Slno Title pg.

no
1 Forensic Pathology 1-

1
Forensic pathology

Forensic pathology is pathology that focuses on determining

the cause of death by examining a corpse. A post
mortem examination is performed by a medical
examiner or forensic pathologist, usually during the investigation
of criminal law cases and civil law cases in
some jurisdictions. Coroners and medical examiners are also
frequently asked to confirm the identity of a corpse.

Duties
Forensic pathology is an application of medical jurisprudence. A
forensic pathologist is a medical doctor who has completed
training in anatomical pathology and has subsequently
specialized in forensic pathology.[1] The requirements for
becoming a "fully qualified" forensic pathologist vary from country
to country. Some of the different requirements are discussed
below.
2
The forensic pathologist performs autopsies/postmortem
examinations to determine the cause of death. The autopsy report
contains an opinion about the following:

The pathological process, injury, or disease that directly results in

or initiates a series of events that lead to a person's death (also
called the mechanism of death), such as a bullet wound to the
head, exsanguination caused by a stab wound, manual or ligature
strangulation, myocardial infarction resulting from coronary artery
disease, etc.)

The manner of death, the circumstances surrounding the cause of

death, which, in most jurisdictions, include the following:[2]
Homicide
Accidental
Natural
Suicide
Undetermined

The autopsy also provides an opportunity for other issues raised

by the death to be addressed,
such as the collection of trace evidence or determining the identity
of the deceased.

The forensic pathologist examines and documents wounds and

injuries, at autopsy, at the scene of a crime and occasionally in a
clinical setting, such as rape investigation or deaths in custody.

3
Forensic pathologists collect and examine tissue specimens
under the microscope (histology) to identify the presence or
absence of natural disease and other microscopic findings such
as asbestos bodies in the lungs or gunpowder particles around a
gunshot wound.

They collect and interpret toxicological specimens of body tissues

and fluids to determine the chemical cause of accidental
overdoses or deliberate poisonings.

Forensic pathologists work closely with the medico-legal authority

for the area concerned with the investigation of sudden and
unexpected deaths: the coroner (England and Wales), procurator
fiscal (Scotland), or coroner or medical examiner (United States).

They serve as expert witnesses in courts of law testifying in civil

or criminal law cases.

In an autopsy, the forensic pathologist is often assisted by an

autopsy/mortuary technician (sometimes called a diener in the
US).

Forensic physicians, sometimes referred to as "forensic medical

examiners" or "police surgeons" (in the UK until recently), are
medical doctors trained in the examination of, and provision of
medical treatment to, living victims of assault, including sexual
assault, and individuals who find themselves in police custody.
Many forensic physicians in the UK practice clinical forensic
medicine part-time, and they also practice family medicine or
another medical specialty.

4
In the United Kingdom, membership of the Royal College of
Pathologists is not a prerequisite of appointment as a coroner's
medical expert. Doctors in the UK who are not forensic
pathologists or pathologists are allowed to perform medicolegal
autopsies, as the wording of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009,
which merely stipulates a "registered medical practitioner":
anyone on the General Medical Council register.

Investigation of death
Main article: Coroner
Deaths where there is an unknown cause and those considered
unnatural are investigated. In most jurisdictions this is done by a
"forensic pathologist", coroner, medical examiner, or hybrid
medical examiner-coroner offices.

Terminology is not consistent across jurisdictions

In some jurisdictions, the title of "Medical Examiner" is used by a
non-physician, elected official involved in medicolegal death
investigation. In others, the law requires the medical examiner to
be a physician, pathologist, or forensic pathologist.

