) and the+ form symbol is {110}. The second
(100)
order
System Forms. prism is essentially +
(100)
3- Tetragonal Prism of 2 Order nd
3- Tetragonal Prism of 2
identical to the first order prism, but rotated about the c axis to where the faces are
parallel to one of the a axes (fig. 4.2b), thus being perpendicular to the other a axis.
The faces of the second order prism are designated as a and their form symbol is
{100}.
It becomes apparent that the faces of both prisms are identical, and their letter
designation is only dependent on how they are oriented to the two a axes. When these
forms are combined (fig. 4.2c), then you may readily see their relationships, one to the
other. If each form is equally developed, the result is an eight-sided prism. In this
instance, we must remember that this apparent shape is the combination of two
distinct forms. The third prism form is the ditetragonal prism (fig. 4.3, the

38
common {210} form). It may easily be confused with the
combination form of the first and second order prisms, especially
if they are equally developed. But compare the orientation of the
ditetragonal prism to the a axes in relation to the combination
form. What you should do is envision looking down the c axis of
the ditetragonal prism and the combined 1st and 2nd order
tetragonal prisms, then you will see the similarity.

The ditetragonal prism {210} would

+ +
closely approximate the combined prism
+ + +
forms, and with natural malformations,
b
could be indistinguishable one from the
+ +
other. When examining a natural crystal +
surface, features, such as orientation of + +
(210)
a a
striations, growth or etch pits, may be
4- Ditetragonal prism 5- Tetragonal bipyra
different on the two prisms of the combined
form, whereas with the ditetragonal prism all these features will have the same
+ + +
orientation. The ditetragonal prism has the symbol (hk0).
+ +
Another form in the tetragonal system is the bipyramid and
b there are 3 +
types of bipyramids. They correspond to the three+types of prisms+just described. The +
+ + all three axes (this is
name bipyramid is given to a closed form whose plane intersects
(101)
(211)
a a
true in all crystal systems but the isometric).
We do not allow this form to intersect the c axis 7-
at Ditetragonal bipyramid
the same length as the a 6- Tetragonal b

axes, because we already defined that form as an octahedron in the isometric system.
So it can intersect at either a longer or shorter
distance along the c axis
+ than the
+ length of
the a axes. Note the orientation to the
+ + + +
axial cross (fig. 4.4, the common {111}
b
form). We designate the faces of the b
+ + +
first order bipyramid as p. The second + (111)
+ shape as
order bipyramid has+the basic
(210)
a a
the form of the first order bipyramid,
4- Ditetragonal prism 5- Tetragonal bipyramid of 1st Order
differing only in its orientation to the axial cross

+ + +
+ + 39
b + + b
+ +
 + +
+ + + +
b
b
+ + +
+ bipyramid
(fig. 4.5, the common {011} form). The second order faces are designated
(111)
+ e.
by the letter +
(210)
a a
4- Ditetragonal prism 5- Tetragonal bipyramid of 1st Order

+ + +
+ +
b + + b
+ +
+
+ + (101)
(211)
a a
7- Ditetragonal bipyramid 6- Tetragonal bipyramid of 2nd Order

Zircon is a wonderful mineral to observe both the tetragonal bipyramid and

tetragonal prism faces on. In fact, you might be surprised at the variation of the length
of the c axis in zircon crystals from different localities. Zircon may vary from short
stocky nearly equidimensional crystals to almost acicular and have the same basic
forms. Before we discuss the 3rd bipyramid form, you need to look at the various
drawings in Figure 4.6 to realize the variety of what may be produced by combining
these simple tetragonal forms. In figure 4.6c, the faces designated as u represent
another 1st order bipyramid with a different angle of intersection with the vertical
axis.

Now to the 3rd bipyramid form, the ditetragonal bipyramid. Yes, it's a
closed termination form having 16 faces (fig. 4.7). Think of this form as a double 8-
sided pyramid whose 16 similar faces meet the 3 axes at unequal distances. The
general symbol is {hkl}. This form is rarely dominant, but is common enough as a
subordinant form on zircon to be nicknamed a zirconoid. In figure 4.7, although the

40
 + +
+ + + +
b

+ + +
+ (11
prism is not present and therefore is simply at the junction of the two faces, we have
+ +
marked its position if it had been expressed by an arrow and (210)
a the letter m. a
4- Ditetragonal prism 5- Tetragonal bipyram

+ + +
+ +
b +
+ +
+
+ + (101)
(211)
a a
7- Ditetragonal bipyramid 6- Tetragonal bipy

The next forms in this system to consider have the Hermann-Mauguin

symmetry notation of -42m. These closed forms include the tetragonal

scalenohedron (AKA rhombic scalenohedron) and the disphenoid (AKA

tetragonal tetrahedron). Important to remember with both these
forms is the existence of a 4-fold axis of rotary inversion.
The tetragonal disphenoid exists as both a positive and
negative form. It has only 4 faces (fig. 4.8a). Both forms may be
expressed on a single crystal (fig. 4.8b). The faces are
designated by the letter p for the positive form and p1 for the
negative form. This form differs from the tetrahedron of the
isometric system in that the vertical axis is not the same length
as the other two axes. The only common mineral in this class is
chalcopyrite.
The tetragonal scalenohedron (fig. 4.9) is rare by itself, but is
often expressed with other forms on chalcopyrite and stannite. It
may be derived from the disphenoid form of this system by
drawing a line from one corner of each disphenoid face to the
center of the line joining the two opposite corners, and raising
two faces from the resulting division. Thus, from a 4-faced
disphenoid form, we derive an 8-faced form. If you are still
having trouble visualizing the form in figure 4.9, you might try
thinking of it as the combination of 4 classic diamond - shaped
kites, every other one in an upside down orientation!

