Center for Teaching and

Learning

CLASSROOM
ASSESSMENT TOOLS
 CONTENTS*

Matching Outcomes to Assessment Tools...………..1

Classroom Assessment Tools……………………….5
Attitude Surveys………………………………..5
ConcepTests ……………………...……………8
Concept Mapping……………………………..11
Conceptual Diagnostic Tests………………….14
Interviews…………………………………..…18
Performance
Assessments………………….....22 Portfolios...
…………………………………....25
Scoring Rubrics…………………………….…28
Weekly Reports……………………………….31
* Note: These materials and additional information may be
found at http://www.flaguide.org/cat/cat.php.
Matching Outcomes to Assessment Tools

1
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 Attitude Surveys

Eileen Lewis
Department of Chemistry

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 Canada College

Elaine Seymour
Bureau of Sociological Research
University of Colorado, Boulder

What is an attitude survey?

While attitudinal surveys may take many forms and address a range of issues, they
typically consist of a series of statements that students are asked to express their agreement
or disagreement using a scale.

Why use attitude surveys?

This type of survey provides valuable information on student perceptions of and emotions
regarding their classroom experience. This includes general attitudes toward the course,
the discipline, and their own learning. The results from this survey can also help you
identify elements in your course that best support student learning.

An example
Please use the 7-point scale to indicate your agreement or disagreement with each
statement.
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly N/A Don’t
disagree agree know
Often in lab I didn’t understand 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
the concept behind the lab
experiment.
I like labs where I get to help 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
design an experiment to answer a
question.
This course provided 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
opportunities for me to help
design experiments to answer a
question.
It was clear how the lab 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
experiments fit into this course.

Assessment purposes
• To provide information about students’ learning styles or preferences for ways of
learning, allowing instructors to choose among instructional approaches that would
best meet the needs of the students
• To discover which components of the course contribute most significantly to
students’ learning
• To provide feedback helpful for designing activities to foster a more realistic view
of a discipline and what members of that discipline do
• To prompt students to reflect on their own learning preferences, strengths, or styles

Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes

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 • Learn the techniques and methods used to gain new knowledge in the subject
• Develop appropriate study skills, strategies, and habits
• Develop awareness of learning processes and control over those processes
• Develop a knowledge and appreciation for the subject
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Develop and refine instruction based on student feedback

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Very little time is needed to use a valid, existing survey.
time Large amounts of time are required to develop a survey that
is reliable and measures what is intended.
Preparing your students No training is required, but a description of the survey’s
goals and scales should be read to students as well as
included in the survey form itself.
Class time Varies with length, but rarely more than 20 minutes.
Disciplines Appropriate for all.
Class size Appropriate for all.
Special classroom / None, although an optical scanning device may be useful to
technical requirements read and analyze data in large classes.
Individual or group Typically individual.
involvement
Analyzing results Depends very much on class size and length of the survey.
In large classes, the use of scanning forms and optical
readers make the task easier.
Other things to consider To insure meaningful results, student responses must be
guaranteed anonymity. These surveys can be given pre and
post to measure gains over a course or to provide midcourse
corrections to classroom teaching methods. Demographic
data may be included in the survey so that correlation with
gender, major, or ethnicity can be made.

Description
An attitudinal survey can provide information on student perceptions of their classroom
experience. It can reveal perceptions on the content of a course, specific components of a
course, course components that aid or are detrimental to learning, and the effects of course
innovations. Attitudinal surveys may also focus on students’ needs in taking a course, how
well those needs are met, student interest in or appreciation for the subject matter or field,
student confidence in their ability to perform in a course, or their beliefs about the nature
of the discipline itself.

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Limitations
Constructive questions or statements on an attitudinal survey are the result of considerable
work in both designing the question/statement so that it measures what it was intended to
measure and has reliability across students and groups. Additionally, for best results,
students must be guaranteed anonymity. This means if the instructor analyzes the data, no
student identification should be requested. You may ask for demographic information like
gender, ethnicity, major, etc. and look for correlation across those variables. If you want to
correlate student responses to their performance, you must have someone else gather and
analyze the data, explicitly letting the students know you are doing so. Data analysis can
be very time consuming in large classes unless you have optical scanning response forms
and an optical reader. For small classes, you may provide additional space for students to
elaborate on their ideas.

Sources
Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for
college teachers (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Braskamp, L., & Ory, J. (1994). Assessing faculty work: Enhancing individual and
institutional performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Centra, J. A. (1973). Effectiveness of student feedback in modifying college instruction.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 65(3), 395-401.
Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Fowler, F. J. (1993). Survey research methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Gramson, Z., & Chickering, A. (1977). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate
education. AAHE Bulletin, 39, 5-10.
Henderson, M. E., Morris, L. L., & Firz-Gibbon, C. T. (1987). How to measure attitudes.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Murray, H. G. (1991). Effective teaching behaviors in the college classroom. In J. C. Smart
(Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research, Vol. 7 (pp. 135172). New
York: Agathon.
National Research Council (1997). Science teaching reconsidered: A handbook.
Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press.
Reynolds, A. (1992). What is competent beginning teaching? A review of the literature.
Review of educational research, 62, 1-35.
Shulman, L. S. (1990). Aristotle had it right: On knowledge and pedagogy (Occasional
paper no. 4). East Lansing, MI: The Holmes Group.
Shulman, L. S. (1991). Ways of seeing, ways of knowing – ways of teaching, ways of
learning about teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 23(5), 393-395.
Theall, M., & Franklin, J. (Eds.) (1990). Student ratings of instruction: Issues for
improving practice. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 43. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
ConcepTests

Arthur B. Ellis, Clark R. Landis, Kathleen Meeker

Department of Chemistry
University of Wisconsin-Madison

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What is a ConcepTest?
The instructor presents one or more questions during class involving key concepts, along
with several possible answers. Students in the class indicate by, for example, a show of
hands, which answer they think is correct. If most of the class has not identified the
correct answer, students are given a short time in lecture to try to persuade their
neighbor(s) that their answer is correct. The question is asked a second time by the
instructor to gauge class mastery.

Why use ConcepTests?

The instructor obtains immediate feedback on the level of class understanding. Students
have an opportunity to enhance teamwork and communication skills. Many instructors
have reported substantial improvements in class attendance and attitude toward the course.

An example
During an experiment, the class is asked to vote - “How many of you think that a quarter of
the laser light will now reach the solar cell? How many of you think none of the light will
now get to the solar cell?” If most of the class has correctly noted that one-quarter of the
light will be transmitted, you can quickly affirm why this is correct and continue with the
lesson. If the majority of the class does not select the correct answer, ask your students to
convince their neighbor(s) that their answer is correct. After a short discussion period,
have the class vote a second time. If the class has now selected the correct answer, a quick
explanation is again appropriate. If the majority of the class has not reached the correct
answer, a more detailed explanation can be presented.

Assessment purposes
• To obtain real-time feedback regarding student understanding
• To determine the pace and direction of the remainder of the lecture

Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Apply ideas and concepts while communicating verbally
• Integrate concepts
• Work cooperatively with others
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Obtain real-time feedback regarding student misconceptions and understanding
• Communicate the instructor’s desire for students to be successful in the course

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Some time is needed to create ConcepTests. For some
time disciplines, hundreds of sample questions exist on websites
as a time-saving resource.

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 Preparing your students Students require minimal training. Through sustained use in
class, students become comfortable with the method.
Class time ConcepTests typically last from less than a minute to several
minutes.
Disciplines Appropriate for all.
Class size Best with classes of at least a dozen students. Successfully
used in large lecture classes.
Special classroom / None. The method can be used in conjunction with
technical requirements worksheets, lecture demonstrations, computer animations,
and film clips.
Individual or group Small group of 2 or 3 students.
involvement
Analyzing results Minimal.
Other things to consider It is more difficult to predict how much material will be
covered in a lecture. It may take a sustained effort for an
instructor and class to become comfortable and work
effectively with ConcepTests.

Description
Questions in a ConcepTest inform or calibrate students as to how well they understand
what the instructor has identified as key ideas, and they calibrate instructors as to class
mastery of these ideas at the time of their presentation. ConcepTests thus make the lecture
a vehicle for bringing student and instructor expectations into alignment.

Limitations
If the class size is too small, students may feel more conspicuous and self-conscious,
hindering their participation. Instructors may need to encourage students to sit together to
participate in ConcepTests if the lecture room has many more chairs than students.
Some instructors group students into teams to work on ConcepTests during their lectures.

Links & sources

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Mazur, E. (1997). Peer instruction: A user’s manual. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
New Traditions Project. (1997). Establishing new traditions: Revitalizing the chemistry
curriculum. Retrieved August 24, 2005, from http://newtraditions.chem.wisc.edu.
Project Galileo. (2005). Project Galileo: Your gateway to innovations in science education.
Retrieved August 24, 2005, from http://galileo.harvard.edu.
Tobias, S. (1990). They’re not dumb, they’re different: Stalking the second tier. Tucson,
AZ: Research Corporation.
Tobias, S. (1992). Revitalizing undergraduate science: Why some things work and most
don’t. Tucson, AZ: Research Corporation.
The Trustees of Beloit College and the Regents of the University of California (2004).
ChemConnections: Systemic change initiatives in chemistry. Retrieved August 24,
2005, from http://chemlinks.beloit.edu.
The University of Wisconsin Board of Regents. (1996). Chemistry ConcepTests. Retrieved
August 24, 2005, from http://www.chem.wisc.edu/~concept.

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 Concept Mapping

Michael Zeilik
Department of Physics & Astronomy
University of New Mexico

What is a concept map?

A concept map is a diagram of nodes containing concept labels that are linked together
with labeled directional lines. The concept nodes are arranged in hierarchical levels that
move from general to specific concepts.

Why use concept maps?

Concept maps assess how well students see the “big picture.” They have been used for
over 25 years to provide a useful and visually appealing way of illustrating students’
conceptual knowledge.