Similarly, the title "coroner" is applied to both physicians and non-

physicians. Historically, coroners were not all physicians (most
often serving primarily as the town mortician). However, in some
jurisdictions the topic of "Coroner" is exclusively used by
physicians.
……………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

5
Forensic Anthropology

What Do Forensic Anthropologists and

Detectives Have in Common?
Forensic anthropology is a special sub-field of physical
anthropology (the study of human remains) that involves applying
skeletal analysis and techniques in archaeology to solving
criminal cases. When human remains or a suspected burial are
found,  forensic anthropologists are called upon to gather
information from the bones and their recovery context to
determine who died, how they died, and how long ago they died.
Forensic anthropologists specialize in analyzing hard tissues such
as bones. With their training in archaeology, they are also
knowledgeable about excavating buried remains and meticulously
recording the evidence. 

Reading a Skeleton
A forensic anthropologist can read the evidence in a skeleton like
you read a book. The techniques they use to answer questions in
6
criminal cases can be applied to skeletons of any age, modern or
ancient. The stages of growth and development in bones and
teeth provide information about whether the remains represent a
child or adult. The shape of pelvic bones provides the best
evidence for the sex of the person. Abnormal changes in the
shape, size and density of bones can indicate disease or trauma.
Bones marked by perimortem injuries, such as unhealed
fractures, bullet holes, or cuts, can reveal cause of death. The
trained anthropologist is also able to identify skeletal clues of
ancestry. Even certain activities, diet, and ways of life are
reflected in bones and teeth.

Analyzing Human Remains

Anthropologists at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural
History have been called upon to analyze human remains for over
a century. The remains may represent victims of violence or
natural disasters. In these cases Smithsonian anthropologists
work with the FBI, State Department, and other law enforcement
agencies to identify the individuals and solve crimes. They also
conduct research on historic and prehistoric human remains to
learn more about people from the past. As Smithsonian forensic
anthropologist Kari Bruwelheide says, "The bones are like a time
capsule."

Smithsonian anthropologist Dr. Douglas Owsley, examining

a skeleton from historic Jamestown, discovered evidence of
chops to the skull from an axe or other sharp bladed, implement.
Knife cuts were also observed on the bone. Along with other
information such as biological indicators and discovery location of
the remains, Dr. Owsley concluded that a 14-year-old girl had
been cannibalized after she died. His discovery supported other
historic data that the colonists of Jamestown suffered severe
starvation during the harsh winter of 1609-1610.

7
Techniques: Leaving No Bone Unturned
Anthropologists at the National Museum of Natural History use a
variety of techniques to analyze human remains and record their
observations. For example, the bones are typically photographed
and X-rayed. Some remains may undergo CT scanning or be
examined with high-powered microscopes. These techniques
provide detailed information about remains without altering them
while providing a visual record. DNA analysis may be used to help
establish identity. This type of testing is most often used in
modern forensic case work, but mitochondrial DNA in bones and
teeth can be used to confirm relationships of old remains with
deceased or living descendants. Other chemical analyses, such
as those involving isotopes, can provide information about the
age of bones and a person’s diet.

The data gathered is studied and combined to draw conclusions

about the deceased individual. For a modern case, photos of the
skull may be superimposed on photos of missing people to look
for consistencies between the bone and fleshed form. Even in
cases where no photos exist, the face can be reconstructed
based on the underlying bone structure and known standards of
facial tissue thicknesses. For example, using facial reconstruction,
Smithsonian forensic anthropologist Dr. David Hunt was able to
bring about correct identification of the remains of a child found
near Las Vegas. Owsley and Bruwelheide were able to help
rebuild the likeness of the girl from Jamestown.

Collections of Bones
Comparing found remains to other human skeletons is essential
for many analyses. The National Museum of Natural History has
one of the world's largest Biological Anthropology collections, with
over 30,000 sets of human remains representing populations from
around the world. Many of the skeletons have associated age,
8
sex, ancestry, and cause of death data. Individual remains with
known biological information are especially valuable references.
Forensic anthropologists have used these skeletons to develop
standards for determining sex, age and ancestry in unknown
remains. The bones and teeth are also used as comparative
materials in cases where interpretation of certain features is
difficult. They are also used to train students who are the next
generation of biological anthropologists. Skeletal reference
series may also be used to document trends in health and
population structures over time. Smithsonian Curator Dr. Douglas
Ubelaker, looking at a range of skulls from 16th-20th century
Spain and Portugal, found that women's faces got larger over
time.