41
 An open form in this system is the ditetragonal pyramid,
whose general notation is {hkl} (fig. 4.10). This form has no
symmetry plane in relation to the 2 horizontal a axes. The
symmetry notation is 4mm. Two orientations of this form in
relation to the a axes exist, one noted as {hhl} and the other as
{h0l}. Along with the ditetragonal pyramid may be an open
single-faced form termed a pedion, having a Miller indices of
{001}. The pedion will be a single face perpendicular to the c axis that "cuts off" the
sharp termination of the ditetragonal pyramid. There are upper and lower forms for
both the ditetragonal pyramid and the pedion, the upper being considered positive and
the lower negative (just like the orientation of the c axis).
The ditetragonal pyramid looks like one half of the ditetragonal bipyramid,
but on a well-formed example is present on only one end of the c axis! This form is
rarely dominant, usually being subordinant to other common prism and bipyramidal
forms. Diaboleite is the only mineral known to represent this crystal class. It is
interesting to note that although the mineral diaboleite was first described in 1923, it
was not until 1941 that crystallographers had comprehensively investigated its forms,
allowing the recognition of this form. In literature earlier than 1941, you will find the
note that no mineral is known to exist in this crystal class.
The tetragonal trapezohedron is the next form to
consider. It is a closed form consisting of 8 trapezohedral faces,
which correspond to half the faces of the ditetragonal dipyramid.
Its symmetry notation is 422, having a 4-fold rotational axis
parallel to the c axis and 2 2-fold axes at right angles to the c
axis. Missing are a center of symmetry and any mirror planes. There exists right-
and left-handed forms (fig. 4.11). Only phosgenite represents this crystal class.
In a simple form drawing (designated as e
in figs. 4.12a and 4.12b), the tetragonal
dipyramid appears to have a higher symmetry
than 4/m, but when viewed as displayed on an
actual crystal of scheelite (blue faces on fig.
4.12b), the true symmetry is revealed. Minerals
possibly expressing this closed crystal form, aside

42
from scheelite,include powellite, fergusonite, and members of the scapolite group.
Our next form is an interesting one in that it possesses only a 4-fold axis of
rotary inversion corresponding to the c axis. Its symmetry
notation is -4. The closed form of this tetragonal
disphenoid (AKA tetragonal tetrahedron) possesses only 4
faces, which are isoceles triangles (fig. 4.13).
Without other modifying forms, like the pinacoid and
tetragonal prisms, the form will appear to have two vertical
symmetry planes present, giving it the symmetry of -42m
(like the disphenoid we discussed above). Only one mineral - cahnite - is known to
represent this class.
We have now reached our final form in the tetragonal system. Although it
looks simple, it, like the last form, has very low symmetry. The tetragonal pyramid
(AKA hemihedral hemimorphic) is an open form with only a 4-
fold axis of rotation corresponding to the c axis (fig. 4.14). The
term hemimorphic sounds fancy, but is simply a short way of
saying that it appears that only half a form is displayed! No
center of symmetry or mirror planes exist in this class. It has
both upper {hkl} and lower {hk-l) forms, each having right- and left-hand variations.
Two other tetragonal pyramids have the general form notation of {hhl} and {0kl},
depending on their form orientation to the axial cross. Wulfenite is the only mineral
species to represent this form, although its crystals do not always show the difference
between the pyramidal faces, above and below, to characterize distinct complimentary
forms.

43
 THE ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM
In the orthorhombic system, we will continue the 90 degree angular
relationships between all 3 axes, but will vary the length of each individual axis. Note
that THE 3 AXES MUST BE UNEQUAL IN LENGTH. If any two are equal, then,
by convention, we are discussing the tetragonal system.
In Figure 5.1, by current practice we orient any crystal in this system so that
the length of c is greater than the length of a, which, in turn, is greater than the length
of b. You will commonly find this in textbooks as "c>a>b".
There may also be 3 mirror symmetry planes, which must be
at right angles to each other. But guess what! In the past,
mineralogists have not always observed the axial length
practice given here, and presently, the consensus is to
conform when possible to the existing literature. This reason
is why we will encounter some special orientation situations
when dealing with certain common orthorhombic minerals.
When examining an orthorhombic crystal, we find that the highest obtainable
symmetry is 2-fold. In a simple form, like the combination of the 3 pinacoids (open
form), the crystal takes on an elongate, and often tabular appearance. These are
typical forms to see expressed on barite and celestine.
The 3 pinacoids are at right angles to each other and usually the orientation of
a given crystal to the axes is accomplished by an examination of the habit and any
apparent cleavage. In topaz, the prominent pinacoidal cleavage is in the plane of the 2
shortest axes and perpendicular to the longest axis, so by convention, it is considered
perpendicular to the c axis.
However, you will often encounter the situation where a given
crystal displays a very prominent pinacoid and the crystal is
tabular in form. In such a case, we then consider the c axis at right
angle to the prominent pinacoid and the crystal is oriented as in
Figure 5.2. This is a much different appearance than the example
of topaz, noted in the paragraph above.

44
 The orthorhombic system has 3 general symmetry classes, each expressed by its
own Hermann-Mauguin notation.
Let's look at orthorhombic bipyramid class, the forms designated by the
symmetry 2/m2/m2/m n. There are 3 of these (have you noticed that almost
everything mentioned in this chapter is in 3's!): the pinacoid (also called the
parallelohedron); the rhombic prism; and the rhombic bipyramid.