An example

Assessment purposes
• To investigate how well students understand the correct connections among
concepts in a subject
• To document the nature and frequency of students’ misconceptions
• To capture the development of students’ ideas over time

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Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Learn terms, facts, and concepts of this subject
• Organize information into meaningful categories
• Synthesize and integrate information, ideas, and concepts
• Think about the “big picture” and see connections among concepts
• Think creatively about the subject
• Improve long-term memory skills for accessible knowledge
• Develop higher-level thinking skills, strategies, and habits
• Use graphics effectively
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Gain insight into the way students view a scientific topic
• Examine the valid understandings and misconceptions students hold
• Assess the structural complexity of the relationships students depict

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Minimal if students construct maps; large for designing “fill-
time in” maps.
Preparing your students Students need training (about an hour) and continual
practice.
Class time At least 30 minutes.
Disciplines Appropriate for all.
Class size Small classes if students construct maps individually;
cooperative teams constructing maps will work with large
(or small) classes.
Special classroom / None.
technical requirements
Individual or group Either.
involvement
Analyzing results Intensive for formal scoring for large classes; concept maps
are generally not graded.
Other things to consider Very demanding cognitive task for students.

Description
A concept map is a two-dimensional, hierarchical node-link diagram that depicts the
structure of knowledge within a scientific discipline as viewed by a student, an instructor,
or an expert in a field or sub-field. The map is composed of concept labels, each enclosed
in a box or oval, a series of labeled linking lines, and an inclusive, general-tospecific
organization.

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Limitations
Concepts maps provide a useful and visually appealing way of depicting the structure of
conceptual knowledge that people have stored in long-term memory. As a result, they
offer a readily accessible way of assessing how well students see “the big picture.” They
are not designed to tap into the kind of process knowledge that students also need to solve
novel problems or for the routine application of algorithmic solutions. Because they probe
an individual’s or group’s cognitive organization, they are very idiosyncratic and difficult
to compare, either among individuals or groups, or across time for the same individuals or
groups.

Links & sources

Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for
college teachers (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Austin, L. B., & Shore, B. M. (1995). Using concept mapping for assessment in physics.
Physics Education, 30(1): 41-45.
Inspiration Software, Inc. (2005). Inspiration Software, Inc. Retrieved August 24, 2005,
from http://www.inspiration.com.
Markham, K., Mintzes, J., & Jones, G. (1994). The concept map as a research and
evaluation tool: Further evidence of validity. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
31(1): 91-101.
Mintzes, J. J., Wandersee, J. H., & Novak, J. D. (1998). Teaching science for
understanding: A human constructivist view. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. The
National Association for Research in Science Teaching. (2004). The National
Association for Research in Science Teaching. Retrieved August 28, 2005, from
http://www.educ.sfu.ca/narstsite/.
Novak, J. D. (1998). Learning, creating and using knowledge: Concept maps as facilitative
tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. Cambridge University Press.
Novak, J. D., & Wandersee, J. D. (Eds.). (1990). Perspectives on concept mapping.
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20(10).
Pearsall, R., Skipper, J., & Mintzes, J. Knowledge restructuring in the life sciences: A
longitudinal study of conceptual change in biology. Science Education, 81, 193-215.
Pendley, B. D., Bretz, R. L., & Novak, J. D. (1994). Concept maps as a tool to assess
learning in chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 71(1): 9-15.
Ruiz-Primo, M., & Shavelson, R. (1996). Problems and issues in the use of concept maps
in science assessment. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33(6): 569-600.
Schau, C., & Mattern, N. (1997). Use of map techniques in teaching statistics courses. The
American Statistician, 51(2): 171-175.
Wallace, J., & Mintzes, J. (1990). The concept map as a research tool: Exploring
conceptual change in biology. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27(10): 1033-
1052.
Zeilik, M., Schau, C., Mattern, N., Hall, S., Teague, K., & Bisard, W. (1997). Conceptual
astronomy: A novel model for teaching postsecondary science courses. American
Journal of Physics, 65(10): 987-996.

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Kal Sir Babar chutti pe hen MEA Ka manage kr Kiya Hy ...Usk Pas abhi hmara
school nhi aya next month men Hoga vosit

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 Interviews

Mike U. Smith
Department of Internal Medicine
Mercer University School of Medicine

Sherry A. Southerland
Science Education
University of Utah

What is an interview?
A formal interview consists of a series of well-chosen questions (and often a set of tasks or
problems) that are designed to elicit a portrait of a student’s understanding about a
scientific concept or set of related concepts. The interview may be videotaped or
audiotaped for later analysis.

Why use interviews?

In-depth structured interviews with a handful of carefully selected students will enable you
to readily judge the extent of understanding your students have developed with respect to a
series of well-focused, conceptually-related scientific ideas. This form of assessment
provides feedback that is especially useful to instructors who want to improve their
teaching and the organization of their courses.

An example
The interview should begin with a focus question that requires application of the concept to
be investigated without forcing the student into an explicit definition. Specific definitions
of the concept, if needed, should be sought only after understanding the student’s response
to the focusing question. It is important for the interviewer to wait at least 3 to 5 seconds
after each prompt before trying to interpret the question or ask another.

Assessment purposes
• To investigate how well students understand and can apply a concept
• To identify gaps in understanding that may be common among students
• To document the general and content-specific procedures that students employ in
application tasks and the sequences and manner in which processes are employed
• To document how student understanding and problem-solving skills change over
time or with instruction
• To obtain verbal feedback from students about course structure, teaching
techniques, and other aspects of the course or program of instruction Teaching
goals
Student learning outcomes
• Analyzes problems from different viewpoints and communicates effectively
• Recognizes interrelationships among problems and issues
• Applies principles and generalizations to new problems and situations
• Demonstrates a basic knowledge of the concepts and theories of the subject
• Demonstrates synthesis and integration of information and ideas

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 • Uses appropriate synthetic and analytic methods to solve problems
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Answers students’ questions and provides feedback from students
• Bridges gap between learning and assessment
• Tracks typical questions and problems

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Several hours required to develop a set of good questions,
time tasks, and problem sets. Additional time to locate
appropriate props and recording equipment, if desired.
Preparing your students Interviews are most fruitful when the student has developed a
good rapport with you. It is essential that the student feels
relaxed and at ease.
Class time One-on-one or small group interviews may be conducted in
less than an hour in your office or other convenient private
space. Some practice will reduce the time required to
conduct a good interview.
Disciplines No disciplinary restraints. Appropriate for all SMET fields.
Class size Normally, structured interviews are conducted outside of
class. It is important that subjects be carefully selected to
represent a range of abilities and interest levels among
students enrolled in a course.
Special classroom / Interview protocol, props, recording equipment, and small
technical requirements private space.
Individual or group The most useful interviews are those conducted with
involvement individuals or small groups outside of class. Sometimes this
is done well in laboratory sections, but TAs will need special
training or assistance.
Analyzing results For formative assessment, the instructor may want to review
taped interviews with special attention to potential
misconceptions. If used for summative evaluation, a type of
scoring rubric may be developed.
Other things to consider None.

Description
During a structured interview, the instructor uses a set of questions called probes designed
in advance of the interview to elicit a portrait of the learner’s understanding about a

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specific concept/topic. The student may be asked to use their own words to explain an
idea, but is typically required to go beyond simple recognition of a concept to construct a
detailed personal explanation. Generally, the student is also asked to use that concept to
solve a problem or other application task. Additional questions may be added in response
to the answers given. It is this freedom to follow the interviewee, to ask for clarifications,
and to focus on errors, misconceptions, and gaps in knowledge, that makes the interview so
much more fruitful than more traditional methods of assessment.

Limitations
Time is a major inhibiting factor in using structured interviews to inform teaching. To
prevent this issue from being prohibitive, selective sampling of a broad range of students in
a classroom may be employed to make the technique more practical, yet still provide a
portrait of how different students in a class are engaging with course material. A second
limitation of structured interviews lies in the extreme content specificity of students’
thinking. For instance, when dealing with biological knowledge, the type of organism
included in an interview prompt has been shown to radically change the nature of a
student’s response. Thus, if an instructor would like to probe a student’s reasoning pattern
about a specific process, the nature of the exemplar included in the probe must be taken
into account.

Sources
Bishop, B. A., & Anderson, C. W. (1990). Student conceptions of natural selection and its
role in evolution. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27, 415-427.
Demastes-Southerland, S., Good, R., & Peebles, P. (1995). Students' conceptual ecologies
and the process of conceptual change in evolution. Science Education, 79, 637-666.
Demastes-Southerland, S., & Good, R. G. (1995). The crisis of representation: Concept
mapping, written explanations, and students' conceptual frameworks in evolution.
Presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science
Teaching, San Francisco, CA.
Demastes-Southerland, S., Good, R., & Peebles, P. (1996). Patterns of conceptual change
in evolution. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33, 407-431.
Driver, R., & Easley, J. (1978). Pupils and paradigms: A review of literature related to
concept development in adolescent students. Studies in Science Education, 5, 61-84.
Fredette, N., & Clement, J. (1981). Student misconcepts of an electric current: What do
they mean? Journal of College Science Teaching, 10, 280-285.
Lewis, E. L., & Linn, M. C. (1994). Heat energy and temperature concepts of adolescents,
adults, and experts: Implications for curricular improvements. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 31, 657-677.
Rowe, M. B. (1974). Wait-time and rewards as instructional variables. Journal of Research
in Science Teaching, 11, 81-94.
Smith, M. U. (1992). Expertise and the organization of knowledge: Unexpected differences
among genetic counselors, faculty, and students on problem categorization tasks.
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29, 179-205.
Smith, M. U., & Good, R. (1984). Problem solving and classical genetics: Successful
versus unsuccessful performance. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 21,
895912.

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Songer, C., & Mintzes, J. (1994). Understanding cellular respiration: An analysis of
conceptual change in college biology. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31,
621-637.
Southerland, S. A., Smith, M. U., & Cummins, C. L. (2000). "What do you mean by that?"
Using Structured Interviews to Assess Science Understanding. In J. J. Mintzes, J. H.
Wandersee, & J. P. Novak (Eds.), Assessing science understanding: A human
constructivist view (Chapter 6). Academic Press.
Tamir, P., & Zohar, A. (1992). Anthropomorphism and teleology in reasoning about
biological phenomena. Journal of Biological Education, 25, 57-67.
White, R., & Gunstone, R. (1992). Probing understanding. New York: The Falmer Press.

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 Performance Assessments

Timothy F. Slater
Department of Physics
Montana State University

What is a performance assessment?

Performance assessments are designed to judge students’ abilities to use specific
knowledge and research skills. Most performance assessments require the student to
manipulate equipment to solve a problem or make an analysis. Rich performance
assessments reveal a variety of problem-solving approaches, thus providing insight into a
student’s level of conceptual and procedural knowledge.