Reconstructing the Past

The study of historic human remains by biological anthropologists
at the Smithsonian has led to discoveries that are changing our
view of the past and how we investigate it. The work of Dr.
Owsley and Kari Bruwelheide has helped create a better picture
of how people lived and died in colonial America. For example,
even a wealthy woman, the wife of the governor of Maryland's
first English colony, St. Mary's City, suffered from limited medical
care for a fractured thigh bone. The sorts of treatments that would
be used today (traction and screws), were not options at the time.
Available treatments, such as medicine containing arsenic, may
have made conditions worse. Chemical testing of this woman's
preserved hair show ingestion of this toxin with increasing dosage
closer to death. 

Whether used to better understand modern or historic remains,

the tools and techniques of forensic anthropology give the living a
window into the lives of the dead.

9
Forensic entomology

10
 Forensic (or medico-legal) entomology[1] is the study of the
insects associated with a human corpse in an effort to determine elapsed
time since death. Insect evidence may also show that the body has been
moved to a second site after death, or that the body has been disturbed at
some time, either by animals, or by the killer returning to the scene of
the crime. However, the primary purpose of forensic entomology today
is to determine elapsed time since death.
Forensic entomology was first reported to have been used in 13th
Century China and was used sporadically in the 19th Century and the
early part of the 20th Century, playing a part in some very major cases.
However, in the last 20 years, forensic entomology has become more
and more common in police investigations. In 1996, some of us
developed the American Board of Forensic Entomology, a certification
Board for Forensic Entomologists, similar to the Board certification
available for forensic odontologists and forensic anthropologists.
Most cases that involve a forensic entomologist are 72 h or more
old, as up until this time, other forensic methods are equally or more
accurate than the insect evidence. However, after three days, insect
evidence is often the most accurate and sometimes the only method of
determining elapsed time since death. Recently, I have also analyzed and
testified in cases in which elapsed time since death was only a few hours
previous to discovery.
There are two main ways of using insects to determine elapsed
time since death : -

