Design Manual for Roads and Bridges

Highway Structures & Bridges

Inspection & Assessment

CS 457
The assessment of composite highway
bridges and structures
(formerly BD 61/10)

Revision 1

Summary
This document contains requirements for the assessment of existing steel/concrete composite
structures and structural elements.

Application by Overseeing Organisations

Any specific requirements for Overseeing Organisations alternative or supplementary to those given in this document
are given in National Application Annexes to this document.

Feedback and Enquiries

Users of this document are encouraged to raise any enquiries and/or provide feedback on the content and usage
of this document to the dedicated Highways England team. The email address for all enquiries and feedback is:
[email protected]

This is a controlled document.

CS 457 Revision 1 Contents

Contents
Release notes 6

Foreword 7
Publishing information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Contractual and legal considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Introduction 8
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Assumptions made in the preparation of this document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Mutual recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Abbreviations and symbols 9

Terms and definitions 17

1. Scope 18
Aspects covered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Use of GG 101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2. Assessment processes and basis of assessment 19

Assessment processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Basis of assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Assessment actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Assessment action effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Assessment resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Partial factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fatigue assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Limit state requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Serviceability limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3. Properties of materials 24
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Strengths of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Coefficient of linear expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Elastic modulus, creep and shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4. Structural analysis 27
Analysis methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Elastic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Alternative methods of analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Continuous beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Redistribution of moments in principal longitudinal members at ULS only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Analysis of sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Effective span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Effective breadth of concrete flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Width over which slab reinforcement is effective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Deck slabs forming the flanges of composite beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Coexistent load effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Additional SLS considerations for coexistent load effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Temperature effects, shrinkage modified by creep and differential settlement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

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CS 457 Revision 1 Contents

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Temperature effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Shrinkage modified by creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Differential settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Longitudinal shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5. Resistance calculations 35
Composite action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Vertical shear resistance of composite beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Assessment of sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Plastic moment of resistance of sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Bending resistance of compact sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Bending resistance of non-compact cross sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Conditions for verification of lateral torsional buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Construction in stages and non-compact cross sections at support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Longitudinal shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Deck slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Haunches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Transverse reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
General requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Longitudinal shear force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Interaction between longitudinal shear and transverse bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Minimum transverse reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Minimum transverse reinforcement in haunched beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Curtailment of transverse reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Detailing of transverse reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Serviceability criteria for longitudinal shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Shear connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Resistance of shear connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Nominal strengths of shear connectors embedded in normal density concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Resistance of connectors not included in Table 5.63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Shear connectors not complying with resistance to separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Nominal strengths of shear connectors embedded in lightweight concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Nominal strengths of shear connectors in haunched slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Tests on shear connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Shear connector spacing and longitudinal shear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Horizontal cover to connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Resistance to separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Uplift on shear connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Incidental shear connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Resistance of groups of incidental connectors arranged in rows transverse to the span . . . . . . . . . 65
Partial interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Modification of horizontal force for concentrated loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Elastic deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

6. Composite box girders 69

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Effective span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Effective breadth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Longitudinal shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Spacing of shear connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Assessment of shear connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

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Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Composite plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

7. Cased beams and filler beam construction 73

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Limit state requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Structure condition and detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Analysis of structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Analysis of sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Longitudinal shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Serviceability limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Ultimate limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Temperature and shrinkage effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Longitudinal stresses and strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Longitudinal shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Cased beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Additional structure condition/detailing for cased beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Additional analysis of section criteria for cased beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Temperature and shrinkage effects in cased beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Additional assessment criteria for cased beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Filler beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Additional structure condition/detailing criteria for filler beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Analysis of filler beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Transverse moments in filler beam decks (approximate method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Analysis of sections for filler beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Longitudinal shear in filler beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Temperature and shrinkage effects in filler beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Complying filler beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Non-complying filler beams with concrete encasement/infill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Non-complying filler beams with masonry infill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Vertical shear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Procedure when longitudinal shear resistance is inadequate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Punching shear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Effect of end restraints and of finishing and infill material not satisfying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Effect of end restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Effect of finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Effect of infill material not satisfying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Combined effects of end restraint, finishes and infill material not satisfying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

8. Permanent formwork 88
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Temporary construction loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Non-participating formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Participating formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Special requirements for precast concrete or composite precast concrete participating formwork . . . . . . 89
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Welding of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Cover to reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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9. Assessment of friction grip bolts used as shear connectors in composite beams 90

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Assessment requirements: static loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Serviceability limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Ultimate limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Other requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

10. Composite columns 92

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Steel or iron or wrought iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Shear connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Concrete contribution factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Steel contribution factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Limit on slenderness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Moments and forces in columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Semi-empirical assessment method for restrained composite columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Analysis of columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Concrete encased steel section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Major and minor axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Definition of slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Slenderness limits for column lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Short columns that resist combined compression and bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Assessment eccentricities of the axial force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Assessment for bending about the major axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Assessment for bending about the minor axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Assessment for biaxial bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Ultimate strength of axially loaded concrete filled circular hollow sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Tensile cracking of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Verification of existing detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

11. Influence of method of construction on assessment 107

Analysis assumptions for the construction sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Temporary condition during construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Early construction loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

12. Prestressing in composite construction 108

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Methods of prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Limit state requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Loss of prestress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

13. Jack arch and trough construction 109

Jack arch construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Trough construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

14. Normative references 111

15. Informative references 112

4
CS 457 Revision 1 Contents

Appendix A. Lateral torsional buckling of composite beams with slab and girders tied laterally and rota-
tionally 113
A1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
A2 Based on continuous inverted U-frame model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
A2.1 Elastic critical stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
A2.2 Doubly symmetrical steel sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
A2.3 Mono-symmetrical steel sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams with slabs and girders tied laterally but not
rotationally 122
B1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
B1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
B1.2 Failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
B1.3 Elastic stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
B1.4 Plastic stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
B2 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
B2.1 Elastic stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
B2.2 Plastic stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
B3 Determination of Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
B3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
B3.2 Minor axis slenderness ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
B3.3 Minor axis slenderness ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
B3.4 Equivalent uniform moment factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
B3.5 Limiting Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
B3.6 Slenderness correction factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Appendix C. Suggested properties of infill material not satisfying CS 455 for the assessment of filler beams
and jack arches 133
C1 Properties of cemented compression - only materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
C2 Local bond strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
C3 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
C4 Blacktop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
C5 Restrictions on the effective cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

5
CS 457 Revision 1 Release notes

Release notes
Version Date Details of amendments
1 Mar 2020 Revision 1 (March 2020) Update to references only. Revision 0 (December
2019) CS 457 replaces BD 61/10. This full document has been rewritten to
make it compliant with the new Highways England drafting rules.

6
CS 457 Revision 1 Foreword

Foreword
Publishing information
This document is published by Highways England.
This document supersedes BD 61/10, which is withdrawn.

Contractual and legal considerations

This document forms part of the works specification. It does not purport to include all the necessary
provisions of a contract. Users are responsible for applying all appropriate documents applicable to
their contract.

7
CS 457 Revision 1 Introduction

Introduction
Background
In the original drafting of BS 5400, important innovations had been made in respect of loading and
environmental assumptions, design philosophy, load factors, service stresses and structural analysis,
taking into account theoretical and experimental research and several design studies made on
components and on complete bridges. In drafting of the assessment version of the Standards, further
work of this nature has been undertaken, some of which is relevant only to assessment.
This document allows some differences from the corresponding rules for design, for example:
1) worst credible strength can be used in place of design values;
2) forms of shear connection, strengthening and stiffening, including incidental forms, can be taken into
account where their presence is identified; and,
3) it can be accepted to assess some structures on the basis that composite action exists, even though
they were not designed as composite structures.

Assumptions made in the preparation of this document

The assumptions made in GG 101 [Ref 8.N] apply to this document.

Mutual recognition
Where there is a requirement in this document for compliance with any part of a "British Standard" or
other technical specification, that requirement may be met by compliance with the Mutual Recognition
clause in GG 101 [Ref 8.N].

8
CS 457 Revision 1 Abbreviations and symbols

Abbreviations and symbols

Abbreviations
Abbreviation Meaning
AIP Approval in principle
CHS Circular hollow section
RHS Rectangular hollow section
SLS Serviceability limit state
TAA Technical approval authority
ULS Ultimate limit state
Symbols
Symbol Definition
A area of equivalent cracked transformed section
A1 bsc hsc
A2 the area of concrete over which the shear connector force is
distributed on the rear plane of the next shear connector, assuming
a lateral dispersion angle of 1:5 from the front plane of the connector
Ab cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement in the bottom of the
slab effective in resisting bursting stresses in the concrete from the
connector forces
Abs cross-sectional area of other reinforcement in the bottom of the slab
Abv cross sectional area of additional transverse reinforcement
Ac area of concrete in the cross section
Ae effective cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement
(it is the reinforcement crossing a shear plane that is assumed to be
effective in resisting shear failure along that plane)
Agc gross area of the concrete
Agr gross area of reinforcement
Ar cross-sectional area of reinforcement
As cross-sectional area of steel section
At area of reinforcement placed near the top of the slab forming the
flange of the composite beam and may include that provided for
flexure
a distance between reference axis (i.e centroid of steel section at the
shallow end) and restraint axis (axis of rotation) of a beam or the
spacing of the metal beams (i.e the horizontal distance between
centre lines of adjacent beams)

ap distance from the strip to the face of the web of the neighbouring
metal beam
av distance from the section under consideration to the supporting
member or distance from the boundary of the loaded area to the
perimeter considered for punching shear

9
CS 457 Revision 1 Abbreviations and symbols

Symbols (continued)
b width of the equivalent beam or overall depth (thickness) of
composite section perpendicular to the minor axis
bc lesser lateral dimension of the column
bf breadth of flange
bft breadth of the steel flange of the steel member to which shear
connectors are attached
bs breadth of steel section or external dimension of the wall of the RHS
bsc dimension of the connector transverse to the span
bw equal to half the distance between the centre lines of adjacent webs,
or, for portions projecting beyond an outer web, the distance from
the centre line of the web to the free web considered
C4 Property of the distribution of bending moment within the length L in
Tables B.1 to B.3. Where the bending moments at the supports are
unequal, C4 relates to the support with the larger hogging moment
c constant
D depth of steel member at the cross section in mm
De outside diameter of the CHS
d depth from the surface of the concrete to the lower web/flange
intersection of the metal beam or effective depth to tension
reinforcement
ds diameter of the studs

dp depth from the surface of the concrete to the lower web/flange

intersection of metal beam
dw depth of steel web
Ec static secant modulus of elasticity of concrete
E c Ic mean of the flexural stiffness per unit width of slab at mid-span and
above the steel beam considered, neglecting concrete in tension,
and including transformed areas of reinforcement and any profiled
sheeting that contributes to the resistance of the slab in accordance
with CS 455 [Ref 14.N]
Ecm short term elastic modulus of concrete
Ef Young's modulus of the fill
Es modulus of elasticity for structural steel
E s I2 "cracked" flexural stiffness per unit width of the concrete or
composite slab
e eccentricity of axial load about appropriate axis
ex eccentricity of axial loads about the x axis
ey eccentricity of axial loads about the y axis
FT minimum tensile force per unit length of beam in the transverse
reinforcement in the top of the slab due to transverse bending of the
slab. Only loading that is of a permanent nature is to be considered
when calculating FT

10
CS 457 Revision 1 Abbreviations and symbols

Symbols (continued)
fcc enhanced characteristic strength of triaxially contained concrete
fcu characteristic or worst credible concrete cube strength
fk characteristic strength or resistance
fk-mean predicted mean strength or resistance
fmk characteristic compression strength of masonry
fry characteristic or worst credible yield strength of reinforcement
fy nominal yield strength of steel or wrought iron
Gs shear modulus of steel
h height between the flanges of the metal beam or overall depth
(thickness) of composite section perpendicular to the major axis or
overall depth of section (in plane of bending)
hc depth of concrete slab or greatest lateral dimension of the column
hf distance between the shear centres of the flange of the steel
member
hs depth of structural steel beam/girder or depth of the steel section in
the plane of the web
hsc mean height of the shear connector
h1 lesser of hc and bc
h2 greater of hc and bc
I second moment of area, of composite section in steel units
Isfy second moment of area of the structural steel section about the
centroid of area A
Isx , Isy second moments of area of the structural steel section about the
centroid of area A
Ix second moment of area for major-axis bending of the composite
section of area A
second moment of area at mid-span or an internal support of a
I2
composite slab
Js St. Venant torsion constant of steel member
K coefficient
k sample standard deviation correction factor or a constant (with
appropriate subscripts)
kc factor
ks transverse stiffness per unit length of the beam
k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 , k5 , k1x , k1y slenderness reduction factors
Ls length of the shear plane under construction
Lk limiting length
l span
lex , ley effective length of a column about x or y axis

11
CS 457 Revision 1 Abbreviations and symbols

Symbols (continued)
ls distance from end of beam
lv distance in meters from the load to the support at which there is fixity
lw length of wheel patch
M bending moment

MAx maximum moment on the member or portion of the member under

consideration
Mcr elastic critical buckling moments
MDx bending resistance of the beam derived in accordance with CS 456
[Ref 16.N] (bending moment of resistance of a compact beam which
is of a compact section about the major axis (x-axis))
MD,max maximum bending moment of resistance of a compact beam which
is of a compact section about the major axis (x-axis)
Mpe plastic moment of resistance of the effective section
MR limiting moment of resistance
Mtx equivalent moment of resistance
Mult ultimate moment of resistance
Mx moment acting about the major axis or longitudinal bending moment
per unit width of deck at the point considered due to the full nominal
assessment live loading for the limit state considered
Mx,max or My,max maximum bending moments about the major axis (x-x axis) and
minor axis (y-y axis) respectively within the middle third of the length
of the beam between the points of restraint
My moment acting about the minor axis or longitudinal bending moment
per unit width of filler beam deck
M1 to M5 the moment capacities of the sections corresponding to N1 to N5
m constant, or statistical expressions (with appropriate subscripts)
used in calculating γmt
mt equivalent uniform moment factor
N the actual number of commercial vehicles carried by the bridge
since construction
Na the equivalent number of Standard Fatigue Vehicles (SFV) as
defined in BS 5400-10 [Ref 12.N] and may be taken as 0.5062N for
modern traffic
Npl squash load of a column
Nux , Nuy assessment ultimate load for bending about the major axis or minor
axis
Nuxy assessment ultimate load for biaxial bending
Nuy axial failure load of a member in biaxial bending or about an
undefined axis
N1 to N5 values of the applied moments at the ends of the quarter points and
mid-length of the length between effective torsional restraints

12
CS 457 Revision 1 Abbreviations and symbols

Symbols (continued)
n total number of connectors per unit length of girder within breadth bw
including any provided in accordance with clauses 6.5 to 6.9
(spacing of shear connectors) or 6.17(1)
P applied axial load
Pa the assessment longitudinal shear resistance of shear connectors
Pam the nominal present mean static strength at the time of the
assessment
PD compression resistance determined in accordance with CS 456 [Ref
16.N]
Pim initial nominal static connector strength
Pr range of longitudinal shear in connector from passage of an
Standard Fatigue Vehicles (SFV)

Pu failure load of the connector at concrete strength fc , or axial load in

steel section
p reduction factor for longitudinal shear force due to partial interaction
Q longitudinal shear force
Q∗a assessment actions in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]

Qk characteristic actions
Qmax equivalent shear
Qx longitudinal shear on a connector at a distance x from the web
centre line in box girder
q longitudinal shear per unit length, or ratio of tapered to total length
between torsional restraints
qp longitudinal shear per unit length of beam in the particular shear
plane considered
qr assessment longitudinal shear resistance
Ra assessment resistance
Ra-mean mean value of assessment resistance
rx greater radius of gyration of the steel section (radius of gyration
about x-axis)
rxy radius of gyration about xy-axis
ry lesser radius of gyration of the steel section (radius of gyration about
y-axis)
S∗a assessment action effects in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]

Sl spacing of the shear connectors along the span

s the shape factor or a constant stress of 1 N/mm2 re-expressed where
necessary in units consistent with those used for other quantities
sL longitudinal spacing of individual connectors
s′L equivalent spacing of connector rows

13
CS 457 Revision 1 Abbreviations and symbols

Symbols (continued)
sT transverse spacing of individual connectors
TB tensile force in bolt
Tu tension due to uplift
t wall thickness of the steel or iron casting
tw web thickness
V shear force
Vc ultimate shear resistance of concrete
VD shear capacity under pure shear in BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N]
VNC the lowest value of V when the equations in BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N]
have values of unity assuming proportional loading
v1 the ultimate longitudinal shear stress of concrete
vc shear strength of concrete
vt slenderness parameter
wsc dimension of a connector along the span
x distance from centroid of wheel patch to the nearest cross-frame or
distance from the web centre line to a connector
y coordinate with appropriate subscript
yc distance between the centroid of the area of the steel member and
the mid-depth of the slab
ys distance from the centroid of the steel section to the shear centre,
which is positive where the shear centre and the compression flange
are on the same side of the centroid
y distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of the slab (or the part
separated by the interface being analysed)
Zpe effective plastic section modulus
Zxc elastic modulus for the compression flange of the section
Zxp plastic modulus of the effective section cross section consideration
Zxpr reduced plastic modulus of the effective section due to axial load
Zxr elastic modulus of the transformed section with respect to the
extreme reinforcement for a section where the concrete is in tension
Zxs elastic modulus of the transformed section with respect to the
extreme fibre of the concrete where the concrete is in compression
Zsc & Zxt the section modulii at extreme fibres of the structural steel section
subject to compression and tension (both taken is positive)
α inclination of shear reinforcement to the member axis

α1 angle between the axis of the design moment and the direction of
the tensile reinforcement
αc concrete contribution factor
αe modular ratio for long-term loading or combined modular ratios for
the fill and weak and structural concrete

14
CS 457 Revision 1 Abbreviations and symbols

Symbols (continued)
αL corresponding product for the full nominal assessment live load for
the limit state being considered
βL coefficient of linear thermal expansion
βt the ratio of the algebraically smaller end moment to the larger.
βy coefficient for slenderness reduction factor
∆f difference between the free strains at the centroid of the concrete
slab and the centroid of the steel beam
∆TB net tensile force per in the bolt
δ steel contribution factor
ϵcs free shrinkage strain
η ( )0.5
A1
A2 but ≤ 2.5 for normal density concrete, or ≤ 2.0 for
lightweight concrete of density not less than 1400kg/m3
ηt slenderness correction factor
γb additional safety factor for incidental shear connectors
γf partial safety factor for loads and effects
γf3 partial safety factor in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N]
γfl partial safety factor for loads and load effects
γm partial safety factor for strength
γmc partial safety factor for concrete in compression
γms partial safety factor for reinforcement strength
γmv partial safety factor for concrete shear strength
γslip partial safety factor
√
ϵ = 355/σy
λLT slenderness parameter for lateral torsional buckling in accordance
with BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N]
λTC major axis slenderness ratio
λTB minor axis slenderness ratio
µ coefficient of friction
νc Poisson's ratio for concrete
νs Poisson's ratio for steel
ϕ creep coefficient
ϕc creep reduction factor
ψ effective breadth ratio, coefficient, or ratio on hogging moment to
simply supported sagging moment, ratio of extreme stresses in web
with maximum compression in denominator
σs-mean stress in the composite cross section at the centroid of the steel
section
σy stress about the minor axis

15
CS 457 Revision 1 Abbreviations and symbols

Symbols (continued)
σyc nominal or worst credible yield stress of the steel compression
flange as defined in CS 456 [Ref 16.N]
nominal or worst credible yield stress of the steel tension flange as
σyt
defined in CS 456 [Ref 16.N]
θ angle between the diagonal connecting the roots of the top and
bottom of the adjacent webs (of metal beams) and the horizontal
θ A , θB end rotation of beam A or B under unit load at that support

16
CS 457 Revision 1 Terms and definitions

Terms and definitions

For the purpose of this document the following definitions, and those given in BS 5400-1 [Ref 6.I] and
BS 5400-5 [Ref 7.I], apply.

Terms
Term Definition
Assessment The process of determining in terms of vehicle loading the load that
an existing structure can carry with an acceptable probability that it
will not suffer serious damage that would endanger any persons on
or near the structure.
Complying filler beam Filler beam in which the transverse reinforcement is assessed to
be adequate for moments described in the standard.
Characteristic strength Strength below which not more than 5% of all possible test results
may be expected to fall; characteristic strengths may be replaced
with worst credible strength.
Cross section redistribution Criteria relating to the permitted redistribution of support moments
class
Incidental shear connection Secondary/accompanying mechanical connection which ensures
interaction between concrete and steel providing additional
resistance to separation or shear failure
Partial shear connection Shear connection providing a degree of resistance to prevent
excessive slip between steel and concrete
Separation Movement of concrete perpendicular to the steel/concrete
interface.
Slip Movement of concrete along the steel/concrete interface
Worst credible strength Is the worst value of that strength which the assessor, based on
experience and knowledge of the material, realistically considers
could be obtained in the structural element under consideration.
The worst credible strength value can be greater or less than the
characteristic strength of the material assumed at the design stage.
Yield moment Moment at first yield according to elastic theory using full
composite section, if appropriate with ultimate limit state γm factors.

17
CS 457 Revision 1 1. Scope

1. Scope
Aspects covered
1.1 This document shall be used for the assessment of existing steel/concrete composite structures and
structural elements in conjunction with CS 454 [Ref 1.N], CS 455 [Ref 14.N], CS 456 [Ref 16.N] and CS
458 [Ref 15.N].
1.2 The clauses set out in this document have been specifically developed to suit assessment conditions
and, therefore, shall not be used in new design or construction.
NOTE 1 The design rules for new composite bridges and bridge elements are given in the relevant parts of BS
EN 1994 [Ref 5.N].
NOTE 2 Some commentary is contained alongside the assessment clauses. It gives advice on the interpretation
of the assessment requirements.
NOTE 3 It sets out some comments and references which provide additional information, and assessment
criteria, appropriate to special situations.
1.3 Any special method of analysis or variation of criteria proposed for an assessment shall be agreed with
the Technical Approval Authority (TAA).
NOTE 1 This document gives requirements and guidance for assessment of rolled or fabricated steel sections,
cased or uncased, and for filler beam systems when used in composite construction. This document
covers methods for assessment of simply supported and continuous composite beams, composite
columns and the special problems of composite box beams. The requirements for the concrete
element cover normal and lightweight aggregate, cast in situ and precast concrete. Prestressing and
the use of permanent formwork designed to act compositely with in situ concrete are also covered.
NOTE 2 The objective of this document is to produce a realistic assessment of the strength of composite
elements.

Implementation
1.4 This document shall be implemented forthwith on all schemes involving assessment of existing
steel/concrete composite bridges on the Overseeing Organisations' motorway and all-purpose trunk
roads according to the implementation requirements of GG 101 [Ref 8.N].

Use of GG 101
1.5 The requirements contained in GG 101 [Ref 8.N] shall be followed in respect of activities covered by
this document.

18
CS 457 Revision 1 2. Assessment processes and basis of assessment

2. Assessment processes and basis of assessment

Assessment processes
2.1 The assessment processes described in CS 454 [Ref 1.N] shall be applied.

Basis of assessment
2.2 The basis of assessment shall align with the requirements of CS 454 [Ref 1.N].
2.2.1 The assessment of concrete and steel elements should be carried out using this document, CS 455
[Ref 14.N] and CS 456 [Ref 16.N].

Assessment actions
2.3 The actions and partial factors for actions shall be defined in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N].
2.4 For shrinkage modified by creep, the partial factor for action γfL shall be taken as 1.0 for the
serviceability limit state and 1.2 for the ultimate limit state.
NOTE For the definition of the partial safety factor, see CS 454 [Ref 1.N].

Assessment action effects

2.5 The assessment action effects S∗a for assessment in accordance with this document shall be
determined from the assessment action effects Q∗a in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N], CS 458 [Ref
15.N] and the requirements for structural analysis in this document.
NOTE Structural analysis requirements are given in Section 4. Additional requirements for structural analysis
for particular members are also stated in the relevant sections of this document.
2.6 The assessment action effects of shrinkage, temperature, and differential settlement actions shall be
omitted from the assessment at ULS unless:

1) the cross section is slender; and,

2) there is a risk of buckling.

Assessment resistance
2.7 The assessment resistance shall be determined in accordance with:

1) CS 454 [Ref 1.N]; and,

2) Section 5 of this document.

2.8 The resistance function, (function of ( fk , γm )), shall be as expressed in Equation 2.8.

19
CS 457 Revision 1 2. Assessment processes and basis of assessment

Equation 2.8 Resistance function

( )
fk
function ≥ γf3 (effects of γfL .Qk )
γm
where:
fk characteristic resistance;
γm partial safety factor for strength;
γfl partial factors for loads and effects;
γf3 partial safety factor in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N]; and,
Qk normal load effect.

2.8.1 When the resistance function is linear, and a single value of γm is involved, this relation may be
rearranged as given in Equation 2.8.1.

Equation 2.8.1 Linear assessment resistance

1 1
· · function(fk ) ≥ (effects of γfL · Qk )
γf3 γm
where:
fk , QK , γfL , γf3 , γm are as previously defined.

Verification
2.9 The verification of resistance shall be as given in CS 454 [Ref 1.N].
2.9.1 Alternative methods of calculating resistance of structural elements are permissible but should be
verified through calculation and/or testing including:

1) testing in accordance with CS 463 [Ref 9.N]; or,

2) the statistical method for deriving assessment resistance relating to tests on elements in accordance
with CS 456 [Ref 16.N] which allows resistance to be derived directly from tests results without first
deriving the characteristic value.
NOTE To gain full benefit of the statistical method, CS 456 [Ref 16.N] recommends at least five tests to be
carried out. However for composite bridges three tests are acceptable.
2.9.2 The results of representative laboratory tests should be performed to enable statistical relationships
between the resistance predicted by the alternative method and that observed to be obtained.
2.9.3 A comparison should be provided to ensure the similarity between the test and assessed elements with
respect to:

1) the situations;
2) the condition;
3) the material properties; and,
4) the loading.

2.9.4 In circumstances where reliability of the testing has been verified, the value of the resistance to be used
in assessment may be taken in accordance with Equation 2.9.4.

20
CS 457 Revision 1 2. Assessment processes and basis of assessment

Equation 2.9.4 Value of assessment resistance

R∗mean
Ra =
γm γf3
where:
Ra assessment resistance;
Ra-mean mean value of the assessment resistance obtained from testing;
is partial safety factor calculated in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N] for alternative
γm
methods of proving resistance including testing; and,
γf3 partial safety factor for loads and load effects.

Partial factors
2.10 The value of the condition factor, Fc to be used for assessment shall be agreed with the Overseeing
Organisation.
NOTE The value for the condition factor is taken as Fc ≤ 1.0 in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N].
2.11 For analysis of sections, the value of the partial safety factor, γm , to be used in determining the
assessment strength for serviceability limit state and ultimate limit state, shall be taken from:
1) CS 455 [Ref 14.N] for concrete;
2) CS 456 [Ref 16.N] for steel; and,
3) this document.