The pinacoid consists of 2 parallel faces, and can occur in the 3 different
crystallographic orientations. These are the pair that
intercept the c axis and are parallel to the a and b
+
axes {001}; the pair that intercept the b axis and are
parallel to the a and c axes {010};+ and theb pair that b
(001)
intercept the a axis and are parallel to the b and c
axes {100}. They are called the c pinacoid, the b +(100)
a a
pinacoid, and the a pinacoid, respectively (fig. 5.3).
1- Basal Pinacoid 2- Front Pinacoid

+ +

(001)
+(001) + b b b b
+ +b
(010)

+(100)+(100)
a a a a
Stereographic projection of the Orthorhombic a
1- Basal Pinacoid
1- Basal Pinacoid System Forms. 2- Front
2- Front Pinacoid
Pinacoid 3- Side Pinacoid

+ an+open form, +consists

The rhombic prism, b +
(010)
b
of 4 faces which are parallel to 1
(010)

axis and intersect the other two. There are 3 of these rhombic prisms and they are
given by projection
Stereographic
Stereographic
the general notational
of the Orthorhombic forms: aorthorhombic prism of third order {hk0},
Systemprojection
Forms. of the Orthorhombic a 3- Side Pinacoid
3- Side Pinacoid
System Forms.
which is parallel to the c axis; orthorhombic prism of second order or b-dome
{h0l}, which is parallel to the b axis; and orthorhombic prism of first order or a-
dome {0kl}, which is parallel to the a axis. Figure 5.4 a,b,c present the 3 rhombic
prisms, each in combination with a corresponding pinacoidal form. Only the positive
face of the rhombic prism is labeled in these examples.

45
 + +
+
5.4a Prism of third order 5.4b b-dome
b {101} and 5.4c a-dome b{011} and
{110} and pinacoid {001} pinacoid {010} (101) +pinacoid {100}
+ +(110)
a a
4- Orthorhombic prism 5- Front dome (b-Dome)

++ ++ + +
+ +
b b
b b b + + b
(011)
+ ++ +
(101) (101)
++ +(110)
+(110)
a a a a
a a
4- Orthorhombic
4- Orthorhombic prism
prism 5- 5- Front
Front domedome (b-Dome)
(b-Dome)
7- orthorhombic bipyramid 6- Side dome (a-Dome)

++ ++
The rhombic
b b
bipyramid is the last form to consider of this symmetry class. It
+ + + +b b
is designated
++ + + by the general form {hkl}(011)
and(011)consists of 8 triangular faces, each of
which intersects all 3 crystallographic axes. This pyramid may have several different
a a
a
appearances due to the variability of6-the
7- orthorhombic bipyramid
axial
a lengths (figs. 5.6 a,b,c).
Side dome (a-Dome)
7- orthorhombic bipyramid 6- Side dome (a-Dome)

+ +
+
b b

(101) +
+ +(110)
5.6a Rhombic
a bipyramid
4- Orthorhombic prism
5.6ba
5- Front dome (b-Dome)
5.6c Sulfur crystal

+ +
b
+ + b
(011)
+ +

a a
7- orthorhombic bipyramid 6- Side dome (a-Dome)

46
 A relatively large number of orthorhombic minerals are encountered with
combinations of the various forms presented so far. These include andalusite, the
members of the aragonite and barite group, brookite, chrysoberyl, the orthopyroxenes,
goethite, marcasite, olivine, sillimanite, stibnite, sulfur, and topaz.
Next to consider are the few forms having the symmetry mm2 (termed the
rhombic pyramidal). The two-fold rotational axis corresponds to the c
crystallographic axis and the 2 mirror planes (at right angles to each other) intersect
this axis. Due to the fact that no horizontal mirror plane exists, forms at the top and
bottom of the crystal are different. Look at Figure 5.7a. Also, due to the lack of the
horizontal mirror plane, there exists no prisms, but instead we have 2 domes in place

5.7a Rhombic pyramid 5.7b Hemimorphite 5.7c Struvite

of each of the prisms (do you remember that a dome consists of 2 faces that intersect
each other, but have no corresponding parallel faces on the other end of the crystal?).
Think of the minerals hemimorphite (fig. 5.7b), struvite (fig. 5.7c) or bertrandite when
you think of this symmetry class.
And now to the last (and the lowest)
symmetry class of the orthorhombic system, the
rhombic disphenoid. The form has also been
called the rhombic tetrahedron. It has the
symmetry notation of 222, that is 3 axes of 2-fold rotation which correspond with the
3 crystallographic axes. I'm sorry, but there is just no other symmetry here! The forms
are, however, enantiomorphic, that is to say present as right and left images (fig. 5.8).
These closed forms consist of 2 upper triangular faces which alternate with 2 lower
triangular faces, the pair of upper faces being offset by 90 degrees in
relation to the pair of lower faces.
Figure 5.9 disphenoid and prisms may also exist in this class. The most
common mineral in this crystal class is epsomite (fig. 5.9). Note that in
Figure 5.9 the rhombic disphenoid is designated by the letter z and the unit
prism by m.

47
 THE HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
Now we will consider the only crystal system that has 4 crystallographic axes!
You will find that the Miller indices should actually be termed Bravais indices, but
most people, probably out of habit, still call them Miller indices. Because there are 4
axes, there are 4 letters or numbers in the notation.
The forms of the hexagonal system are defined by the
axial cross relationships. The hexagonal axes (fig. 6.1) consist
of 4 axes, 3 of which are of equal length and in the same plane,
as proposed by Bravais. These 3 axes, labeled a1, a2, and a3
have an angular relationship to each other of 120 degrees
(between the + ends). At right angle (geometrical mathematicians say "normal") to the
plane of the a axes is the c axis. Its length may vary from less than to greater than the
length of any of the a axes. It will not equal the length of an a axis, however.
Note the orientation of the 4 axes and their + and - ends. If viewed vertically
(down the c axis), the axes divide a circle into 6 equal parts and the axial notation
reads (starting with a +) as +,-,+,-,+,-. The positive and negative ends alternating. In
stating the indices of any face, four numbers (the Bravais symbol) must be given. In
the Hermann-Mauguin symmetry notation, the first number refers to the principal axis
of symmetry, which is coincident with c in this case. The second and third symbols, if
present, refer to the symmetry elements parallel with and normal to the a1, a2, a3
crystallographic axes, respectively.
We find that the Hexagonal system has two divisions, based on symmetry.
There are seven possible classes, all having 6-fold symmetry, in the Hexagonal
division and five possible classes, all having 3-fold symmetry, in the Trigonal
division. The general symbol for any form in the Hexagonal system is {hk-il}. The
angular relation of the three horizontal axes (a1, a2, a3) shows that the algebraic sum
of the indices h, k, i, is equal to 0.