Why use performance assessments?

Student growth in knowledge of methods, procedures, and analysis skills prove somewhat
difficult to evaluate, particularly with conventional multiple-choice examinations.
Performance assessments, used in concert with more traditional forms of assessment, are
designed to provide a more complete picture of student achievement.

An example
The following is a holistic scoring example with a telescope task. Your task is to set up
and align the 8” telescope, find three different sky objects, and accurately describe some
aspects of these objects that astronomers consider to be important.
Level 3: Student completes all aspects of task quickly and efficiently and is able to answer
questions about the equipment used and objects observed beyond what is obvious. The
tasks are: align telescope mount with north celestial pole, align finder telescope with
primary telescope, center on target object, select and focus appropriate eyepiece, provide
information about the target beyond the literal descriptive level, and answer questions
about the target correctly.
Level 2: Student completes all aspects of task and provides descriptive information about
the equipment and objects observed.
Level 1: Student is not able to complete all aspects of task or is not able to sufficiently
provide information about the equipment used or objects observed. Level 0: No attempt
or meaningful effort obvious.

Assessment purposes
The purpose of performance assessment is to evaluate the actual process of doing science
or mathematics. Performance assessments examine students’ actual application of
knowledge to solve problems. In some cases, the solution of the problem may imply the
application of a specific procedure or combination of procedures learned in class, or a
thoughtful adaptation of students’ knowledge. The assessment of students’ knowledge
focuses on the performance and the result.

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Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Develop ability to apply systematic procedures
• Authentically utilize resource tests, laboratory equipment, and computers
• Develop ability to use scientific methodology and solve complex problems
• Apply and evaluate multiple approaches
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Bridges gap between learning and assessment

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Medium.
time
Preparing your students None.
Class time 10-40 minutes depending on complexity of task.
Disciplines Appropriate for laboratory-based sciences.
Class size Small for direct applications, unlimited for embedded
assessments using student-completed forms.
Special classroom / Varies according to task.
technical requirements
Individual or group Both.
involvement
Analyzing results Low.
Other things to consider Manipulative materials are often required, as well as room
monitors.

Description
Performance assessment strategies are composed of three distinct parts: a performance
task, a format in which the student responds, and a predetermined scoring system. Tasks
are assignments designed to assess a student’s ability to manipulate equipment for a given
purpose. Students can either complete the task in front of a panel of judges or use a written
response sheet. The student is then scored by comparing the performance against a set of
written criteria. When used with students with highly varying abilities, performance tasks
can take maximum advantage of judging student abilities by using tasks with multiple
correct solutions.

Limitations
Performance assessments are typically inappropriate for measuring student knowledge of
facts.

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Sources
Kulm, G., & Malcom, S. M. (1991). Science assessment in the service of reform.
American Association for the Advancement of Science. Washington, D. C.
Shavelson, R. J., Baxter, G. P., & Pine, J. (1991). Performance assessment in science.
Applied Measurement in Education, 4(4): 347.
Slater, T. F., & Ryan, J. M. (1993). Laboratory performance assessment. The Physics
Teacher, 31(5): 306-309.
Tobias, S., & Raphael, J. (1995). In-class examinations in college science – new theory,
new practice. Journal of College Science Teaching, 24(4): 240-244.
Wiggins, G. (1989). A true test: Toward a more authentic and equitable assessment. Phi
Delta Kappa, 70(9): 703.

21
 Portfolios

Timothy F. Slater
Department of Physics
Montana State University

What is a portfolio?
Student portfolios are a collection of evidence, prepared by the student and evaluated by
the faculty member, to demonstrate mastery, comprehension, application, and synthesis of
a given set of concepts. To create a high quality portfolio, students must organize,
synthesize, and clearly describe their achievements and effectively communicate what they
have learned.

Why use portfolios?

Portfolio assessment strategies provide a structure for long-duration, in-depth assignments.
The use of portfolios transfers much of the responsibility of demonstrating mastery of
concepts from the professor to the student.

An example
The following is a list of course learning objectives for Introductory Environmental
Geology where a portfolio supports student learning and assessment for these objectives.
1. The size of the human population, and the causes for change in its size in various
areas of the world.
2. The source, use, pollution, and cleanup of the world’s water resources.
3. The origin and evolution of soils and the way soils are affected by agriculture.
4. Current and alternative sources of food.
5. The origin, advantages, and disadvantages of current sources of energy.

Assessment purposes
The overall goal of the preparation of a portfolio is for the learner to demonstrate and
provide evidence that he or she has mastered a given set of learning objectives. More than
just thick folders containing student work, portfolios are typically personalized, long-term
representations of a student’s own efforts and achievements. Whereas multiple-choice
tests are designed to determine what the student doesn’t know, portfolio assessments
emphasize what the student does know.

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Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Develop ability to communicate scientific conceptions accurately
• Develop ability to write effectively using graphics as support
• Develop ability to relate principle concepts to real-world applications
• Develop ability to cite sources and references appropriately
• Develop ability to synthesize and integrate information and ideas
• Develop ability to be reflective and effectively conduct self-assessment
• Develop ability to think creatively and critically
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Bridge gap between learning and assessment

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Minimal, after the course learning objectives have been
time clearly identified. Can be high if multiple graders are to be
trained when used in large classes.
Preparing your students Clear expectations must be provided to students at the
beginning of the course.
Class time None.
Disciplines Appropriate for all.
Class size Most applicable in small classes; possible in large classes
with pre-existing infrastructure and less “open ended”
character of evidence allowed.
Special classroom / None.
technical requirements
Individual or group Individual.
involvement
Analyzing results Intense and requires a scoring rubric.
Other things to consider Materials are presented in the natural language of the
student and will vary widely within one class.

Description
Student portfolios are a collection of evidence to demonstrate mastery, comprehension,
application, and synthesis of a given set of concepts. The evidence can be presented in a
three-ring binder, a multimedia tour, or a series of short papers. A unique aspect of a
successful portfolio is that it also contains explicit statements of self-reflection. Statements
accompanying each item describe how the student went about mastering the material, why
the presented piece of evidence demonstrates mastery, and why mastery of such material is
relevant to contexts outside the classroom.

23
Limitations
Portfolio assessments provide students and faculty with a direct view of how students
organize knowledge into overarching concepts. As such, portfolios are inappropriate for
measuring students’ levels of factual knowledge or for drill-and-skill activities and
accordingly should be used in concert with more conventional forms of assessment.
Similarly, student work completed beyond the context of the classroom is occasionally
subject to issues of academic dishonesty.

Sources
Astwood, P. M., & Slater, T. F. (1996). Portfolio assessment in large-enrollment courses:
Effectiveness and management. Journal of Geological Education, 45(3).
Berlak, H., Newmann, F. M., Adams, E., Archbald, D. A., Burgess, T., Raven, J., &
Romberg, T. A. (1992). Toward a new science of educational testing and assessment.
New York: Albany State University of New York Press.
Collins, A. (1993). Performance-based assessment of biology teachers. Journal of College
Science Teaching, 30(9): 1103-1120.
Collins, A. (1992). Portfolios for science education: Issues in purpose, structure, and
authenticity. Science Education, 76(4): 451-463.
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage Publications, Inc.
Kuhs, T. M. (1994). Portfolio assessment: Making it work for the first time. The
Mathematics Teacher, 87(5): 332-335.
Rischbieter, M. O., Ryan, J. M., & Carpenter, J. R. (1993). Use of microethnographic
strategies to analyze some affective aspects of learning-cycle-based minicourses in
paleontology for teachers. Journal of Geological Education, 41(3): 208-218.
Slater, T. F. (1994). Portfolio assessment strategies for introductory physics. The Physics
Teacher, 32(6): 415-417.
Slater, T. F. (1997). The effectiveness of portfolio assessments in science. Journal of
College Science Teaching, 26(5).
Slater, T. F., & Astwood, P. M. (1995). Strategies for grading and using student assessment
portfolios. Journal of Geological Education, 45(3), 216-220.
Slater, T. F., Ryan, J. M, & Samson, S. L. (1997). The impact and dynamics of portfolio
assessment and traditional assessment in college physics. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 34(3).
Tobias, S., & Raphael, J. (1995). In-class examinations in college science – new theory,
new practice. Journal of College Science Teaching, 24(4): 240-244.
Wiggens, G. (1989). A true test: Toward more authentic and equitable assessment. Phi
Delta Kappan, 70(9): 703-713.
Wolf, D. (1989). Portfolio assessment: Sampling student work. Educational Leadership,
46(7): 35-37.
Scoring Rubrics

24
 Diane Ebert-May
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology
Michigan State University

What is a scoring rubric?

Rubrics are a way of describing evaluation criteria based on the expected outcomes and
performances of students. Typically, rubrics are used in scoring or grading written
assignments or oral presentations. They may be used, however, to score any form of
student performance. Each rubric consists of a set of scoring criteria and point values
associated with these criteria. In most rubrics, the criteria are grouped into categories so
the instructor and the student can discriminate among the categories by level of
performance. In classroom use, the rubric provides an objective external standard against
which student performance may be compared.

Why use scoring rubrics?

Rubrics provide a readily accessible way of communicating and developing our goals with
students and the criteria we use to discern how well students have reached them.

An example
Level of General Approach Comprehension
Achievement
Exemplary (5 pts) - Addressed the question - Demonstrates an accurate and complete
- States a relevant, justifiable answer understanding of the question
- Presents arguments in a logical order - Backs conclusions with data and
- Uses acceptable style and grammar warrants
(no errors) - Uses 2 of more ideas, examples, and/or
arguments that support the answer
Adequate (4 pts) - Does not address the question - Demonstrates accurate but only adequate
explicitly, although does so understanding of question because does
tangentially not back conclusions with warrants and
- States a relevant and justifiable data
answer - Uses only one idea to support the answer
- Presents arguments in a logical order - Less thorough than above
- Uses acceptable style and grammar
(one error)

Needs - Does not address the question - Does not demonstrate accurate
Improvement (3 - States no relevant answers understanding of the question
pts) - Indicates misconceptions - Does not provide evidence to support
- Is not clearly or logically organized their answer to the question
- Fails to use acceptable style and
grammar (two or more errors)
No Answer (0 pts)

25
Assessment purposes
• To improve the reliability of scoring written assignments and oral presentations
• To convey goals and performance expectations of students in an unambiguous way
• To convey grading standards or point values and relate them to performance goals
• To engage students in critical evaluation of their own performance

Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Communicating about the discipline in a variety of ways
• Improve writing skills
• The quality of reasoning and logic increases
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Gather a variety of data about students’ understanding and performance

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Medium to high.
time
Preparing your students Continuous, but students catch on fairly quickly.
Class time Variable. As students use rubrics, they become better writers
and oral presenters, hence the time instructors spend
evaluating students’ work is reduced.
Disciplines All.
Class size All. Rubrics are easy to use in small classes and are
particularly useful in large classes to facilitate scoring a large
number of written or oral assignments.
Special classroom / None.
technical requirements
Individual or group Both.
involvement
Analyzing results The level of analysis depends on the instructor’s intended
goal of the assessment task and the type of data desired
about students’ performance. For detailed analysis of
students’ responses, each section of the rubric can be scored
independently then totaled. For a holistic analysis of
students’ responses, all sections of the rubric can be blended
and an overall score assigned.
Other things to consider Rubrics must be readily available to students before they
begin an assignment or written test. Posting rubrics on the
web and including them in the course materials promotes
their usefulness.