2.12 For analysis of sections, the values of γm to be used at ultimate limit state for shear connectors shall be
as given in Table 2.12.

Table 2.12 Values of partial safety factor for material strength at ULS
Structural component and behaviour γm
Shear connectors in isolation 1.10
Shear connectors in beam 1.375
Note:
At the serviceability limit state, γm for shear connectors in beams is replaced by γslip = 1.375 and
variable value agreed with the TAA where there is evidence of fatigue damage.

Fatigue assessment
2.13 Fatigue assessment shall be carried in accordance with the basis of assessment for fatigue in CS 456
[Ref 16.N] and the additional requirements given in this section.
2.14 Fatigue assessment shall be carried out when:
1) there has been a change in use of the structure;
2) there is a detail that results in an unusual and undesirable stress concentration; or,
3) there is or has been fatigue damage detected.

2.15 When fatigue assessment is carried out, previous damage to the structure shall be included when
determining the remaining life.
NOTE The remaining fatigue can be significantly less than that assumed in BS 5400-1 [Ref 6.I] where
previous damage to the structure has been included in determining the remaining life.
2.16 Where fatigue analysis is required and it is not possible to determine stresses accurately by theoretical
analysis, fatigue assessment shall be based on actual stress measurements.

21
CS 457 Revision 1 2. Assessment processes and basis of assessment

2.16.1 The proposed method and process of measuring actual stresses for fatigue assessment should be
submitted to the TAA for review and agreement.

Limit state requirements

General
2.17 Except as set out in this document, all structural steelwork in composite beams shall be checked for
conformity with the requirements of CS 456 [Ref 16.N] for all limit states.
2.18 The effects of creep, shrinkage and temperature shall be calculated in accordance with the
recommendations of this document.
2.19 Concrete and reinforcement in concrete slabs shall satisfy the limit state requirements of CS 455 [Ref
14.N] unless modified by this document.
2.19.1 Structural steelwork should satisfy the fatigue requirements of CS 456 [Ref 16.N] using bridge specific
spectra as agreed with the TAA.
2.20 Reinforcement shall satisfy the fatigue requirements of CS 455 [Ref 14.N].
2.21 When construction does not comply with the provisions of this document, composite action at the
ultimate limit state shall be disregarded.
2.21.1 Composite action at ultimate limit state may be included where it can be shown through testing or
analysis that there is effective composite action at large deflections of the beam.

Serviceability limit state

2.22 The serviceability limit state shall be verified through inspection as set out in CS 454 [Ref 1.N] and CS
456 [Ref 16.N].
NOTE 1 Advice on inspection procedures is provided in CS 450 [Ref 4.I].
NOTE 2 A serviceability limit state is reached when any of the following conditions occur:

1) the stress in the structural steel reaches σyc /γm γf3 or σyt /γm γf3 where σyc and σyt are defined in CS
456 [Ref 16.N];
2) the stress in cast iron reaches the limits in CS 454 [Ref 1.N];
3) the stress in concrete reaches the limit given in CS 455 [Ref 14.N] or the stress in the reinforcement
reaches 0.8fry /γms γf3 ;
4) the width of the crack in concrete reaches the limiting value of 0.4mm for assessment;
5) the vibration in a structure supporting a footway or cycle track reaches the limit agreed with the TAA;
or;
6) the slip at the interface between steel concrete becomes excessive.

NOTE 3 In deriving the rules slip has been assumed to occur when the calculated load on a shear connector
exceeds 0.55 times its nominal initial mean static strength when the risk from fatigue is high and at 0.60
times its nominal initial mean static strength when the risk from fatigue is low. This criterion is implicitly
taken into account in the safety factors and in the allowance for fatigue.
NOTE 4 There are no SLS stress limits for wrought iron in CS 454 [Ref 1.N].
2.23 The stress in cast iron shall be verified with:

1) the values of γfl for dead and superimposed load taken in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]; and,
2) γfl = 1.0 for all other highway loading.
2.24 Where SLS deficiencies are observed on site, SLS verification on limiting SLS criteria shall be carried
out to inform the design of any potential remedial measures deemed necessary to correct the
deficiencies.

22
CS 457 Revision 1 2. Assessment processes and basis of assessment

NOTE 1 Failure at the serviceability limit state does not necessarily dictate strengthening of the structure unless
there are structural problems caused by the serviceability failure.
NOTE 2 Where there is evidence of significant cracking or corrosion, stress and crack width calculations can
help in diagnosing the cause.
NOTE 3 Deflection calculations can be used for comparison with deflection measurements with the designed
limiting criteria.
2.25 Crack widths shall be assessed where systematic increase in the loading is expected.
2.25.1 Where serviceability deficiencies are identified during an inspection and where these indicate greater
structural deficiencies, an inspection and monitoring programme as part of the management strategy
should be included in the approval in principle document (see CS 470 [Ref 5.I]).

23
CS 457 Revision 1 3. Properties of materials

3. Properties of materials
General
3.1 The material properties for all limit states being assessed shall be based on:
1) unfactored characteristic strength specified in the original design; or,
2) worst credible strength.

3.1.1 Unless otherwise stated in this document, material properties should be as defined in CS 455 [Ref
14.N], CS 456 [Ref 16.N] or CS 454 [Ref 1.N].

Strengths of materials
3.2 The characteristic, nominal or worst credible strengths of materials to be used in assessment shall be
determined in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N].
3.2.1 Where the material being assessed is structural steel or wrought/cast iron properties may be obtained
from CS 456 [Ref 16.N] or CS 454 [Ref 1.N].
3.2.2 Where concrete, reinforcement and prestressing steels are being assessed properties may be obtained
from CS 455 [Ref 14.N].
3.2.3 Where alternative methods to determine material strength are used, an acceptable number of
laboratory tests should be performed to allow statistical relationships between the material strength or
structure resistance predicted by the alternative method and that observed from testing to be obtained.
3.3 Where material strengths are determined by testing, the tests shall relate to elements having
dimensional parameters of similar size to those for the parts assessed.
3.3.1 To ensure reliability of the test results the similarity of the situations, the condition, the material
properties and the loading should also be verified.
3.3.2 In circumstances where reliability of the testing is verified, the value of the characteristic strength or
resistance, fk , to be used in an assessment, may be taken as given in Equation 3.3.2.

Equation 3.3.2 Value of characteristic resistance

fk = fk-mean /γm γf3

where:
fk characteristic strength or resistance to be used for assessment
fk-mean value of predicted mean resistance from determined by alternative methods
γm is partial safety factor calculated in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N] where
alternative methods of proving strength or resistance are used except for shear
connectors in beams
γf3 is factor for load in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]

3.4 For shear connectors in beams, the value of γm derived from Equation 3.3.2 shall be multiplied by an
additional safety factor of 1.25 to allow for the brittle nature of failure along the shear connection.

Coefficient of linear expansion

3.5 The coefficient of linear thermal expansion, βL to be used shall be taken from CS 454 [Ref 1.N] or as
given in Section 3.
NOTE The value given for steel in CS 454 [Ref 1.N] applies to both structural steel and steel reinforcement.
3.6 Where limestone aggregates are used in the concrete, then a value for βL = 9x10-6/oC shall be adopted.

24
CS 457 Revision 1 3. Properties of materials

3.7 For lightweight aggregates concrete with density 1400 kg/m3 to 2300 kg/m3, the coefficient of linear
expansion shall taken as βL = 8x10-6/oC.

Elastic modulus, creep and shrinkage

3.8 The modulus of elasticity shall be determined in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N], CS 455 [Ref 14.N]
and as given in Section 3.
3.9 The modulus of elasticity, Ec , to be used for assessment under sustained loading is a function of the
short term elastic modulus, Ecm and shall be determined in accordance with the criteria given in Table
3.9.

Table 3.9 Modulus of elasticity for assessment

Modulus of elasticity of concrete,
Criteria for determining elastic modulus for assessment
Ec
1
in the absence of a rigorous analysis of the effects of creep 2 Ecm

where the creep coefficient, ϕ is determined in accordance 1

(1+ϕ) Ecm
with Appendix C BS 5400-4 [Ref 11.N]
for concrete mixes complying with Figure 3.12 and ϕc is as
ϕc Ecm
given in Table 3.12

3.10 Modular ratio αe appropriate to long term loading shall be taken as either the approximate value or
accurate value determined in accordance with Equation 3.10a or Equation 3.10b respectively.

Equation 3.10a Approximate value of modular ratio

2Es
αe =
Ec
where:
Ec modulus of elasticity of concrete;
Es elastic modulus of steel as given in Table 3.12; and,

Equation 3.10b Accurate value of modular ratio

Es
αe =
ϕc Ec
where:
Ec , Es are as defined in Equation 3.10a; and,
ϕc creep reduction factor as given in Table 3.12.

3.11 The more accurate value for the modular ratio αe given by Equation 3.10b shall be used for situations:

1) outside the scope of Figure 3.12 and Table 3.12; or,

2) where a better estimation of shrinkage modified by creep is required
3.12 Where the concrete specification complies with the limits given in Figure 3.12, the values of ϵcs and ϕc
in Table 3.12 shall be used.

25
CS 457 Revision 1 3. Properties of materials

Table 3.12 Shrinkage strains and creep reduction factors

Environment ϵcs ϕc
Very humid, e.g. directly over water. -100x106 0.5
Generally in the open air. -200x106 0.4
Very dry, e.g dry interior enclosures. -300x10-6 0.3

Figure 3.12 Range of concrete mixes for using Table 3.12

3.13 For situations outside the scope of Figure 3.12 and Table 3.12, or where a better estimation of the
effect of shrinkage modified by creep is required, the value of free shrinkage strain ϵcs and the creep
coefficient ϕ shall be determined in accordance with Appendix C of BS 5400-4 [Ref 11.N].
3.14 The values of the creep reduction coefficient, ϕc , shall be derived from Equation 3.14.

Equation 3.14 Creep reduction factor

1
ϕc =
1+ϕ
where:
ϕc creep reduction factor; and,
ϕ creep coefficient.

26
CS 457 Revision 1 4. Structural analysis

4. Structural analysis
Analysis methods
General
4.1 The distribution and magnitude of action effects throughout the structure shall be determined using the
structural analysis methods in CS 454 [Ref 1.N], CS 455 [Ref 14.N] and the additional requirements of
this section.
4.2 The structural model and basic assumptions shall be chosen to provide a realistic idealisation relating
to the anticipated behaviour of the cross-sections, members, joints and bearings.
4.2.1 The effects of short term and long term loading should be determined from separate global analyses
except where a single analysis using the short term concrete properties provides sufficient certainty for
the analysis.

Elastic analysis
4.3 Where alternative methods of analysis are not given, elastic analysis shall be used to determine the
distribution of bending moments, shear forces and axial loads due to the assessment actions specified
in CS 454 [Ref 1.N] and CS 454 [Ref 1.N].
4.3.1 The distributions of bending moments and vertical shear forces, due to loading on a simply supported
composite member, may be calculated by an elastic analysis assuming the concrete to be uncracked
and unreinforced with the effects of shear lag neglected.
4.3.2 For continuous construction other than prestressed construction, the distributions of bending moments
and shear forces may be calculated by using global elastic analysis or acceptable alternative methods
assuming the concrete to be uncracked and unreinforced.
4.3.3 For continuous construction other than prestressed construction, the global analysis or acceptable
alternative methods accurately reflecting the behaviour of the structure may be adopted subject to the
requirements of shear lag in accordance with clause 4.8 being included.
4.4 Wrought iron and cast iron structures shall be assessed elastically and only at serviceability limit state.

Alternative methods of analysis

4.5 The use of alternative methods to elastic analysis shall be in accordance with CS 455 [Ref 14.N] where
they are shown to model the combined effects of local and global loads due to combinations 1 - 4 as
given in CS 454 [Ref 1.N].
4.5.1 The structural stiffnesses used in alternative methods of analysis should reflect the assumptions made
for the concrete to be uncracked and unreinforced.

Continuous beams
4.6 In continuous beams, the distribution of bending moments and vertical shear forces shall be calculated
assuming the steel member acts compositely with a concrete flange.
4.7 The concrete shall be assumed to be cracked with the effective breadth ratio for the uncracked
concrete ψ replaced by the effective cracked flange factor ψc in accordance with Equation 4.16.
4.8 For continuous construction other than prestressed construction, provided the adjacent spans do not
differ appreciably the effects of shear lag shall be taken into account in the cracked section analysis by:

1) increasing the maximum sagging moments obtained from the analysis in each span adjacent to
each support by 40ftc /fcu % to allow for cracking of the concrete slab at the support; and,
2) reducing the support moments, except for cantilevers by 10% in beams of uniform cross section in
beams of span not exceeding 40m or 5% for beams of longer span.

27
CS 457 Revision 1 4. Structural analysis

4.9 Where aspects of the structure assessed from the results of the analyses in clause 4.8 fail the specified
criteria they shall be reassessed using the methods in clause 4.10 in which the effects of shear lag is
neglected.
4.10 For continuous beams where the distribution of moments for the cracked section has been obtained by
methods given in this section, the stiffening effect of the concrete over 15% of the length of the span on
each side of each support shall be neglected in the assessment of the composite section over this
extent.
4.10.1 The stiffening effect of longitudinal tensile reinforcement in the concrete slab may be included in the
analysis of the concrete section.
4.10.2 Where the slab is longitudinally prestressed, the slab should not be considered cracked over the
support regions.

Redistribution of moments in principal longitudinal members at ULS only

4.11 The redistribution of support and span moments which are obtained from elastic analysis or an
alternative method of analysis, shall only be undertaken for load combinations at ULS and where the
structure or structural members have been determined to be capable of redistributing moments.
4.11.1 For beams which have a uniform cross section throughout each span, and for which the elastic section
modulus at the level of the reinforcement is not less than that at the level of the underside of the
structural steel part, a portion of the support moments may be redistributed to the span provided that
equilibrium between the internal forces and external loads is maintained under each combination of
ultimate loads.
4.11.2 Moment redistribution may be used for beams with uniform cross-section throughout each span, where
the values in Table 4.11.3a can be used when sections are uniform.
4.11.3 The proportions of the support moments which may be redistributed depend upon the cross section
redistribution classes and are given in Table 4.11.3a.

Table 4.11.3a Limiting 'breadth of flange outstand' to 'compression flange thickness' ratios for
compression flanges in cross section redistribution classes
Cross section redistribution class Rolled section Welded section
1 8ϵ 7ϵ
2 9ϵ 8ϵ
3 12ϵ 11ϵ
4 > 12ϵ > 11ϵ
Note:
The 'breadth of flange outstand' to 'compression flange thickness' is given by bfo /tfo

Table 4.11.3b Limits to redistribution of hogging moments, as a percentage of the elastic

support moments for different cross section distribution class
Class of cross section in hogging moment regions 1 2 3 4
For 'uncracked' elastic analysis, span ≤ 30m 40 30 20 10
For 'uncracked' elastic analysis, 30m < span ≤ 45m 32 22 15 5
For 'cracked' elastic analysis 25 15 10 0
Note:
Where cross sections in Class 1 are assessed elastically the redistribution cannot exceed that
permitted for Class 2 cross sections.

28
CS 457 Revision 1 4. Structural analysis

Table 4.11.3c Limiting 'depth of web steel' to 'web thickness' ratios for webs in cross section
redistribution classes for elastic design of cross section

Cross Web in compression

Web in pure Web in intermediate Web in
section bending Triangular Rectangular state of tension/co- non-uniform
redistribu- (ψ = −1) stress stress distribution mpression compression
tion distribution (ψ = +1)

1 56ϵ 24ϵ 24ϵ 24(1 − 4ψ/3)ϵ 24ϵ

2 64ϵ 32ϵ 32ϵ 32(1 − ψ)ϵ 32ϵ

3 92ϵ 46ϵ 34ϵ 46(1 − ψ)ϵ (46 − 12ψ)ϵ

>
4 > 92ϵ > 46ϵ > 34ϵ > 46(1 − ψ)ϵ
(46 − 12ψ)ϵ
Depth of web steel to web thickness ratio is given by dw /tw

Table 4.11.3d Limiting 'depth of web steel' to 'web thickness' ratios for webs in cross section
redistribution classes for plastic design of cross section
Web in pure Web in pure
Cross section Web in intermediate state of
bending compression
redistribution class tension/compression
(ψ = −1) (ψ = +1)

1 56ϵ 24ϵ 168ϵ/(8α − 1)

2 64ϵ 32ϵ 32ϵ/α

Depth of web steel to web thickness ratio is given by dw /tw

NOTE 1 The cross section redistribution classes are given in Table 4.11.3b, Table 4.11.3c and Table 4.11.3d.
NOTE 2 In Table 4.11.3a, the cross section class in the hogging moment region is the higher class number for
the flange and web given in Tables 4.11.3b and 4.11.3c when the cross-sections are assessed
elastically or in Tables 4.11.3b and 4.11.3d when they are assessed plastically.
NOTE 3 Cross sections excluded from redistribution class 3 are in class 4.
4.11.4 For beams which have a uniform cross section, where all cross sections in the span and the adjacent
spans are in cross section class 1 and 2, a portion of the span moments may be redistributed to the
supports, providing the maximum hogging moments for the loading cases concerned are not increased
by more than 20% for cracked elastic analysis and 10% for uncracked elastic analysis.
NOTE The degree of moment redistribution is related to the hinge rotation capacity and upon there being
spare flexural capacity at the more critical cross-sections in adjacent spans.
4.11.5 For spans in which the cross-sections are non-uniform the permitted redistribution at a support may be
taken as, k times the value in Table 4.11.3a where k is given in Equation 4.11.5.

Equation 4.11.5 Multiplication factor for moment redistribution for non uniform adjacent spans
θB
k=
θA
where:
k multiplication factor for moment redistribution for non uniform adjacent spans;
θA end rotation of beam A under unit moment at that support; and,

29
CS 457 Revision 1 4. Structural analysis

θB end rotation of beam B under unit moment at that support.

NOTE 1 Beam A is the actual beam, but which can be considered fixed at the remote end of the span.
NOTE 2 Beam B is a beam with the second moment of area of the support cross-section uniform across the
span and with the same fixity at the remote end as beam A.
4.11.6 The factor, k , may be taken as unity where the second moment of area of the cracked support
cross-section does not exceed the second moment of area at the mid span cross-section.

Analysis of sections
General
4.12 Where the verification criteria require stress checks to be carried out, the stresses in composite
sections shall be determined in accordance with the resistance checks set out in Section 5.
4.12.1 Where moment redistribution at ULS is carried out, information on the presence and extent of cracks
obtained from inspections, can be used to determine whether structural elements may achieve the
assessment performance expected.
NOTE The inspection for assessment, or other special or monitoring inspections of specific structural elements
in accordance with CS 450 [Ref 4.I] undertaken prior to or after the assessment can provide data to:
1) compare actual crack widths with assessment crack widths; and,
2) monitor changes in the crack widths following assessment.

Effective span
4.13 The effective spans to be used for assessment shall be in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N].

Effective breadth of concrete flange

4.14 The effective breadth of concrete flange shall be calculated dependent on the location in the span, the
structure geometry, support condition, material properties and whether the composite section is taken
as cracked or uncracked.
4.14.1 The effective breadth of the uncracked concrete flange may be:
1) assumed to be constant over any span; and,
2) taken as the quarter-span value for uniformly distributed loading given in CS 456 [Ref 16.N] for
α = 1.0 .
4.14.2 Where composite beams are beams simply supported at one end and fixed or continuous at the other,
the mean of the quarter-span values for the fixed ended and simply supported beams may be taken as
the effective breadth of the uncracked concrete flange.
4.14.3 Where calculating the stiffness of the uncracked section, for a b/l value of 0.125 or less ψ may be
assumed to be 1.0.
4.15 When calculating the stresses in a concrete flange, and in the absence of rigorous analysis, the effect
of in-plane shear flexibility (i.e. shear lag) shall be allowed by assuming an effective breadth of flange in
accordance with the requirements given:
1) for effective cracked flange in clause 4.16 to 4.16.1;
2) for width over which slab reinforcement is effective in clause 4.17 to 4.20; and,
3) CS 456 [Ref 16.N].
4.15.1 The effects of shear lag may be neglected for a simply supported composite member.
4.16 The effective breadth for a cracked concrete flange in tension shall be calculated in accordance with
CS 456 [Ref 16.N] replacing the effective breadth ratio, ψ with the effective cracked flange factor, ψc as
given by Equation 4.11.6.

30
CS 457 Revision 1 4. Structural analysis

Equation 4.16 Effective cracked flange factor

ψc = (2ψ + 1)/3
where:
ψ effective breadth ratio for the uncracked concrete flange

4.16.1 In calculating the effective cracked concrete flange, for b/l values less than 0.05, a ψ value of 1.0 may
be assumed.

Width over which slab reinforcement is effective

4.17 Stresses in the flanges shall be assessed at SLS.
4.18 Only reinforcement within the effective concrete slab shall be assumed to be effective in analysing
cross sections.
( )
4.19 The effective area of longitudinal reinforcement shall be taken as Σ Ar cos4 α1 , where α1 is the angle
between the bars and the web of the steel beam.
4.20 When the reinforcement assumed to be at its design strength in tension produces a net transverse
force on the steel beam, this force shall be included in the assessment or the effective areas adopted
such that there is no net transverse force.
NOTE A net transverse force is likely to be produced on composite steel beams in skew bridges.

Deck slabs forming the flanges of composite beams

4.21 The deck slab shall be assessed to resist separately the effects of loading given for the coexistent load
effects in accordance with clause 4.25 to 4.27.1, but using assessment loads relevant to the ultimate
limit state.
4.22 The effects of local wheel loading on the slab shall be determined by elastic analysis unless an
alternative approach can be demonstrated to provide an acceptable reliability.
4.22.1 An inelastic method of analysis, e.g. yield line theory, may be used subject to the requirements for
analysis methods in this section.
4.23 Local effects and combined effects of global bending and local wheel loading shall be in accordance
with CS 455 [Ref 14.N].
4.24 The longitudinal shear and the interaction between longitudinal shear forces and transverse bending of
the slab in the region of the shear connection shall be assessed in accordance with Section 5.

Coexistent load effects

General
4.25 Deck slabs forming flanges of composite beams shall be assessed to resist:

1) the local effects of loading acting directly on it; and,

2) the local effects of loading acting on the composite member or members of which it forms a part,
including effects of any differential displacement of the composite members.

4.26 The local load effects shall be combined with the global load effects where these coexist in an element
for all load combinations to determine the most adverse effect.

Additional SLS considerations for coexistent load effects

4.27 Co-existent stresses shall be calculated where these are critical to determining the assessment
recommendations for the structure.

31
CS 457 Revision 1 4. Structural analysis

4.27.1 In calculating co-existent stresses in a deck slab, which also forms the flange of a composite beam, the
global longitudinal bending stress across the deck width should be calculated in accordance with
Annex A.6 of BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N].

Temperature effects, shrinkage modified by creep and differential settlement.

General
4.28 Longitudinal shear and other verification based on serviceability combinations shall include the effects
of temperature and shrinkage modified by creep.
NOTE Unless otherwise stated, the recommendations set out in this section apply to SLS and ULS verification.
4.28.1 For verification of serviceability, differential settlement and shrinkage may be ignored other than for
load combinations which include temperature.
4.28.2 For verification carried out at ULS, provided that at supports where the beam is continuous, there are
no cross sections of beams in cross section redistribution class 4 as defined in clause 4.11.3 the
following effects may be disregarded:

1) shrinkage, temperature and differential settlement effects; and,

2) permanent stresses due to temporary works that is added and later removed during construction.

Temperature effects
4.29 Longitudinal stresses and longitudinal shear forces due to the following temperature effects shall be
determined:

1) primary effects due to a temperature difference through the depth of the cross section of the
composite member;
2) primary effects due to a uniform change of temperature in a composite member where the
coefficients of thermal expansion of the structural steel or iron and concrete aggregate are
significantly different; and,
3) secondary effects, in continuous members, due to redistribution of the moments and support
reaction caused by temperature effects of the types described in 1) or 2).
4.30 In the absence of a partial interaction analysis, longitudinal stresses and shear forces due to
temperature effects shall be calculated by elastic theory assuming that full interaction exists between
the concrete slab and the steel beam.
4.31 The stiffness shall be based on the transformed composite cross section using a modular ratio of αe for
short term loading and the effective breadth of concrete flange is to be taken as the actual breadth.
4.31.1 Where b/l does not exceed 0.20 the effective breadth of the concrete flange may be taken as the
quarter-span value for uniformly distributed loading in CS 456 [Ref 16.N] except for beams simply
supported at one end and fixed or continuous at the other, when the mean of the effective breadth
values for the simply supported and fixed ended cases can be used.
4.31.2 Where the concrete section is taken as cracked, the thermal strains of the concrete in the zone of
cracked concrete may be disregarded in the global analysis.
4.31.3 Where the concrete section is taken as uncracked, the longitudinal bending stresses due to secondary
effects, in clause 4.29 3) above, the concrete in tension may be ignored.

Shrinkage modified by creep

4.32 When the effects of shrinkage modified by creep adversely affect the maximum resultant forces on the
shear connectors or the maximum resultant stresses in the concrete slab and the steel beam, they shall
be calculated in the manner described for temperature effects and longitudinal shear, in clause 4.28 to
4.31.3 and clause 4.34 to 4.36.2 respectively, using values of ϵcs the free shrinkage strain and a
modular ratio αe in Section 3 for long term loading.

32
CS 457 Revision 1 4. Structural analysis

4.32.1 At ULS, where there are no construction defects noted from inspections in accordance with CS 450
[Ref 4.I] and no appreciable transverse loads on the girder, the requirement from CS 456 [Ref 16.N] is
that shrinkage should be included when the value of λLT calculated in accordance with Equation 4.32.1
is more onerous.

Equation 4.32.1 Limiting slenderness for including shrinkage effects

√
355Mpe
λLT ≥ 30
Mult σy
4.32.2 For most circumstance the limiting slenderness for including shrinkage should be relaxed in
accordance with Equation 4.32.2.

Equation 4.32.2 Relaxed limiting slenderness for inclidng shrinkage effects

√
355Mpe
λLT ≥ 70
Mult σy

where:
λLT limiting slenderness;
Mpe plastic moment of resistance;
Mult ultimate moment of resistance; and,
σy stress about the minor axis.

4.32.3 Shrinkage may be disregarded in bridges more than 15 years old where the condition is recorded good
in an inspection report produced in accordance with CS 450 [Ref 4.I].

Differential settlement
4.33 When differential settlements are calculated, the moments for all loadings shall be assessed assuming
the section properties relevant to the limit state being assessed.
4.33.1 The effects may normally be assessed assuming cracked cross section properties for ULS at supports
provided they do not reverse the direction of the bending moment in the composite section at the
supports.
4.33.2 As a guide for assessment, effects from differential settlement, temperature and shrinkage should
always be included in the assessment where there are physical signs that settlement has occurred.