The Hexagonal Division

Now, let's begin to consider the first class of the Hexagonal division. The Normal or
Dihexagonal bipyramidal class has 6-fold symmetry around the c or vertical axis. It
also has 6 horizontal axes of 2-fold symmetry, 3 of which correspond to the 3

48
horizontal crystallographic axes and 3 which bisect the angles between the axes. It's
Hermann- Mauguin notation is 6/m 32/m 32/m n. Confused? Check out figure 6.2a and
6.2b which show the symmetry elements of this class, associated with axes and mirror
planes.

Rotational symmetry elements Symmetry planes

There are 7 possible forms which may be present in the Dihexagonal

Dipyramidal class:
Number Miller Form
Form
of Faces Indices Expression

1. Base or basal pinacoid 2 (0001) open

2. First order prism 6 (10-10) open

3. Second order prism 6 (11-20) open

4. Dihexagonal prism 12 (hk-i0) example: (21-30) open

5. First order bipyramid 12 (h0-hl) example: (10-11), (20-21) closed

6. Second order bipyramid 12 (hh2hl) example: (11-22) closed

7. Dihexagonal bipyramid 24 (hk-il) example: (21-31) closed

See figures 6.3 through 6.8 (below) for what these forms look like.

49
 First order hexagonal Second order hexagonal Dihexagonal prism
prism and c pinacoid prism and c pinacoid and c pinacoid

+
+ +
(0001)
+ a2 a2
First order hexagonal Second order hexagonal Dihexagonal
+ +
bipyramid bipyramid
a1 bipyramid
a1
-a3 + -a3
(10-10)
1- Hexagonal Pinacoid 2- Hexagonal prism of first order

+ + +
+ +
+(0001) +
+ + a2 + + +
+ a2 a2
a2 + + +
+ a2
+ +
a1 + Stereographica1projection
+ of the+ Hexagonal + + (11-20)
(10-11) -a3 System Forms. + -a3 (11-21)
a1
-a3
a1 a1 (10-10)
-a3
1- Hexagonal Pinacoid -a3 order
2- Hexagonal prism of first
3- Hexagonal prism of second order
4- Hexagonal Bipyramid of first order 5- Hexagonal Bipyramid of second order
+ +
+ +
+ ++ + +
+ + + ++ ++
+ + +++ + +++ a2
+ a2 ++ ++ a2
a2 a2
+ + ++ + ++ + a2 a2

+ projection of the Hexagonal

Stereographic + ++ + +(11-20) ++ ++
System Forms. + a1a1
a1 (10-11) ++-a3
(10-11)+ (21-31) a1 (11-21)
(11-21)
a1 + + -a3 a1 -a3
-a3
a1
-a3
-a3
(21-30) -a3
3- Hexagonal prism of second order
6- Dihexagonal prism 7-
4- 4- Dihexagonal
Hexagonal bipyramid
HexagonalBipyramid
Bipyramidof
offirst
first order
order 5-Hexagonal
5- HexagonalBipyramid
Bipyramidof of second
second order
order

++ ++
++ +
++ ++ + +++
+ + +
++ a2
++ ++
+ + a2 ++ ++ a2a2
++ ++
+ + ++
++ ++(21-31)
++
++ (21-30)
a1 + a1
a1 (21-31)
+ -a3
(21-30) -a3
a1 -a3
6- Dihexagonal prism 7- Dihexagonal bipyramid -a3
7- Dihexagonal bipyramid
50
6- Dihexagonal prism
 + +
+ + +
a1 (10-11) (11-21)
a1
-a3 -a3

4- Hexagonal Bipyramid of first order 5- Hexagonal Bipyramid of second order

The two faces of the Base, or +basal+ pinacoid, are

+ + +
normal to the c axis and parallel to each+other, and + +
+ +
are generally denoted by the italic letter c.a2Their + +
+ + + + a2
Miller indices are (0001) +
and (000-1). + +
+ + (21-31)
+
The first and second
a1 order
+ +prisms cannot be a1
(21-30) -a3 -a3
distinguished from one6-another, asprism
Dihexagonal they each appear 7- Dihexagonal bipyramid

as a regular hexagonal prism with interfacial angles

of 60 degrees, but when viewed down the c axis, as in
figure 6.9, the relationships of the two forms to each
other and to the a axes are readily noted.
The dihexagonal prism is a 12-sided prism bounded by
12 faces, each parallel to the vertical (c) axis. If you had
both first and second order prisms equally expressed on
the same crystal, you could not easily tell them apart from the dihexagonal form. See
figure 6.5.
Corresponding to the 3 types of prisms are 3 types of pyramids. Note in the
figures 6.6 and 6.7 on the previous page the similar shape, but difference in angular
relation to the horizontal axes. The dihexagonal bipyramid is a double 12-sided
pyramid (figure 6.8 ). The first order pyramid is labeled p. The second order pyramid
is labeled s. The dihexagonal bipyramid is labeled v.
These forms look relatively simple until several of
them are combined on a single crystal, then look out! You can
even have several of the same form at different angles, thus 2
first order pyramids may be labeled p and u, respectively.
See figure 6.10 for a beryl crystal having all these forms
displayed. Molybdenite and pyrrhotite also crystallize in this
class.
The ditrigonal bipyramid{hk-il}has a 6-fold rotoinversion axis, which is
chosen as c. We should note that -6 is equivalent to a 3-fold axis of rotation with a
mirror plane normal to it. Three mirror planes intersect the vertical axis and are
perpendicular to the 3 horizontal crystallographic axes. There are also 3 horizontal 2-
fold axes of symmetry in the vertical mirror planes. The Herman-Mauguin notation is
-6m2.