Description

26
Scoring rubrics are scoring tools that enable instructors to assign points to students’
assignments and tests.

Limitations
One challenge in developing and using rubrics is that of describing performance
expectations and defining the criteria that differentiate several levels of performance.
Quantitative descriptors may be helpful in differentiating among performance levels,
whereas variables such as vague or concise must be described clearly so that students see
the differences between a statement that is vague and a statement that is concise.
Additionally, no assessment tool is effective if it is not used on a regular basis.
Developing effective rubrics requires revision based on feedback from students.

Sources
Ebert-May, D., Brewer, C., & Allred, S. (1997). Innovation in large lectures-teachings for
active learning. Bioscience, 47: 601-607.
Freeman, R. H. (1994). Open-ended questioning: a handbook for educators. Menlo Park,
California: Innovative Learning.
King, P. M., & Kitchener, K. S. (1994). Developing reflective judgment: Understanding
and promoting intellectual growth and critical thinking in adolescents and adults. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
MacGregor, J. (1993). Student self-evaluation: fostering reflective learning. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Magolda, M. B. (1992). Knowing and reasoning in college: gender-related students'
intellectual development. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press.
Novak, J. D., Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Weekly Reports

Eugenia Etkina
Graduate School of Education
Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

What is a weekly report?

Weekly reports are papers written by students each week that address the following 3
questions:
1. What did I learn this week?
2. What remained unclear to you?
3. If you were the professor, what questions would you ask your students to find
out if they understood the material?

Why use weekly reports?

Weekly reports provide rapid feedback regarding what students believe they are learning
and various conceptual difficulties they are experiencing.

27
An example
The following example is a student’s response to questions 2 and 3.
2. What remained unclear to you? I don’t quite understand what defines one ecosystem
from another when so many factors are overlapping. I did not fully understand
Professor E’s reference to squirrels having visual adaptation and yellow lens light. He
was speaking rapidly and I don’t know if I heard all he said.
3. If you were the professor, what questions would you ask your students to find out if
they understood the material? A) What are the three conditions that must be present
for evolution by natural selection? B) What is ecology? C) What does an ecosystem
consist of? D) What do we mean by saying natural selection is survival of the fittest?
E) Why do birds that live on surface water catch fish? F) Name three different types of
orientations cues.

Assessment purposes
• To document students’ understanding of their own learning
• To investigate how well students understand the content and logical relationships in
the material they are learning
• To document students’ questions and select the most typical ones
• To give students feedback concerning the content and the level of difficulty of
questions they consider important
• To capture the development of students’ reasoning and writing skills over time
• To provide a measure of students’ emotional satisfaction with the course and their
levels of frustration with its content

Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Understand the difference between observational facts, concepts, principles, and
theories
• Communicate in writing effectively
• Ask important questions
• Reflect on own knowledge and learning
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Answer students’ questions on a regular basis
• Bridge gap between learning and assessment
• Communicate desire for student success
• Develop and refine instruction based on student feedback
• Receive regular feedback from students
• Track typical questions

What is involved?

28
 Instructor preparation Minimal. Questions may be written on blackboard or
time provided in hard copy form.
Preparing your students Students need explanations on the purpose of the reports and
training on structuring the answer to the first question.
Class time None – done at home.
Disciplines Appropriate for all ages.
Class size Any class size. In recitation sections, teaching assistants
grade the reports and provide feedback.
Special classroom / None.
technical requirements
Individual or group Individual.
involvement
Analyzing results Reports need careful grading. The instructor should find a
way to answer atypical responses individually and typical
responses in class.
Other things to consider Students must see how reports help them learn – otherwise,
the reports will not be taken seriously.

Description
A weekly report is a paper that students compose each week to analyze and reflect on what
they have learned. It consists of three questions aimed at general concepts, uncertainties,
and evaluation of comprehension.

Limitations
When done well, weekly reports may provide a useful and easily accessible way of probing
three aspects of students’ knowledge.
• Cognitive aspects: To be useful, students must provide a well-structured, in-depth
exposition of the concepts, principles, and theories they have studied, trying to
explain how they learned what they think they did.
• Affective aspects: Ideally, the response provides evidence of students’ feelings,
attitudes, and beliefs about the content, the course, and the instructor.
• Metacognitive aspects: Responses to all three questions provide information about
students’ understanding of their own learning.
Perhaps the most significant limitation of weekly reports is that students need practice with
the technique in order to provide useful feedback to the instructor. Normally, however,
this limitation can be overcome in a matter of a few weeks.

29
Sources
Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. D., & Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational psychology: A cognitive
view. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Bagley, T., & Gallenberger, C. (1992). Assessing students' dispositions: Using journals to
improve students' performance. Mathematics Teacher, 85, 660-663.
Baird, J. R. (1990). Metacognition, purposeful inquiry and conceptual change. In E.
Hegarty-Hazel (Ed.), The student laboratory and the science curriculum. London:
Routledge.
Cizek, G. I. (1997). Learning, achievement, and assessment. In G. D. Phye (Ed.),
Classroom assessment: Learning, achieving and adjustment (pp. 2-29). San Diego,
CA: Academic Press.
Gunstone, R. F. & Mitchell, I. J. (1998). Metacognition and Conceptual Change. In J. J.
Mintzes, J. H. Wandersee, & J. Novak (Eds.), Teaching science for understanding: A
human constructivist view (pp. 133-163). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Lester, F. K., Lambdin, D. V., & Preston, R. V. (1997). A New Vision of the Nature and
Purposes of Assessment in the Mathematics Classroom. In G. D. Phye (Ed.),
Classroom assessment: Learning, achieving and adjustment (pp. 287-319). San Diego,
CA: Academic Press.
Mintzes, J. J., Wandersee, J. H., & Novak, J. (Eds.). (1998). Teaching Science for
Understanding: A human constructivist view. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Novak, J. D. & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Redish, E. F. (1994). Implications of cognitive studies for teaching physics. American
Journal of Physics, 62, 796-803.

30
Center for Teaching and
Learning

CLASSROOM
ASSESSMENT TOOLS
 CONTENTS*

Matching Outcomes to Assessment Tools...………..1

Classroom Assessment Tools……………………….5
Attitude Surveys………………………………..5
ConcepTests ……………………...……………8
Concept Mapping……………………………..11
Conceptual Diagnostic Tests………………….14
Interviews…………………………………..…18
Performance
Assessments………………….....22 Portfolios...
…………………………………....25
Scoring Rubrics…………………………….…28
Weekly Reports……………………………….31
* Note: These materials and additional information may be
found at http://www.flaguide.org/cat/cat.php.
Matching Outcomes to Assessment Tools

1
2
3
 Attitude Surveys

Eileen Lewis
Department of Chemistry

4
 Canada College

Elaine Seymour
Bureau of Sociological Research
University of Colorado, Boulder

What is an attitude survey?

While attitudinal surveys may take many forms and address a range of issues, they
typically consist of a series of statements that students are asked to express their agreement
or disagreement using a scale.

Why use attitude surveys?

This type of survey provides valuable information on student perceptions of and emotions
regarding their classroom experience. This includes general attitudes toward the course,
the discipline, and their own learning. The results from this survey can also help you
identify elements in your course that best support student learning.

An example
Please use the 7-point scale to indicate your agreement or disagreement with each
statement.
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly N/A Don’t
disagree agree know
Often in lab I didn’t understand 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
the concept behind the lab
experiment.
I like labs where I get to help 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
design an experiment to answer a
question.
This course provided 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
opportunities for me to help
design experiments to answer a
question.
It was clear how the lab 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
experiments fit into this course.

Assessment purposes
• To provide information about students’ learning styles or preferences for ways of
learning, allowing instructors to choose among instructional approaches that would
best meet the needs of the students
• To discover which components of the course contribute most significantly to
students’ learning
• To provide feedback helpful for designing activities to foster a more realistic view
of a discipline and what members of that discipline do
• To prompt students to reflect on their own learning preferences, strengths, or styles

Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes

5
 • Learn the techniques and methods used to gain new knowledge in the subject
• Develop appropriate study skills, strategies, and habits
• Develop awareness of learning processes and control over those processes
• Develop a knowledge and appreciation for the subject
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Develop and refine instruction based on student feedback

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Very little time is needed to use a valid, existing survey.
time Large amounts of time are required to develop a survey that
is reliable and measures what is intended.
Preparing your students No training is required, but a description of the survey’s
goals and scales should be read to students as well as
included in the survey form itself.
Class time Varies with length, but rarely more than 20 minutes.
Disciplines Appropriate for all.
Class size Appropriate for all.
Special classroom / None, although an optical scanning device may be useful to
technical requirements read and analyze data in large classes.
Individual or group Typically individual.
involvement
Analyzing results Depends very much on class size and length of the survey.
In large classes, the use of scanning forms and optical
readers make the task easier.
Other things to consider To insure meaningful results, student responses must be
guaranteed anonymity. These surveys can be given pre and
post to measure gains over a course or to provide midcourse
corrections to classroom teaching methods. Demographic
data may be included in the survey so that correlation with
gender, major, or ethnicity can be made.

Description
An attitudinal survey can provide information on student perceptions of their classroom
experience. It can reveal perceptions on the content of a course, specific components of a
course, course components that aid or are detrimental to learning, and the effects of course
innovations. Attitudinal surveys may also focus on students’ needs in taking a course, how
well those needs are met, student interest in or appreciation for the subject matter or field,
student confidence in their ability to perform in a course, or their beliefs about the nature
of the discipline itself.