Longitudinal shear
4.34 Variations in the stiffness of the composite beam along its length due to variations in the cross-section
of the steel member or where the concrete flange was cast in stages, shall be taken into account when
calculating the longitudinal shear force per unit length.
4.35 The longitudinal shear force Q , due to either a temperature difference through the depth of the cross
section or differential thermal expansion between the concrete and steel beam, shall be assumed to be
transmitted from the concrete slab to the steel beam by connectors at each end of the beam.
4.36 The forces on the connectors shall be calculated on the basis that the rate of transfer of load either:
1) varies linearly from 2Q/ls at each end of the beam to zero at a distance ls defined in accordance with
Equation 4.36: or,
2) is taken as constant in accordance with 4.36.2.

33
CS 457 Revision 1 4. Structural analysis

Equation 4.36 Distance from the end of beam

√
KQ
ls = 2
∆f
where:
Q longitudinal shear force due to primary effects of temperature;
difference between the free strains at the centroid of the concrete slab and the centroid of
∆f
the steel beam;
ls distance from end of beam;
K is either taken from Table 4.36.1; and,
sL is the longitudinal spacing of the shear connectors.

4.36.1 The value of K in mm2/N depends on the connector and concrete type and should be taken from Table
4.36.1.

Table 4.36.1 K values for estimating transfer lengths

K (mm2/N)
Concrete density Stud connectors Other shear connectors
Normal density concrete 0.003 0.0015
Lightweight aggregate concrete 0.006 0.003

4.36.2 Where stud shear connectors are used the rate of transfer of load may be assumed to be constant over
a distance ls from each end of the beam, where ls is equal to one-fifth of the effective span.

34
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

5. Resistance calculations
Composite action
5.1 Where, for a beam built in stages, the entire load is assumed to act on the final cross section in
accordance with clause 9.9.5 of BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N], or where tensile stresses are redistributed from
the web or the tension flange in accordance with clause 9.5.4 or 9.5.5 respectively of BS 5400-3 [Ref
13.N], the shear connectors and transverse reinforcement shall be assessed for the corresponding
longitudinal shear in accordance with clause 5.28 to 5.36 of this document.
5.2 Composite action from shear connectors not complying with requirements for resistance to separation
in accordance with clauses 5.93 to 5.99 shall be disregarded at the ultimate limit state, except:

1) where the connectors can be shown to resist the bending including any additional bending caused
by the calculated separation gap when lift-off occurs; or,
2) in checking for lateral-torsional buckling in accordance with Appendix B.

5.3 Where connectors can be shown to resist the bending including any additional bending caused by the
calculated separation gap when lift-off occurs, the contact area between the connector and the
concrete shall be adjusted for any separation.
5.4 Where the construction sequence is unknown the adoption of the assumptions set out in Section 11
shall be carried out within the analysis.
5.5 Composite action from incidental connectors at ULS shall not be used within the assessment unless
this is justified through the application of alternative calculations in compliance with the relevant DMRB
or European standards, or through physical testing.
NOTE Composite action from incidental connectors at ULS can only be carried out where separation is
included in the calculations and the connectors can resist the bending due to separation.
5.5.1 Incidental shear connection should be calculated in accordance with the provisions for partial
interaction Section 5.
5.5.2 To establish whether separation is achieved, an iterative approach may be adopted where connection
is removed when deflection exceeds 0.5mm.
5.5.3 Shallow incidental shear connectors may be assumed to provide lateral restraint to the top flange at
ULS if justified through a calculation method or physical testing, even though the criteria for assuming
composite action for the assessment of the whole cross section are not met.
NOTE 1 Lateral restraint in non-composite compression flanges is assessed in accordance with clause 9.12 of
BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N]
NOTE 2 Methods for calculation lateral restraint from shallow incidental shear connectors are provided in the
requirements given for conditions for verification of lateral torsional buckling in Section 5.

Vertical shear resistance of composite beams

5.6 No moment redistribution shall be permitted in determining the shear forces.
5.6.1 Where the shear force V is too high to satisfy the inequalities (c) and (d) in clause 9.9.3.1 of BS 5400-3
[Ref 13.N] and the subsequent modification for rolled sections, vertical the shear resistance may be
calculated in accordance with Equation 5.6.1.

35
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Equation 5.6.1 Vertical shear resistance

(1 − α)VD + αVNC ) ≥ V
where:
α (D − 800)/800 , but 1.0 ≥ α ≥ 0.0 ;
D depth of steel member at the cross section in mm;
V maximum shear force in the panel;
VD shear capacity under pure shear in BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N]; and,
VNC the lowest value V when the above mentioned inequalities in BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N] have
values of unity assuming proportional loading.

5.6.2 Where cross sections are assessed elastically, in accordance with clause 5.8 to 5.27 and redistribution
of moments in clause 4.11 to 4.11.6 is limited to15% for cracked and 30% for uncracked analysis, the
shear force, V , applied to the steel cross section in accordance with clause 9.9.3.1 of BS 5400-3 [Ref
13.N] may be reduced by the shear carried by the slab in an analysis in which the slab is represented
by an uncracked plate element with an elastic modulus adjusted to take account of cracking.
5.7 The coincidental direct tension in the slab reduces its shear strength and its effect on the shear strength
shall be verified by a method agreed with the TAA.
NOTE The reduction in shear strength can be verified based on the latest edition of AASHTO [Ref 1.I].
5.7.1 The shear strength should first be estimated using CS 455 [Ref 14.N] and the reduction due to tension
calculated applied.

Assessment of sections
General
5.8 The strength of composite sections shall be assessed in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N] as
modified by this document and in accordance with clause 5.9 to 5.27.

Plastic moment of resistance of sections

5.9 The plastic moment of resistance of the compact section at the stage under consideration with
longitudinal shear connections satisfying the requirements in Section 5 for transverse reinforcement
(clauses 5.37 to 5.55) and shear connectors (clauses 5.60 to 5.110.2) shall be determined in
accordance with the method for calculating λLT in clause 9.7.1 BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N] assuming that the
entire load acts on the cross section of the beam.
5.10 Concrete in tension shall not be included in the calculation of the plastic modulus.
5.11 In the calculation of the plastic modulus Zpe , the following shall be included:
1) the transformed area of the concrete in compression obtained in accordance with Equation 5.12;
and,
2) the transformed area of the reinforcement in concrete subject to tension obtained in accordance with
Equation 5.13.

5.12 The transformed area of the concrete in compression shall be calculated in accordance with Equation
5.12.

36
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Equation 5.12 Transformed area of concrete in compression

0.67fcu /γmc
Agc ×
σyc /γm
where:
Agc the gross area of the concrete
fcu characteristic or worst credible concrete cube strength
σyc nominal or worst credible yield stress of the steel compression flange as defined in CS
456 [Ref 16.N]
γm partial safety factor for steel in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N]
γmc partial safety factor for concrete in compression in accordance with CS 455 [Ref 14.N]

5.13 The transformed area of the reinforcement in concrete subject to tension shall be obtained in
accordance with Equation 5.13.

Equation 5.13 Transformed area of reinforcement in concrete subject to tension

fry /γms
Agr ×
σyc /γm
where:
Agr the gross area of reinforcement
fry characteristic or worst credible yield strength of the reinforcement
γms partial material factor for steel reinforcement in accordance with CS 455 [Ref 14.N]

Bending resistance of compact sections

5.14 The verification of bending resistance of compact sections shall be in accordance with CS 456 [Ref
16.N] except where alternative provisions are given in this section.
5.15 Where the composite steel section is compact, the coefficient in the parabolic stress block for concrete
shall be increased from the value of 0.60 used in reinforced concrete design/assessment to 0.67.
5.16 Lateral-torsional buckling shall be disregarded in the assessment of composite beams with compact
cross sections when the shear connectors can resist uplift forces, when U-frame action exists.
5.17 Compact beams with incidental shear connectors are subject to lateral torsional instability and shall be
checked using the methodology set out in the methods for assessing lateral torsional buckling in
accordance with Appendix A.
5.17.1 For compact sections with shallow incidental shear connectors, extra ties may be required for the entire
cross section to act as composite.

Bending resistance of non-compact cross sections

5.18 The verification of bending resistance of non-compact sections shall be in accordance with CS 456 [Ref
16.N] except where alternative provisions are given in this section.
5.19 Where a steel flange is attached to a concrete or composite slab by shear connection in accordance
with the requirements for resistance to transverse reinforcement (clauses 5.37 to 5.55) and resistance
to separation (clauses 5.93 to 5.99), it shall be assumed to be laterally stable, provided that the overall
width of the slab is not less than the depth of the steel member.
5.20 A steel flange that is not attached to a concrete or composite slab by shear connection shall be
checked for lateral stability.

37
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

5.20.1 Where the modulus of elasticity of the concrete has been reduced in accordance with requirements for
partial interaction (clauses 5.109 to 5.109.3), this should be included in assessing the bending
resistance.
5.21 Lateral restraints to compression flanges not in contact with the concrete slab shall be assessed in
accordance with clause 9.12 of BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N].
5.22 The moment of resistance of non-compact cross section where lateral torsional buckling is prevented
shall be determined in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N] except that, Mult cannot exceed the values
obtained from Equation 5.22.

Equation 5.22 Ultimate moment of resistance of non-compact sections

( ) ( )
0.75fcu γm fry γm
Mult ≤ Zxs × or Mult ≤ Zxr ×
γmc γms
where:
Zxr elastic modulus of the transformed section with respect to the extreme reinforcement for a
section where the concrete is in tension
Zxs elastic modulus of the transformed section with respect to the extreme fibre of the
concrete where the concrete is in compression
fcu characteristic or worst credible strength of concrete
fry characteristic or worst credible yield strength of the reinforcement
γf3 partial safety factor in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N]
γm partial material factor for steel in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N]
γmc partial material factor for concrete in compression in accordance with CS 455 [Ref 14.N]
γms partial material factor for reinforcement in accordance with CS 455 [Ref 14.N]

5.22.1 A continuous non-compact beam or a beam in a frame that is composite throughout its length with
bracing at the supports only may be assessed without additional lateral bracing when the following
conditions are satisfied:
1) adjacent spans do not differ in length by more than 35% of the shorter span. Where there is a
cantilever, its length does not exceed 15% of that of the adjacent span;
2) the uniformly distributed part of the permanent load on each span is not less than 50% of the total
design load;
3) the top flange of the steel member is attached to a reinforced concrete or composite slab by shear
connectors in accordance with the requirements for transverse reinforcement (clauses 5.37 to 5.55)
and resistance to separation (clauses 5.93 to 5.99) in this section;
4) the longitudinal spacing of studs or rows of studs sL for uncased beams is in accordance with
Equation 5.22.1a. (For steel members partly encased in concrete in accordance with section 7 the
spacing is not to exceed 50% of the maximum spacing for the uncased beam.);
5) the longitudinal spacing of connectors other than studs is such that the resistance of the connection
to transverse bending is not less than that required when studs are used;
6) the same slab is also attached to another supporting member approximately parallel to the
composite beam being assessed to form an inverted-U frame of breadth, a , as shown in Figure
5.22.1;
7) where the slab is composite and spans between two supporting members of the inverted-U frame
being assessed;
8) where the slab is simply-supported at the composite beam being assessed, fully anchored top
reinforcement has to be present over the length AB shown in Figure 5.22.1 for these assumptions to

38
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

remain valid. The area of this reinforcement is then to be such that the resistance
( ) of the slab to
hogging transverse bending, per unit length of beam, is not to less than fy t2w /(4γm ) , where the
notation is as given in Equation 5.22.1a;
9) at each support of the steel member, its bottom flange is laterally restrained and its web is stiffened
(elsewhere the web can be unstiffened);
10) the bending stiffness of the solid or composite slab is such that the conditions in Equation 5.22.1b
are met; and,
11) the steel member is an UB, UC, joist section or another hot-rolled section of similar shape, with yield
stress not exceeding 355 N/mm2.

Figure 5.22.1 Lateral torsional buckling

Equation 5.22.1a Longitudinal spacing of studs or rows of studs

sL 0.02d2 hs
≤
bf t3w
where:
d is the diameter of the shank of the studs;
bf , hs and tw are as shown in Figure 5.22.1
sL longitudinal spacing of studs or rows of studs

39
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Equation 5.22.1b Bending stiffness of a solid or composite slab

0.35Es t3w a
Ecm Ic ≥
hs
where:
Ecm Ic mean of the flexural stiffness per unit width of slab at mid-span and above the
steel beam considered, neglecting concrete in tension, and including
transformed areas of reinforcement and any profiled sheeting hat contributes
to the resistance of the slab in accordance with CS 455 [Ref 14.N];
Ecm short term secant modulus of elasticity of the concrete
Es modulus of elasticity of the structural steel
a, hs and tw are as shown in Figure 5.22.1

Conditions for verification of lateral torsional buckling

5.23 Lateral torsional buckling of a section shall be assessed unless it can be demonstrated that the
conditions under which it can be disregarded as given in clause 5.22.1 are met.
5.24 Where a section is deemed susceptible to lateral torsional buckling this shall be assessed using one of
the following:
1) the methodology set out in Appendix A and/or Appendix B;
2) an elastic critical buckling analysis using a computer model; or,
3) non-linear material and geometric analysis.

5.24.1 Where the steel section comprises a UB or UC or similar section with equal flanges of strength not
exceeding 355 N/mm2 and certain conditions not related to cross section slenderness are met, lateral
torsional effects may be disregarded.
NOTE The conditions were derived by using the methods in Appendix A, but taking into account work by
Weston, Nethercot and Crisfield which shows that lateral torsional buckling can be disregarded for λ
values up to 60, which includes all UB sections not exceeding 355 N/mm2. It will be found that for a
very few cross sections, Appendix A gives slightly lower strengths than the method of clause 5.22.1,
even when all the conditions on clause 5.22.1 are satisfied.

Construction in stages and non-compact cross sections at support

5.25 Beams which have non-compact cross sections at supports shall satisfy additional verification
requirements based on a composite section built up in stages, where a check for adequacy is carried
out at each stage of construction including the final stage of assessment in accordance with the
requirements for beam built in several stages given in clause 9.9.5 of BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N] as modified
in CS 456 [Ref 16.N].
5.26 The total accumulated stresses at any fibre shall be:
1) in accordance with limitations given in clause 9.9.5.4 a) and b) in BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N]; and ,
2) not exceed the limit values given by Equation 5.26a and Equation 5.26b for concrete in compression
and reinforcement in tension respectively.

Equation 5.26a Limit for total accumulated stresses at any fibre for concrete in compression
0.75fcu
<
γms γf3

40
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Equation 5.26b Limit for total accumulated stresses at any fibre for reinforcement in tension
fry
<
γms γf3
5.27 In the application of clause 9.9.5.5 and 9.9.5.6 of BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N] where the fibre being assessed
is either concrete in compression or reinforcement in tension, the value of M, Mx,max , MDx , My,max , MD,max
shall be based on Zxr , Zxs , Mult , as defined in Equation 5.22.

Longitudinal shear
General
5.28 The shear flow used to assess the transverse reinforcement shall be determined for the maximum
shear flow resistance of shear connectors required.
5.28.1 Where cross sections are assessed elastically the horizontal shear should be assessed from the effect
of vertical shear on the elastic cross section in accordance with clauses 5.56 to 5.59.
5.28.2 The equation for determining longitudinal shear per unit length may be taken as:

Equation 5.28.2 Longitudinal shear calculation

( ) ( )
d MAy VAy d Ay
q= = +M
dx I I dx I
where:
q longitudinal shear per unit length, or ratio of tapered to total length between torsional
restraints;
M bending moment;
y is the distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of the slab (or the part separated
by the interface being analysed).
A area of equivalent transformed composite section;
I second moment of area, of composite section in steel units; and,
V shear force.

NOTE 1 The second term in Equation 5.27.2, being zero for beams of uniform section.
NOTE 2 The second term Equation 5.27.2, can increase (e.g. haunched sections at supports) or decrease (e.g.
on 'fish-bellied' girders) the value of q
5.28.3 Where the section changes suddenly (e.g. at a splice), the second term in Equation 5.28.2 may be
ignored if the changes in neutral axis level or second moment of area are small, noting that an increase
in I due to the steel section changing is usually accompanied by an increase in y .
NOTE Where the section changes suddenly and the change in longitudinal force Q is significant, then 12 Q can
be applied each side of the change in section over a length of Iss (see clause 4.34 to 4.35.2).
5.29 For any span which has compact cross-sections at supports where there is continuity, the strength of
the shear connection shall be checked adjacent to cross sections where plasticity occurs.
5.30 The slab forces, calculated from the assumptions made in satisfying the requirements for plastic
moment of resistance of sections in clause 5.9 to 5.13, shall be resisted over the length between peak
moments in opposite sense or between peak moments and points of zero moment.
5.31 Intermediate equilibrium checks on the cross section shall be made either side of significant point loads
and at intervals along the span of the greater of 5m or span/10 .

41
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

5.32 Transverse reinforcement and shear connectors shall satisfy the general requirements set out in
clauses 5.28 to 5.31 above for longitudinal shear.
5.33 The resistance of shear connectors shall be obtained from the method in Equation 60 at SLS as
modified by Equation 62 for ULS.
5.33.1 The longitudinal shear resistance so calculated should not exceed the value assessed using plastic
cross sections analysis.
5.33.2 Where the other provisions given in this section for deck slab (clause 5.34) and transverse
reinforcement (clauses 5.37 to 5.59) are not satisfied a reduced resistance may be employed with the
agreement of the TAA.

Deck slab
5.34 The deck slab and its reinforcement shall be capable of resisting the assessment forces imposed on it
by the shear connectors without excessive slip or separation and without longitudinal splitting, local
crushing or bursting.
NOTE 1 Construction in accordance with clause 5.28 to 5.59 satisfies these requirements for the ultimate limit
state and is deemed to satisfy the fatigue and serviceability requirements for transverse reinforcement.
NOTE 2 Where separate ultimate limit state checks are necessary for shear connectors the requirements are
given in clause 5.60 to 5.62.

Haunches
5.35 Where concrete haunches are used between the steel flange and the soffit of the concrete slab the
sides of the haunch shall lie outside a line drawn at 45 degrees from the outside edge of the connectors
as shown in Figure 5.64.
5.36 The requirements of longitudinal shear (clauses 5.28 to 5.33.2) and transverse reinforcement (clauses
5.37 to 5.59) inclusive shall also apply to haunched sections.

Transverse reinforcement
General requirements
5.37 The assessment method for transverse reinforcement given in this section shall be applied to
haunched and unhaunched composite beams of normal density concrete or lightweight aggregate
concrete unless an alternative suitable method is agreed with the TAA.
NOTE The method takes account of interaction between longitudinal shear and transverse bending of the slab.
5.38 Only reinforcement transverse to the steel or iron beam that is fully anchored on both sides of a possible
plane of longitudinal shear failure (shear plane) shall be included in the derivation of Ab , At , Abs and Abv .
5.38.1 Where the depth of a haunch does not exceed 50mm, reinforcement in the bottom of a slab may be
included in the definitions of Ab and Abv provided that it is placed at a clear distance of not less than
40mm below that surface of each shear connector which resists uplift forces and at a clear distance not
greater than 80mm from the nearest surface of the steel beam.
NOTE 1 Examples of five types of shear plane are given in Table 5.42 with typical arrangements that satisfy the
definitions of Ab , At , and Abs as given above and are used to calculate the area of reinforcement, Ae ,
crossing a shear plane that is assumed to be effective in resisting shear failure along that plane.
NOTE 2 For planes that cross the whole depth of the slab (shear plane type 1-1 in Table 5.42) Ae is the total
area of fully anchored reinforcement intersected by that plane including reinforcement provide for
flexure, e.g. in shear plane type 1-1 in Figure 5.42, Ae = At − Ab .
NOTE 3 For planes in unhaunched beams that do not cross the whole thickness of the slab (Plane type 2-2 in
Table 5.42), Ae = 2Ab .

42
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

NOTE 4 For planes in haunched beams that do not cross the whole depth of the slab (shear plane types 3-3,
4-4, or 5-5 in Table 5.42) Ae is the total area of fully anchored reinforcement intersected by that plane,
which is placed at a clear distance of not less than 40mm below that surface of each shear connector
that resists uplift forces and can include the area of the hoop in a bar and hoop connector where
appropriate.
NOTE 5 For planes of type 5-5 (see Table 5.42) in cased beams Ae is the total cross sectional area of stirrups
(both legs) crossing the shear plane.
5.39 Where the spacing of shear connectors is, < 1000mm or span 20 , the size and spacing of transverse
reinforcement shall follow the requirements relating the shear flow and the longitudinal shear resistance
in clauses 5.83 to 5.84.
5.40 Where the connector spacing is, > 1000mm or span 20 , the connector force shall be assumed to be
resisted over a distance equal to the lesser of 600mm, or three times the thickness of the slab on the
compression side of the shear connectors.
5.41 The total area of transverse reinforcement required in the distance over which the connector force is
assumed to be resisted shall not be less than:

1) the calculated area in accordance with clause 5.38 when the requirement given for detailing of
transverse reinforcement in clause 5.55 are not satisfied; or
2) half the area calculated in accordance with clause 5.38 when the requirement given for detailing of
transverse reinforcement in clause 5.55 are satisfied.
5.42 The typical arrangement for transverse reinforcement for haunched and unhaunched composite beams
in Table 5.42 shall be used to calculate the areas transverse reinforcements for the shear planes shown.

43
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Table 5.42 Shear plans and transverse reinforcement

bf
NOTE: For shear plane type 5-5 Ls = (total length of shear plane)− 3

* Indicates that where the dimensional criteria specified and the other criteria shown are not met a
procedure can be agreed with the TAA based on the guidance in the document.

Shear plane type Cross sectional areas of transverse reinforcement Ae

1-1 (At + AB ) or (At + Abs )
2-2 2Ab
3-3 2(At + Abs )
4-4 2Ab
5-5 as defined in clause 5.38.1 NOTE 5

NOTE Where the dimensional and other criteria shown with an asterisk (*) in Table 5.42 are not met a
procedure can be agreed with the TAA using the guidance in this document.

Longitudinal shear force

5.43 The longitudinal shear force per unit length qp on any shear plane through the concrete shall not
exceed the lesser of the values obtained from Equation 5.43a and Equation 5.43b:

44
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Equation 5.43a Longitudinal shear force per unit length

k1 fcu Ls
qp <
γmv γf3

Equation 5.43b Longitudinal shear force per unit length

v1 Ls 0.80Ae fry
qp < +
γmv γf3 γms γf3
where:
fcu characteristic or worst credible concrete cube strength (see Equation 5.43.1 for fcu < 20
N/mm2)
qp is the assessment longitudinal shear force per unit length of beam on the particular
shear
plane considered
k1 is a constant equal to 0.23 for normal density concrete and 0.18 for lightweight
aggregate concrete
v1 is the ultimate longitudinal shear stress in the concrete for the shear plane under
assessment, to be taken as 1.35 N/mm2 for normal density concrete and 1.05 N/mm2
for lightweight aggregate concrete
γmv 1.5 but can be reduced to 1.25 when the characteristic strength is ≥ 45 N/mm2 or the
worst credible strength ≥ 35 N/mm2
γf3 partial factor for load effects in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]

5.43.1 Where, fcu is taken to be less than 20 N/mm2, Equation 5.42b should be replaced with Equation 5.43.1.

Equation 5.43.1 Longitudinal shear force for low strength concrete

k2 fcu Ls 0.80Ae fry
qp < +
γmv γf3 γms γf3
where:

k2 is a constant equal to 0.060 for normal density concrete and 0.045 for lightweight
concrete

5.44 In haunched beams, > 0.5Ae required to satisfy Equation 5.43b in respect of shear planes through the
haunch (planes 3-3 and 4-4 in Table 5.42) shall be bottom reinforcement that complies with the
definition of Abv .

Interaction between longitudinal shear and transverse bending

5.45 The interaction between longitudinal shear and transverse bending shall be assessed.
NOTE Where the assessment loading at the ultimate limit state causes transverse compression in the region
of the shear connectors, the interaction between longitudinal shear and transverse bending can be
ignored providing the requirements for longitudinal shear in clauses 5.43 to 5.44 are satisfied.
5.45.1 For beams where the shear plane passes through the full depth of the slab, the effect of the interaction
between longitudinal shear and transverse bending should be ignored.
5.46 In unhaunched beams, where the assessment loading at the ultimate limit state causes transverse
tension in the slab in the region of the shear connectors, the effect of this on the strength of shear

45
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

planes that do not cross the whole depth of the slab (plane 2-2 in Table 5.42) shall be allowed for by
replacing Equation 5.42b with Equation 5.46:

Equation 5.46 Longitudinl shear force limit in unhaunched beams where transverse tension
occurs in the slab
v1 Ls 1.60Abv fry
qp < +
γmv γf3 γms γf3
where:
qp is the assessment longitudinal shear force per unit length of beam on the particular shear
plane considered
v1 the ultimate longitudinal shear stress in the concrete for the shear plane, to be taken as 1.
35 N/mm2 for normal density concrete and 1.05 N/mm2 for lightweight aggregate concrete
Ls length of the shear plane under construction
γmv 1.5 but can be reduced to 1.25 when the characteristic strength is ≥ 45 N/mm2 or the
worst credible strength ≥ 35 N/mm2
Abv cross sectional area of other transverse reinforcement
fry characteristic or worst credible strength of reinforcement in accordance with CS 455 [Ref
14.N]
γms partial safety factor for reinforcement strength, and
γf3 partial safety factor in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N]

5.46.1 Where the assessment loads at the ultimate limit state can cause transverse compression in the slab in
the region of the shear connectors the beneficial effect of this on the strength of shear planes that do
not cross the whole depth of the slab (shear plane type 2-2 in Table 5.42) should be added by replacing
Equation 5.43b with Equation 5.46.1:

Equation 5.46.1 Longitudinal shear force limit in unhaunched beams where transverse
compression occurs in the slab
v1 Ls 0.8Ae fry 1.6FT
qp < + +
γmv γf3 γms γf3 γms
where:
FT minimum tensile force per unit length of beam in the transverse
reinforcement in the top of the slab due to transverse bending of
the slab. Only loading that is of a permanent nature is to be
considered when calculating FT
Ae cross sectional areas of transverse reinforcement, and
qp , v1 , Ls , γf3 , γms , γmv , fry as defined in Equation 5.46

5.46.2 In haunched beams, where the assessment loading at the ultimate limit state causes transverse
tension in the slab in the vicinity of the shear connectors, the effect of the interaction between
longitudinal shear and transverse bending may be ignored provided:
1) the reinforcement required to satisfy the conditions for interaction for beams with transverse
compression around shear connectors (see clause 5.45 NOTE) is reinforcement that satisfies the
definition of Abv ; and,

46
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

2) the haunch dimensions satisfy the requirements for haunches in accordance with clauses 5.35 to
5.36.

Minimum transverse reinforcement

5.47 The cross sectional area, per unit length of beam, of reinforcement in the slab transverse to the steel or
iron beam shall be not less than the value given by Equation 5.47:

Equation 5.47 Area of minimum transverse reinforcement

0.7γms shc
Ae(min) >
fry
where:
Ae(min) area of minimum transverse reinforcement
γms partial safety factor for reinforcement strength
s is a constant stress of 1 N/mm2 re-expressed in units consistent with those used for
other quantities
hc thickness of the concrete slab forming the flange of the composite beam, and
fry characteristic or worst credible strength of reinforcement

5.48 At least 50% of the cross sectional area of the minimum transverse reinforcement shall be located near
the bottom of the slab to satisfy the definition of Abv in accordance with clause 5.38.
5.49 Where the length of a possible plane of shear failure around the connectors (shear plane 2-2 in Table
5.42) is ≤ 2hc , reinforcement in addition to that required for flexure shall be present in the bottom of the
slab transverse to the steel or iron beam to prevent longitudinal splitting around the connectors.
5.50 The cross sectional area of the reinforcement, Abv per unit length of beam, present in the bottom of the
slab transverse to the steel or iron beam to prevent longitudinal splitting around the connectors, shall
be in accordance with Equation 5.50.