51
 This class is a 12-faced form with six faces above and 6 faces below the
mirror plane that lies in the a1-a2-
a3 axial plane. Figure 6.11a is the
ditrigonal bipyramid form and
figure 6.11b displays a drawing of
benitoite, the only mineral
described in this class.

The Hemimorphic (dihexagonal pyramid) class. This class differs from the above
discussed classes in that it has no horizontal plane of symmetry and no horizontal axes
of symmetry. There is no center of symmetry. Therefore, the Hermann-Mauguin
notation is 6mm. The geometry of the prisms is the same.
The basal plane is a pedion (remember a pedion differs from
a pinacoid in that it is a single face) and the positive and
negative pyramids of the 3 types. The difference may be
readily noted on a form drawing of this class (fig. 6.12 )
when compared to figure 6.8.
Several minerals including zincite, wurtzite, and greenockite fall in this class
(figs. 6.13a, b, & c).

In the Hexagonal Trapezohedral class, the symmetry axes are the same as
the Normal (dihexagonal bipyramidal class discussed initially in this section), but
mirror planes and the center of symmetry are not
present. The Hermann-Mauguin notation is 622.
Two enantiomorphic (mirror image) forms are
present, each having 12 trapezium-shaped faces
(figure 6.14).

52
Other forms, including pinacoid, hexagonal prisms, dipyramids, and dihexagonal
prisms, may be present. Only 2 minerals are known to represent this crystal class:
high (beta) quartz and kalsilite.
The Hexagonal bipyramid class (figure 6.15) has only
the vertical 6-fold axis of rotation and a symmetry plane
perpendicular to it. The Hermann-Mauguin notation is 6/m.
When this form is by itself, it appears to possess higher
symmetry. However, in combination with other forms it
reveals its low symmetry content.
The general forms of this class are positive and negative hexagonal
bipyramids. These forms have 12 faces, 6 above and 6 below, and correspond in
position to one-half of the faces of a dihexagonal bipyramid. Other forms present may
include pinacoid and prisms. The chief minerals crystallizing in this class are those of
the apatite group.
The Trigonal bipyramid possesses a 6-fold axis of rotary inversion, thus the
Hermann- Mauguin notation of -6. This is equivalent of having a 3-fold axis of
rotation and a symmetry plane normal to it (3/m).
Mathematically, this class may exist, but to date no mineral is known to crystallize
with this form.
In the Hexagonal pyramid class, the vertical axis is one of 6-fold rotation. No
other symmetry is present. Figure 6.17 is the hexagonal
pyramid. The forms of this class are similar to those of the
Hexagonal Dipyramid (discussed above), but because there is
no horizontal mirror plane, different forms are present at the
top and bottom of the crystal. The hexagonal pyramid has four
6-faced forms: upper positive, upper negative, lower positive, lower negative.
Pedions, hexagonal pyramids and prisms may be present. Only rarely is the form
development sufficient to place a crystal in this class. Nepheline is the most common
representative of this class.

The Trigonal Division

Now we have worked through the first 7 classes in the Hexagonal System, all
having some degree of 6-fold symmetry. Time to shed that 6-fold symmetry and look

53
at the Trigonal Division of the Hexagonal System. Here, we will see that 3-fold
symmetry rules.
Remember that prisms are open forms. In the trigonal division there are two
distinctive sets of prisms to be concerned with. The first is called the trigonal prism. It
consists of 3 equal-sized faces which are parallel to the c crystallographic axis and
which form a 3-sided prism. You may think of it as one-half the faces of the first-
order hexagonal prism.
In fact, the normal light-refracting 60 degree glass prism used in many physics
lab workshops is this form, bounded on the end by the c pinacoid. There exists a
second order prism, which on general appearance looks the same as the first order, but
when other trigonal forms are present on the termination other than the c pinacoid, the
two prisms may be readily distinguished, one from the other. The second order prism
is rotated 60 degrees about the c axis when compared with the first order prism.
The second prism is the ditrigonal prism, which is a 6-sided open form. This
form consists of 6 vertical faces arranged in sets of 2 faces. Therefore the alternating
edges are of differing character; especially noticable when viewed by looking down
the c axis. The differing angles between the 3 sets of faces are what distinguish this
form from the first order hexagonal prism.
The striations on the figure to the left are typical for natural
trigonal crystals, like tourmaline. In the drawing, c is the pinacoid
face and m the prism faces.
I think these forms are simple enough that we don't need any
drawings to explain them, but look for them on figure 6.23 (below) -
the tourmaline forms. They are given the normal prism notation of
m and a.

Hexagonal-scalenohedral class. The first to consider are those forms with the
symmetry 3 32/m n (Hermann-Mauguin notation). There are two principal forms in
this class: the rhombohedron and the hexagonal scalenohedron.
In this class, the 3-fold rotoinversion axis
is the vertical axis (c) and the three 2-fold
rotation axes correspond to the three horizontal
axes (a1, a2, a3).

54
 There are 3 mirror planes bisecting the angles between the horizontal axes.
See figure 6.18 to observe the axes and mirror planes for the rhombohedron.
The general form {hk-il} is a hexagonal scalenohedron (figure 6.19). The
primary difference in the rhombohedron and this form is that with a
rhombohedral form, you have 3 rhombohedral faces above and 3
rhombohedral faces below the center of the crystal. In a
scalenohedron, each of the rhombohedral faces becomes 2 scalene
triangles by dividing the rhombohedron from upper to lower corners
with a line. Therefore, you have 6 faces on top and 6 faces below, the
scalenohedron being a 12-faced form. These forms are illustrated in
figure 6.20.
With this form, you can have both positive {h0-hl} and negative {0h-hl}
forms for the rhombohedron and positive {hk-il} and negative {kh-il} forms for the
scalenohedron.