11
                                                I  - using successional waves of insects
                                                II - using maggot age and development.
The method used is determined by the circumstances of each case.
In general, the first method is used when the corpse has been dead for
between a month up to a year or more, and the second method is used
when death occurred less than a month prior to discovery.
The first method is based on the fact that a human body, or any
kind of carrion, supports a very rapidly changing ecosystem going from
the fresh state to dry bones in a matter of weeks or months depending on
geographic region. During this decomposition, the remains go through
rapid physical, biological and chemical changes, and different stages of
the decomposition are attractive to different species of insects. Certain
species of insects are often the first witnesses to a crime. They usually
arrive within 24 h of death if the season is suitable i.e. spring, summer or
fall in Canada and can arrive within minutes in the presence of blood or
other body fluids. These first groups of insects are the Calliphoridae or
blowflies and the Sarcophagidae (the fleshflies). Other species are not
interested in the corpse when the body is fresh, but are only attracted to
the corpse later such as the Piophilidae or cheese skippers which arrive
later, during protein fermentation. Some insects are not attracted by the
body directly, but arrive to feed on the other insects at the scene. Many
species are involved at each decomposition stage and each group of
insects overlaps the ones adjacent to it somewhat. Therefore, with a
knowledge of the regional insect fauna and times of carrion colonization,
the insect assemblage associated with the remains can be analyzed to
determine a window of time in which death took place. This method is
used when the decedent has been dead from a few weeks up to a year, or
in some cases several years after death, with the estimated window of
time broadening as time since death increases. It can also be used to
indicate the season of death e.g. early summer. A knowledge of insect
succession, together with regional, seasonal, habitat and meteorological
variations, is required for this method to be successful.
The second method, that of using maggot age and development
can give a date of death accurate to a day or less, or a range of days, and
is used in the first few weeks after death. Maggots are larvae or
12
immature stages of Diptera or two-winged flies. The insects used in this
method are those that arrive first on the corpse, that is, the Calliphoridae
or blowflies. These flies are attracted to a corpse very soon after death.
They lay their eggs on the corpse, usually in a wound, if present, or if
not, then in any of the natural orifices. Their development follows a set,
predictable, cycle.
The insect egg is laid in batches on the corpse and hatches, after a
set period of time, into a first instar (or stage) larva. The larva feeds on
the corpse and moults into a second instar larva. The larva continues to
feed and develop into a third instar larva. The stage can be determined
by size and the number of spiracles (breathing holes). When in the third
instar, the larva continues to feed for a while then it stops feeding and
wanders away from the corpse, either into the clothes or the soil, to find
a safe place to pupate. This non-feeding wandering stage is called a
prepupa. The larva then loosens itself from its outer skin, but remains
inside. This outer shell hardens, or tans, into a hard protective outer
shell, or pupal case, which shields the insect as it metamorphoses into an
adult. Freshly formed pupae are pale in colour, but darken to a deep
brown in a few hours. After a number of days, an adult fly will emerge
from the pupa and the cycle will begin again. When the adult has
emerged, the empty pupal case is left behind as evidence that a fly
developed and emerged.
Each of these developmental stages takes a set, known time. This
time period is based on the availability of food and the temperature. In
the case of a human corpse, food availability is not usually a limiting
factor.
Insects are 'cold blooded', so their development is extremely
temperature dependent. Their metabolic rate is increased with increased
temperature, which results in a faster rate of development, so that the
duration of development decreases in a linear manner with increased
temperature, and vice-versa.
An analysis of the oldest stage of insect on the corpse and the
temperature of the region in which the body was discovered leads to a
day or range of days in which the first insects oviposited or laid eggs on
the corpse. This, in turn, leads to a day, or range of days, during which
13
death occurred. For example, if the oldest insects are 7 days old, then the
decedent has been dead for at least 7 days. This method can be used until
the first adults begin to emerge, after which it is not possible to
determine which generation is present. Therefore, after a single blowfly
generation has been completed, the time of death is determined using the
first method, that of insect succession.

PROCEDURE
The first and most important stage of the procedure involved in
forensic entomology involves careful and accurate collection of insect
evidence at the scene. This involves a knowledge of the insects
behaviour, therefore it is best performed by an entomologist. I am
always willing to come to a scene if it is possible. Unfortunately, the
entomologist is often not called until after the body has been removed
from the death site. I usually see the remains at the morgue, and in some
cases, do not actually see the remains at all, so my evidence
is dependent on accurate collection by the investigating officers.
 
COLLECTING, PRESERVING AND PACKAGING SPECIMENS.
COLLECTION
Samples of insects of all stages should be collected from different areas
of the body, from the clothing and from the soil/carpet etc. Insects will
often congregate in wounds and in and around natural orifices.

The two main insect groups on bodies are flies (Diptera)

and beetles (Coleoptera).
Both types of insect look very different at different stages of their lives.
Flies can be found as:-
- eggs (in egg masses usually)
- larvae or maggots (in a range of sizes from 1-2 mm to 17 mm)
- pupae and/or empty pupal cases
-adults.