Equation 5.50 Limit for area of bottom reinforcement to prevent longitudinal splitting around
shear connectors
Abv > 0.7γms shc
5.51 Where the minimum compressive force per unit length of beam, acting normal to and over the surface of
the shear plane is, > 1.4shc , reinforcement in addition to that required for flexure shall not be required.

Minimum transverse reinforcement in haunched beams

5.52 The cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement in a haunch per unit length of beam Abv shall be
greater than the value calculated using Equation 5.52:

47
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Equation 5.52 Limit for minimum transverse reinforcement in haunched beams

0.35γms sLs
Abv
fry
where:
s the shape factor or a constant stress of 1 N/mm2 re-expressed in units consistent with
those used for other quantities
Ls is the length of a possible shear plane of shear failure around connectors (see shear
plane type 3-3 or 4-4 in Table 5.42

Curtailment of transverse reinforcement

5.53 Where transverse reinforcement provided to resist longitudinal shear is curtailed, it shall be in
accordance with the requirements for transverse reinforcement in all respects for shear planes through
the slab of type 1-1 in Table 5.42.
5.54 Longitudinal shear force per unit length, qp for a plane where transverse reinforcement provided to
resist longitudinal shear is curtailed, shall be assumed to vary linearly from the calculated maximum
force on the relevant plane, which is adjacent to the shear connectors, to zero mid-way between the
centre line of the beam and that of an adjacent beam or to zero at an adjacent free edge.

Detailing of transverse reinforcement

5.55 The spacing of bottom transverse reinforcement bars, where present and satisfying the conditions
given in this section for transverse reinforcement, shall be not greater than four times the projection of
the connectors (including any hoop which is an integral part of the connector) above the bars nor
greater than 600mm.

Serviceability criteria for longitudinal shear

5.56 The longitudinal shear in composite beams at the serviceability limit state(SLS) shall be assessed from
the vertical shear stresses determined from an analysis assuming cracked sections at the supports
over which the beams are continuous.
5.57 The longitudinal force per unit length of the beam on longitudinal shear planes, q or qp , shall be
calculated elastically, using the properties of the transformed composite cross section, assuming the
concrete flange to be uncracked and unreinforced in both sagging and hogging moment regions.
5.58 The quarter-span values of the effective breadth in CS 456 [Ref 16.N] shall be used for the calculation
of the longitudinal shear force except for beams simply supported at one end and fixed or continuous at
the other.
5.58.1 Where beams are simply supported at one end and continuous or fixed at the other, the mean of the
quarter-span values for the fixed ended and simply supported beams may be used to calculate the
effective breadth as per CS 456 [Ref 16.N].
5.59 Where the second moment of area of the composite cross section obtained assuming the concrete
flange to be uncracked and unreinforced varies along the length of any span, the variation of stiffness
shall be included in the calculations for the longitudinal shear flow.

Shear connectors
Resistance of shear connectors
5.60 Longitudinal shear resistance of shear connectors Pa at SLS shall be assessed in accordance with
Equation 5.60:

48
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Equation 5.60 Longitudinal shear connector resistance at SLS

Pam
Pa =
γslip γf3
where:
Pa the assessment longitudinal shear resistance of shear connectors
Pam the nominal present mean static strength at the time of the assessment

γslip reduction factor to ensure slip is not excessive assigned a value of 1.375 in Table 2.12,
and
γf3 partial safety factor in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]

5.61 The strength of shear connectors shall be assessed at the ULS in accordance with:
1) the requirements for shear connector spacing and longitudinal shear resistance in clauses 5.80 to
5.89;
2) the requirements for composite section in clauses 5.1 to 5.5.3; or,
3) CS 456 [Ref 16.N] where redistribution of stresses from the web or the tension flange has been
made.

5.61.1 Where any of the requirements in clause 5.61 do not apply, the assessment at ULS may be neglected.
5.62 Longitudinal shear force per unit length shall be determined in accordance with clauses 5.28 to 5.33.2
and the assessed static strength, per connector at the ULS to be taken as given in Equation 5.62:

Equation 5.62 Assessed static strength per connector at ULS

Pam
Pa =
γm γf3
where:
Pam the nominal present mean static strength at the time of the assessment ignoring the
limit of 0.82 in Equation 5.65
γm partial material factor for steel in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N]
γf3 partial safety factor in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]

Nominal strengths of shear connectors embedded in normal density concrete

5.63 The nominal initial mean static strength, Pim , for the commonly used types of connectors which are
illustrated in Figures 5.63a, 5.63b, 5.63c and 5.63d shall be taken from Table 5.63 in relation to the
specified characteristic cube strengths or worst credible strengths of normal grades of concrete.

Table 5.63 Nominal initial mean static strengths of shear connectors for different concrete
strengths
Nominal static strengths in kN per
Type of connector Connector material connector for concrete strengths
fcu , N/mm2
15 20 30 40 50

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CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Table 5.63 Nominal initial mean static strengths of shear connectors for different concrete
strengths (continued)
Headed studs
(see Figure 5.63a)
Diamet- Overall
er height
(mm) (mm) Material with a characteristic yield
stress of 385 N/mm2, minimum
25 100 elongation of 18% and a 105 126 147 168 183
22 100 characteristic tensile strength of 495 81 103 125 142 159
19 100 N/mm2 66 82 98 109 121
19 75 63 74 85 96 108
16 75 49 61 73 82 90
13 65 32 39 46 52 57
Bars with hoops
Figure 5.63b and 5.6
3c
50mm x 40mm x 200 Grade 43 of BS 4360 [Ref 17.N]
492 661 830 963 1096
mm bar
25mm x 25mm x 200
245 330 415 482 548
mm bar
Channels Figure 5.6
3d
127mm x 64mm x 14.
252 316 380 419 442
90kg x 150mm
Grade 43 of BS 4360 [Ref 17.N]
102mm x 51mm x 10.
210 268 326 364 390
42kg x 150mm
76mm x 38mm x 6.70
117 225 213 305 326
kg x 150mm
See BS 4395 [Ref 6.N]
Friction grip bolts BS 4395 [Ref 6.N] for strength information for friction
grip bolts
General notes:
1) fcu is the specified characteristic cube strength at 28 days or the worst credible strength.
2) Strengths for concrete of intermediate grade can be obtained by linear interpolation.
3) For bars (see Figures 5.63b and Figure 5.63c and channels (see Figure 5.63d) of lengths
different from those quoted above, the capacities are proportional to the lengths for lengths
greater than 100mm.
4) For stud connectors of overall height greater than 100mm the nominal static strength should to be
taken as the values given in Table 5.63 for 100mm high connectors unless the static strength is
determined from push-out tests in accordance with the requirements for tests on shear
connectors as given in this section (see clauses 5.72 to 5.79.3).

50
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Figure 5.63a Stud connector

Figure 5.63b 50mm x 40mm bar connector

51
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Figure 5.63c 25mm x 25mm bar connector

Figure 5.63d Channel connector

NOTE All dimensions on Figure 5.63a, 5.63b, 5.63c and 5.63d are in millimetres.
5.64 The nominal strengths given in Table 5.63 shall be used where the slab is haunched provided that the
haunch is in accordance with shall be used where the slab is haunched provided that the haunch is in
accordance with Figure 5.64.

52
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Figure 5.64 Dimensions of haunches

5.65 The nominal present mean static strength at the time of the assessment shall be taken as:

Equation 5.65 Calculation of the nominal present mean static strength at the time of the
assessment
[ ( )m+2 ]
Na Pr
Pam = Pim 1− ≤ 0.82Pim
23.3 kPim

where:
Na is the equivalent number of Standard Fatigue Vehicles (SFV) as defined in BS 5400-10
[Ref 12.N] and can be taken as 0.5062N for modern traffic
Pr is the range of the longitudinal shear in the connector from passage of an SFV
k is 1.0 except where otherwise agreed
m is 5.1

NOTE Where the standard fatigue vehicle induces further fatigue shear cycles exceeding 0.4Pr , additional
terms can be included in the equation for Pam with the appropriate values of (Pr /Pim ) and Na (if the flow
of commercial vehicles varies between lanes).
5.65.1 Where a structure fails the assessment criteria alternative approaches may be adopted for the
structure, such as those proposed in NOTE 1, NOTE 2 and NOTE 3 of this clause.
NOTE 1 Shear connector assessment failures can be addressed through an inspection to determine if the bond
has been broken. Where the bond has been broken, friction can be used in assessing the effect of
imposed load on shear connectors, and a coefficient of friction of 0.40 is suggested. Where the bond
has not been broken, a situation that exists in the majority of composite bridges (but in circumstances
in which, kPPim
r
0.1333 , Pr is can be reduced by a factor of 1.15 for stud shear connectors and 1.25 for
other connectors subject to TAA approval).
NOTE 2 Account of other forms of incidental shear connection or other incidental strengthening to the bridge
can be made in trying to improve the assessment rating of the shear connector.

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CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

NOTE 3 Latest available literature can provide evidence to support improved assessment rating, as the
cumulative damage law for shear connectors of Equation 5.65 differs from that for most other materials,
for which the resistance reduces significantly only towards the end of the design life.

Resistance of connectors not included in Table 5.63

5.66 Where shear connectors are not included in Table 5.63, the static strengths shall be determined
experimentally by pull out tests in accordance with clauses 5.72 to 5.79.3.
5.67 Where the connector type is included in Table 5.63 but the size is not given, the fatigue strength shall
be determined in accordance with BS 5400-10 [Ref 12.N].

Shear connectors not complying with resistance to separation

5.68 Where shear connectors do not comply with the general requirements in clauses 5.81 to 5.83 and
resistance to separation in clauses 5.93 to 5.99 shall be verified as part of assessing the performance
of a bridge by testing.
NOTE Shear connectors not satisfying the requirements for resistance to separation in accordance with
clauses 5.93 to 5.99 are essentially of two types:

1) there are connectors similar in form to complying connectors, except that they lack the capacity to
resist uplift, which were assumed in the design to be shear connectors;
2) there are shallow devices projecting into the slab from the beam which were not considered to be
shear connectors in the original design; and,
3) in this document the two types of shear connectors in 1) and 3) are considered by the same
approach (see clauses 5.103 to 5.107), except that with the very shallow connectors larger safety
factors are required and that without other devices to resist the uplift they offer little shear resistance
at ULS.

Nominal strengths of shear connectors embedded in lightweight concrete

5.69 The strengths of shear connectors in lightweight concrete shall be taken as 15% less than the values
for normal density concrete in or as determined by the testing.

Nominal strengths of shear connectors in haunched slabs

5.70 Where the haunch does not comply with clause 5.35 to 5.36 the nominal initial mean static strength of
the shear connectors Pim shall be determined experimentally by push-out tests from published work in
accordance with the requirements for tests on shear connectors in clause 5.72 to 5.79.3.
5.71 The fatigue strength shall be determined in accordance with BS 5400-10 [Ref 12.N].

Tests on shear connectors

5.72 Where shear connectors are not included in Table 5.63, the assessment capacity of shear connectors
shall be verified by testing or other means agreed with the TAA.
5.72.1 Tests on shear connectors should be carried out where they do not comply with Table 5.63.
5.72.2 The nominal initial mean static strength of a shear connector may be determined by push out tests. No
fewer than three tests are to be made and the nominal initial mean static strength Pim is taken as the
lowest value of (fcu Pu )/fc for any of the tests, where Pu is the failure load of the connectors at concrete
strength fc , and fcu is the lower of the specified characteristic or worst credible cube strength at 28 days.
5.72.3 Where five or more push out tests are carried out, the mean value of (fcu Pu )/fcu may be adopted as the
nominal mean static strength of a shear connector.
5.72.4 The strength of shear connectors not covered by Table 5.63 may be justified by calculation, particularly
where the effects of bending are included.

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CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

5.73 Where tests on shear connectors are required the dimensions to be used for the push-specimen shall
be as given in Figure 5.73.

Figure 5.73 Dimensions of specimens for test on shear connectors

NOTE All dimensions in Figure 5.73 are in millimetres.

5.73.1 Reinforcement in Figure 5.73 should be 100mm diameter mild steel.
5.74 Bond at the interfaces of the flanges of the steel beam and the concrete shall be prevented by greasing
the flange.
5.74.1 Alternative methods of preventing bond at the interfaces of flanges of the steel beam and concrete may
be agreed with the TAA.
5.75 The slab and reinforcement shall be either as given in Figure 5.73 or as in the beams for which the test
is designed.
5.76 The strength of the concrete fc , at the time of testing, shall not differ from the specified or worst
credible cube strength fcu of the concrete in the beams by more than ± 20%.
5.77 The rate of application of load for the push-out test shall be uniform and such that failure is reached in
not less than 10 minutes.

55
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

5.78 Where the connector is composed of two separate elements, one to resist longitudinal shear and the
other to resist forces tending to separate the slab from the girder, the separation measured in push-out
tests in the ties which resist the forces of separation shall not exceed half of the longitudinal slip at the
corresponding load level.
5.78.1 Only load levels ≤ 0.8Pim should be used in testing resistance to separation .
5.79 Where the amount of composite action is required to increase the flexural strength of the beam by 25%
or more, site testing shall be carried out to demonstrate that the stiffness is consistent with the
composite action required in the assessment.
5.79.1 It may be assumed for the purpose of interpreting the results that 50% of the increase in flexural
stiffness can be attributed to increase in strength, or 75% when 75% or more of composite action is
confirmed by strain profiles.
5.79.2 When compliance with the assessment criteria is dependent on incidental shear connectors, the bridge
should be tested periodically under identical live loading to determine whether the stiffness of the
bridge is diminishing.
NOTE Incidental composite action can appear to have withstood the test of time; however, it can reduce with
time due to slip or corrosion.
5.79.3 Tests should be carried out before and after any work carried out on the structure which can affect the
loading on the structure to determine adequacy of accidental shear connection.

Shear connector spacing and longitudinal shear resistance

5.80 The shear connection resistance shall be assessed either by calculation and/or physical testing.
5.81 The longitudinal spacing of the connectors in the slab to be assessed shall not be greater than the
lesser of four times the thickness of the slab or four times the height of the connector, including any
hoop which is an integral part of the connector or 800 mm.
NOTE To satisfy the assessment assumption of a continuous shear connection, the transverse reinforcement
need not be precisely located relative to shear connectors.
5.82 The distance between the edge of a shear connector and the edge of the plate to which it is welded,
shall not be less than 25mm (see Figures 5.63a, 5.63b, 5.63c and 5.63d).
5.83 Except where otherwise permitted for encased and filler beams, shear connectors shall be present
throughout the length of the beam.
5.84 For the calculation of connector forces, the spacing of connectors shall be in accordance with the
requirements given for any one of the following spacing limits of shear connector groups:
span
1) connector spacings < 1000mm or 20 ;
span
2) connector spacings > 1000mm but < 8 ; or,
span
3) connector spacings > 8

5.85 Where connector spacings are , < 1000mm or span 20 ,the size and spacing of the connectors at each
end of each span under the maximum loading shall be such that the maximum longitudinal shear force
per unit length, q , to the assessment longitudinal shear resistance, qr per unit length do not exceed the
values of the ratio qq given in Table 5.85, in which the fatigue vulnerability adopted is to be assessed.
r

56
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Table 5.85 Maximum values of the ratio of shear flow to longitudinal shear resistance
q q q
Fatigue Connector qrat simple qrat fixed qrelsewhere in
vulnerability class supports supports beams
Class a 1.05 1.25 1.25
High Class b 1.05 1.05 1.1
Class c 1.0 1.0 1.0
Class a 1.25 1.5 1.5
Low Class b 1.05 1.05 1.1
Class c 1.0 1.0 1.0
General notes:
1) Fatigue vulnerability is high in motorway and trunk road bridges.
2) Class a connectors are connectors in beams of span not exceeding 25m, with a steel beam to
slab depth ratio not less than 2.2 and with a stiffness of the shear connection under static load
nowhere exceeding 4,000MN/m per metre of beam at 60% of ultimate load and with the
resistance using Table 5.63 not exceeding 2.0MN/m.
3) Class b connectors are connectors satisfying clauses 5.80 to 5.83, clauses 5.90 to 5.92 and
clauses 5.93 to 5.99, but which are excluded from the definition of class a connectors.
4) Class c connectors are connectors covered by clauses 5.103 to 107, which do not satisfy clauses
5.80 to 5.83, clauses 5.90 to 5.92 and clauses 5.93 to 5.99.
5) For continuous beams over internal supports, the values for class a connectors can be
determined by interpolating between the simple support and the fixed support condition, pro-rata
of the ratio of the actual support moment from the loading causing the longitudinal shear to the
moment from that loading if the beam was fixed at that support.

5.86 The connectors required for an assessed size and spacing shall not be extended > 5m of the span.
5.86.1 The connectors required should extend:
q
1) 10% of the length of the span for qr ≤ 1.1 ;
q
2) 20% of the length of the span for 1.1 < qr ≤ 1.25 ; or
q
3) 33% of the length of the span for qr > 1.25 .

NOTE In the normal situation, qq = 1.0 at the end of a span and qq = 1.10 elsewhere, with the maximum values
r r
maintained over 10% of the span. For assessment these restrictions have been relaxed by taking
advantage of the flexibility of shear connectors and the facts that at internal supports as shown in
Figure 5.86.1N:
1) where the spans are similar the shear connectors under dead load are not deflected (due to
symmetry) and so unloaded; and,
2) the horizontal forces in the shear connectors at the ends are redistributed as a result of the shear
deflection of the steel beam.

57
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Figure 5.86.1N Shear flow normalised on shear force

5.86.2 At locations other than at the ends of the spans, the size and longitudinal spacing of connectors
present may be constant over any length over which the total assessment shear force does not exceed
the product of the number of connectors and the assessment static strength per connector as defined
in clause 5.62, provided the maximum shear force per unit length does not exceed the assessment
shear resistance per unit length by more than the margin in Table 5.63.
5.87 Where the connectors are in accordance with the requirements for connector spacings, they shall meet
the requirements for incidental shear connection as given in clauses 5.103 to 5.107 and locally, q/qr 1.0 .
NOTE Over regions < span
8 , the shear connectors do not satisfy the requirements for uplift on shear
connectors as given in clauses 5.100 to 5.102.4 although the requirements for connector spacings
< 1000mm or < span 20 .

5.88 Where connector spacings are > 1000mm or span span

20 , but < 8 , the size and spacing of the
connectors under the maximum loading shall be such that the maximum longitudinal shear force per
unit length q does not exceed the assessment shear resistance qr at any section given the elastic
distribution of longitudinal shear ( qq < 1.0 ).
r

58
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

5.88.1 The shear connector force should be estimated for the distribution of the shear flow mid way between
adjacent groups of shear connectors such that the force in the ith shear connector is given by Equation
5.88.1 as shown in Figure 5.88.1.

Equation 5.88.1 Estimation of shear connection force

∑
Psi ≥ qri .dx

Figure 5.88.1 Calculation of shear connector force when S ≥ span/8

span
5.89 Where the connector spacings are > 8 , the connectors shall be:

1) assessed for the force obtained from an analysis with the beam modelled such that the slab and
beam are rigidly connected by discrete connections at the position of the connectors;
2) checked for the combined effect of horizontal and vertical loading and transverse reinforcement
assessed to resist the bursting stresses in the concrete.

Horizontal cover to connectors

5.90 The horizontal cover to the shear connectors shall be verified either through site surveys or from
as-built records as part of the assessment.
5.91 The horizontal distance between a free concrete surface and any shear connector shall:

59
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

1) not be less the required cover to the reinforcement (see Figure 5.73); and,
2) not be less than the lesser of the width of the shear connector or 50mm.

5.92 At the end of a cantilever , as for example in a cantilever-suspended span structure, the horizontal
cover to the shear connector shall be such that the transverse and longitudinal reinforcement provided
adjacent to the free edge of the concrete slab can transfer the longitudinal shear connector loads back
into the concrete slab.
NOTE Where the horizontal distance between a free concrete surface and any shear connector is not
achieved a procedure agreed with the TAA based on the guidance in this document can be adopted.

Resistance to separation
5.93 The resistance to separation shall be achieved where the slab being assessed has been positively tied
to the girder by connectors or other means where:
1) the connectors in accordance with the requirements for shear connector spacing and longitudinal
shear resistance requirements as given in this section for the connector type; or,
2) testing has been carried out to determine the acceptability of the shear connection.
5.94 For the slab to be positively tied to the girder by connectors or other means the overall height of a
connector, including any hoop which is an integral part of the connector shall not be less that 65mm.
5.95 Where the overall height of the shear connector is less than 65mm, the requirements given for
incidental shear connection given in clauses 103 to 107 shall be met.
5.96 The surface of a connector that resists separation forces, shall extend:

1) ≥ 40mm clear above the bottom transverse reinforcement as shown in Figure 5.42; and,
2) ≥ 40mm into the compression zone of the concrete flange in regions of sagging longitudinal
moments.

NOTE The surfaces of the connector that resist separation forces include the inside of a hoop, the inner face
of the top flange of a channel and the underside of the head of a stud.
5.97 Where a concrete haunch is used between the steel girders and the soffit of the slab, transverse
reinforcing bars shall be:
1) in accordance with requirements for transverse reinforcement given in this section; and,
2) be present in the haunch at least 40mm clear below the surface of the connector that resists uplift.

5.98 For shear connection adjacent to a longitudinal edge of a concrete slab to be effective the transverse
reinforcement provided shall be:

1) in accordance with requirements for transverse reinforcement given in this section; and,
2) fully anchored in the concrete between the edge of the slab and the adjacent row of connectors.
5.99 Where the slab is connected to the girder by two separate elements, one to resist longitudinal shear and
the other to resist forces tending to separate the slab from the girder, additional ties shall be provided.
NOTE Where additional ties are provided they have to be in accordance with the requirements given herein
for resistance to separation.

Uplift on shear connectors

5.100 Where the shear connectors are subject to significant direct tension due to the presence of either
separation forces or transverse moments in the slab, additional ties anchored into the slab shall be
provided.
NOTE 1 Forces tending to separate the slab from the girder can be caused, for example, by differential bending
of the girders or of the two sides of a box girder or from tension field action in the web.

60
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

NOTE 2 Transverse moments on a group of connectors can result from transverse bending of the slab
particularly in the region of diaphragms or transverse cross bracing, or from the forces generated at the
corners when the slab acts as part of a 'U' frame.
5.101 Where stud connectors are used and are subject to both shear Q and tension due to uplift Tu the
equivalent shear Qmax to be used in checking the connectors for static strength and fatigue shall be
taken in accordance with Equation 5.101:

Equation 5.101 Calculation of equivalent shear

√( )
Qmax = Q2 + T2u /3

where:
Qmax equivalent shear;
Q longitudinal shear; and,
Tu tension due to uplift.

5.102 Stud connectors shall be checked at the ultimate limit state using the value of Qmax .
5.102.1 In riveted or bolted construction, composite action may be ensured by replacing some of the rivets or
bolts by long bolts or other suitable devices able to provide sufficient longitudinal shear resistance, as
shown in Figure 5.102.1.

Figure 5.102.1 Typical device to resist uplift

5.102.2 The frequency of the position of restraint to uplift should verify:

1) the capacity of the slab to carry the load to where the uplift is resisted;
2) that significant vertical separation between the slab and the beam do not occur.
5.102.3 A maximum separation of 0.5mm disregarding the loading on the slab should be adopted.
5.102.4 Where the girders are of cast or wrought iron, the fixing type selected should be based on the parent
material properties and the performance criteria of the connection.
NOTE 1 Mechanical fixings (as in Figure 5.102.1) can be preferred to welded fixings.

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CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

NOTE 2 The undulation of the concrete surface in contact with the steelwork in construction using buckle plates
and troughs constitutes a potential shear connection. The connectors between these features and the
steel beam can carry the longitudinal shear force calculated assuming full interaction.

Incidental shear connection

5.103 A model representing the realistic behaviour of the connection shall be developed when investigating
an incidental shear connection.
NOTE 1 Incidental shear connection can comprise attachments to beams penetrating the concrete slab have
the potential to provide longitudinal shear resistance between the beam and slab, some have steps in
the top surface of the metal beam (for example at flange plates) where they occur such as to oppose
relative movement of the slab and steel girder.
NOTE 2 Incidental shear connections generally lack the resistance to uplift and so do not satisfy the
requirements of a continuous shear connection in accordance with clauses 5.80 to 5.102.4.
5.104 Where testing is desirable to demonstrate the effectiveness of an incidental shear connection in
circumstances other than that in clause 5.79 this shall be agreed with the TAA.

Figure 5.104 Interaction of bolt forces from flexure and incidental shear connector
action

5.105 Where the attachments can suffer fatigue damage or cause fatigue damage to the metal beam if they
acted as shear connectors, their possible action as shear connectors shall be disregarded.
5.106 Possible damage to the beam shall be taken into account or inspections made to ensure that the
attachments are in good condition and the flanges and connecting plates are uncracked.
NOTE The method for assessing the strength of incidental shear connectors is derived from the method for
bar connectors in BS EN 1994-2 [Ref 2.I] and gives appreciably lower strengths than those in Table
3.23.2 for bar connectors and an additional safety factor γb introduced for incidental shear connectors
which has; 1.25 for bolt heads, plate ends and other vertical surfaces, and 2.0 for rivet heads.

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CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

5.106.1 Stresses increase in many bolt groups as a result of their action as shear connectors and frequently
this action can increase the shear in half the bolts and reduce it in the other half (compare Figures
5.106.1a and 5.106.1b.) Where this occurs, possible actions to be taken may be:
1) assess the spare capacity in the bolts and take this as the limiting capacity of the group of incidental
shear connectors;
2) assess the bolts taking into account the extra force from the incidental shear connection;
3) disregard the incidental action on the grounds that bolt failure of this kind has never been attributed
to incidental action; or,
4) take full advantage of the incidental shear connection and ignore its possible adverse effects for
disregarding the incidental action on the grounds that bolt failure of this kind has never been
attributed to incidental action.

Figure 5.106.1a Application of shrinkage - assumptions in design

Figure 5.106.1b Application of shrinkage - assumptions in assessment

5.106.2 Limitations should be provided to the increase in the resistance of the steel beam permissible with
incidental shear.
5.106.3 Until more accurate values can be justified, the increase in the resistance permissible with incidental
shear connections should be limited to:
1) 40% for bolts and other vertical bearing surfaces; and,
2) 33% for rivet heads.
5.106.4 For other attachments to the beam, which may be effective as shear connectors but for their lack of
capacity to resist uplift forces, and assumed to have been designed as shear connectors, no upper limit
is imposed.
5.106.5 For attachments formed of plate which are not rigid, Pim given by Equation 5.106.6 may be ( multiplied
)
by a factor k . Where k is the ratio, of, the area of plate which under the design pressure, PAam
1
deflects
by no more than 0.2mm to the total area of the plate.
NOTE Where devices act as incidental shear connectors, unpropped construction is appropriate, so these
devices carry no longitudinal shear under the self weight of the structure but do carry longitudinal shear
from the superimposed dead load.