+ +
+ ++ +
a2 a2 a2 a2
+ + + +
+ +
a1 a1 -a3 -a3 a1 a1 -a3 -a3

Positive Positive rhombohedron

rhombohedron {10-11} {10-11} NegativeNegative rhombohedron
rhombohedron {01-11} {01-11}

+ ++ + + + + +
+ + + +
a2 a2 a2 a2
55 + + + +
+ + + ++ +
+ +
 + +
+ + + +
a2 a2 a2 a2
+ + + +
+ +
a1 -a3 a1 a1 -a3 a1
-a3 -a3

Positive rhombohedron {10-11}

Positive Negative rhombohedron
rhombohedron {10-11} Negative{01-11}
rhombohedron {01-11}

+ + + + + +
+ +
+ + +a2 + a2 a2 a2
+ + + +
+ + + + + + + +
a1 -a3 a1 -a3 a1 -a3 a1 -a3
Positive Scalenohedron {21-31}
Positive Scalenohedron {21-31} Negative Scalenohedron {12-31}
Negative Scalenohedron {12-31}

Stereographic
Stereographic projection projectionSystem
of the Triagonal of the Triagonal
Forms. System Forms.
To further complicate matters, the rhombohedron and scalenohedron, as
forms, often combine with forms present in higher hexagonal symmetry classes. Thus,
you may find them in combination with hexagonal prisms, hexagonal bipyramid, and
pinacoid forms. Calcite is the most common, well crystallized, and collectible mineral
with these forms. See figure 6.21 for some crystallization forms of calcite. Several
other minerals, such as chabazite and corundum, commonly show form combinations.

56
 The next crystal class to consider is the Ditrigonal pyramid. The vertical axis
is a 3-fold rotation axis and 3 mirror planes intersect in this axis. The Hermann-
Mauguin notation is 3m, 3 referring to the vertical axis and m referring to three planes
normal to the three horizontal axes (a1,a2,a3). These 3 mirror planes intersect in the
vertical 3-fold axis.
The general form {hk-il} is a ditrigonal
pyramidform. There are 4 possible ditrigonal pyramids,
with the indices {hk-il}, {kh-il}, {hk-i-l}, and {kh-i-l}.
The forms are similar to the hexagonal-scalenohedral form
discussed previously, but contain only half the number of
faces owing to the missing 2-fold rotation axes. So crystals
in this class have different forms on the top of the crystal
than on the bottom. Figure 6.22 shows the ditrigonal pyramid.
Figure 6.23 shows 2 tourmaline crystals, the
most common mineral crystallizing in this class,
which display 3m symmetry. This form may be
combined with pedions, hexagonal prisms and
pyramids, trigonal pyramids, trigonal prisms, and
ditrigonal prisms to yield some complicated,
though interesting, forms.
We now have come to the Trigonal-trapezohedral class. The 4 axial
directions are occupied by the rotation axes. The
vertical axis is an axis of 3-fold rotation and the 3
horizontal axes have 2-fold symmetry.
This is similar to those in class -32/m (hexagonal-
scalenohedron), but the planes of symmetry are
missing. There are 4 trigonal trapezohedrons, each
composed of 6 trapezium-shaped faces. Their Miller
indices are: {hk-il}, {i-k-hl}, {kh-il}, and {-ki-hl}. These forms correspond to 2
enantiomorphic pairs, each with a right and left form (one pair illustrated in figure
6.24).
Other forms which may be present include pinacoid, trigonal prisms,
hexagonal prism, ditrigonal prisms, and rhombohedrons.

57
 Quartz is the common mineral which crystallizes in this class, but only rarely
is the trapezohedral face (s) displayed.
When it is, it is a simple matter to
determine if the crystal is right- or left-
handed in form (figure 6.25). Cinnabar
also crystallizes in this class.

The Rhombohedral class has a 3-fold axis of rotoinversion, which is

equivalent to a 3-fold axis of rotation and a center of
symmetry. The general form is {hk-il} and the Hermann-
Mauguin notation is -3.
This form is tricky because unless other forms are
present, its true symmetry will not be apparent. The pinacoid
{0001} and the hexagonal prisms may be present.
Dolomite and ilmenite are the two most common minerals crystallizing in this class.
See figure 6.26.
Now we arrive at the final class in the Hexagonal system. The Trigonal
pyramid has one 3-fold axis of rotation as its sole element of symmetry. See figure
6.27. There are, however, 8 trigonal pyramids of the general
form {hk-il}, four above and four below. Each of these
corresponds to 3 faces of the dihexagonal bipyramid
(discussed above). In addition to this, it is possible that there
may be trigonal pyramids above and equivalent, but
independent, pyramids below. Only when several trigonal
pyramids are in combination with one another is the true
symmetry revealed.
It appears that only one mineral, a rare species called gratonite, belongs to this
class and it has not been studied sufficiently to remove all doubt in some
crystallographer's minds.

58
 THE MONOCLINIC SYSTEM
Consider the axial cross, consisting of the a, b, and c axes (each of unequal
length), of the Monoclinic System (fig. 7.1). In all
previous 3-axes systems, we considered what
happens when we vary one or more of the axial
lengths, retaining the axial angles at 90 degrees to
each other. But in the Monoclinic System, we will
look at what happens when we have 3 axes of
unequal length and vary the angle off of 90 degrees
between two of the axes. Obviously, we must again
lose some symmetry!
The axes are designated as follows: the inclined axis is a and slopes out of the
paper towards the viewer, the vertical axis is c, and the remaining axis which is at
right angle to the plane of the a and c axes is b. When properly oriented, the inclined
axis a slopes toward the observer, b is horizontal and c is vertical. Both b and c axes
are in the plane of the paper. In Figure 7.1, the angle between c and b remains 90
degrees and the angle (^) between c and a is the one we will vary. It’s called beta and
is represented by the Greek letter in the axial figure. For most monoclinic crystals, the
^ beta is greater than 90 degrees, but in some rare instances, the angle may be 90
degrees. When this occurs, the monoclinic symmetry is not readily apparent from the
morphology. The 2-fold rotation axis (the direction perpendicular to the mirror plane)
is usually taken as the b axis. Then the a axis is inclined downward toward the front in
the figure. Calculations of axial ratios in orthogonal crystal systems (where all the
axes are perpendicular to each other) are relatively easy, but become quite tedious in
systems with one or more inclined axes.
There are only 3 symmetry classes to consider in the monoclinic system: 2/m,
m, and 2.
In the 2/m symmetry class, however, there are 4 types of
forms, pinacoids, prisms, dome and hemi-bipyramid. Remember
that a pinacoid form consists of 2 parallel faces (open form).
Pinacoids:
The a pinacoid is also called the front (used to be called the
orthopinacoid), the b is called the side pinacoid (used to be called the