6
Limitations
Constructive questions or statements on an attitudinal survey are the result of considerable
work in both designing the question/statement so that it measures what it was intended to
measure and has reliability across students and groups. Additionally, for best results,
students must be guaranteed anonymity. This means if the instructor analyzes the data, no
student identification should be requested. You may ask for demographic information like
gender, ethnicity, major, etc. and look for correlation across those variables. If you want to
correlate student responses to their performance, you must have someone else gather and
analyze the data, explicitly letting the students know you are doing so. Data analysis can
be very time consuming in large classes unless you have optical scanning response forms
and an optical reader. For small classes, you may provide additional space for students to
elaborate on their ideas.

Sources
Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for
college teachers (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Braskamp, L., & Ory, J. (1994). Assessing faculty work: Enhancing individual and
institutional performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Centra, J. A. (1973). Effectiveness of student feedback in modifying college instruction.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 65(3), 395-401.
Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Fowler, F. J. (1993). Survey research methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Gramson, Z., & Chickering, A. (1977). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate
education. AAHE Bulletin, 39, 5-10.
Henderson, M. E., Morris, L. L., & Firz-Gibbon, C. T. (1987). How to measure attitudes.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Murray, H. G. (1991). Effective teaching behaviors in the college classroom. In J. C. Smart
(Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research, Vol. 7 (pp. 135172). New
York: Agathon.
National Research Council (1997). Science teaching reconsidered: A handbook.
Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press.
Reynolds, A. (1992). What is competent beginning teaching? A review of the literature.
Review of educational research, 62, 1-35.
Shulman, L. S. (1990). Aristotle had it right: On knowledge and pedagogy (Occasional
paper no. 4). East Lansing, MI: The Holmes Group.
Shulman, L. S. (1991). Ways of seeing, ways of knowing – ways of teaching, ways of
learning about teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 23(5), 393-395.
Theall, M., & Franklin, J. (Eds.) (1990). Student ratings of instruction: Issues for
improving practice. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 43. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
ConcepTests

Arthur B. Ellis, Clark R. Landis, Kathleen Meeker

Department of Chemistry
University of Wisconsin-Madison

7
What is a ConcepTest?
The instructor presents one or more questions during class involving key concepts, along
with several possible answers. Students in the class indicate by, for example, a show of
hands, which answer they think is correct. If most of the class has not identified the
correct answer, students are given a short time in lecture to try to persuade their
neighbor(s) that their answer is correct. The question is asked a second time by the
instructor to gauge class mastery.

Why use ConcepTests?

The instructor obtains immediate feedback on the level of class understanding. Students
have an opportunity to enhance teamwork and communication skills. Many instructors
have reported substantial improvements in class attendance and attitude toward the course.

An example
During an experiment, the class is asked to vote - “How many of you think that a quarter of
the laser light will now reach the solar cell? How many of you think none of the light will
now get to the solar cell?” If most of the class has correctly noted that one-quarter of the
light will be transmitted, you can quickly affirm why this is correct and continue with the
lesson. If the majority of the class does not select the correct answer, ask your students to
convince their neighbor(s) that their answer is correct. After a short discussion period,
have the class vote a second time. If the class has now selected the correct answer, a quick
explanation is again appropriate. If the majority of the class has not reached the correct
answer, a more detailed explanation can be presented.

Assessment purposes
• To obtain real-time feedback regarding student understanding
• To determine the pace and direction of the remainder of the lecture

Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Apply ideas and concepts while communicating verbally
• Integrate concepts
• Work cooperatively with others
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Obtain real-time feedback regarding student misconceptions and understanding
• Communicate the instructor’s desire for students to be successful in the course

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Some time is needed to create ConcepTests. For some
time disciplines, hundreds of sample questions exist on websites
as a time-saving resource.

8
 Preparing your students Students require minimal training. Through sustained use in
class, students become comfortable with the method.
Class time ConcepTests typically last from less than a minute to several
minutes.
Disciplines Appropriate for all.
Class size Best with classes of at least a dozen students. Successfully
used in large lecture classes.
Special classroom / None. The method can be used in conjunction with
technical requirements worksheets, lecture demonstrations, computer animations,
and film clips.
Individual or group Small group of 2 or 3 students.
involvement
Analyzing results Minimal.
Other things to consider It is more difficult to predict how much material will be
covered in a lecture. It may take a sustained effort for an
instructor and class to become comfortable and work
effectively with ConcepTests.

Description
Questions in a ConcepTest inform or calibrate students as to how well they understand
what the instructor has identified as key ideas, and they calibrate instructors as to class
mastery of these ideas at the time of their presentation. ConcepTests thus make the lecture
a vehicle for bringing student and instructor expectations into alignment.

Limitations
If the class size is too small, students may feel more conspicuous and self-conscious,
hindering their participation. Instructors may need to encourage students to sit together to
participate in ConcepTests if the lecture room has many more chairs than students.
Some instructors group students into teams to work on ConcepTests during their lectures.

Links & sources

9
Mazur, E. (1997). Peer instruction: A user’s manual. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
New Traditions Project. (1997). Establishing new traditions: Revitalizing the chemistry
curriculum. Retrieved August 24, 2005, from http://newtraditions.chem.wisc.edu.
Project Galileo. (2005). Project Galileo: Your gateway to innovations in science education.
Retrieved August 24, 2005, from http://galileo.harvard.edu.
Tobias, S. (1990). They’re not dumb, they’re different: Stalking the second tier. Tucson,
AZ: Research Corporation.
Tobias, S. (1992). Revitalizing undergraduate science: Why some things work and most
don’t. Tucson, AZ: Research Corporation.
The Trustees of Beloit College and the Regents of the University of California (2004).
ChemConnections: Systemic change initiatives in chemistry. Retrieved August 24,
2005, from http://chemlinks.beloit.edu.
The University of Wisconsin Board of Regents. (1996). Chemistry ConcepTests. Retrieved
August 24, 2005, from http://www.chem.wisc.edu/~concept.

10
 Concept Mapping

Michael Zeilik
Department of Physics & Astronomy
University of New Mexico

What is a concept map?

A concept map is a diagram of nodes containing concept labels that are linked together
with labeled directional lines. The concept nodes are arranged in hierarchical levels that
move from general to specific concepts.

Why use concept maps?

Concept maps assess how well students see the “big picture.” They have been used for
over 25 years to provide a useful and visually appealing way of illustrating students’
conceptual knowledge.

An example

Assessment purposes
• To investigate how well students understand the correct connections among
concepts in a subject
• To document the nature and frequency of students’ misconceptions
• To capture the development of students’ ideas over time

11
Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Learn terms, facts, and concepts of this subject
• Organize information into meaningful categories
• Synthesize and integrate information, ideas, and concepts
• Think about the “big picture” and see connections among concepts
• Think creatively about the subject
• Improve long-term memory skills for accessible knowledge
• Develop higher-level thinking skills, strategies, and habits
• Use graphics effectively
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Gain insight into the way students view a scientific topic
• Examine the valid understandings and misconceptions students hold
• Assess the structural complexity of the relationships students depict

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Minimal if students construct maps; large for designing “fill-
time in” maps.
Preparing your students Students need training (about an hour) and continual
practice.
Class time At least 30 minutes.
Disciplines Appropriate for all.
Class size Small classes if students construct maps individually;
cooperative teams constructing maps will work with large
(or small) classes.
Special classroom / None.
technical requirements
Individual or group Either.
involvement
Analyzing results Intensive for formal scoring for large classes; concept maps
are generally not graded.
Other things to consider Very demanding cognitive task for students.

Description
A concept map is a two-dimensional, hierarchical node-link diagram that depicts the
structure of knowledge within a scientific discipline as viewed by a student, an instructor,
or an expert in a field or sub-field. The map is composed of concept labels, each enclosed
in a box or oval, a series of labeled linking lines, and an inclusive, general-tospecific
organization.

12
Limitations
Concepts maps provide a useful and visually appealing way of depicting the structure of
conceptual knowledge that people have stored in long-term memory. As a result, they
offer a readily accessible way of assessing how well students see “the big picture.” They
are not designed to tap into the kind of process knowledge that students also need to solve
novel problems or for the routine application of algorithmic solutions. Because they probe
an individual’s or group’s cognitive organization, they are very idiosyncratic and difficult
to compare, either among individuals or groups, or across time for the same individuals or
groups.

Links & sources

Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for
college teachers (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Austin, L. B., & Shore, B. M. (1995). Using concept mapping for assessment in physics.
Physics Education, 30(1): 41-45.
Inspiration Software, Inc. (2005). Inspiration Software, Inc. Retrieved August 24, 2005,
from http://www.inspiration.com.
Markham, K., Mintzes, J., & Jones, G. (1994). The concept map as a research and
evaluation tool: Further evidence of validity. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
31(1): 91-101.
Mintzes, J. J., Wandersee, J. H., & Novak, J. D. (1998). Teaching science for
understanding: A human constructivist view. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. The
National Association for Research in Science Teaching. (2004). The National
Association for Research in Science Teaching. Retrieved August 28, 2005, from
http://www.educ.sfu.ca/narstsite/.
Novak, J. D. (1998). Learning, creating and using knowledge: Concept maps as facilitative
tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. Cambridge University Press.
Novak, J. D., & Wandersee, J. D. (Eds.). (1990). Perspectives on concept mapping.
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20(10).
Pearsall, R., Skipper, J., & Mintzes, J. Knowledge restructuring in the life sciences: A
longitudinal study of conceptual change in biology. Science Education, 81, 193-215.
Pendley, B. D., Bretz, R. L., & Novak, J. D. (1994). Concept maps as a tool to assess
learning in chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 71(1): 9-15.
Ruiz-Primo, M., & Shavelson, R. (1996). Problems and issues in the use of concept maps
in science assessment. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33(6): 569-600.
Schau, C., & Mattern, N. (1997). Use of map techniques in teaching statistics courses. The
American Statistician, 51(2): 171-175.
Wallace, J., & Mintzes, J. (1990). The concept map as a research tool: Exploring
conceptual change in biology. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27(10): 1033-
1052.
Zeilik, M., Schau, C., Mattern, N., Hall, S., Teague, K., & Bisard, W. (1997). Conceptual
astronomy: A novel model for teaching postsecondary science courses. American
Journal of Physics, 65(10): 987-996.