63
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

5.106.6 The initial static strength of rigid shear connectors lacking resistance to uplift forces may be taken as the
lower of the shear strength of the weld and connector resistance in accordance with Equation 5.106.6:

Equation 5.106.6 Calculation of the initial nominal static connector strength

0.80ηA1 fcu
Pim =
γmc γb
where:
Pim initial nominal static connector strength;
η ( )0.5
A1
A2 but ≤ 2.5 for normal density concrete, or ≤ 2.0 for lightweight concrete of density
not less than 1400 kg/m3;
A1 bsc hsc ;
A2 the area of concrete over which the shear connector force is distributed on the rear plane
of the next shear connector, assuming a lateral dispersion angle of 1:5 from the front
plane of the connector (see Figure 5.107);
γmc partial safety factor for concrete strength;
γb additional safety factor for incidental shear connectors for greater proneness to brittle
fracture due to lack of resistance to separation taken as:

1) γb < 1.25 for bolts and other potential connector with vertical surfaces resisting
longitudinal shear;
2) γb < 2.0 for rivet heads and other potential connectors with non-vertical surfaces
resisting the longitudinal shear; and,
3) γb = 1.0 for incidental connectors on concrete surfaces confined between rigid vertical
surfaces, or within re-entrant profiles;

bsc dimension of the connector transverse to the span; and,

hsc mean height of the shear connector.

5.107 For an isolated internal connector (defined such that the lateral dispersion line does not intersect the
A2
edge of the slab) the value of A 1
shall be given by Equation 5.107a and Equation 5.107b:

Equation 5.107a Ratio of areas

( )
A2 hc sL hc wsc
= [ ( )] when >5 −1 +
A1 hsc 1 + 0.4 bsscL − wsc hsc hsc hsc
bsc

where:
sL longitudinal spacing of individual connectors;
wsc dimension of a connector along the span;
hsc mean height of the shear connector;
bsc dimension of the connector transverse to the span;
sL spacing of the shear connectors along the span; and,
hc depth of the concrete slab.

64
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

Equation 5.107b Ratio of areas

[ ( )][ ( )] ( )
A2 sL wsc sL wsc sL hc wsc
= 1 + 0.2 − 1 + 0.4 − when ≤5 −1 + or,
A1 hsc hsc bsc bsc hsc hsc hsc

Figure 5.107 Definition of A2

Resistance of groups of incidental connectors arranged in rows transverse to the span

5.108 The resistance of a group of connectors arranged in a row transverse to the span shall be taken as the
lesser of:
1) the resistance Pim given by Equation 5.106.6, but with bsc redefined as the overall width of the group
of connectors; or,
2) the resistance nP′im where; n is the number of connectors in the row and P′im is the resistance given
by Equation 5.106.6 for the individual connectors, but with sL replaced by s′L given by Equation
5.108:

Equation 5.108 Calculation of the equivalent spacing of connector rows

s′L = sT − 0.2(sL − wsc ) but ≤ sL
where:
s′L equivalent spacing of connector rows;
sT transverse spacing of individual connectors;
sL longitudinal spacing of individual connectors; and,
wsc dimension of a connector along the span.

Partial interaction
5.109 Where partial shear connection is utilised within the assessment the following criteria shall be satisfied:
1) low vulnerability to fatigue damage with limited in-elasticity in the shear connection;

65
CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

2) the beam with the reduced elastic modulus satisfies all the requirements of this document except for
the control of cracking, where p is taken as unity; and,
3) the shear connectors are of class a as defined in the requirements given in this section for shear
connector spacing and longitudinal shear resistance in accordance with clauses 5.80 to 5.89.
5.109.1 The total force in the slab should not be less than p times the force derived using the full value of the
short term of modulus of elasticity of concrete, where p is calculated from Equation 15.109.1:

Equation 5.109.1 Reduction factor for longitudinal shear force due to partial interaction
p = 0.60 + 0.025l where 16m ≥ l ≥ 8m)
where:
p reduction factor for longitudinal shear force due to partial interaction; and,
l span.

5.109.2 For spans up to 25m with continuity at one or both ends the value of the reduction factor p may not be
taken greater than 0.95 (i.e p ≤ 0.95 ).
5.109.3 For beams with substantially uniform cross section, l may be taken as:
1) the full span for simply supported beams;
2) 0.70 times the full span for fixed ended beam; or,
3) 0.85 times the span for a simple support one end and with continuity the other.

Modification of horizontal force for concentrated loads

5.110 Horizontal loading shall be included in the assessment of the shear connector resistance.
5.110.1 For a concentrated load normally represented in the global analysis as a point load or line load the
longitudinal force between load and a fixed support may be reduced for class a shear connector as
defined in clauses 5.80 to 5.89 to p times the force calculated assuming plane sections remain plane,
where p is given by Equation 5.110.1:

Equation 5.110.1 Reduction factor for longitudinal shear force due to partial interaction
p = 0.40 + 0.075lv but ≤ 1.0
where:
p reduction factor for longitudinal shear force due to partial interaction; and,
lv distance in meters from the load to the support at which there is fixity.

5.110.2 For continuous beams over internal supports the values may be determined by interpolating between
the simple support, for which p is unity, and the value for the fixed support condition multiplied by the
ratio of the actual support moment from the loadings causing the longitudinal shear to the moment from
that loading if the beam was fixed at that support.

Deflections
General
5.111 Deflections shall be calculated only where there is concern regarding the structural behaviour identified
either through inspections as per CS 450 [Ref 4.I] or by calculation or when deflection tests are
undertaken.

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CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

NOTE Deflections limits and general guidance on their calculation are given in BS EN 1994-2 [Ref 2.I].

Elastic deflections
5.112 The impacts of the construction sequence on elastic deflections shall be calculated where this is likely
to have a significant impact on the calculated deflections.
5.112.1 The deflections of the steel section due to loads applied to it prior to the development of composite
action and of partial composite action should be calculated where deck slabs are cast in stages.
5.113 Where the construction sequence is unknown, the assumptions shall be in accordance with Section 10
of this document.
5.114 Deflections shall be calculated by elastic theory using the elastic properties given in Section 3 of this
document assuming full interaction between the concrete and steel beam.
5.115 Allowance for in-plane shear flexibility (shear lag effects) in the flange shall be made in calculations
based on the elementary theory of bending by using an effective breadth of flange in accordance with
BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N] using the quarter span values throughout.
5.116 Under sustained loading, the modulus of elasticity shall be taken as ϕc times the short term modulus,
where ϕc is given in Table 3.12 for concrete mixes complying with Figure 3.12 .
5.116.1 Unless advantage is taken of unintended composite action, shear deflection may be disregarded.
NOTE Unintended composite action includes not only the effect of incidental shear connectors but also the
stiffening effects of the carriageway and the parapets.
5.116.2 Where structures are tested for incidental shear connection, the testing should not overload the
incidental shear connectors, either during the test or as a result of change of traffic use.

Fatigue
5.117 Where required the residual fatigue resistance of the shear connector shall be assessed using a
method defined in the AIP for assessment or agreed with the Overseeing Organisation.
NOTE Despite the increases in heavy goods vehicle loading there is yet no evidence of any fatigue failures of
shear connectors in bridges either for road or rail traffic. For assessment, checks on the fatigue
endurance of shear connectors in accordance with BS 5400-10 [Ref 12.N] are not required.
5.118 Shear connectors included in Table 5.63 shall be assessed for fatigue where the size is unknown.
5.119 Where fatigue in reinforcement is to be assessed, the method and approach to the verification shall be
defined in the AIP for the assessment or agreed with the Overseeing Organisation.
5.119.1 Where the permissible stress ranges for unwelded non-corroded reinforcement under assessment
imposed loading at SLS is less than the value given in Table 5.119.1 no further fatigue check should be
required.

Table 5.119.1 Fatigue stress range for unwelded non-corroded reinforcement under imposed
loading at SLS

Stress in unwelded non-corroded reinforcement (N/mm2)

Span
Bars ≤ 16mm diameter Bars ≥ 16mm diameter
3.5m 280 220
3.5m - 5.0m 250 190
5.0m - 10.0m 195 150
10.0m to 200m 155 120
≥ 200m 250 190

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CS 457 Revision 1 5. Resistance calculations

5.119.2 The local effects of wheel loads applied directly to a slab spanning between beams or webs should not
be checked for fatigue provided the following are satisfied:
1) the clear span to overall depth ratio of the slab does not exceed 18;
2) the slab acts compositely with its supporting beams or webs;
3) either:
a) the slab acts compositely with transverse diaphragms or webs; or,
b) the width of the slab perpendicular to its span exceeds three times its clear span; and,
4) the slab does not contain welded reinforcement or reinforcement couplers.

NOTE Corrosion and manufacturers markings can significantly reduce the resistance to a greater extent than
the loss of bar area might suggest. Such conditions are not specifically taken into account, but could be
assumed to be taken into account in the general conservatism of the first method.

68
CS 457 Revision 1 6. Composite box girders

6. Composite box girders

General
6.1 Composite box girders shall satisfy the relevant requirements for steel box girders given in CS 456 [Ref
16.N], CS 455 [Ref 14.N], together with the requirements for uncased beams given in this document
and those given in this section.
6.1.1 In the absence of more exact analysis the distribution of longitudinal bending moments and vertical
shear forces may be calculated in accordance with Section 4.

Effective span
6.2 The effective spans for bending of longitudinal or transverse box girders shall be in accordance with CS
454 [Ref 1.N].

Effective breadth
6.3 The effective breadth of concrete flange for serviceability limit state calculations shall be determined in
accordance with CS 455 [Ref 14.N].
6.4 For closed box girders when the steel top flange, which is continuous between webs, acts compositely
with the concrete deck slab the effective breadth of the composite plate shall be determined in
accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N].

Longitudinal shear
Spacing of shear connectors
6.5 The concrete slab shall be positively tied down to the top steel flange plate in accordance with the
requirements given in Section 5 for resistance to separation (clauses 5.93 to 5.99), shear connector
spacing and longitudinal shear resistance (clauses 5.80 to 5.89).
6.6 In closed box girders, shear connectors shall be present over the whole area of the top flange plate at
spacings longitudinally and transversely not greater than 600mm or three times the thickness of any
concrete slab or four times the height of the connector (including any hoop which is an integral part of
the connector), whichever is the least.
6.7 The longitudinal spacing of the shear connectors shall not exceed twenty five times, and the transverse
spacing not exceed forty times, the thickness of the top flange plate.
6.8 In open-top box girders, the spacing of shear connectors shall satisfy the requirements for composite
I-beams in clauses 5.81 to 5.83.
6.9 The distance from the edge of the top flange plate to the near edge of the nearest row of shear
connectors shall not exceed twelve times the thickness of the plate.

Assessment of shear connectors

6.10 The shear connectors in box girders shall be assessed at serviceability limit state in accordance with
requirements given in Section 5.
6.11 In closed box girders the number of shear connectors and their distribution over the breadth of the steel
flange plate shall satisfy the requirements for:
1) shear connector resistance in clause 5.60;
2) shear connector spacing and longitudinal shear resistance in accordance with clauses 5.80 to 5.89;
and,
3) fatigue in accordance with clauses 5.117 to 5.119.3.
6.12 The shear connectors at any cross section shall be assumed to be all of the same type and size.

69
CS 457 Revision 1 6. Composite box girders

6.13 The assessment of the shear connectors between each steel web and its associated concrete flange
shall be undertaken for each web separately.
6.14 The longitudinal shear force Qx on a connector at distance x from the web centre line shall be
determined in accordance with Equation 6.14:

Equation 6.14 Longitudinal shear on a connector at a distance x from the web centre line in box
girder
[ ( )2 ]
q x
Qx = K 1− + 0.15
n bw

where:
Qx longitudinal shear on a connector at a distance x from the web centre line in box girder
q assessment longitudinal shear due to global and local loading per unit length of girder at
the serviceability limit state for the web, calculated assuming full interaction between the
steel plate and concrete slab (in accordance with clauses 5.56 to 5.59)
n total number of connectors per unit length of girder within breadth bw including any
provided in accordance with clauses 6.5 to 6.9 or clause 6.16(1)
n' is the number of connectors per unit length placed within 200mm of the centre line of the
web considered
K coefficient determined from Figure 6.14
x distance from the web centre line, and
bw equal to half the distance between the centre lines of adjacent webs, or, for portions
projecting beyond an outer web, the distance from the centre line of the web to the free
web

70
CS 457 Revision 1 6. Composite box girders

Figure 6.14 Coefficient K

6.15 The force on any connector due to coexistent global and local loadings shall not exceed its assessed
strength at the serviceability limit.

Torsion
6.16 In open box girders with no steel top flange continuous between webs, the effect of cracking of the
concrete flange, in the negative (hogging) moment regions, on the torsional rigidity of the box girder
and on the distribution of torsional shear forces shall be assessed.
6.16.1 In addition to its effect on the global distribution of moments and shear forces, the effect of cracking on
the torsional resistance of the section being assessed may also need to be verified.

Composite plate
6.17 Where the concrete deck slab is cast on the top steel flange plate of a closed box girder, the plate and
the concrete slab, including the reinforcement, shall act compositely in resisting longitudinal and
transverse effects of loading on the deck, provided that:
1) the shear connectors present can transmit the resulting shear force at the interface, ignoring the
effect of bond;

71
CS 457 Revision 1 6. Composite box girders

2) ties are provided in accordance with the requirements in section 5 for resistance to separation (see
clauses 5.93 to 5.99), and shear connector spacing and longitudinal shear resistance (see clauses
5.80 to 5.89) to prevent separation of the two elements; and,
3) the combination of coexistent effects is as required by clauses 4.20 to 4.25, together with the effects
caused by the weight of wet concrete acting on the steel flange plate alone during construction.

6.18 The effects of temporary construction loading in accordance with Section 8 shall be assessed.
6.19 Where the requirements in clause 6.17 are not satisfied, the deck slab and the steel top flange plate
shall be assessed as non-composite elements in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N] or CS 455 [Ref
14.N].
6.20 Where additional shear forces are imposed on the shear connectors, the effect of this shall be
quantified and assessed for resistance to longitudinal shear in accordance with requirements in clauses
6.5 to 6.15.
NOTE Additional shear forces can include transverse bending of the deck and the effects due to local wheel
loading.
6.21 The longitudinal shear forces due to local wheel loads in the regions of a composite plate supported by
cross-members shall be determined by using the plate as an equivalent simply supported beam
spanning between the cross-frames.
6.21.1 The width of the equivalent beam, supporting the wheel load should be taken as given in Equation
6.21.1:

Equation 6.21.1 Equivalent beam width

4
b = x + lw
3
where:
x distance from centroid of wheel patch to the nearest cross-frame, and
lw length of wheel patch which is parallel to the cross-frame

72
CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

Introduction
7.1 This section shall be used for the assessment of:
1) simply supported filler beam decks with or without the soffit or the upper surface of the flanges of the
steel or iron member either exposed; and,
2) simply supported or continuous cased beams.

7.2 This section shall be used only for cased beam and filler beam construction where:
1) the encasement or filling is of normal density concrete (2300 kg/m3 or greater) as defined in this
document; and
2) the characteristic or worst credible concrete cube strength is not less than 25 N/mm2.
NOTE In calculations characteristic or worst credible strength cannot be taken in excess of 40 N/mm2.
7.2.1 All beams with fill on both sides should be assumed to be compact, irrespective of the cross section
slenderness.

Limit state requirements

7.3 Except where special requirements are given, cased beams and filler beam decks shall be assessed
for the serviceability and ultimate limit states in accordance with Section 2, Section 3, Section 4 and
Section 5.
7.4 Cast iron members shall be assessed in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N].
7.5 Wrought iron shall be assessed in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N].

Structure condition and detailing

7.6 Where the structure condition and detailing criteria in this section are not met, the TAA shall be
informed and a management procedure agreed.
7.6.1 The concrete cover to the metal beam should not be less than 50mm, except for the underside of the
bottom flanges of the filler beam which are permitted to be exposed.
7.6.2 Investigations should be carried out to determine any metal section loss where corrosion is in evidence
or suspected.
7.6.3 The spacing of the stirrups should not exceed 600mm.
7.6.4 The total cross-sectional area of stirrups (both legs) per unit length of beam crossing a possible plane
of shear failure of type 5-5 (Table 5.42 figure (d)) should be not less than:

Equation 7.6.4 Total cross sectional area of stirrups (both legs)

0.7γms sLs
fry
where:
γms partial safety factor for reinforcement strength;
the shape factor or a constant stress on 1 N/mm2 re-expressed in units consistent with
s
those used for other quantities;
Ls length of the shear plane under construction; and,
fry characteristic or worst credible strength of reinforcement.

73
CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

7.6.5 Mesh of equivalent area may be used instead of the stirrups.

7.6.6 Concrete cover to reinforcement should be verified in accordance with the requirements of CS 455 [Ref
14.N].

Analysis of structure
7.7 The distribution of bending moments and vertical shear forces, due to the assessment loadings at the
serviceability and ultimate limit states, shall be determined by an elastic analysis in accordance with the
analysis of sections in Section 4.
7.8 Redistribution of moments at the ultimate limit state as allowed for in Section 4 shall not be not
permitted in cased beams.
7.9 Where there are no bearings the effective span shall comprise the clear span plus the lesser at each
end of:
1) the lesser of the depth of the metal section and the depth from the soffit to the elastic neutral axis of
the metal section; and,
2) half the projection of the metal beam past the face of the support.

Analysis of sections
7.10 The moments of resistance of cased and filler beams shall be assessed in accordance with
assessment of sections given in Section 5.
7.11 A beam shall be assumed compact (class 2 in Table 4.11.3a) provided any part of the steel or iron
section not encased in concrete satisfies the criteria given in CS 456 [Ref 16.N] .
7.12 Any wrought iron or steel beam next to a cast iron beam shall be assessed as a class 3 cross section.
7.13 Vertical shear shall be assumed to be resisted by the steel or iron section alone.
7.13.1 Where it is demonstrated through calculation and/or testing that, the bond between the section and the
concrete can resist the applied loading, vertical shear may be carried by the concrete subject to the
agreement of the TAA.
7.14 The stresses in cast iron shall not exceed the limits in the allowable SLS stress limits in accordance
with CS 454 [Ref 1.N] and CS 456 [Ref 16.N].

Longitudinal shear
Serviceability limit state
7.15 The longitudinal shear force per unit length between the concrete and steel beam shall be calculated by
elastic theory, in accordance with the serviceability criteria for longitudinal shear in accordance with
clauses 5.56 to 5.59 except that, in positive (sagging) moment regions of cased beams and in filler
beams, concrete in tension is to be neglected.
7.16 Shear lag effects shall be neglected in filler beam decks.
7.17 The area of concrete and steel reinforcement in compression shear force shall be able to transfer the
shear force.
7.17.1 For highway bridges and footbridges, the longitudinal shear force may be assumed to be resisted by
bond between the steel or iron and concrete provided the local bond stress nowhere exceeds 0.5
N/mm2, or the permissible stress in Table 7.33.1, for cased beams or 0.7 N/mm2 in filler beams.
NOTE The stress limitations for local bond stress are on the provision that there is no evidence of corrosion,
fretting action or cracking sufficient to adversely affect the achievement of composite action.
7.17.2 The bond may be assumed to be developed uniformly only over both sides of the web and the upper
surface of the top and bottom flanges of the steel beam where there is complete encasement.

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

7.17.3 The bond may be assumed to be developed uniformly only over both sides of the web and the upper
surface of the top flange of the steel beam where the beam soffit is exposed.
7.18 Where the local bond stress, exceeds 0.5 N/mm2, or the permissible stress in Table 7.33.1, in cased
beams or 0.7 N/mm2 in filler beams the bond shall be ignored entirely.
7.18.1 Where there are attachments present satisfying the requirements for incidental longitudinal shear
connectors in Section 5 the resistance of these may be assumed in addition to the bond, but because
of the (elastic) local bond criterion this is permitted only where connectors are well distributed.

Ultimate limit state

7.19 The longitudinal shear force per unit length of beam shall be calculated in accordance with elastic
theory as provided in for serviceability limit state in accordance with clauses 7.15 to 7.18.1 but for the
assessment loading at the ultimate limit state.
7.20 Where there are no shear connectors to transmit the longitudinal shear force due to vertical loading
(see clauses 7.15 to 7.18.1), shear planes of type 5-5 in Table 5.42 are particularly prone to damage
and shall be checked.
7.21 The total cross sectional area per unit length of beam of fully anchored reinforcement intersecting the
shear surface Ae shall not be less than the Equation 7.21:

Equation 7.21 Total cross sectional area intersecting shear surface

( )
γms qp γf3 − v1 Ls /γmv
Ae ≥
0.8fry
where:
γms partial safety factor for reinforcement strength;
γmv partial safety factor for concrete shear strength;
qp longitudinal shear force per unit length at the ultimate limit state acting on that shear plane;
γf3 partial safety factor in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N];
v1 ultimate longitudinal shear stress of concrete in accordance with CS 455 [Ref 14.N];
Ls length of shear plane under construction; and,
fry characteristic or worst credible strength of reinforcement.

7.21.1 In the assessment of the effects of incidental shear connectors at ULS, isolated connectors within
span/5 of the supports may be utilised and separation gaps (given in the requirements for compact
action in Section 5) are to be disregarded.

Temperature and shrinkage effects

General
7.22 The effects of shrinkage as modified by creep shall be assessed using the values of free shrinkage
strain ϵcs and the reduction factor for creep ϕc as given in Section 3 of this document.

Longitudinal stresses and strains

7.23 Longitudinal stresses and strains due to temperature effects and shrinkage modified by creep shall be
calculated in accordance with requirements given in Section 3 and Section 4.

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

Longitudinal shear
7.24 The longitudinal shear force Q , to be transmitted by the connectors shall be the net longitudinal force in
the steel or iron beam due to temperature and shrinkage effects calculated on an elastic basis
assuming full interaction.
7.24.1 The longitudinal shear Q , due to temperature and shrinkage effects may be assumed to be distributed
at the ends of the beam as given in Section 4.
7.25 The concrete shall be assumed to be uncracked in the assessment of longitudinal shear.
7.26 The effective breadth of the concrete flange shall be determined in accordance with the requirements
given for temperature effects in clauses 4.25 to 4.28.

Cased beams
7.27 The type of cased beam in use shall be identified in accordance with:
1) Figure 7.27a for Type A cased beams covered by this document, where the interface shear is
dependent on the casing efficiency and the presence of confining reinforcement; or,
2) Figure 7.27b for Types B, C or D for non complying cased beams, having reduced interface shears
from less efficient casings and partial casings with or without confining reinforcement.

Figure 7.27a Complying cased beam

Figure 7.27b Other types of cased beam occasionally encountered

Additional structure condition/detailing for cased beams

7.28 In cased beams Type A in accordance with Figure 7.27(a), there shall be stirrups formed by reinforcing
bars enclosing the steel or iron beam and longitudinal reinforcement for control of cracking of the beam
encasement to be effective.
7.28.1 Where there are no stirrups or stirrups do not comply with clause 7.6.4 an assessment procedure for
the cased beam should be agreed with the TAA.

Additional analysis of section criteria for cased beams

7.29 The moment of resistance of a cased beam with a slab width exceeding 1.5 times the depth of the
metal section shall be restricted to 60% of the plastic moment of resistance of the composite section.

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

Temperature and shrinkage effects in cased beams

7.30 In cased beams, other than filler beams, the effects of temperature and shrinkage shall be assessed.
7.31 In the absence of more precise information, the effects of temperature in cased beams, shall be
determined using the temperature effects given in CS 454 [Ref 1.N] for a similar reinforced concrete
structure.
7.32 There shall be shear connectors at the ends of cased beams, to transmit the longitudinal shear force Q
, due to temperature effects and shrinkage modified by creep as described in Section 3 and Section 4.

Additional assessment criteria for cased beams

7.33 Cased beams shall be assessed:
1) in accordance with this document where the conditions given herein are met; or,
2) by on site testing or a valid numerical alternative method agreed with the TAA.

7.33.1 Permissible interface bond stresses at SLS for the types of cased and partially cased beams shown in
Figure 7.27(a) and Figure 7.27(b) may be adopted as given in Table 7.33.1:

Table 7.33.1 Permissible bond stresses at SLS

Types of cased or partially cased Cover Permissible bond stress
beams (N/mm2)
√
A 50mm 0.1 fcu ≤ 0.70
√
B
20mm ≤ cover ≤ 50m 0.07 fcu ≤ 0.4
m
√
C 0.06 fcu ≤ 0.35
√
D cover ≥ 50mm 0.10 fcu ≤ 0.50

7.33.2 At ULS, the values in Table 7.33.1 apply with the additional limitation that for partial shear connection
calculations, the longitudinal shear stress should not exceed 0.50 N/mm2.
7.33.3 For cased beams Type A and Type C in accordance with Figure 7.27(a) and Figure 7.27(b)
respectively, at both at SLS and ULS, the partial shear connection calculations should assume plastic
methods of cross section assessment and a ductile shear connection .
7.33.4 The local bond stress at SLS and the moment resistance at ULS should be derived based on the span
range and taken in accordance with Table 7.33.4.

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

Table 7.33.4 Local bond stress at SLS and moment of resistance at ULS for span ranges
Span range Local bond stress at SLS Moment of resistance at ULS
> 12m lower than permissible bond stress given is taken as the yield moment
in Table 7.33.1 and not greater than 0.5
N/mm2
> 9m but ≤ permissible bond stress is taken as the yield moment
12m
≥ 6m but ≤ permissible bond stress the greater of the yield moment and the
9m flexural resistance assuming partial
shear connection by linear interpolation
method
< 6m permissible bond stress the greater of the yield moment and the
flexural resistance assuming partial
shear connection by the equilibrium
method

NOTE 1 The equilibrium method is the method in 5.5.2 of BS 5950-3 [Ref 8.I] or the 'plastic theory' method of
6.2.1.2 of BS EN 1994-1-1 [Ref 3.I]
NOTE 2 The linear interpolation method is the more conservative method of 6.2.1.2 of BS EN 1994-1-1 [Ref 3.I]
7.33.5 Where the moment of resistance is taken as the yield moment, the design strength of the metal should
not be taken greater than 275 N/mm2.
7.33.6 The moment of resistance for cased beams Type B should not be taken greater than the yield moment.
NOTE No checks are required on the shear connection for cased beams Type B at ULS.
7.33.7 At ULS, the moment of resistance for beams Type D should not be taken greater than the lower of the
moment at bond failure and the moment of resistance calculated in accordance with Section 5
assuming full composite action.
NOTE No check at SLS is required for moment of resistance for beams Type D.
7.33.8 The moment of resistance for Type A and Type C beams may be assumed to be the yield moment
where the assessment loading can be resisted.
7.33.9 In beams with abnormal concrete depths above the metal beam the depth of concrete used in
calculation should either:

1) be restricted such that the elastic neutral axis lies within the depth of the steel section for both elastic
and plastic cross section analysis; or,
2) taken as the full depth of concrete may be assumed and the metal beam concentrated at the
centroid of the steel section.
7.33.10 The yield moment and flexural resistance should be calculated using the assessment strengths of
materials appropriate to the ULS.
7.34 The additional assessment criteria for cased beams given in this section shall be applied to cased
beams not attached to a slab where the same slenderness limitations as reinforced concrete beams.
NOTE The additional assessment criteria for cased beams given in this section do not apply to cased beams
where the soffit of the slab is above the top flange of the steel beam by more than 25mm. This is
because, despite the rules, cased beams rely disproportionately upon the bond to the top flange, which
is reduced by raising the soffit of the slab. There is no relevant experimental work on such construction,
but clearly lower interface bond stress would be needed, possibly 20% lower for Type A and Type C
beams (see Figure 7.27) and 40% lower for Type B beam and zero for beam Type D (see Figure 7.27).