59
 clinopinacoid), and the c is termed the basal pinacoid. (fig. 7.2).

+ +
) +
(00-1)
+ +
(001) +
a 1- Basal Pinacoid a 2- Side Pinacoid

+
a 1- Basal Pinacoid a 2- Side Pi

+a
rojection of the Monoclinic 3- Front pinacoid

+a
Domes: Stereographic projection of the Monoclinic 3- Front pin
System Forms.
There are hemi-orthodome with the general form notations of positive form
{h0l} and negative form {-h0l}. The presence of one of these forms does not
necessitate the presence of the other one. There are also side dome {0kl}. The {0kl}
side dome intersects the b and c axes and is parallel to the a axis.

+ hemi-orthodome
Positive +
[h0l] side dome [0kl]

oclinic Prism a 5- Side Dome (a-dome)

+ +
+ (-101)
+ +
(111) + (101)+
+
+ + a a
a a
4- Monoclinic Prism 5- Side Dome (a-dome)
a
Positive Negative

+ +
emibipyramid (-111)
6- Hemi-orthodome + (-101)
60
(111) + (101)
+ +
Prism:
A monoclinic prism {hk0} is shown in Figure 7.4. where the 4 faces intersects
the a and b axes and is parallel to the c axis

+ +

+ +
+ +
7- Hemibipyramid
a
4- Monoclinic Prism a 5- Side Dome (a-dome)

Positive Hemibipyramid {hkl} or {111}

hemi-bipyramid:
+ +
(-111) + (-101)
As described above, the b axis is the 2-fold rotation axis. The 4-faced hemi-bipyramid
Negative Hemibipyramid {-hkl} or {-111}
{hkl} is the general form. The general
(111) + (101)
form can occur as two independent hemi-
bipyramid, positive {hkl} and+negative
+ {-hkl}.
a a
a a

+
Positive
+
Negative
+
+ {111} {-111}
7-Hemibipyramid 6- Hemi-orthodome

hkl
+ +
+ + + +
a a
4- Monoclinic Prism a 4- Monoclinic Pris
Front View Back5-View
Side Dome (a-dom

+ + + +
(-111) (-111)
+ (-101)

(111) + (101) (111)

+ + + +
aa aa
a a
Positive
Negative Negative
Positive

7-Hemibipyramid 7-Hemibipyram
6- Hemi-orthodom
61
 Here is the fun part. The only form in the 2/m class which is fixed by making
the b axis the axis of 2-fold rotation is the b pinacoid {010}. Either of the other 2 axis
may be chosen as c or a!
As an example, the {100} pinacoid, the {001} pinacoid, and the {h0l}
pinacoids (hemi-dome) may be converted into each other by simply rotating their
orientation about the b axis! Corollary to this situation, the prisms may be
interchanged in the same manner. We now need to look at some illustrations of some
relatively common monoclinic minerals. In these drawings you should recognize the
letter notation where a, b, and c are the pinacoid forms (the diametrical prism,
remember?); m is the unit prism and z is a prism; o, u, v, and s are pyramids; p, x, and
y are orthodomes; and n is a clinodome.

Figures 7.5a, b, and c are common forms for the mineral orthoclase and 7.5d is a
common form for selenite (gypsum). Many common minerals crystallize in this
symmetry class, including azurite, clinopyroxene and clinoamphibole groups, datolite,
epidote, gypsum, malachite, orthoclase, realgar, titanite, spodumene, and talc.
The second monoclinic symmetry class is m and represents a single vertical
mirror plane (010) that includes the c and a crystallographic
axes.
A dome is the general form {hkl} in this class (fig. 7.6)
and is a 2-faced figure that is symmetrical across a mirror plane.
There are 2 possible orientations of the dome, {hkl} and {-hkl).
The form {010} is a pinacoid, but all the faces on the other side
of the mirror plane are pedions. These include {100}, {- 100},
{00-1), and {h0l}. Only 2 rare minerals, hilgardite and
clinohedrite, crystallize in this class.

62
 The third monoclinic symmetry class is 2 and
represents a 2-fold axis of rotation on the b crystallographic
axis. Figure 7.7 represents the general {hkl}form ñ a
sphenoid or dihedron. Since we have no a-c symmetry plane
and with the b axis being polar, in the 2 symmetry class, we
have different forms present at the opposite ends of b. The
{010} pinacoid of 2/m becomes 2 pedions, {0l0} and {0-
10}. Likewise, the {0kl}, {hk0} and {hkl} prisms of 2/m
degenerate into pairs of right- and left-hand
(enantiomorphic) sphenoids.
The general form, the sphenoid, is enantiomorphic and has the Miller indices
{hkl} and {h-kl}. Mineral representatives are scarce for this class, but include the
halotrictite group with the mineral pickeringite as the most commonly occurring
member.