13
 Conceptual Diagnostic Tests

Michael Zeilik
Department of Physics and Astronomy
University of New Mexico

What is a conceptual diagnostic test?

A conceptual diagnostic test is a test with items in a multiple-choice or short-answer
format that has been designed with common misconceptions in mind.

Why use conceptual diagnostic tests?

Using conceptual diagnostic tests assesses how well students understand key concepts in a
SMET field prior to, during, and after instruction.

An example
The following is a sample item from the Astronomy Diagnostic Test. As seen from your
location, when is the Sun directly overhead at noon (so that no shadows are cast)?
A. Every day
B. On the day of the summer solstice
C. On the day of the winter solstice
D. At both of the equinoxes (spring and fall)
E. Never from the latitude of your location The correct answer is E.

Assessment purposes
• To reveal the misconceptions students bring as prior knowledge to a class
• To measure the conceptual gains of a class as a whole
• To identify concepts that are weak areas of understanding

Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Learn concepts and terms of a subject
• Develop higher-level thinking skills, strategies, and habits
• Recognize common misconceptions in order to avoid or change them
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Tracks students’ misconceptions, conceptual change, and the impact of your
instruction
• Allows for evaluation of student comprehension

14
What is involved?
Instructor preparation Minimal for using available tests; moderate for designing
time your own questions.
Preparing your students Nothing special.
Class time At least 30 minutes for a complete test.
Disciplines Appropriate for all.
Class size Small and large.
Special classroom / Machine scoring of scannable forms.
technical requirements
Individual or group Either.
involvement
Analyzing results Can be machine scored for large classes; diagnostic tests are
generally not graded.
Other things to consider Need to match tests to course goals.

Description
A conceptual diagnostic test aims to assess students’ conceptual understanding of key ideas
in a discipline, especially those that are prone to misconceptions. Hence, they are
discipline-specific rather than generic. The format typically is multiple-choice so that a
conceptual diagnostic test can be given efficiently to large numbers of students and
machine scored. Unlike traditional multiple-choice items, the distracters are designed to
elicit misconceptions known from the research base. A student must have a clear
understanding of a concept in order to select the correct response. Because conceptual
diagnostic tests can be scored quickly, they can be used as formative as well as summative
assessments.

Limitations
To develop reliable and valid conceptual diagnostic tests is a major, long-term undertaking.
Only a limited number of such tests are currently available and those may not match your
course goals. Your field may be one in which no such tests have been developed.

Links & sources

Misconceptions research
Driver, R. (1993). The pupil as scientist? London: Milton Keynes.
Pfundt, H. and Duit, R. (1994). Bibliography: Students' Alternative Frameworks and
Science Education (4th ed.). Germany: Kiel.
Astronomy
Nussbaum, J. (1979). Children's conception of the earth as a cosmic body: A cross-age
study. Science Education, 63, 83-93.
Sneider, C., & Pulos, S. (1983). Children's cosmographies: Understanding the earth's shape
and gravity. Science Education, 67, 205-221.

15
Vosniadou, S. (1990). Conceptual development in astronomy. In S. Glynn, R. Yeany, & B.
Britton (Eds.), The psychology of learning science (pp. 149-177). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.

Biology
Arnaudin, M. W., & Mintzes, J. J. (1985). Students' alternative conceptions of the
circulatory system: A cross-age study. Science Education, 69, 721-733.
Bell, B. (1981). When is an animal not an animal? Journal of Biological Education, 15,
213-218.
Wandersee, J. H. (1986). Can the history of science help science educators anticipate
students' misconceptions? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 23, 581-597.
Chemistry
American Chemical Society. (2005). Division of chemical education. Retrieved August 24,
2005 from http://tigerched.clemson.edu/exams.
Ben-Zvi, N., & Gai, R. (1994). Macro- and micro-chemical comprehension of real work
phenomena. Journal of Chemical Education, 71, 730-732.
Hackling, M., & Garnett, D. (1985). Misconceptions of chemical equilibria. European
Journal of Science Education, 7, 205-214.
Nakhleh, M. B. (1992). Why some students don't learn chemistry: Chemical
misconceptions. Journal of Chemical Education, 69, 191-196.
Novik, S., & Menis, J. (1976). A study of student perceptions of the mole concept.
Journal of Chemical Education, 53, 720-722.
Stavy, R. (1988). Children's conception of gas. International Journal of Science Education,
10, 553-560.
Physics
American Association of Physics Teachers. (2005). American Association of Physics
Teachers. Retrieved August 24, 2005, from http://aapt.org.
Champagne, A., Klopfer, L., & Anderson, J. (1980). Factors influencing the learning of
classical mechanics. American Journal of Physics, 48, 1074-1079.
Clement, J. (1982). Studies of preconceptions in introductory mechanics. American
Journal of Physics, 50, 66-71.
Fredette, N., & Clement, J. (1981). Student misconceptions of an electric current: What do
they mean? Journal of College Science Teaching, 10, 280-285.
Watts, D. M. (1985). Students' conceptions of light - A case study. Physics Education, 20,
183-187.
Diagnostic tests
Bisard, W., & Zeilik, M. (1998). Conceptually centered astronomy with actively engaged
students. Mercury, 27(4), 16-19.
Hake, R. R. (1998). Interactive engagement versus traditional methods: A six-
thousandstudent survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses.
American Journal of Physics, 66(1), 64-74.
Hestenes, D., & Wells, M. (1992). A mechanics baseline test. The Physics Teacher, 30,
159-166.
Hestenes, D., Wells, M., & Swackhamer, G. (1992). Force concept inventory. The Physics
Teacher, 30(3): 141-151.

16
Lightman, A., & Sadler, P. (1993). Teacher predictions versus actual student gains. The
Physics Teacher, 31(3): 162-167.

Odom, A. L., & Barrow, L. H. (1995). Development and application of a two-tier

diagnostic test measuring college biology students' understanding of diffusion and
osmosis after a course of instruction. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32(1):
45-61.
Russell, A. A. (1994). A rationally designed general chemistry diagnostic test. Journal of
Chemical Education, 71(4): 314-317.
Treagust, D. F. (1988). Development and use of diagnostic tests to evaluate students'
misconceptions in science. International Journal of Science Education, 10(2),
159169.
Wandersee, J. H., Mintzes, J. J., & Novak, J. D. (1994). Research on alternative
conceptions in science (pp. 177-210). Handbook of Research of Science Teaching and
Learning. New York: Macmillan Publishing.
Zeilik, M., Schau, C., & Mattern, N. (1998). Misconceptions and their change in
university-level astronomy courses. The Physics Teacher, 36: 104-107.
Zeilik, M., Schau, C., Mattern, N., Hall, S., Teague, K., & Bisard, W. (1997). Conceptual
astronomy: A novel model for teaching postsecondary science courses. American
Journal of Physics, 65(10): 987-996.

17
 Interviews

Mike U. Smith
Department of Internal Medicine
Mercer University School of Medicine

Sherry A. Southerland
Science Education
University of Utah

What is an interview?
A formal interview consists of a series of well-chosen questions (and often a set of tasks or
problems) that are designed to elicit a portrait of a student’s understanding about a
scientific concept or set of related concepts. The interview may be videotaped or
audiotaped for later analysis.

Why use interviews?

In-depth structured interviews with a handful of carefully selected students will enable you
to readily judge the extent of understanding your students have developed with respect to a
series of well-focused, conceptually-related scientific ideas. This form of assessment
provides feedback that is especially useful to instructors who want to improve their
teaching and the organization of their courses.

An example
The interview should begin with a focus question that requires application of the concept to
be investigated without forcing the student into an explicit definition. Specific definitions
of the concept, if needed, should be sought only after understanding the student’s response
to the focusing question. It is important for the interviewer to wait at least 3 to 5 seconds
after each prompt before trying to interpret the question or ask another.

Assessment purposes
• To investigate how well students understand and can apply a concept
• To identify gaps in understanding that may be common among students
• To document the general and content-specific procedures that students employ in
application tasks and the sequences and manner in which processes are employed
• To document how student understanding and problem-solving skills change over
time or with instruction
• To obtain verbal feedback from students about course structure, teaching
techniques, and other aspects of the course or program of instruction Teaching
goals
Student learning outcomes
• Analyzes problems from different viewpoints and communicates effectively
• Recognizes interrelationships among problems and issues
• Applies principles and generalizations to new problems and situations
• Demonstrates a basic knowledge of the concepts and theories of the subject
• Demonstrates synthesis and integration of information and ideas

18
 • Uses appropriate synthetic and analytic methods to solve problems
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Answers students’ questions and provides feedback from students
• Bridges gap between learning and assessment
• Tracks typical questions and problems

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Several hours required to develop a set of good questions,
time tasks, and problem sets. Additional time to locate
appropriate props and recording equipment, if desired.
Preparing your students Interviews are most fruitful when the student has developed a
good rapport with you. It is essential that the student feels
relaxed and at ease.
Class time One-on-one or small group interviews may be conducted in
less than an hour in your office or other convenient private
space. Some practice will reduce the time required to
conduct a good interview.
Disciplines No disciplinary restraints. Appropriate for all SMET fields.
Class size Normally, structured interviews are conducted outside of
class. It is important that subjects be carefully selected to
represent a range of abilities and interest levels among
students enrolled in a course.
Special classroom / Interview protocol, props, recording equipment, and small
technical requirements private space.
Individual or group The most useful interviews are those conducted with
involvement individuals or small groups outside of class. Sometimes this
is done well in laboratory sections, but TAs will need special
training or assistance.
Analyzing results For formative assessment, the instructor may want to review
taped interviews with special attention to potential
misconceptions. If used for summative evaluation, a type of
scoring rubric may be developed.
Other things to consider None.

Description
During a structured interview, the instructor uses a set of questions called probes designed
in advance of the interview to elicit a portrait of the learner’s understanding about a

19
specific concept/topic. The student may be asked to use their own words to explain an
idea, but is typically required to go beyond simple recognition of a concept to construct a
detailed personal explanation. Generally, the student is also asked to use that concept to
solve a problem or other application task. Additional questions may be added in response
to the answers given. It is this freedom to follow the interviewee, to ask for clarifications,
and to focus on errors, misconceptions, and gaps in knowledge, that makes the interview so
much more fruitful than more traditional methods of assessment.