14
 EGGS - are very tiny, but are usually laid in clumps or masses,
and are usually found in a wound or natural orifice, but may be found on
clothing etc. They can be collected with a child’s paint brush dipped in
water or with forceps. Half should be preserved in 75% alcohol or 50%
isopropyl alcohol. The rest should be placed in a vial with a little damp
tissue paper to prevent dehydration. If it will be more than a few hours
before the entomologist receives them, they should also be given a small
piece of beef liver. Make sure there is tissue or sawdust present if liver is
added, to prevent drowning. They need some air. Newly emerged
maggots can escape through holes, so a paper towel held over the top of
the vial with a rubber band is excellent, as long as the vial stays upright!
(No lid other than the paper towel is needed).
Eggs are only of value when no maggots or later insect stages are
present. If maggots are already present, don’t worry about the eggs.
If no maggots are present, and the only insect evidence is eggs, then the
eggs are very important and the time they hatch will be vital.
Therefore, observe the live eggs every few hours and please note time
when they first start hatching and the approximate percentage
(e.g. 1015h 10% hatch, 1220 h 50% hatch, 1550 h 100% hatch).

MAGGOTS - collect a range of sizes. Maggots will be found crawling

on or near the remains and may be in maggot masses. The masses
generate a lot of heat, which speeds up development. Therefore,
please note:-
                       the site of maggot masses

15
                       the temperature of each mass (thermometers can be
acquired cheaply at drugstores) or if no thermometer available, please
estimate size of mass.
                       label which maggots come from a particular mass.

Large maggots are usually older so are most important, but smaller
maggots may belong to a different species so both large and
smaller maggots should be collected, with the emphasis on larger
maggots.
Collect samples of maggots from different areas of the body and
the surrounding area, and keep them separate.
                                                As mentioned before, third instar larvae
leave the food source to find a suitable area in which to pupate.
They may wander some distance from the body so the soil for a
metre or two around the body should be carefully sifted. Some may
burrow down into leaf litter, so the soil below the corpse should be
checked for several centimetres. If the remains were on a slope, the
body fluids will seep downhill and insects will be found here,
feeding on the fluids. This means that a very intensive search of
the corpse, the clothes and the surrounding area must be made in
order to get the entire picture.
                                                When collected, the sample should be
divided into two – half for preservation and half kept alive.
A proportion (approximately half) of the larvae should be
preserved immediately for two reasons. Firstly, to show the
entomologist, if s/he is not present at the scene, what stage the
larvae were when collected, as if they are then placed on meat,
they will continue to develop, giving a misleading impression to
the entomologist when they are examined. Secondly, to produce as
evidence in court.
If there are lots of maggots on the body, preserve approximately
half of all sizes.
If there are only 20-30, preserve 1 or 2
Preserve the specimens by immersing them in hot water for a few

16
 minutes, then putting them in 75-90% alcohol or 50% isopropyl
alcohol. If no hot water available, put straight in alcohol.
DON'T FORGET THAT HALF SHOULD BE KEPT ALIVE.
A sample should contain about 100 maggots (of each size if
possible).
 DO NOT PUT TOO MANY MAGGOTS IN ONE VIAL – they
are air breathers so make sure they are only 1 maggot thick in the
bottom of the vial.
The living specimens should be placed in a vial, with air and food
(preferably beef liver), as for the eggs. There should be only
enough maggots to cover the bottom of the vial. Too many in one
vial will drown. A small piece of paper towel in the vial will help
to prevent drowning.

PUPAE and EMPTY PUPAL CASES - these are extremely important

and are easy to miss. They are often found in clothing, hair or soil
near the body. Pupae like dry, secure areas away from the wet food
source in which to pupate so pockets, seams and cuffs are likely
hiding places. If the remains are found indoors, they may have
traveled some distance and be under clothing, rugs, boxes etc.
They range from 2-20 mm, and are oval, like a football. They are
dark brown when completely tanned. An empty pupal case is very
similar but is open at one end, where the adult fly has emerged.
They need some air, so secure a paper towel over vial as for eggs,
as although the pupae are immobile, if they emerge during transit,
an adult can get out of anything! A piece of tissue in the vial will
help to avoid breakage as they are quite vulnerable. This can
be very slightly moistened with water, but be careful not to drown
them. The moisture isn't necessary if the journey is not long.