THE TRICLINIC SYSTEM

In our overall examination of 3-axes systems,
this one is relatively short and only moderately difficult
to understand due to the lack of symmetry.
So let's start, as we have with all the other
systems, by looking at the axial cross of the Triclinic
System (fig. 8.1). In this figure, we see that all 3 axes
(a, b, and c) are unequal in length to each other and that
there are no axial angles of 90 degrees. In the
Monoclinic System, at least we had a and b axes at
right angles, but here we have lost even that!
Note that the angle beta is still between the c and a axes, but we now have 2
additional angles to define, neither of which are equal to 90 degrees. One angle is
termed alpha and is defined as the angle between the c and b axes and the second is
gamma which is defined as the angle between a and b. Now, we must have some
accepted conventions or rules to follow to orient a triclinic crystal, or we will always
be in a state of confusion with other folks over just the orientation.

63
Remember, in the orientation of any crystal, you also are determining the position of
the 3 crystallographic axes. So, the rules are: 1) the most pronounced zone should be
vertical and therefore the axis in this zone becomes the c; 2) the {001}form (basal
pinacoid) should slope forward and to the right; and 3) select two forms in the vertical
zone, one will be the {100} and the other will be the {010}. Now, the direction of the
a axis is determined by the intersection of {101} and {001} and the direction of the b
axis is determined by the intersection of {100} and {001}. Once this is done, the a
axis should be shorter than the b axis so that the convention becomes c < a < b. The
axial distances and the 3 angles, alpha, beta, and gamma, can be calculated only with
considerable difficulty. As in the Monoclinic system, the b axis length is defined as
unity (1). The crystallography information concerning a triclinic mineral will include
the following (an example): a:b:c = 0.972: 1 : 0.778; alpha = 102 degrees 41 minutes,
beta = 98 degrees 09 minutes, gamma = 88 degrees 08 minutes.
In the triclinic system, we have two symmetry classes. The first we will
consider is the -1 (Hermann-Mauguin notation). In this class, there is a 1-fold axis of
symmetry, the equivalent of a center of symmetry or inversion.
Figure 8.2 shows a triclinic pinacoid (or parallelohedron). This class is
termed the pinacoidal class after its
general form {hkl}. So all the forms
present are pinacoids and therefore
consist of two identical and parallel
faces.
When you orient a triclinic crystal, the
Miller indices of the pinacoid determine
its position. There are 3 pinacoids.
Remember pinacoids intersect one axis
and are parallel to the other 2 (in 3 axes
systems). So let's start by looking at the
-1 symmetry. This is a one-fold axis of rotoinversion, which may be viewed as the
same as having a center of symmetry.
Figure 8.3 shows a triclinic pinacoid, also called a parallelohedron. This class
is referred to as the pinacoidal class, due to its {hkl} form. With -1 symmetry, all
forms are pinacoids so they consist of 2 identical parallel faces. Once a triclinic
crystal is oriented, then the Miller indices of the pinacoid establish its position.

64
 Figure 8.3 Triclinic pinacoids, or parallelohedrons

+
+ +
+
a a + +
+ a a +
+ + {h0l}: two forms
4- Hemi-a- dome { 0kl} : two forms 5- Hemi-b-dome
{011} and {0-11} {101} and {-101}
a 1- Basal Pinacoid a 2- Side Pinacoid
a 1- Basal Pinacoid a 2- Side Pin
+
+ +
+
+ +
a a
Upper left quarter bipyramid Upper right quarter bipyramid
+ +
+ + +a a a
projection of theTriclinic System +a
3- Frontl Pinacoid 6- Hemi-prism{hk0} and {h-k0}
Stereographic projection of theTriclinic System
Forms. 3- Frontl Pin

a a
Lower right quarter bipyramid
Lower left quarter bipyramid

+
+ +
+
a a a a
4- Hemi-a- dome { 0kl} : two forms 5- Hemi-b-dome {h0l}: two forms
{011} and {0-11} {101} and {-101}

+ +
+ +
65
a a
Upper left quarter bipyramid Upper right quarter bipyramid
+ +
 a a a
4- Hemi-a- dome { 0kl} : two forms 5- Hemi-b-dome {h0l}: tw
{011} and {0-11} {101} and {-101}

+ +
+ +
a a
Upper left quarter bipyramid Upper right quarter bipyramid
+
+ + a
6- Hemi-prism{hk0} and

a a
Lower right quarter bipyramid
Lower left quarter bipyramid

There are 3 general types of pinacoids:

1- The pinacoids {100}, {010}, and {001} (Figure 8.3a). The {100} is the front
pinacoid and intersects the a axis, the {010} is the side or b pinacoid and intersects the
b axis, and the {001} is the c or basal pinacoid and intersects the c axis. All of these
forms are by convention based on the + end of the axis.
2- The pinacoid (Hemi-brachydome) is termed the {0kl} (Figure 8.3b), Hemi-
macrodome {h0l} (Figure 8.3c), and pinacoids (Hemi-prism) {hk0}, Figure 8.3d).
The Hemi-brachydome is parallel to the a axis and therefore intersects the b and c
axes. It may be positive {0kl} or negative {0-kl}. The Hemi-macrodome is parallel to
the b axis and intersects the a and c axes. It may be positive {h0l} or negative {-h0l}.
Finally, the Hemi-prism is parallel to the c axis and intersects the a and b axes. It may
be right {hk0} or left {h-k0}.
3-The pinacoid (Quarter-bipyramid) {hkl}(Figure 8.3e). There exist upper right {hkl},
upper left {h- kl}, lower right {hk-l}, and lower left {h-k-l}. Each of these 2-faced
forms may exist independently of the others. A number of minerals crystallize in the
-1 class including plagioclase feldspar pectolite, microcline, and wollastonite.
The second symmetry class of the triclinic system is the 1, which is equivalent
to no symmetry! It is a single face termed a pedion and the class called the pedial
class after its {hkl} form. Because the form consists of a single face, each pedion or
monohedron stands by itself. Rare is the mineral that crystallizes in this class, axinite
being an example.

66