Limitations
Time is a major inhibiting factor in using structured interviews to inform teaching. To
prevent this issue from being prohibitive, selective sampling of a broad range of students in
a classroom may be employed to make the technique more practical, yet still provide a
portrait of how different students in a class are engaging with course material. A second
limitation of structured interviews lies in the extreme content specificity of students’
thinking. For instance, when dealing with biological knowledge, the type of organism
included in an interview prompt has been shown to radically change the nature of a
student’s response. Thus, if an instructor would like to probe a student’s reasoning pattern
about a specific process, the nature of the exemplar included in the probe must be taken
into account.

Sources
Bishop, B. A., & Anderson, C. W. (1990). Student conceptions of natural selection and its
role in evolution. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27, 415-427.
Demastes-Southerland, S., Good, R., & Peebles, P. (1995). Students' conceptual ecologies
and the process of conceptual change in evolution. Science Education, 79, 637-666.
Demastes-Southerland, S., & Good, R. G. (1995). The crisis of representation: Concept
mapping, written explanations, and students' conceptual frameworks in evolution.
Presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science
Teaching, San Francisco, CA.
Demastes-Southerland, S., Good, R., & Peebles, P. (1996). Patterns of conceptual change
in evolution. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33, 407-431.
Driver, R., & Easley, J. (1978). Pupils and paradigms: A review of literature related to
concept development in adolescent students. Studies in Science Education, 5, 61-84.
Fredette, N., & Clement, J. (1981). Student misconcepts of an electric current: What do
they mean? Journal of College Science Teaching, 10, 280-285.
Lewis, E. L., & Linn, M. C. (1994). Heat energy and temperature concepts of adolescents,
adults, and experts: Implications for curricular improvements. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 31, 657-677.
Rowe, M. B. (1974). Wait-time and rewards as instructional variables. Journal of Research
in Science Teaching, 11, 81-94.
Smith, M. U. (1992). Expertise and the organization of knowledge: Unexpected differences
among genetic counselors, faculty, and students on problem categorization tasks.
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29, 179-205.
Smith, M. U., & Good, R. (1984). Problem solving and classical genetics: Successful
versus unsuccessful performance. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 21,
895912.

20
Songer, C., & Mintzes, J. (1994). Understanding cellular respiration: An analysis of
conceptual change in college biology. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31,
621-637.
Southerland, S. A., Smith, M. U., & Cummins, C. L. (2000). "What do you mean by that?"
Using Structured Interviews to Assess Science Understanding. In J. J. Mintzes, J. H.
Wandersee, & J. P. Novak (Eds.), Assessing science understanding: A human
constructivist view (Chapter 6). Academic Press.
Tamir, P., & Zohar, A. (1992). Anthropomorphism and teleology in reasoning about
biological phenomena. Journal of Biological Education, 25, 57-67.
White, R., & Gunstone, R. (1992). Probing understanding. New York: The Falmer Press.

21
 Performance Assessments

Timothy F. Slater
Department of Physics
Montana State University

What is a performance assessment?

Performance assessments are designed to judge students’ abilities to use specific
knowledge and research skills. Most performance assessments require the student to
manipulate equipment to solve a problem or make an analysis. Rich performance
assessments reveal a variety of problem-solving approaches, thus providing insight into a
student’s level of conceptual and procedural knowledge.

Why use performance assessments?

Student growth in knowledge of methods, procedures, and analysis skills prove somewhat
difficult to evaluate, particularly with conventional multiple-choice examinations.
Performance assessments, used in concert with more traditional forms of assessment, are
designed to provide a more complete picture of student achievement.

An example
The following is a holistic scoring example with a telescope task. Your task is to set up
and align the 8” telescope, find three different sky objects, and accurately describe some
aspects of these objects that astronomers consider to be important.
Level 3: Student completes all aspects of task quickly and efficiently and is able to answer
questions about the equipment used and objects observed beyond what is obvious. The
tasks are: align telescope mount with north celestial pole, align finder telescope with
primary telescope, center on target object, select and focus appropriate eyepiece, provide
information about the target beyond the literal descriptive level, and answer questions
about the target correctly.
Level 2: Student completes all aspects of task and provides descriptive information about
the equipment and objects observed.
Level 1: Student is not able to complete all aspects of task or is not able to sufficiently
provide information about the equipment used or objects observed. Level 0: No attempt
or meaningful effort obvious.

Assessment purposes
The purpose of performance assessment is to evaluate the actual process of doing science
or mathematics. Performance assessments examine students’ actual application of
knowledge to solve problems. In some cases, the solution of the problem may imply the
application of a specific procedure or combination of procedures learned in class, or a
thoughtful adaptation of students’ knowledge. The assessment of students’ knowledge
focuses on the performance and the result.

22
Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Develop ability to apply systematic procedures
• Authentically utilize resource tests, laboratory equipment, and computers
• Develop ability to use scientific methodology and solve complex problems
• Apply and evaluate multiple approaches
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Bridges gap between learning and assessment

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Medium.
time
Preparing your students None.
Class time 10-40 minutes depending on complexity of task.
Disciplines Appropriate for laboratory-based sciences.
Class size Small for direct applications, unlimited for embedded
assessments using student-completed forms.
Special classroom / Varies according to task.
technical requirements
Individual or group Both.
involvement
Analyzing results Low.
Other things to consider Manipulative materials are often required, as well as room
monitors.

Description
Performance assessment strategies are composed of three distinct parts: a performance
task, a format in which the student responds, and a predetermined scoring system. Tasks
are assignments designed to assess a student’s ability to manipulate equipment for a given
purpose. Students can either complete the task in front of a panel of judges or use a written
response sheet. The student is then scored by comparing the performance against a set of
written criteria. When used with students with highly varying abilities, performance tasks
can take maximum advantage of judging student abilities by using tasks with multiple
correct solutions.

Limitations
Performance assessments are typically inappropriate for measuring student knowledge of
facts.

23
Sources
Kulm, G., & Malcom, S. M. (1991). Science assessment in the service of reform.
American Association for the Advancement of Science. Washington, D. C.
Shavelson, R. J., Baxter, G. P., & Pine, J. (1991). Performance assessment in science.
Applied Measurement in Education, 4(4): 347.
Slater, T. F., & Ryan, J. M. (1993). Laboratory performance assessment. The Physics
Teacher, 31(5): 306-309.
Tobias, S., & Raphael, J. (1995). In-class examinations in college science – new theory,
new practice. Journal of College Science Teaching, 24(4): 240-244.
Wiggins, G. (1989). A true test: Toward a more authentic and equitable assessment. Phi
Delta Kappa, 70(9): 703.

24
 Portfolios

Timothy F. Slater
Department of Physics
Montana State University

What is a portfolio?
Student portfolios are a collection of evidence, prepared by the student and evaluated by
the faculty member, to demonstrate mastery, comprehension, application, and synthesis of
a given set of concepts. To create a high quality portfolio, students must organize,
synthesize, and clearly describe their achievements and effectively communicate what they
have learned.

Why use portfolios?

Portfolio assessment strategies provide a structure for long-duration, in-depth assignments.
The use of portfolios transfers much of the responsibility of demonstrating mastery of
concepts from the professor to the student.

An example
The following is a list of course learning objectives for Introductory Environmental
Geology where a portfolio supports student learning and assessment for these objectives.
1. The size of the human population, and the causes for change in its size in various
areas of the world.
2. The source, use, pollution, and cleanup of the world’s water resources.
3. The origin and evolution of soils and the way soils are affected by agriculture.
4. Current and alternative sources of food.
5. The origin, advantages, and disadvantages of current sources of energy.

Assessment purposes
The overall goal of the preparation of a portfolio is for the learner to demonstrate and
provide evidence that he or she has mastered a given set of learning objectives. More than
just thick folders containing student work, portfolios are typically personalized, long-term
representations of a student’s own efforts and achievements. Whereas multiple-choice
tests are designed to determine what the student doesn’t know, portfolio assessments
emphasize what the student does know.

25
Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Develop ability to communicate scientific conceptions accurately
• Develop ability to write effectively using graphics as support
• Develop ability to relate principle concepts to real-world applications
• Develop ability to cite sources and references appropriately
• Develop ability to synthesize and integrate information and ideas
• Develop ability to be reflective and effectively conduct self-assessment
• Develop ability to think creatively and critically
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Bridge gap between learning and assessment

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Minimal, after the course learning objectives have been
time clearly identified. Can be high if multiple graders are to be
trained when used in large classes.
Preparing your students Clear expectations must be provided to students at the
beginning of the course.
Class time None.
Disciplines Appropriate for all.
Class size Most applicable in small classes; possible in large classes
with pre-existing infrastructure and less “open ended”
character of evidence allowed.
Special classroom / None.
technical requirements
Individual or group Individual.
involvement
Analyzing results Intense and requires a scoring rubric.
Other things to consider Materials are presented in the natural language of the
student and will vary widely within one class.

Description
Student portfolios are a collection of evidence to demonstrate mastery, comprehension,
application, and synthesis of a given set of concepts. The evidence can be presented in a
three-ring binder, a multimedia tour, or a series of short papers. A unique aspect of a
successful portfolio is that it also contains explicit statements of self-reflection. Statements
accompanying each item describe how the student went about mastering the material, why
the presented piece of evidence demonstrates mastery, and why mastery of such material is
relevant to contexts outside the classroom.

26
Limitations
Portfolio assessments provide students and faculty with a direct view of how students
organize knowledge into overarching concepts. As such, portfolios are inappropriate for
measuring students’ levels of factual knowledge or for drill-and-skill activities and
accordingly should be used in concert with more conventional forms of assessment.
Similarly, student work completed beyond the context of the classroom is occasionally
subject to issues of academic dishonesty.