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

Filler beams
7.35 The requirements given in this section for filler beams shall be applicable where the filler beam
construction is in accordance with Figure 7.35:

Figure 7.35a Filler beams

Figure 7.35b Jack arches

Additional structure condition/detailing criteria for filler beams

7.36 The soffit and upper surface of exposed flanges of filler beams shall be protected against corrosion.

Analysis of filler beams

7.37 The analysis assumptions shall be in accordance with the analysis of structure as given in Section 7.

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

Transverse moments in filler beam decks (approximate method)

7.38 The transverse resistance of simply supported filler beam deck shall be assessed as part of the
assessment process.
7.38.1 The approximate method should only be used to determine the transverse moments on filler beams
which are subject to the following loads in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]:
1) the characteristic action for normal traffic loading (the UDL and KEL); and/or,
2) abnormal traffic actions up to the equivalent of 45 units of type HB loading.
NOTE 1 Assessment of abnormal traffic comprising STGO or SOV vehicles is carried out using CS 458 [Ref
15.N].
NOTE 2 The HB load models for abnormal traffic loading that were previously defined for design are included in
CS 454 [Ref 1.N] for reference and for exceptional cases where an HB assessment is required by the
Overseeing Organisation.
7.38.2 The transverse moments on filler deck beams subject to normal and/or abnormal traffic should be
determined using the approximate method where the following conditions are satisfied:
1) the construction comprises simply supported steel or iron beams solidly encased in normal density
concrete;
2) the span in the direction of the beams is not less than 6m and not greater than 18m and the angle of
skew does not exceed 20 degrees;
3) the clear spacing between the tips of the flanges of the beams does not exceed two-thirds of their
depth;
4) the overall breadth of the deck does not exceed 14m; and,
5) the amount of transverse reinforcement in the top of the slab is not less than 300 mm2/m if mild steel
is used or 200 mm2/m if high yield steel is used.
7.38.3 The maximum transverse sagging moment per unit length of deck, My due to either normal or abnormal
traffic loading, at any point not less than 2m from a free edge, may be calculated as:
NOTE It is assumed that there is a linear reduction in My from the value at 2m from the free edge of the deck
to zero at the edge.

Equation 7.38.3N Caculation of moment acting about the minor axis of the deck
My = (0.95 − 0.04l)Mx αL
where:
My moment acting about the minor axis, longitudinal bending moment per unit width of filler
beam deck;
l span of the beam in meters;
Mx longitudinal bending moment per unit width of deck at the point being investigated due to
the characteristic actions for traffic loading for assessment for the limit state; and,
αL ratio of the product of the partial safety factors γfl , γf3 in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]
for the abnormal traffic loading to the corresponding product for the characteristic actions
for normal traffic loading for the limit state being assessed.

7.38.4 Longitudinal bending moments per unit width of deck due to the full assessment loading may be found
by analysis of the deck as a set of separate longitudinal strips each section not exceeding the width of
one traffic lane.
7.38.5 The transverse hogging moment at any point may be taken as 0.1My per unit length of deck.

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

Analysis of sections for filler beams

7.39 The effects of shear lag in filler beam decks shall be neglected.

Longitudinal shear in filler beams

7.40 The bond area shall be calculated for a filler beam.
7.40.1 For SLS, where both flanges of a filler beam are exposed, the bond may be assumed to be developed
uniformly over both sides of the web provided that the filler beams are tied together.
NOTE Reinforcement passing through the webs or through ties can be used to tie filler beams together.
7.41 For ULS assessment of filler beams in which the beam spacing exceeds that in condition 3) of clause
7.38.2 possible failure planes through the concrete shall be examined including planes partially on the
steel/concrete interface, when part of the interface is to be taken as 23 that through the concrete.
7.42 A check on the longitudinal shear planes of type 6 and 7 in Figure 7.42 shall be undertaken on filler
beams as a safeguard against possible failure modes not yet observed.

Figure 7.42 Failure modes in longitudinal shear

Temperature and shrinkage effects in filler beams

7.43 The effects of shrinkage as modified by creep shall be assessed in accordance with Section 4 using the
values of free shrinkage strain and the reduction factor for creep as given in Section 3.
7.43.1 Temperature and shrinkage effects may be neglected in filler beam construction.

Complying filler beams

7.44 The assessment method below shall only be adopted in filler beam construction where the transverse
reinforcement has the capacity to resist the moments from the analysis.
7.44.1 The approximate method for determining the transverse moments in filler beam decks given in this
section of the document, gives transverse distribution rules for 45 units of HB loading and should be
regarded as a category A alternative.
7.44.2 Providing conditions 2) and 4) in clause 7.38.2 are met, the following approach may be adopted:
1) the transverse hogging moment can be taken as 10% of the maximum sagging moment; and,
2) a linear reduction in the transverse sagging moment in 2m side strips can be assumed.
7.44.3 Filler beams may be assessed assuming the principles given for cased beams in clauses 7.27 to 7.34,
but the stress on the shear connection at ULS is to be taken as 1.4 times the values for cased beams
Type A in accordance with Figure 7.27(a).
7.44.4 For spans exceeding 8m the permissible bond strength should not be exceeded at SLS.
7.44.5 For spans exceeding 8m the flexural resistance at ULS should be assessed as the greater of the yield
moment and the flexural resistance assuming partial shear connection by the linear interpolation
method.

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

7.44.6 For spans less than 8m the permissible bond strengths should not be exceeded at SLS.
7.44.7 For spans less than 8m the flexural capacity at ULS should be assessed as the greater of the yield
moment and the flexural resistance assuming partial shear connection by the equilibrium method.
7.44.8 An alternative approach to those given in clauses 7.44.4 to 7.44.7 may be used for all spans in
accordance with clause 7.44.9 or clause 7.44.10.
7.44.9 For all spans, where the clear spacing between the tips of the flanges of the beams is < 23 hs , the
moment of resistance may be assumed to be the full plastic moment of resistance without a check on
the bond stress at ULS, provided:
1) the yield stress of the metal beam used in the calculation is not greater than 275 N/mm2; and,
2) there is not more than 75mm of concrete above the top flange of the steel section other than for
beams Type A and Type C.
NOTE For beams Type A and Type C, the moment of resistance can be assumed to be the yield moment
where the assessment loading can be resisted.
7.44.10 For all spans where the clear spacing between the tips of the flanges of the beams is ≥ 23 hs , the
moment of resistance may be taken as the yield moment.

Non-complying filler beams with concrete encasement/infill

7.45 Beams which are not complying filler beams, shall be assessed using alternative calculation methods
and/or testing.
7.46 Providing there is no evidence of excessive corrosion, fretting action or cracking (in the case of
cemented materials) to adversely affect the achievement of composite action, the requirements given
for analysis of structure, analysis of sections, and longitudinal shear in accordance with clauses 7.7 to
7.21.1 shall apply for the assessment of non-complying filler beams with concrete encasement/infill.
7.47 The torsional stiffness of the concrete shall be included in the modelling to demonstrate the
assessment resistance is sufficient to resist the applied load.
7.47.1 The torsion per unit width may be taken as the sum of the torsion per unit width in the two directions.
7.47.2 In assessing the results of the analysis, the flexural resistance may be assumed to be the same as for
complying filler beams providing the effective concrete is restricted for torsion to that within a depth
above the steel beam soffit of 1.5 times the depth between the flanges. For flexure, clause 7.33.8
applies, (the alternative given in clause 7.34 NOTE does not apply).
7.47.3 Where the beam spacing/depth ration of the metal beam is > 2.0 , the torsional strength of the concrete
may be taken in accordance with Equation 7.47.3:

Equation 7.47.3 Torsional strength of concrete

( )0.5
fcu
0.41 γmc

γf3
7.47.4 Where the beam spacing/depth ration of the metal beam is ≤ 2.0 , the torsional strength of the concrete
may be taken in accordance with Equation 7.47.4:

Equation 7.47.4 Torsional strength of concrete

( )0.5
fcu
0.58 γmc

γf3
7.47.5 Where torsional stresses are exceeded, the reduced stiffness may be used in accordance with
Equation 7.47.5 and no check on the stress is required:

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

Equation 7.47.5 Reduced stiffness for filler beam

( )0.10
h Et3w
2.3 3 cos2 θEf
a Ef h

Non-complying filler beams with masonry infill

7.48 Dense brickwork filler beams with the mortar fully bonded to the bricks and the metal beams shall be
assessed in accordance with:
1) the requirements given for non complying filler beams with concrete encasement/infill given in this
section; and,
2) temperature effects, shrinkage modified by creep and differential settlement in Section 4.
7.48.1 The local bond stress and the strength of the shear planes through the masonry should be taken as not
greater than 0.35 N/mm2.
7.49 The resistance of attachments shall not be taken greater than 60% of the value obtained for incidental
isolated shear connectors in accordance with clauses 5.106.5 to 5.107.
7.49.1 Moment of resistance should not be taken in excess of the yield moment of the composite section as
defined in clause 7.33.10.
7.49.2 Where the beam spacing/depth ratio of the metal beams is > 2.0 , the torsional stresses in the masonry
should be in accordance with Equation 7.49.2:

Equation 7.49.2 Permissible torsional stresses in masonry

( )0.5
fmk
0.65 γm

γf3
where:
γm is the partial factor for strength taken as 1.0 in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N] for the
effects of material degradation and defects in condition for masonry arches unless an
alternative value is agreed with the TAA.

7.49.3 Where the beam spacing/depth ratio of the metal beams is ≤ 2.0 , torsional stresses in the masonry
should be in accordance with Equation 7.49.3:

Equation 7.49.3 Permissible torsional stresses in masonry

( )0.5
fmk
0.75 γm

γf3
where:
γm as in Equation 7.49.2.

7.49.4 Where torsional stresses are exceeded, the stiffness may be taken in accordance with Equation 7.47.5
and no check on the stress is required except for jack arches.
7.49.5 Where torsional stresses are exceeded, the stiffness may be taken as 0.35Ef for jack arches and no
check on the stress is required.
7.50 Where the brickwork is not bonded to the steel beams, the requirements in clauses 7.48 to 7.49.5 for
non-complying filler beams with masonry infill apply except that the bond shall be taken not greater
than 0.30 N/mm2 and the resistance of attachments no greater than 40% of the value obtained for
incidental isolated shear connectors in accordance with clauses 5.106.4 to 5.107.

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

7.50.1 Where the soffit between the beam flanges is of sound structural material and the material above is
weaker but complies with clauses 7.56 to 7.63.2, then providing the total depth of the deck minus the
top 75 mm of surfacing is not less than 20% thicker than the depth of the metal beams, the transverse
stiffness per unit length may be taken as 2% of the longitudinal stiffness, per unit width.
NOTE Where the assumptions are in accordance with clause 7.50.1, no checks are required on the stresses
in the elements orthogonal to the girders in the analysis.

Vertical shear resistance

7.51 The vertical shear resistance of a cased beam/filler beam shall be assessed.
7.51.1 For cased beams and filler beams, the shear resistance of cemented material up to 250mm above the
level of the steelwork, and for a width on either side as shown in Figure 7.51.1, may be added to that of
the steelwork assuming a shear strength of concrete Vc based on the concrete strength fcu as given in
CS 455 [Ref 14.N].

Figure 7.51.1 Effective concrete shear area of filler beam

7.51.2 The shear assumed to be carried by the concrete should not exceed 15% of the total shear in cased
beams and 30% of the total shear in filler beams.
7.52 For dense brickwork filler beams the requirements in accordance with clauses 7.10 to 7.14 shall apply.

Procedure when longitudinal shear resistance is inadequate

7.53 Longitudinal shear resistance shall be assessed at SLS and ULS in accordance with clauses 7.15 to
7.21.1.
7.53.1 When the longitudinal shear exceeds the permissible interface bond stress at either SLS or ULS,

1) composite action should be disregarded; and,

2) all beams with fill on both sides should be taken as compact, irrespective of the cross section
slenderness.

Punching shear resistance

7.54 Punching shear resistance shall be assessed where punching shear is a potential failure mechanism.

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

7.54.1 Punching shear resistance to a wheel load may be assessed assuming the load is replaced by two strip
loads, each of which has the same width and centroid of the part of the load which would be carried to
the supporting beam.
7.54.2 The shear may be assumed to be carried over a width equal to the loaded width plus av , assuming a
concrete strength of 3Vc (d/av ) , where av is the distance from the loaded area to the perimeter
considered for punching shear which is taken as the face of the web of the neighbouring metal beam, d
is the depth from the surface of the concrete to the lower web/flange intersection of the metal beam.
Both av and d are as shown in Figure 7.53.4.
3fv
7.54.3 For dense brickwork the shear strength should be taken as av γmv , where fv is in accordance with BS
5628 [Ref 4.N] and γmv is taken as 2.5.
7.54.4 For a wheel load on a bay adjacent to an edge beam the resistance should be taken as 70% of that for
an internal bay of the similar dimensions, unless it is shown that the horizontal thrust resulting from the
arching action shown in Figure 7.54.4 is resisted through another mechanism.

Figure 7.54.4 Raking strut representation of punching shear

7.55 Flexural checks under local loading shall not be required providing the beam spacing to web depth ratio
does not exceed 4.0 for internal bays and 2.5 for external bays.
7.55.1 Where punching shear checks are carried out, arching action may be assumed and horizontal
composite action between the lower part of the metal beam and the concrete on either side of the web
equal to the least of:
1) the half of the distance between the webs of the metal beams;
2) the position of the centreline of the nearest load; and,
3) the edge of the construction.

Effect of end restraints and of finishing and infill material not satisfying CS 455 [Ref 14.N]
7.56 The effects of end restraints, of finishing and of infill not satisfying CS 455 [Ref 14.N] on strength shall
be included within the assessment where:
1) load tests in accordance to CS 463 [Ref 9.N] with vehicles of weight not less than 70% of the
assessment vehicle suggest there are significant incidental strengthening effects under four
passages of the vehicle; or,
2) these effects can confidently be regarded of comparable or better characteristics to those
demonstrated to have substantial stiffness in published literature agreed with the TAA.

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

Effect of end restraint

7.57 The effect of end restraint from friction in resisting the resolved longitudinal and transverse forces (if
any are assumed) shall be calculated from the dead loads above the level of the soffit, including that in
the abutment beam.
7.57.1 In calculating the effect of end restraint from friction in resisting the resolved forces, the coefficient of
friction should be taken as:
1) 0.35 for concrete on masonry or masonry on masonry;
2) 0.50 for concrete cast on concrete with an unprepared surface;
3) 0.60 for concrete cast on concrete with a prepared surface;
4) 0.6 for monolithic concrete of strength not exceeding 20N/mm2; or,
5) 0.75 for monolithic concrete of strength exceeding 20N/mm.

Effect of finishing
7.58 The contribution of concrete which would not normally be regarded of structural quality (here described
as "weak concrete"), masonry and well compacted (cohesive or weakly cemented cohesive) material,
between and above the steelwork, shall be included in the assessment of the effect of live loads on the
longitudinal bending (for stiffness and strength) of filler beam decks, where it can be shown that the
material is in contact with the full depth of the web or on flat rough concrete surfaces of construction
satisfying the requirements for cased beams, complying filler beams or non-complying filler beams
given in this section.
7.59 The strength effect of finishing shall only be included where the characteristic or worst credible strength
of metals does not exceed 275 N/mm2.
7.60 The effect of finishing shall only be used for assessment load levels up to SLS loading.
7.61 The effective cross section to be used in the calculations shall be in accordance with restrictions of the
effective cross-section as defined in Appendix C.
NOTE The method for the effect of finishing assumes that the better traffic compaction of the fill in the older
bridges offset the probably greater variability of the properties in the original materials.
7.61.1 The effect of any finishing above sprayed-on waterproofing systems should be disregarded.
7.61.2 An initial elastic cross section analysis is required in which materials between and above the steelwork,
may be taken into account by assuming combined modular ratios for the fill and weak and structural
concrete of:

1) αe = 15 where there is at least 150mm of structural concrete above the top flange of the steel beam;
or;
2) αe = 30 otherwise.

7.61.3 The strain at the surface of the carriageway determines the method by which the finishing may be
taken into account in carrying the live load moments as given in Table 7.61.3:

Table 7.61.3 Strain at the carriageway surface

Multiple passage of Single passage of
Method of taking finishing into account
vehicles (as at SLS) vehicles (as at ULS)

≤ 350µϵ ≤ 500µϵ by the section analysis described in clause

7.61.2
by increasing the elastic section modulus of
≤ 700µϵ ≤ 1000µϵ
the steel by hc +2h
hs
s

7.61.4 In the calculations, the dead load should be assumed to be carried by the bare steel section.

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CS 457 Revision 1 7. Cased beams and filler beam construction

7.61.5 In the calculations, the superimposed dead load may be carried on a composite cross section in
accordance with the requirements for cased beams (clauses 7.27 to 7.34), filler beams (clauses7.35 to
7.50.1) and Appendix C .
7.61.6 The stress/strain calculation may be used for any purposes for which the results are more economical
than the methods given in this section for cased beams (clauses 7.27 to 7.34), filler beams (clauses
7.35 to 7.50.1) and Appendix C.
7.61.7 Stress checks in the finishing may be neglected.
7.61.8 In structures in which shear is critical, the effect of finishing should only be included in the assessment
calculation when agreed with the TAA.
7.61.9 The effect of finishing may be difficult to assess in construction where the parapets carry a portion of
the bending moment.
NOTE It is difficult to offer guidance for structures where it is suspected the parapets carry a significant portion
of the bending moment since:
1) a load test might damage the parapet;
2) where the deck is less strong than the theory suggests brittle failure could result;
3) where the parapet is well connected to the deck it could sometimes contribute to the strength; and,
4) substantial parapets can span independently of the deck, thereby removing heavy dead loads from
the deck.

Effect of infill material not satisfying CS 455 [Ref 14.N]

7.62 Where the infill material does not satisfy CS 455 [Ref 14.N], its inclusion shall be agreed with the TAA.
7.62.1 Inclusion at the ULS of the effects of infill material not satisfying CS 455 [Ref 14.N] are given in
Appendix C, which may be used when approved.

Combined effects of end restraint, finishes and infill material not satisfying CS 455 [Ref 14.N]
7.63 Inclusion in the assessment of the combined effects of end restraints, finishes and infill material not
satisfying CS 455 [Ref 14.N] shall be agreed with the TAA.
7.63.1 Where end restraints and either finishes or, where permitted, infill material not satisfying CS 455 [Ref
14.N] are assumed to act simultaneously the effects of end moments on deflections and resistance to
loads should be assessed.
NOTE End moments can reduce deflections disproportionately to their increase in resistance to the load.
7.63.2 The effect of finishes and infill material not satisfying CS 455 [Ref 14.N] as given in Appendix C may
not be combined.

87
CS 457 Revision 1 8. Permanent formwork

8. Permanent formwork
General
8.1 Where permanent formwork, supporting in-situ concrete and supported on the steelwork or ironwork,
forms part of the structural elements, the resistance of these elements shall be assessed.
NOTE Where the steel or iron plate forming the top flange of a closed box girder acts as permanent formwork
to the concrete deck slab separate assessment requirements are given for composite plate in Section 6.
8.2 An inspection in accordance with CS 450 [Ref 4.I] shall identify the condition of the seal between the
steelwork or ironwork and the permanent formwork to ensure that there is a minimal risk of corrosion.

Materials
8.3 Permanent formwork shall be included within the assessment where it acts integrally with the structure.
NOTE Materials used as permanent formwork can include:
1) reinforced or prestressed precast concrete;
2) precast concrete acting compositely with a steel girder or lattice embedded in the overlying in situ
concrete;
3) profiled steel sheeting; and,
4) reinforced plastic or glass reinforced cement sheeting or similar.

Temporary construction loading

8.4 The assessment loads due to temporary construction loading shall be determined in accordance with
BS 5975 [Ref 3.N] and follow the general principles for assessment in CS 454 [Ref 1.N].
8.4.1 Only temporary loading imposing permanent locked in stresses should be included in the assessment.

Assessment
General
8.5 The permanent formwork shall be in accordance with the limits states given in CS 455 [Ref 14.N] and
CS 456 [Ref 16.N].
8.6 The permanent formwork shall be assessed to establish the stresses and deflections which occurred
from temporary loading.

Non-participating formwork
8.7 Permanent formwork made from reinforced plastic or glass reinforced cement or other similar material
shall be taken as non-participating formwork.
8.8 Where the permanent formwork is structurally non-participating the effects due to differential shrinkage
or composite action that adversely affect the structure shall be assessed.
8.9 The assessment criteria for cover to reinforcement and crack control shall be in accordance with
requirements for the in-situ slab ignoring the presence of the formwork.

Participating formwork
8.10 Participating formwork shall only be included in the assessment with the prior agreement of the TAA.
8.11 Where composite action between the permanent formwork and in-situ slab exists, the assessment of
the composite slab shall satisfy all relevant requirements of this document and in particular the:
1) fatigue behaviour;
2) durability;

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CS 457 Revision 1 8. Permanent formwork

3) bond between permanent formwork and concrete slab both under long term and under impact
loading; and,
4) corrosion protection.

Special requirements for precast concrete or composite precast concrete

participating formwork
Assessment
8.12 To qualify as participating formwork precast concrete units shall be in accordance with the requirements
for composite precast construction in CS 455 [Ref 14.N].
8.13 The continuity between units shall be achieved by the lapping of reinforcement projecting from units,
post-tensioning, the use of high-strength bolts or other means acceptable to the TAA.

Welding of reinforcement
8.14 Reinforcement that has been welded shall only be included when the effects of repeated loading can
be shown not to have been detrimental to the permanent structure.
NOTE Verification of fatigue is not required where welded reinforcement is in accordance with CS 455 [Ref
14.N].

Interfaces
8.15 Interfaces between precast and in situ concrete shall have developed sufficient shear resistance to
ensure composite action in both the transverse and longitudinal directions.

Cover to reinforcement
8.16 Where the clear distance between a precast unit and reinforcement embedded in the in-situ concrete
slab exceeds the maximum nominal size of aggregate used in the in situ concrete by less than 5mm
and there are known problems with the structure, the absence of voids beneath the reinforcement shall
be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the TAA.

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CS 457 Revision 1 9. Assessment of friction grip bolts used as she...

9. Assessment of friction grip bolts used as shear connectors in

composite beams
General
9.1 The following method shall be used for the assessment of the connection where general grade bolts
complying with the requirements of BS 4395 [Ref 6.N] and used in accordance with BS 4604-1 [Ref
10.N] are preloaded to generate friction between the concrete and the steel.
NOTE High strength friction grip bolts can be preloaded and used to provide the shear connection between
the steel or iron member and the concrete slab forming the flange of the composite beam.
9.2 The resistance of higher grades of bolts shall only be included when justified by testing.

Assessment requirements: static loading

Serviceability limit state
9.3 The longitudinal shear resistance per unit length developed by friction between the concrete slab and
steel or iron beam shall not be less than the longitudinal shear force per unit length at the serviceability
limit state assessed in accordance with Section 5.
9.4 The assessment frictional resistance developed by each bolt at the interface shall be taken as given in
Equation 9.4:

Equation 9.4 Bolt friction resistance

µ(∆Tb )/1.2γf3
where:
µ coefficient of friction;
γf3 partial safety factor in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]; and,
∆Tb net tensile force in the bolt.

9.5 Where the concrete flange is cast in-situ on the steel beam the value of µ shall be taken as 0.50.
9.5.1 Where the criteria given in clauses 9.12 to 9.13 are met, the coefficient of friction at first grip µ may be
taken as 0.4.
9.6 The nominal initial tensile force in the bolt shall be taken as the proof load as given in BS 4604-1 [Ref
10.N] provided there is evidence that the method of tightening complies with the requirements of BS
4604-1 [Ref 10.N].
9.7 In determining the net tensile force in the bolt, the loss of bolt tension due to shrinkage of the concrete
and creep of the steel or iron and concrete shall be included in the assessment.
9.8 Where the connectors are subject to external tensile forces in addition to shear, e.g. where loads are
suspended from the steelwork or ironwork, the reduction in effective clamping force in the bolt shall be
included in the assessment.

Ultimate limit state

9.9 The presence of pockets for the bolts reducing the length of the effective shear plane shall be taken
into account when assessing the possibility of longitudinal shear failure through the depth of the slab in
accordance with requirements given for transverse reinforcement in Section 5 (clauses 5.37 to 5.59).
9.10 Shear connectors which are in accordance with the serviceability limit state requirements given in
clauses 9.3 to 9.8 shall be deemed to satisfy the requirements at the ultimate limit state.

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CS 457 Revision 1 9. Assessment of friction grip bolts used as she...

Fatigue
9.11 Shear connections shall be assessed for fatigue in accordance with the requirements given for fatigue
in Section 5.
9.11.1 Where connections are subject only to shear in the plane of the friction interface the effects of repeated
loading may be neglected.

Other requirements
9.12 The resistance of the connection shall only be utilised if all the following conditions are satisfied:

1) a uniform bearing surface between the steel or iron beam and the concrete slab exists;
2) effective washers or bearing plates have been provided to spread the loads from the bolts in order to
prevent the concrete underneath being crushed;
3) where the slab is precast suitable bedding material is shown to be present between the slab and the
steel beam;
4) the inspection or record drawings confirmed that there is nothing present on the interface (for
example applied finishes, oil, dirt, loose rust, loose mill scale, burrs and other defects) which would
prevent a uniform seating between the two elements or would interfere with the development of
friction between them; and,
5) reinforcement, for example in the form of spirals, is present to ensure that the load is transferred
from the bolt to the interface without local splitting or crushing of the concrete slab.

9.12.1 The details around the bolt holes should be carefully scrutinised to ensure that local crushing forces on
the concrete have not been increased by loads being directly transmitted via the bolt heads.
9.13 The details shall be such as to ensure that forces and moments are transmitted across the joints
between adjacent precast units, and that there are no gaps between the flange and the concrete slab.
NOTE Gaps between the flange and the concrete slab can result in corrosion of the deck of the structure.