DO NOT PRESERVE PUPAE! They won't grow, so the reasons for

preserving larvae do not apply, and it is almost impossible to
identify a pupa until it emerges as an adult. I also cannot determine
its exact age until I find out the day on which it emerges. If a pupa
is found when a pale colour, it is just entering pupation, so please
17
 keep that specimen separate and label as pale coloured, as it will
darken in a few hours. Such a specimen can be aged to a matter of
hours.
ADULT FLIES - are less important. They are only of use in indicating
which species of insect are likely to develop from the corpse, as
you cannot determine whether an adult has developed on the
corpse, or has just arrived from somewhere else to oviposit, unless
it emerged only an hour or so earlier. If an adult has crumpled
wings, it may have just emerged, so IS still important as it can be
linked to the body. It should be collected, labeled as such, and kept
separate. Adults can be collected by net or by using an inverted
vial. They can be left in the vial without air or food, as I will kill
them as soon as I receive them. The presence of empty pupal cases,
however, indicates that an insect has developed on the corpse and
reached adulthood. This can be very important as it indicates that
at least one generation of flies of this species has completed
development on the corpse.

BEETLES - can be found as adults, larvae or grubs, pupae and also as

cast skins. All stages are equally important. They move fast and
are often found under the body, and in and under clothing. They
can be placed in vials with some air. They are cannibals so should
not be placed in the same vial!! It is often simplest to put the
beetles directly into alcohol.

OTHER INSECTS  - other insects will be present, such as cheese

skippers. If you are not sure whether it’s an insect, collect it
anyway and place in a vial.

OTHER SAMPLES - Soil and leaf litter samples will also be useful.
About half a coffee can size of soil from under or very near the
body is useful. If the soil below the body is extremely wet, it is
better to collect the soil from near the remains. Half fill the can,
leaving room for some air.

18
LABELING - Insects collected from one part of the body should be
kept separate from those from another area. Different species should be
kept separate as beetle larvae feed on fly larvae! If they look different,
separate them. Each vial should be labeled with :-
                       area of body/soil
                       date and time of collection
                       name of collector
                       stage e.g. larvae, so that if the specimens are pupae when
I receive them. I will know that they developed into the next stage
during transit.

HANDLING - most specimens are fairly fragile and are probably best
picked up with gloved fingers which are often gentler than forceps
if you are not used to them. Very tiny or delicate specimens can be
picked up using an artist's brush dipped in water or alcohol
depending on what you are about to do with them. Make sure all
the vials are very well sealed!

PACKAGING - The insects should be taken to the entomologist as

soon as possible. They should be couriered or hand delivered to
maintain continuity. They should be packaged in a cardboard box
as this has lots of air. Each vial can be taped so that it remains
upright. The whole box must remain upright.
I need to know many other factors about the death site :-

HABITAT -
general - is it woods, a beach, a house, a roadside?
vegetation - trees, grass, bush, shrubs?
soil type - rocky, sandy, muddy?
weather - at time of collection, sunny, cloudy?
temperature and possibly humidity at collection time
elevation and map coordinates of the death site
is the site in shade or direct sunlight?

19
mention anything unusual, such as whether it's possible that the body
may have been submerged at any time.

REMAINS - I need to know :-

presence, extent and type of clothing
is the body buried or covered? if so, how deep and with what (soil, leaves,
cloth)
what is the cause of death, if known? in particular, is there blood at the
scene?
or other body fluids?
are there any wounds? if so, what kind?
are drugs likely to be involved? this may affect the decomposition rates
what position is the body in?
what direction is the body facing?
what is the state of decomposition?
is a maggot mass present? how many? this will affect the temperature on
the body
what is the temperature of the centre of the maggot mass(s)?
is there any other meat or carrion around that might also attract insects?
is there a possibility that death did not occur at the present site?

20