Sources
Astwood, P. M., & Slater, T. F. (1996). Portfolio assessment in large-enrollment courses:
Effectiveness and management. Journal of Geological Education, 45(3).
Berlak, H., Newmann, F. M., Adams, E., Archbald, D. A., Burgess, T., Raven, J., &
Romberg, T. A. (1992). Toward a new science of educational testing and assessment.
New York: Albany State University of New York Press.
Collins, A. (1993). Performance-based assessment of biology teachers. Journal of College
Science Teaching, 30(9): 1103-1120.
Collins, A. (1992). Portfolios for science education: Issues in purpose, structure, and
authenticity. Science Education, 76(4): 451-463.
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage Publications, Inc.
Kuhs, T. M. (1994). Portfolio assessment: Making it work for the first time. The
Mathematics Teacher, 87(5): 332-335.
Rischbieter, M. O., Ryan, J. M., & Carpenter, J. R. (1993). Use of microethnographic
strategies to analyze some affective aspects of learning-cycle-based minicourses in
paleontology for teachers. Journal of Geological Education, 41(3): 208-218.
Slater, T. F. (1994). Portfolio assessment strategies for introductory physics. The Physics
Teacher, 32(6): 415-417.
Slater, T. F. (1997). The effectiveness of portfolio assessments in science. Journal of
College Science Teaching, 26(5).
Slater, T. F., & Astwood, P. M. (1995). Strategies for grading and using student assessment
portfolios. Journal of Geological Education, 45(3), 216-220.
Slater, T. F., Ryan, J. M, & Samson, S. L. (1997). The impact and dynamics of portfolio
assessment and traditional assessment in college physics. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 34(3).
Tobias, S., & Raphael, J. (1995). In-class examinations in college science – new theory,
new practice. Journal of College Science Teaching, 24(4): 240-244.
Wiggens, G. (1989). A true test: Toward more authentic and equitable assessment. Phi
Delta Kappan, 70(9): 703-713.
Wolf, D. (1989). Portfolio assessment: Sampling student work. Educational Leadership,
46(7): 35-37.
Scoring Rubrics

27
 Diane Ebert-May
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology
Michigan State University

What is a scoring rubric?

Rubrics are a way of describing evaluation criteria based on the expected outcomes and
performances of students. Typically, rubrics are used in scoring or grading written
assignments or oral presentations. They may be used, however, to score any form of
student performance. Each rubric consists of a set of scoring criteria and point values
associated with these criteria. In most rubrics, the criteria are grouped into categories so
the instructor and the student can discriminate among the categories by level of
performance. In classroom use, the rubric provides an objective external standard against
which student performance may be compared.

Why use scoring rubrics?

Rubrics provide a readily accessible way of communicating and developing our goals with
students and the criteria we use to discern how well students have reached them.

An example
Level of General Approach Comprehension
Achievement
Exemplary (5 pts) - Addressed the question - Demonstrates an accurate and complete
- States a relevant, justifiable answer understanding of the question
- Presents arguments in a logical order - Backs conclusions with data and
- Uses acceptable style and grammar warrants
(no errors) - Uses 2 of more ideas, examples, and/or
arguments that support the answer
Adequate (4 pts) - Does not address the question - Demonstrates accurate but only adequate
explicitly, although does so understanding of question because does
tangentially not back conclusions with warrants and
- States a relevant and justifiable data
answer - Uses only one idea to support the answer
- Presents arguments in a logical order - Less thorough than above
- Uses acceptable style and grammar
(one error)

Needs - Does not address the question - Does not demonstrate accurate
Improvement (3 - States no relevant answers understanding of the question
pts) - Indicates misconceptions - Does not provide evidence to support
- Is not clearly or logically organized their answer to the question
- Fails to use acceptable style and
grammar (two or more errors)
No Answer (0 pts)

28
Assessment purposes
• To improve the reliability of scoring written assignments and oral presentations
• To convey goals and performance expectations of students in an unambiguous way
• To convey grading standards or point values and relate them to performance goals
• To engage students in critical evaluation of their own performance

Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Communicating about the discipline in a variety of ways
• Improve writing skills
• The quality of reasoning and logic increases
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Gather a variety of data about students’ understanding and performance

What is involved?
Instructor preparation Medium to high.
time
Preparing your students Continuous, but students catch on fairly quickly.
Class time Variable. As students use rubrics, they become better writers
and oral presenters, hence the time instructors spend
evaluating students’ work is reduced.
Disciplines All.
Class size All. Rubrics are easy to use in small classes and are
particularly useful in large classes to facilitate scoring a large
number of written or oral assignments.
Special classroom / None.
technical requirements
Individual or group Both.
involvement
Analyzing results The level of analysis depends on the instructor’s intended
goal of the assessment task and the type of data desired
about students’ performance. For detailed analysis of
students’ responses, each section of the rubric can be scored
independently then totaled. For a holistic analysis of
students’ responses, all sections of the rubric can be blended
and an overall score assigned.
Other things to consider Rubrics must be readily available to students before they
begin an assignment or written test. Posting rubrics on the
web and including them in the course materials promotes
their usefulness.

Description

29
Scoring rubrics are scoring tools that enable instructors to assign points to students’
assignments and tests.

Limitations
One challenge in developing and using rubrics is that of describing performance
expectations and defining the criteria that differentiate several levels of performance.
Quantitative descriptors may be helpful in differentiating among performance levels,
whereas variables such as vague or concise must be described clearly so that students see
the differences between a statement that is vague and a statement that is concise.
Additionally, no assessment tool is effective if it is not used on a regular basis.
Developing effective rubrics requires revision based on feedback from students.

Sources
Ebert-May, D., Brewer, C., & Allred, S. (1997). Innovation in large lectures-teachings for
active learning. Bioscience, 47: 601-607.
Freeman, R. H. (1994). Open-ended questioning: a handbook for educators. Menlo Park,
California: Innovative Learning.
King, P. M., & Kitchener, K. S. (1994). Developing reflective judgment: Understanding
and promoting intellectual growth and critical thinking in adolescents and adults. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
MacGregor, J. (1993). Student self-evaluation: fostering reflective learning. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Magolda, M. B. (1992). Knowing and reasoning in college: gender-related students'
intellectual development. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press.
Novak, J. D., Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Weekly Reports

Eugenia Etkina
Graduate School of Education
Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

What is a weekly report?

Weekly reports are papers written by students each week that address the following 3
questions:
1. What did I learn this week?
2. What remained unclear to you?
3. If you were the professor, what questions would you ask your students to find
out if they understood the material?

Why use weekly reports?

Weekly reports provide rapid feedback regarding what students believe they are learning
and various conceptual difficulties they are experiencing.

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An example
The following example is a student’s response to questions 2 and 3.
2. What remained unclear to you? I don’t quite understand what defines one ecosystem
from another when so many factors are overlapping. I did not fully understand
Professor E’s reference to squirrels having visual adaptation and yellow lens light. He
was speaking rapidly and I don’t know if I heard all he said.
3. If you were the professor, what questions would you ask your students to find out if
they understood the material? A) What are the three conditions that must be present
for evolution by natural selection? B) What is ecology? C) What does an ecosystem
consist of? D) What do we mean by saying natural selection is survival of the fittest?
E) Why do birds that live on surface water catch fish? F) Name three different types of
orientations cues.

Assessment purposes
• To document students’ understanding of their own learning
• To investigate how well students understand the content and logical relationships in
the material they are learning
• To document students’ questions and select the most typical ones
• To give students feedback concerning the content and the level of difficulty of
questions they consider important
• To capture the development of students’ reasoning and writing skills over time
• To provide a measure of students’ emotional satisfaction with the course and their
levels of frustration with its content

Teaching goals
Student learning outcomes
• Understand the difference between observational facts, concepts, principles, and
theories
• Communicate in writing effectively
• Ask important questions
• Reflect on own knowledge and learning
Instructor teaching outcomes
• Answer students’ questions on a regular basis
• Bridge gap between learning and assessment
• Communicate desire for student success
• Develop and refine instruction based on student feedback
• Receive regular feedback from students
• Track typical questions

What is involved?

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 Instructor preparation Minimal. Questions may be written on blackboard or
time provided in hard copy form.
Preparing your students Students need explanations on the purpose of the reports and
training on structuring the answer to the first question.
Class time None – done at home.
Disciplines Appropriate for all ages.
Class size Any class size. In recitation sections, teaching assistants
grade the reports and provide feedback.
Special classroom / None.
technical requirements
Individual or group Individual.
involvement
Analyzing results Reports need careful grading. The instructor should find a
way to answer atypical responses individually and typical
responses in class.
Other things to consider Students must see how reports help them learn – otherwise,
the reports will not be taken seriously.

Description
A weekly report is a paper that students compose each week to analyze and reflect on what
they have learned. It consists of three questions aimed at general concepts, uncertainties,
and evaluation of comprehension.

Limitations
When done well, weekly reports may provide a useful and easily accessible way of probing
three aspects of students’ knowledge.
• Cognitive aspects: To be useful, students must provide a well-structured, in-depth
exposition of the concepts, principles, and theories they have studied, trying to
explain how they learned what they think they did.
• Affective aspects: Ideally, the response provides evidence of students’ feelings,
attitudes, and beliefs about the content, the course, and the instructor.
• Metacognitive aspects: Responses to all three questions provide information about
students’ understanding of their own learning.
Perhaps the most significant limitation of weekly reports is that students need practice with
the technique in order to provide useful feedback to the instructor. Normally, however,
this limitation can be overcome in a matter of a few weeks.

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Sources
Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. D., & Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational psychology: A cognitive
view. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Bagley, T., & Gallenberger, C. (1992). Assessing students' dispositions: Using journals to
improve students' performance. Mathematics Teacher, 85, 660-663.
Baird, J. R. (1990). Metacognition, purposeful inquiry and conceptual change. In E.
Hegarty-Hazel (Ed.), The student laboratory and the science curriculum. London:
Routledge.
Cizek, G. I. (1997). Learning, achievement, and assessment. In G. D. Phye (Ed.),
Classroom assessment: Learning, achieving and adjustment (pp. 2-29). San Diego,
CA: Academic Press.
Gunstone, R. F. & Mitchell, I. J. (1998). Metacognition and Conceptual Change. In J. J.
Mintzes, J. H. Wandersee, & J. Novak (Eds.), Teaching science for understanding: A
human constructivist view (pp. 133-163). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Lester, F. K., Lambdin, D. V., & Preston, R. V. (1997). A New Vision of the Nature and
Purposes of Assessment in the Mathematics Classroom. In G. D. Phye (Ed.),
Classroom assessment: Learning, achieving and adjustment (pp. 287-319). San Diego,
CA: Academic Press.
Mintzes, J. J., Wandersee, J. H., & Novak, J. (Eds.). (1998). Teaching Science for
Understanding: A human constructivist view. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Novak, J. D. & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Redish, E. F. (1994). Implications of cognitive studies for teaching physics. American
Journal of Physics, 62, 796-803.

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