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

10. Composite columns

General
10.1 Composite columns shall be assessed to ensure they can resist the applied loading.
10.2 Where axisymmetric columns are used, moments shall be resolved into the principal directions.
10.2.1 Where columns are not axisymmetric, bending about the two principal axes of the column should be
considered separately for each axis.
NOTE A method is given in clause 10.48 for determining the effect of interaction when bending about both
axes occurs simultaneously (i.e assessment of biaxial bending).
10.2.2 The column may be either statically determinate or rigidly connected to other members at one or both
ends, in which case the loads and moments depend on the relative stiffnesses of adjoining members
and are not to be obtained by statics alone.
10.2.3 Members should be assumed to be rigidly connected where, for example, the connection possesses
the full rigidity that is made possible by:
1) welding; or,
2) the use of high strength friction grip bolts.
10.3 To use the assessment method in Section 10, it shall be verified that there is provision for loads applied
to the composite column to be distributed between the steel and concrete elements.
10.3.1 The shear stresses should be distributed in proportions such that the composite column is not over
stressed nowhere at the steel/concrete interface.
10.3.2 Where construction does not satisfy the requirements of the assessment methods in Section 10, the
methods set out in BS EN 1994-2 [Ref 2.I] for composite columns and composite compression
members may be used in agreement with the TAA.

Materials
General
10.4 Materials composing the composite column shall be in accordance with the requirements given in this
section.
10.4.1 Where materials do not satisfy the requirements in clauses 10.5 to 10.8 of this document, BS EN
1994-2 [Ref 2.I] may be used in agreement with the TAA.

Steel or iron or wrought iron

10.5 In columns formed from concrete encased steel or iron sections the structural steel or iron section used
in the assessment shall be one of the following:
1) a rolled steel joist or universal section of grade 43 or 50 steel which complies with the requirements
of BS 4-1 [Ref 2.N] and BS 4360 [Ref 17.N];
2) a symmetrical I-section fabricated from grade 43 or 50 steel complying with BS 4360 [Ref 17.N]; or,
3) a symmetrical I-section of which the properties are taken from information on the drawings or in CS
454 [Ref 1.N].
10.6 Concrete filled hollow steel or iron sections used in the assessment shall:
1) be a symmetrical box section fabricated from grade 43 or 50 steel complying with BS 4360 [Ref
17.N] or iron complying with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]; or,
2) be a structural hollow steel section complying with BS 4360 [Ref 17.N] and BS 4-1 [Ref 2.N] or BS
4848-2 [Ref 7.N] or wrought iron complying with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]; and,
3) have a wall thickness as derived from Table 10.6 for the section.

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

Table 10.6 Minimum wall thickness of section

Section Minimum wall thickness
√
Each wall rectangular hollow section bs fy /3Es
√
Circular hollow section De fy /8Es

where:
bs is the external dimension of the wall of the rectangular hollow section
De is the outside diameter of the circular hollow section
Es is the modulus of elasticity of steel or wrought iron, and
fy is the nominal yield strength of steel or wrought iron

NOTE Concrete filled hollow steel or iron sections used in the assessment are generally either rectangular or
circular.

Concrete
10.7 The concrete shall be of normal density (not less than 2300 kg/m3) with a characteristic 28-day cube
strength or lowest credible strength of not less than 20 N/mm2 for concrete filled tubes nor less than 25
N/mm2 for concrete encased sections and a nominal maximum size of aggregate not exceeding 20 mm.

Reinforcement
10.8 Steel reinforcement shall be in accordance with the Section 3.

Shear connection
10.9 Shear connector shall be provided where the shear stresses at the steel/concrete interface, due to the
assessment ultimate loads exceed 0.6 N/mm2 for cased sections or 0.4 N/mm2 for concrete fill hollow
steel sections.

Concrete contribution factor

10.10 The assessment method given for the analysis of columns in clauses 10.27 to 10.53.1 shall only be
used for composite cross sections where the concrete contribution factor αc , calculated in accordance
with Equation 10.10, lies between the following limits:

1) for concrete encased steel or wrought iron sections 0.15 < αc < 0.8 ; and,
2) for concrete filled hollow steel or wrought iron sections 0.10 < αc < 0.8 .

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

Equation 10.10 Concrete contribution factor

0.67Ac fcu
αc =
Npl γmc
where:
αc concrete contribution factor
Ac area of concrete in the cross section
As cross sectional area of the rolled or fabricated structural steel section
fcu characteristic or worst credible strength of the concrete

Npl as determined in Equation 10.11 (except that for filled hollow steel and iron section,
clause 10.12 applies)
γmc partial safety factor for concrete
γm partial safety factor for strength, 1.05
γf3 partial safety factor in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N]
γms partial safety factor for reinforcement strength

10.11 The squash load of the column, Npl shall be calculated in accordance with Equation 10.11:

Equation 10.11 Squash load of column

As fy Ar fry 0.67Ac fcu
Npl = + +
γm γf3 γms γf3 γmc γf3
10.12 For concrete filled circular hollow steel and iron sections αc and Npl shall be determined in accordance
with Equation 10.51.

Steel contribution factor

10.13 The steel contribution factor shall be calculated in accordance with Equation 10.13:

Equation 10.13 Steel contribution factor

As fy
δ=
Npl γm γf3

Limit on slenderness
10.14 The ratio of the effective heights, le , for columns determined in accordance with Table 10.14 to the
least lateral dimension of the composite column, shall not exceed:

1) 55 for concrete filled circular hollow sections; or

2) 65 for concrete filled rectangular hollow sections.

Table 10.14 Effective height for columns

Restraints Effec-
Case Idealised column and buckling mode Loca- tive
Position Rotation height le
tion

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

Table 10.14 Effective height for columns (continued)

Top Full Full

1 0.7lo
Bottom Full Full

Top Full None

2 0.85lo
Bottom Full Full

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

Table 10.14 Effective height for columns (continued)

Top Full None

3 1.0lo
Bottom Full None

Top None None

4 1.3lo
Bottom Full Full

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

Table 10.14 Effective height for columns (continued)

Top None None

5 1.4lo
Bottom Full Full

Top None Full

6 1.5lo
Bottom Full Full

Top None None

7 2.3lo
Bottom Full Full

Moments and forces in columns

General
10.15 The loads and moments acting in the two principal planes of the column, due to loading at the ultimate
limit state, shall be determined by taking the actual length of the column as the distance between the
centres of end restraints.
10.16 The rotational and directional restraint afforded by adjoining members and the reduction in member
stiffness due to in-elasticity and axial compression shall be assessed.

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

10.16.1 The semi-empirical assessment method of analysis for restrained composite columns in accordance
with clauses 10.17 to 10.26 may be used to verify the rotational and directional restraint afforded by
adjoining members and the reduction in member stiffness due to in-elasticity and axial compression.

Semi-empirical assessment method for restrained composite columns

10.17 The semi-empirical assessment method for restrained composite columns shall only be applicable to
isolated columns or columns forming part of a single storey frame provided that the restraining
members attached to the ends of the column remain elastic under their assessment ultimate load.
10.17.1 Where the restraining members attached to the ends of the isolated columns or columns forming part of
a single storey frame do not remain elastic under their assessment ultimate load the stiffness of the
restraining members should be reduced when calculating the effective length of the column and the
end moments.
NOTE The semi-empirical assessment method for restrained composite columns is not applicable to cast iron
sections.
10.18 End moments and forces acting in the two principal planes of the column shall be determined either by
statics or by an elastic analysis neglecting the effect of axial loads both on member stiffness and on
changes in the geometry of the structure as it deflects under load.
10.19 The relative stiffness of members, (I/l) , shall be based on the gross (concrete assumed uncracked)
transformed composite cross section using an appropriate modulus of elasticity determined from CS
455 [Ref 14.N], with, l , taken as the distance between centres of end restraints.
10.19.1 The actual column should be replaced by an equivalent pin-ended column of length equal to the
effective length of the restrained column in the plane of bending and subjected to the same end loads
and end moments as the restrained column.
10.20 Where the column is free to sway, the equivalent pin ended column shall always be considered to be in
single curvature bending with the smaller end moment in a particular plane taken as the calculated
value or three-quarters of the larger end moment, whichever is greater.
10.21 The strength of the equivalent pin-ended column shall be determined in accordance with the analysis of
columns in accordance with clauses 10.27 to 10.53.1 for analysis of sections.
10.22 The effective length of the restrained column shall be determined in accordance with Table 10.14.
10.23 Transverse loads shall be included in the elastic analysis of the restrained column if this results in a
more severe loading condition.
10.24 In a braced frame (or column), where the maximum resultant moment within the length of the column
Mmax , due to the whole of the assessment ultimate loads, is greater than half the modulus of the
algebraic sum of the end moments, the alternative loading condition of single curvature bending shall
also be evaluated with the end moments equal to Mmax .
10.24.1 Single curvature bending should be assumed to produce end moments of the same sign at each end of
the column.
10.25 The axial component of self weight shall be included in assessment as an additional end load acting
concentrically on the column.
10.26 In raking columns, bending moments shall be accounted for in the column due to the normal
component of its self weight.

Analysis of columns
Concrete encased steel section
10.27 Slender and short concrete encased steel sections shall be assessed for the effects of axial loads and
bending moments.

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

10.27.1 Assessment methods are given for both short and slender column lengths subjected to any combination
of axial load and bending moments at their ends where the transverse shear force should not exceed
Vd
3 where Vd is the shear resistance of the steel or iron member as defined in CS 456 [Ref 16.N].

10.28 Transverse loading is applied within the length of the column shall be negligible.
NOTE The effect of transverse loading applied with the length of the column cannot be included in the
assessment.
10.29 The assessment method for the analysis of columns shall be applied to rolled or fabricated H or I
section with dimensional limits in accordance with Equation 10.29:

Equation 10.29 section limitations for encased columns

rx ry
≥ 0.39 and > 0.24
hs bs
where:
rx greater radius of gyration of the steel section;
hs depth of the steel section in the plane of the web;
ry lesser radius of gyration of the steel section; and,
bs breadth of the steel section.

10.30 The yield strength of the structural steel to be used in calculations shall not exceed 355 N/mm2.
10.31 The concrete cover to the structural steel shall be:
1) fully bonded to the steel; and,
2) unaffected by cracks which can affect composite action.

Major and minor axes

10.32 For the analysis of columns, the major and minor axes of bending of the composite section shall be
taken as the major and minor axes of the structural steel section.

Definition of slender columns

lex ley
10.33 For the analysis of columns, a column length shall be defined as short when the ratios h and b are in
accordance with Equation 10.33.

Equation 10.33 Slenderness ratio limits for short columns

lex ley
≤ 12 and ≤ 12
h b
where:
h is the overall depth of the composite section perpendicular to the major axis;
b is the overall depth of the composite section perpendicular to the minor axis; and,
are the effective lengths calculated in accordance with Table 10.14 in respect of the
lex , ley
major axis and minor axis respectively.

10.34 Where the column does not satisfy the limiting criteria defined for a short column in accordance with
clause 10.33, it shall be classed as slender.

Slenderness limits for column lengths

10.35 The effective length, lex , shall not exceed the least of the three values calculated from Equation 10.35:

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

Equation 10.35 Slenderness limits for effective length in the major axis

20h, 250rx and 100h21 /h2

where:
h is the overall depth of the composite section perpendicular to the major axis;
rx greater radius of gyration of the steel section;
h1 lesser of h and b ; and,
h2 greater of h and b .

10.36 The effective length ley shall not exceed the least of the three values calculated from Equation 10.36:

Equation 10.36 Slenderness limits for effective length in the minor axis

100h21
20b, 250ry and
h2
where:
b is the overall depth of the composite section perpendicular to the minor axis;
ry lesser radius of gyration of the steel section;
h1 lesser of h and b ; and,
h2 greater of h and b .

Short columns that resist combined compression and bending

10.37 The resistance of short columns shall be assessed numerically or by site testing.
10.37.1 Concrete-encased short columns may be assessed in accordance with clauses 10.39 to 10.48, where
the following conditions are satisfied:
1) the steel contribution ratio δ , defined in Equation 10.13 is not less than 0.50;
2) the assessment eccentricities of the axial force, ey and ey satisfy Equation 10.36.1; and,
3) neither hs /h nor bs /b is less than 0.50, where the symbols are as defined in Equation 10.29 and
Equation 10.33.

Equation 10.37.1 Assessment eccentricities of axial loads about the x and y axis
ex ≤ 1.5h and ey ≤ 1.0b
where:
ex eccentricity of axial load about the x axis;
ey eccentricity of axial load about the y axis;
h is the overall depth of the composite section perpendicular to the major axis; and,
b is the overall depth of the composite section perpendicular to the minor axis.

10.38 The column shall be such that:

1) it is in accordance with the definition of slender columns (clauses 10.33 to 10.33.1); and,
2) the assessment load acting on the column N is not greater than the strength of the column in biaxial
bending Nux calculated from Equation 10.47 except that, Nuy is to be calculated from Equation 10.46
taking ey as equal to 0.03b to allow for construction tolerances, where b is the least lateral dimension
of the column.

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

NOTE Where the end moments about the minor axis are nominally zero and the column is unrestrained
against failure about the minor axis, the column will fail in a biaxial mode unless the axial load is very
small.

Assessment eccentricities of the axial force

10.39 For columns subjected to single-curvature bending assessment resistance shall be in accordance with
clauses 10.45 to 10.48.
10.40 The eccentricity of loading about each axis shall be taken as the greater of the values for the two ends
of the column subject to the conditions in clauses 10.41 to 10.43.
10.41 Where the applied load is eccentric about one axis only, the eccentricity about that axis shall be taken
as not less than 0.04h1 , where h1 is as defined in slenderness limits for column lengths in Equation
10.35 and Equation 10.36.
10.41.1 No nominal eccentricity about the other axis should be assessed.
10.42 Where the applied load is eccentric about both axes, neither eccentricity shall be taken as less than
0.04h1 .
10.43 Where a short column that resists combined compression and bending is used for an axially loaded
column, the eccentricity of loading shall be taken as 0.04h1 about the axis that gives the lower strength.
10.44 For a column subject to double-curvature bending, or with at least one end prevented from rotation in
the plane or planes of action, the assessment resistances given in accordance with clauses 10.45 to
10.48 shall be increased as follows:
ley
1) by 5% when lex
h ≤ 8 and b ≤ 8 ; and,
l
b ≤ 12 .
lex
2) by 10% when h >8 and ey

Assessment for bending about the major axis

10.45 The assessment ultimate load shall not exceed the design resistance Nux determined in accordance
with Equation 10.45:

Equation 10.45 Assessment ultimate load about the major axis

Npl k1
Nux =
(1 + k2 )
where:
Nux assessment ultimate load
Npl squash load of a column
slenderness reduction factor, lesser of the values for k1x and k1y derived from Figure 10.4
k1
5 or by calculation in accordance with Equation 10.46a and Equation 10.46b
2.3×ex /h
k2 = δhs /h+( 1−δ
, and
3 )

βy βy = (1 − δ) bbs

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

Figure 10.45 Values of k1x and k1y

10.46 The values for k1x and k1y shall only be derived by calculation in accordance with Equation 10.46a and
Equation 10.46b within the bounds of Figure 10.45.

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

Equation 10.46a Slenderness reduction factor

( )( )
1 lex 0.2lex 26.1hs
k1x = 1.007 − − 4.5 − + 31.2
1000 h h h

Equation 10.46b Slenderness reduction factor

( )[ ( ) ]
1 lex ley
k1y = 1.010 − − 3 33.2 − 32.9βy + − 20 (0.42βy + 0.1)
1000 b b

Assessment for bending about the minor axis

10.47 The assessment ultimate load shall not exceed the design resistance Nuy determined in accordance
with Equation 10.47:

Equation 10.47 Assessment bending about the minor axis

Npl k1
Nuy =
(1 + k3 )
where:
Nuy axial failure load of a member subject to a constant ultimate moment My ;
k1 slenderness reduction factor, lesser of k1x and k1y ; and,
k3 =
4ey /b
.
δbs /b+(1−δ)/2

Assessment for biaxial bending

10.48 The design ultimate load shall not exceed the assessment resistance Nuxy determined in accordance
with Equation 10.48:

Equation 10.48 Biaxial bending

Npl k1
Nuxy =
1 + k2 + k3
where:
Nuxy axial failure load of a member in biaxial bending or about an undefined axis;
k1 slenderness reduction factor k1x and k1y ;
2.3ex /h
k2 = δhs /h+(1−δ)/3 ; and,

(4ey )/b
k3 = δbs /b+(1−δ)/2 .

Slender columns
10.49 The resistance of short columns shall be assessed numerically or by site testing.
10.49.1 A concrete-encased column length that is slender in accordance with the definition for slender columns
given in this Section (clauses 10.33 to 10.33.1), may be assessed conservatively by the methods given
in this section for analysis of short columns that resist combined compression and bending (clauses
10.37 to 10.48).

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

10.49.2 Alternatively, providing that conditions 1) to 3) of clause 10.37.1 are satisfied, the assessment
resistance of a slender column may be calculated with k2 and k3 replaced by k4 and k5 respectively, in
accordance the verification in this section for:

1) assessment eccentricities of the axial force in clauses 10.40 to 10.44;

2) assessment for bending about the major axis in clauses 10.45 to 10.46;
3) assessment for bending about the minor axis in clause 10.47; and,
4) assessment for biaxial bending in clause 10.48.

10.50 The replacement slenderness factors, k5 and k5 shall be calculated in accordance with Equation 10.50:

Equation 10.50 Calculation of replacement slenderness factors

[ ] [ ]
λmax − 12 λmax − 12
k4 = k2 1 − and k5 = k3 1 −
37 37
where:
λmax is the greater of ley and 12 , for kiy ≤ kix ; or

λmax is the greater of 0.7lex and 12 , for kiy kix

NOTE The substitutions for k2 and k3 are both applicable when the column length is slender about one axis
only.

Ultimate strength of axially loaded concrete filled circular hollow sections.

10.51 In axially loaded columns formed from concrete filled circular hollow steel or iron sections, the
enhanced strength of triaxially contained concrete shall be included in the assessment methods for
bending given in this section by, replacing the expressions for αc and Npl given in clauses 10.10 and
10.11 with values derived from Equation 10.51:

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

Equation 10.51 Derivation of concrete contribution factor

0.67Ac fcc
αc =
Npl γmc λf3
where:
αc concrete contribution factor;
Ac cross-sectional area of concrete;
C1 , C2 constants given in Table 10.51;
Npl =
(C2 fy )As
+ 0.67Ac fcc
;
γm γf3 γmc γf3

γm 1.05;
γmc partial safety factor for concrete strength taken as 1.50;
λf3 partial safety factor in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N];
As cross-sectional area of steel;
fcc enhanced characteristic strength of triaxially contained concrete = fcu + C1 Dtef y ;

(C2 fy ) is the reduced nominal yield strength of the steel or iron casing;

t wall thickness of the steel or iron casting; and,

De outside diameter of the tube.

Table 10.51 Value of constraints for axially loaded concrete filled circular hollow sections
le C1 C2
De

0 9.47 0.76
5 6.40 0.80
10 3.81 0.85
15 1.80 0.90
20 0.48 0.95
25 0.00 1.00

Tensile cracking of concrete

10.52 No check for crack control shall be made in the following:
1) concrete filled hollow steel sections; or,
2) concrete encased steel or iron sections provided the assessment axial load at the ultimate limit state
is greater than 0.3fcu Ac /γmc where the symbols are as defined in Equation 10.10.
10.53 Cracking of the concrete shall be assessed in accordance with Section 2 modelling the column as a
beam:
1) where the assessment axial load in concrete encased steel or iron sections is less than 0.3fcu Ac /γmc
; and,
2) tensile stresses due to bending can occur in one or more faces of the composite section.

Verification of existing detailing

10.54 The cased composite columns for assessment shall be verified to ensure that construction is in
accordance with following detailing requirements:

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CS 457 Revision 1 10. Composite columns

1) reinforcement is present in concrete encased sections to prevent local spalling of the concrete under
loading above the capacity of the bare steel or iron section;
2) stirrups are present throughout the length of the column at a spacing ≤ 200mm anchored around at
least four longitudinal bars;
3) the concrete cover to the nearest surface of the steel member is fully bonded to the steel or iron
steel member;
4) where cracks are present, they cannot affect the composite action; and,
5) concrete is compacted, including between steel elements.

10.54.1 Where cased columns are not in accordance with the detailing requirements a procedure should be
agreed with the TAA for the assessment of such columns.

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CS 457 Revision 1 11. Influence of method of construction on assess...

11. Influence of method of construction on assessment

Analysis assumptions for the construction sequence
11.1 A realistic construction sequence shall be considered in the build-up of stresses within the analysis.
11.1.1 Where overstresses are identified in the structure, due to the assumed construction sequence the
structure should be re-examined for evidence of the sequence of construction and possible signs of
distress in areas which the calculations suggest have been overstressed.
11.1.2 The slab should be considered to have been cast over the entire length of the beam in one pour, unless
the record information clearly outlines the slab construction sequence.
11.1.3 For bridges constructed since 1960, the unpropped condition may generally be assumed.
11.1.4 Assuming the support section was cast last should only be assumed where it can be justified.
11.1.5 Where member stresses and span deflections are of concern, and where the steel section carried load
prior to the development of composite action, the resulting stresses and deflections should be added
algebraically to those later induced in the composite member being assessed, of which the steel
section forms a part.
11.1.6 Where composite action has been assumed for the whole of the assessment load, bending induced
prior to the attainment of composite action should be disregarded for the purposes of assessment,
unless there is evidence of excessive prop settlement during construction.

Temporary condition during construction

11.2 Where a partially cast slab is assumed to act compositely the shear connection shall be assumed for
this temporary construction condition as well as for the final condition.

Early construction loading

11.3 Assessment shall include the possibility of damage having occurred to partly matured concrete as a
result of limited composite action, due to deformation of the steel beams under subsequent concreting
operations.
NOTE Damage can occur during construction where loading of the composite section was not delayed until
the concrete had attained a cube strength of 20 N/mm2.
11.4 Where the composite section was loaded before the concrete attained its 28 day characteristic cube
strength the elastic properties and limiting compressive stresses of the concrete and the nominal
strengths of shear connectors shall be based upon fc , the cube strength of the concrete at the time
considered, except that no reduction in stiffness of the concrete need be made if the strength is in
accordance with the limit in Equation 11.4.

Equation 11.4 Concrete strength range where no reduction to stiffness is required

0.75fcu < fc < fcu
where:
fcu characteristic or worst credible concrete cube strength; and,
fc concrete strength.

11.5 Where the cube strength of the concrete at the time considered fc , was not less than 20 N/mm2, the
nominal strengths of shear connectors shall be determined by linear interpolation of the values given in
Table 5.63.

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CS 457 Revision 1 12. Prestressing in composite construction

12. Prestressing in composite construction

General
12.1 The method of prestressing and purpose of prestressing in composite construction shall be verified as
part of the assessment process.
12.1.1 Prestressing may be used to reduce, or in some circumstances prevent, the cracking of concrete under
service loading so increasing stiffness and improving the protection of steel from corrosion.

Methods of prestressing
12.2 Where composite beams have been prestressed by an external system or by tendons not directly
bonded to the concrete, the effect of the prestressing forces on the deformation of the whole structure
shall be verified in the assessment.
12.2.1 Additional assessment criteria may be agreed with the TAA where prestressing of composite beams
has been achieved by an external system or by tendons not directly bonded to the concrete.
12.2.2 Methods by which prestressing may have been achieved are the following:

1) system whereby a moment is applied to the steel section in the same direction as it will act in the
structure. The tension flange is then encased in concrete and the moment relaxed when the
concrete achieved a specified strength;
2) the use of jacking to alter the relative levels of the supports of a continuous member after part or
whole of the concrete deck has been cast and matured;
3) prestressing the concrete slab or sections of the slab by tendons or jacking whilst it is independent
of the steel section and subsequently connecting them;
4) prestressing the steel beam by tendons prior to concreting irrespective of whether they were or were
not released after the concrete has matured; and,
5) prestressing the composite sections by tendons or jacking.

Limit state requirements

12.3 Prestressed composite members shall be assessed for the serviceability and ultimate limit states in
accordance with the requirements herein, limit state requirements in Section 2 and other parts of this
document.
12.4 The effects of the method of prestressing and staging of the prestressing shall be assessed in
accordance with CS 455 [Ref 14.N].
NOTE The effects the method of prestressing and staging can be affect the stresses at transfer in
compression and tension where:

1) the concrete was pre-compressed by the release of a temporary prestress in the steel beam the
compressive stress in the concrete at transfer; or,
2) the concrete slab or a section of the slab was permanently prestressed before it acted compositely
with the steel beam.

Loss of prestress
12.5 The loss of prestress and the effects of shrinkage in composite prestressed concrete members shall be
calculated in accordance with the requirements of CS 455 [Ref 14.N].
12.6 Where the concrete acts compositely with the steel section the reduction in prestress and the effect on
the stresses in the composite section due to elastic deformation, shrinkage and creep of the concrete
and relaxation in the prestressing steel or tendon shall be calculated.

108
CS 457 Revision 1 13. Jack arch and trough construction

13. Jack arch and trough construction

Jack arch construction
13.1 The method for jack arch assessment described in this section shall only be used with the approval of
the TAA.
13.2 Jack arches shall be assessed against the same criteria as non-compliant filler beams in accordance
with:
1) Section 7 subject to the modifications in clause 13.2.1 to 13.4.9; and,
2) the restrictions in the scope of the methods of jack arch analysis given in clause 13.2.1 and 13.2.2.

NOTE It is at present premature to identify a preferred simplified approach to the analysis of jack arches.
13.2.1 A method of jack arch analysis which permits the use of the requirements for cased beams and filler
beam construction in section 7, but applying the simple transverse distribution rules may be used in
accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N].
13.2.2 A model of analysis in which the depth of the transverse members is taken as an effective depth,
constant across each vault, equal to the thickness at the crown of the arch plus one fifth of the vertical
distance between the crown and the soffit of the steel section (See TP11 [Ref 9.I]). The tensile stresses
in these members, neglecting arch compression, should not exceed 70% of the limiting torsional
stresses in Section 7.
NOTE Suitable models of analysis can be finite element analysis, orthotropic plate or grillage analysis.
13.3 The method and model of analysis clause 13.2.1 and 13.2.2 shall only be used where the edge girders,
or ties at a spacing longitudinally not exceeding 1.3 times the spacing of the metal beams, have the
capacity resist the lateral thrusts.
13.4 For masonry, the method of analysis in clause 13.2.2 shall not be used to assess the effects of end
restraints, and of finishing and infill material not satisfying CS 455 [Ref 14.N] in accordance with
Section 7 of this document.
13.4.1 For masonry, the method of analysis in clause 13.2.2 may be used for masonry in non-complying filler
beams in accordance with Section 7, providing the condition factor is not less than 0.70.
NOTE The method in Section 7 for non-complying filler beams masonry infill is of general applicability where
the tensile stress check for the method of analysis in clause 13.2.2 is used.
13.4.2 For masonry, the methods of analysis in clause 13.2.1 may be used with the following modification:

1) the condition factor for the masonry in CS 454 [Ref 1.N] is not less than 0.90 and where the
minimum depth of material at the crown, excluding the top 75mm of surfacing, is not less than the
depth of the metal beam;
2) where concrete is present above the masonry the thickness of masonry in this section is to be the
depth of masonry at the crown; and,
3) the stiffnesses of cemented materials other than concrete is estimated at 1000 times the
compression strength.

NOTE The interface stresses between masonry and concrete need not be checked where these modifications
apply in the method of analysis for masonry.
13.4.3 The effective perimeter assumed to provide bond should be restricted to the upper surface of the top
flange and the web where the infill is at least 50 mm thick where the bond strength for concrete at SLS
and the stress on the shear connection at ULS is reduced by a factor of 1.40 (or some other agreed
factor), and the option of sometimes using the plastic moment of resistance is not used as it does not
apply.
13.4.4 The shear resistance of jack arches may be assumed to be the same as the verification of vertical
shear resistance for filler beams in Section 7 (see clause 7.51 to 7.51.2).

109
CS 457 Revision 1 13. Jack arch and trough construction

13.4.5 The effect of finishing may be included using the method in Section 7.
13.4.6 Where the girders are of cast iron the values calculated for the modular ratio, αe should be halved.
13.4.7 In hogging plate construction (as shown in Figure 7.35), which is the more modern form of jack arch
construction (in which the beams are more likely to be of mild steel than cast iron), the horizontal shear
resisted between the hogging plate and the fill should be disregarded, except where the fill is of
concrete when incidental shear connection from rivet (or bolt) heads may be taken into account.
13.4.8 The adequacy of any tie rods should be established as part of the assessment process.
NOTE Tie rods are often present in jack arches to resist the arch thrust along the sides of the bridge.
13.4.9 Where tie rods are assessed to the capacity to resist the assessment loads, the resistance of the
arches to transverse loads should be established, for example by an arch computer analysis program.

Trough construction
13.5 Troughs shall be assessed in accordance with CS 454 [Ref 1.N], with the allowance of the following
modifications are permitted:
1) where the depth of 'fill' is nowhere less than 70% of the total depth the transverse stiffness is
permitted to be assumed to be 10% of the longitudinal stiffness;
2) where there are rivet or bolt heads penetrating concrete overlays the rules for incidental shear
connectors in Section 5 are permitted to be used; and,
3) where the surfaces of the troughs are sufficiently steep that these devices resist uplift, consideration
of reducing values of γ is permitted.
NOTE 1 Smooth troughs with 'open' profiles have substantially lower incidental composite action than jack arch
or filler beam construction.
NOTE 2 Transversely there is full composite action, but as troughs are seldom interconnected transversely this
affects stiffness, but not strength.
13.5.1 Alternative procedures to the above may be used provided they are justified and take into account
differences in the performance of the structure at SLS and ULS.

110
CS 457 Revision 1 14. Normative references

14. Normative references

The following documents, in whole or in part, are normative references for this document and are
indispensable for its application. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated
references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.

Ref 1.N Highways England. CS 454, 'Assessment of highway bridges and structures'
Ref 2.N BSI. BS 4-1, 'BS 4 - Structural Steel Sections Part 1 - Hot rolled sections'
Ref 3.N BSI. BS 5975, 'Code of practice for temporary works procedures and the permissible
stress design of falsework.'
Ref 4.N BSI. BS 5628, 'Code of practice for the use of masonry'
Ref 5.N BSI. BS EN 1994 , 'Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures'
Ref 6.N BSI. BS 4395, 'High Strength Friction Bolts and Associated Nuts and Washers for
Structural Engineering Metric Series Part 1 General Grade'
Ref 7.N BSI. BS 4848-2, 'Hot-rolled structural steel sections Part 2. Secification for
hot-finished hollow sections'
Ref 8.N Highways England. GG 101, 'Introduction to the Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges'
Ref 9.N Highways England. CS 463, 'Load testing for bridge assessment'
Ref 10.N BSI. BS 4604-1, 'Specification for The use of high strength friction grip bolts in
structural steelwork metric series - Part 1: General grade'
Ref 11.N BSI. BS 5400-4, 'Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Code of practice for design
of concrete bridges'
Ref 12.N BSI. BS 5400-10, 'Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Part 10: Code of practice
for fatigue'
Ref 13.N BSI. BS 5400-3, 'Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Part 3: Code of practice for
design of steel bridges'
Ref 14.N Highways England. CS 455, 'The assessment of concrete highway bridges and
structures'
Ref 15.N Highways England. CS 458, 'The assessment of highway bridges and structures for
the effects of special type general order (STGO) and special order (SO) vehicles '
Ref 16.N Highways England. CS 456, 'The assessment of steel highway bridges and
structures'
Ref 17.N BSI. BS 4360, 'Weldable Structural Steel'

111
CS 457 Revision 1 15. Informative references

15. Informative references

The following documents are informative references for this document and provide supporting
information.

Ref 1.I American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials. AASHTO,
'AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges'
Ref 2.I BSI. BS EN 1994-2, 'Eurocode 4. Design of composite steel and concrete structures.
Part 2: General rules and rules for bridges'
Ref 3.I BSI. BS EN 1994-1-1, 'Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete
structures - Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings'
Ref 4.I Highways England. CS 450, 'Inspection of highway structures'
Ref 5.I Highways England. CS 470, 'Management of sub-standard highway structures'
Ref 6.I BSI. BS 5400-1, 'Steel, concrete and composite bridges - Part 1: General statement'
Ref 7.I BSI. BS 5400-5, 'Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Part 5: Code of practice for
design of composite bridges'
Ref 8.I BSI. BS 5950-3, 'Structural use of steelwork in building - Part 3: Design in composite
construction'
Ref 9.I TP11, 'Technical Paper TP11. Cased beams, filler beams and Jack arches.
Background document for BS 5400 Part 5: Use for Assessment of Bridges'

112
CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix A. Lateral torsional buckling of composite beams...

Appendix A. Lateral torsional buckling of composite beams with slab and

girders tied laterally and rotationally
A1 General
Where the conditions in Section 5 for resistance to separation in accordance with clause 5.93 to 5.99
are satisfied, the provisions set out in this appendix can be applied.
This appendix deals with the assessment of the hogging moment region of non-compact girders in
which the slabs and girders are tied horizontally and vertically such that flexural transverse stiffness of
the slab restrains the girder.
This appendix can be used to calculate the slenderness, λLT for use in the CS 456 [Ref 16.N] buckling
check. Where λLT is used from this appendix, the checks on longitudinal stud spacing need to be
satisfied in order for the slenderness to be valid.
Alternatively to the guidance in this section, an elastic critical buckling computer analysis may be
carried out.

A2 Based on continuous inverted U-frame model

A2.1 Elastic critical stress
A2.1.1 Non-compact composite girders
This clause is applicable to non-compact composite girders or portions of girders with continuity at one
or both ends and a restrained top flange, that satisfy conditions 3) and 6) to 9) of clause 5.22.1. The
steel member should be a doubly symmetrical or mono-symmetrical rolled or welded I-section of
uniform depth throughout the span considered. The shear connection should satisfy A2.1.7 and A2.1.8.
A2.1.2 Model
The model for this method is the continuous inverted-U frame. It does not rely on the provision of web
stiffeners except those required by condition 9) of clause 5.22.1.
A2.1.3 Internal supports
No special provision need be made at internal supports to provide warping fixity or to prevent rotation in
plan of the steel bottom flange.
A2.1.4 Moments calculation
The elastic critical buckling moments from the hogging moment at an internal support may be taken as
given in Equation A.1:

113
CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix A. Lateral torsional buckling of composite beams...

Equation A.1 Elastic critical buckling moment of a composite beam

[( ( )2 ) ]0.5
kc C4 16L
Mcr = Gs Js + ks Es Isfy
L πC4

where:
Mcr elastic critical buckling moments;
A is the area of the equivalent cracked transformed composite section, calculated with the
effective breadth of the concrete flange in accordance with Section 4 and the short term
modulus of elasticity of concrete neglecting concrete in tension but including
reinforcement in tension;
C4 is a property of the distribution of bending moment within the length L in Tables A.1 to A.3.
Where the bending moments at the supports are unequal, C4 relates to the support with
the larger hogging moment;
kc factor given in (A2.2 or A2.3);
Es modulus of elasticity of steel;
Gs shear modulus of steel;
Isfy second moment of area of the structural steel section about the centroid of area A ;
ks transverse stiffness per unit length of the beam;
L is the length of the beam between points at which the bottom flange of the steel member
is laterally restrained.

A2.1.5 Cross-section properties

The properties of the effective cross-section refer to those in the hogging moment region and are as in
as given in Equation A.2 to Equation A.5:

Equation A.2 radius of gyration

Isx + Isy
r2xy =
As
where:
rxy radius of gyration about xy axis; and,

Isx and Isy second moments of area of the structural steel section about the centroid of area A
.

ks is a transverse stiffness per unit length of the beam given by Equation A.3:

Equation A.3 Transverse stiffness per unit length

k1 k2
ks =
k1 + k2
k1 is the flexural stiffness of the cracked concrete or composite slab in the direction transverse to the
steel beam, which may be taken as:
4Es I2
1) k1 = a for a slab continuous across the steel beam; or,
2Es I2
2) k1 = a for a simply supported or cantilever slab.
I2 is to be taken as the lower of :

114
CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix A. Lateral torsional buckling of composite beams...

1) the value at mid-span of the slab, for sagging bending; and,

2) the value at an internal support of the slab, for hogging bending.

k2 is the flexural stiffness of the steel web, to be taken for an uncased or cased beam in accordance
with Equation A.4 or Equation A.5:

Equation A.4 Flexural stiffness of steel web for uncased beam

Est 3w
k2 =
4(1 − νs2 )hs
where:
Es modulus of elasticity of steel;
tw web thickness;
νs poisson's ratio for steel; and,
hs depth of structural steel girder or depth of the steel section in the plane of the web.

Equation A.5 Flexural stiffness of steel web for cased web

Es tw b2ft
k2 =
16hf (1 + (4αe tw )/bft )
where:
Es modulus of elasticity of steel;
tw web thickness;
bft breadth of the steel flange of the steel member to which shear connectors are attached;
hf distance between the shear centres of the flange of the steel member; and,
αe modular ratio for long term loading.

A2.1.6 The slenderness, λLT , is obtained from Equation A.6:

Equation A.6 Slenderness parameter

√
Zpe
λLT = π 2 Es
Mcr
where:
Es modulus of elasticity of steel;
Zpe effective plastic section modulus; and,
Mcr elastic buckling moment.

A2.1.7 Spacing of studs

Except where specific account is taken of the influence of inverted U-frame action on the resistance of
the shear connection, the longitudinal spacing of studs or rows of studs, will be in accordance with
Equation A.7:

115
CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix A. Lateral torsional buckling of composite beams...

Equation A.7 Longitudinal stud spacing

sL 0.4fu d2s (1 − X)
≤
bft ks X
where:
sL longitudinal spacing of individual connectors;
bft breadth of the steel flange of the steel member to which shear connectors are attached;
fu characteristic tensile strength of the studs;
ds diameter of the studs; and,
Mr
X = Mcr ;

A2.1.8 Other connectors spacing

The longitudinal spacing of connectors other than studs will be such that the resistance of the
connection to transverse bending is not less than that required when studs are used.

A2.2 Doubly symmetrical steel sections

Where the cross section of the steel member is symmetrical about both axes, the factor kc is given by
Equation A.8:

Equation A.8 Factor kc

hf (Ix /Isx )
kc = h2f /4+r2xy
e
+ hf
where:
hf distance between the shear centres of the flange of the steel member;
Ix second moment of area for major-axis bending of the composite section of area A ;
Isx second moment of area of the structural steel section about the centroid of area A ;
rxy radius of gyration about xy axis;
AIsx
e = As yc (A−As ) ; and,

yc distance between the centroid of the area of the steel member and the mid-depth of the
slab

A2.3 Mono-symmetrical steel sections

Where the cross-section of the steel member has unequal flanges, the factor kc is given by

116
CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix A. Lateral torsional buckling of composite beams...

Equation A.9 Factor for mono-symmetric sections

(hf )Ix /Isx

kc = ( 2 ) ( )
(yf −ys ) +r2sy
e
+ 2 yf − yj

where:
hf distance between the shear centres of the flange of the steel member;
Ix second moment of area for major-axis bending of the composite section of area A;
Isx and Isx second moments of area of the structural steel section about the centroid of area A;
yf = (hf )Isfy /Isy ;
∫ y(x2 +y2 )δA
( )
2Isfy
yj yj = ys − As 2Isx when Isfy 0.5Isy , yj may be taken as = 0.4hf Isy − 1 ; and,

distance from the centroid of the steel section to the shear centre, which is positive
ys where the shear centre and the compression flange are on the same side of the
centroid.

Figure A.1 Lateral-torsional buckling

117
 CS 457 Revision 1
Table A.1 Values of factor of distribution of bending factor for spans with transverse loading
Loading and support conditions Bending moment diagram C4
=0.7 =1.0 =1.2 =1.5 =1.7 =2.0 =2.2 =2.5
=0.5
5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0

41.5 30.2 24.5 21.1 19.0 17.5 16.5 15.7 15.2

33.9 22.7 17.3 14.1 13.0 12.0 11.4 10.9 10.6

Appendix A. Lateral torsional buckling of composite beams...

118

New Figure

28.2 18.0 13.7 11.7 10.6 10.0 9.5 9.1 8.9

21.9 13.9 11.0 9.6 8.8 8.3 8.0 7.8 7.6

 CS 457 Revision 1
Table A.1 Values of factor of distribution of bending factor for spans with transverse loading (continued)

28.4 21.8 18.6 16.7 15.6 14.8 14.2 13.8 13.5

12.7 9.8 8.6 8.0 7.7 7.4 7.2 7.1 7.0

Appendix A. Lateral torsional buckling of composite beams...

119

Y = torsional restraint * interpolation between these cases is permitted

**interpolation between these cases is permitted
 CS 457 Revision 1
Table A.2 Values of factor of distribution of bending factor for spans without tranverse loading
Loading and support conditions Bending moment diagram C4
=0.0 =0.2 =0.5 =0.7 =1.0
0 5 0 5 0

11.1 9.5 8.2 7.1 6.2

=0.0 =0.2 =0.5 =0.7 =1.0

0 5 0 5 0

11.1 12.8 14.6 16.3 18.1

Appendix A. Lateral torsional buckling of composite beams...

120

Y = torsional restraint
 CS 457 Revision 1
Table A.3 Values of factor of distribution of bending factor at end supports, for spans with cantilever extensions
Loading and support conditions Bending moment diagram Lc /L C4
=0.0 =0.5 =0.7 =1.0
0 0 5 0
0.25 47.6 33.8 26.6 22.1
0.50 12.5 11.0 10.2 9.3
0.75 9.2 8.8 8.6 8.4

1.00 7.9 7.8 7.7 7.6

Appendix A. Lateral torsional buckling of composite beams...

121

Y = torsional restraint
CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams...

Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams with slabs and

girders tied laterally but not rotationally
B1 General
B1.1 Introduction
B1.1.1 Scope
This Appendix deals with the assessment of the hogging moment regions of compact and non-compact
girders, or portions of girders between effective torsional restraints to both flanges, along which the
tension flange is laterally restrained at intervals. See Table B.1. The rules in B1.1.2 to B1.4 and B2 do
not include the effects of minor axis bending.
Where bending moments also occur about the minor axis, more detailed checks should be carried out
to include the minor axis bending effects in assessing the interaction between all effects.
The effects of bending about the minor axis can be included, in the summation checks for elastic
stability of uniform and tapered members in Equation B.3 and Equation B.4 in accordance clause
9.9.4.1 and 9.9.4.2 of BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N] as modified in CS 456 [Ref 16.N].
B1.1.2 Application of rules to incidental shear connectors at least 50mm deep and satisfying the
spacing rules for shear connectors in Section 5 has to be in accordance with Equation B.1 and
Equation B.2.
In applying the following rules P , Mtx and Mx will be determined from:

Equation B.1 Applied axial load

P = As σs-mean
where:
As cross-sectional area of steel section
P applied axial load and,
σs-mean stress in the composite cross section at the centroid of the steel section

and

Equation B.2 Equivalent uniform bending moment

( )
1 1
M Zxc
+ Zxt
or Mx = ( ) composite cross sections
Mtx
1 1
Zxc
+ Zxt
non-composite cross section

where:
Mtx equivalent uniform bending moment, Mtx = mt MAx
Mx moment acting about the major axis
M bending moment Mtx or Mx as applicable to the whole beam and,
Zxc and Zxt the section moduli at extreme fibres of the structural steel section subject to
compression and tension (both taken is positive)

122
CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams...

Table B.1 Members restrained on tension flange

where:
X lateral restraint to one flange;
* effective torsional restraint to both flanges;
P axial load where present;
M1X applied moment in either direction;
M2X applied moment in either direction;
A-A reference axis;
B-B restraint axis; and,
L length over which buckling is to be checked.

B1.1.3 Application to other incidental shear connectors

For incidental shear connectors not satisfying B1.1.2 lateral torsional buckling should be checked
disregarding composite action, so that the slab is used only to provide lateral restraint to the steel
flange with which it is in contact.
B1.1.4 Application of rules to plate girders
For beams with a web aspect ratio, dtww not exceeding 100, the resistance is checked in accordance with
Appendix A and the lower resistance given by the Appendix A or Appendix B assumed for assessment.

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CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams...

B1.1.5 Application of rules to composite beams without lateral restraint to the compression flange
Where there are no intermediate lateral restraints to the lower flange between end supports the
resistance should be taken as the lower of:
1) the resistance assuming lateral restraints to the compression flange only at the ends;
2) the resistance assuming lateral restraints to the compression flange at a distance hs on the span
side of the point of contraflexure under dead load.

B1.2 Failure mode

The resistance of the member should be checked in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N] using an
effective length le equal to longitudinal spacing of the shear connections.
The overall buckling of the member in the torsional mode between effective torsional restraints to both
flanges should be checked according to the provisions of this Appendix.

B1.3 Elastic stability

Members or portions of members restrained in accordance with clauses B1.1.1 to B1.1.5 which do not
contain plastic hinge locations should be checked according to Equation B.3 and Equation B.4 (C.2(a))
to ensure stability between effective torsional restraints to both flanges.

B1.4 Plastic stability

Members or portions of members restrained in accordance with clauses B1.1.1 to B1.1.5 which contain
locations where the moment exceeds the yield resistance should be checked according to Equation B.5
and Equation B.6 to ensure stability between effective torsional restraints to both flanges
The compression flange should be fully restrained laterally at all plastic hinge locations, or where this is
impracticable within h2s of the hinge location, where hs is the depth of the steel member.

B2 Stability
Members or portions of members restrained in accordance with B1.1.1 to B1.1.5 should satisfy either
the condition for elastic stability or plastic stability to ensure stability between effective torsional
restraints which are a distance L apart (See B2.1 and B2.2).

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CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams...

B2.1 Elastic stability

B2.1.1 Verification for uniform members in accordance with Equation B.3

Equation B.3 Elastic stability of uniform members

P Mtx
+ ≤1
PD MDx
where:
P applied axial load
compression resistance determined in accordance with BS 5400-3 [Ref 13.N], except
PD
that for buckling about the minor axis the slenderness must be taken as λTC
Mtx mt MAx
mt is equivalent uniform moment factor as defined in B3.4
MAx is the maximum moment on the member or portion of the member being assessed
bending resistance of the beam derived in accordance with clause 9.9.1 of BS 5400-3
MDx [Ref 13.N], except that for buckling about the minor axis the slenderness must be taken
as λTB

B2.1.2 Verification for tapered member determined in accordance with Equation B.4

Equation B.4 Elastic stability of tapered members

P Mx 1
+ ≤ at any section
PD MR γm γf3
where:
P applied axial load
compression resistance determined in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N] except that for
PD
buckling about the minor axis the slenderness must be taken as λTC
Mx moment acting about the major axis
as defined in CS 456 [Ref 16.N], except that for buckling about the minor axis the
MR
slenderness must be taken as λTB
γm partial safety factor for material strength
γf3 partial safety factor for load effects as defined in CS 456 [Ref 16.N]

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CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams...

B2.2 Plastic stability

For uniform members use Equation B.5 or Equation B.6 and for tapered members use Equation B.6.
B2.2.1 Plastic stability verification for lengths without vertical loads

Equation B.5 Lengths without vertical loads

( )0.5
Lk Mp
L≤ √
mt Mpr + aP
where:
L is the distance between effective torsional restraints in accordance with CS 456 [Ref 16.N]
Lk limiting length as defined in Equation B.9
mt equivalent uniform moment factor as given in B3.4
Mp σy Zxp
Mpr σy Zxpr
Zxp plastic modulus of the effective section cross section consideration
Zxpr reduced plastic modulus of the effective section due to axial load
a distance from centroid of steel action to axis of rotation, and
P applied axial load

B2.2.2 Plastic stability verification for lengths with vertical loads

Equation B.6 Lengths with vertical loads

Lk
L≤
cηt
where:
Lk limiting length in accordance with B3.5
c constant as defined in Equation B.8 and
ηt slenderness correction factor as defined in Equation B.10

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CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams...

B3 Determination of Factors
B3.1 General
The situation used is shown in Table B.2.

Table B.2 Typical haunch condition

Typical haunch

where:
X lateral restraints to one flange
* effective torsional restraints to both flanges
A-A reference axis
B-B reference axis
L length over which buckling is checked, and
is the distance between reference axis (i.e centroid of steel section at the shallow end) and
a
restraint axis (axis of rotation) of the beam

B3.2 Minor axis slenderness ratio λTC

The minor axis slenderness ratio used to determine the compression resistance in B2 should be taken
in accordance with Equation B.7:

127
CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams...

Equation B.7 Minor axis slenderness ratio

λTC = yλ
where:
λTC minor axis slenderness ratio
y ( ( )2 )0.5
1+ 2ah
= ( )2 f
λ 2
1+ 2a 20 ( x )
1
h +
f

x ( )1/2
As
= 0.566hs Js which for doubly symmetric I sections
hs
can be taken as x = tf

hf distance between the shear centres of the flanges

λ slenderness L
of the member between effective torsional restraints to both flanges
ry

As cross sectional area of steel section

a as defined in B3.1, and
Js St. Venant torsion constant of steel member.

B3.3 Minor axis slenderness ratio λTB

The minor axis slenderness ratio, λTB used to determine the compression resistance in B2 should be
taken in accordance with Equation B.8:

Equation B.8 Minor axis slenderness ratio

λTB = ηt k4 vt cλ
where:
λTB minor axis slenderness ratio
ηt is the slenderness correction factor taken 1.0 where there are no intermediate loads
between restraints; otherwise ηt is as defined in B3.6
k4 as defined in CS 456 [Ref 16.N], except for tapered members, k4 = 1.0
vt is slenderness parameter as given in Equation B.9
c constant taken as 1.0 uniform and c = 1 + 3
2 1
− 1) 3 q 2 for tapered members
x−9 (R

is the ratio of the greater depth to the lesser depth of the section between effective
R
torsional restraints, and
x is as defined in B3.2

Slenderness parameter is given by Equation B.9.

Equation B.9 Slenderness parameter

 0.5
4a
 h 
vt =  ( )2 f ( ) 
2a 1 λ 2
1+ hf
+ 20 x

128
CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams...

B3.4 Equivalent uniform moment factor mt

The value of mt should be taken as 1.0 when intermediate loads are applied between effective torsional
restraints.
Otherwise mt should be obtained from Table B.3 where:
y - is obtained from B3.2, and
βt - is the ratio of the algebraically smaller end moment to the larger moment.
Moments which produce compression on the unrestrained flange should be taken as positive. When
βt < −1 the value of βt should be taken as -1. See Table B.4.

Table B.3 Equivalent uniform moment factor

y
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
βt
-1.0 1.00 0.76 0.61 0.51 0.44 0.39 0.35 0.31 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.21
-0.9 1.00 0.78 0.63 0.52 0.45 0.40 0.36 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.23
-0.8 1.00 0.80 0.64 0.53 0.46 0.51 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.27 0.26
-0.7 1.00 0.81 0.66 0.55 0.47 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.29 0.28
-0.6 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.56 0.49 0.44 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31

-0.5 1.00 0.85 0.69 0.58 0.50 0.46 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.34
-0.4 1.00 0.86 0.70 0.59 0.52 0.48 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37
-0.3 1.00 0.88 0.72 0.61 0.54 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.41
-0.2 1.00 0.89 0.74 0.63 0.57 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.44
-0.1 1.00 0.90 0.76 0.65 0.59 0.55 0.53 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48

0.0 1.00 0.92 0.78 0.68 0.62 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.52

0.1 1.00 0.93 0.80 0.70 0.65 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.56
0.2 1.00 0.94 0.82 0.73 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.60
0.3 1.00 0.95 0.84 0.76 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64
0.4 1.00 0.96 0.86 0.79 0.75 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69
0.5 1.00 0.97 0.88 0.82 0.78 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74
0.6 1.00 0.98 0.91 0.85 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79
0.7 1.00 0.98 0.93 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84
0.8 1.00 0.99 0.95 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89
0.9 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94
1.0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

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CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams...

Table B.4 Values of ratio of the algebriacally smaller end moment to the larger moment

Restrained beam with end moments

βt = −300
+100 = −3.
Since βt − 1 the value of βt must be taken
as -1

Restrained beam with end moments

−100
βt = +300 = −0.3

B3.5 Limiting Length Lk

The limiting length Lk should be taken as given in Equation B.10:

Equation B.10 Limiting length

( )
5.4 + 600 σEy ry x
Lk = ( )1
5.4 σEy Js − 1 2

For tapered members Lk should be calculated for the smallest section.

B3.6 Slenderness correction factor ηt

B3.6.1 General
The general expression of the slenderness correction factor ηt is given for situations included in Table
B.4 by Equation B.11:

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CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams...

Equation B.11 Slenderness correction factor

[
{ ( )}]1/2
1 N1 3N2 4N3 3N4 N5 Ns NE
ηt = + + + + +2 −
12 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 Ms ME
where:
ηt slenderness correction factor
values of the applied moments at the ends of the quarter points and mid length of
the length between effective torsional restraints as shown in Figure B.1, which in
N1 to N5 the presence of axial loads has to be modified as indicated in B3.6.2. Only positive
values of N are to be included. N is positive when it produces compression in the
unrestrained flange

M1 to M5 are the moment capacities of the sections corresponding to N1 to N5 , but see B3.6.
3
Ns N2 N3 N4
Ms is the greater of M2 , M3 , M4 , and
NE N1 N5
ME is the greater of M1 , M5
( )
Only the positive value of Ns
Ms − NE
ME should be included in Equation B.10.

Figure B.1 Intermediate moments

B3.6.2 Axial loading

Where elastic stability is considered no allowance should be made in the value of ηt for the effects of
axial load.
Where plastic stability is being considered the values of N1 to N5 should be taken as given in Equation
B.12:

Equation B.12 Axial loading

N + aP
where:
a distance between the reference axis and the axis of restraint, and
P applied axial load

B3.6.3 Moment capacities

For elastically assessed members of uniform section M1 to M5 should be taken as given in Equation
B.13:

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CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix B. Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams...

Equation B.13 Moment capacities

σy Zxc
M1 to M5 =
γm γf3
where:
σy stress of the steel member about the major axis as defined in CS 456 [Ref 16.N]
Zxc elastic modulus for the compression flange of the section
γm partial safety factor for strength, and
γf3 partial safety factor as defined in CS 456 [Ref 16.N]

In all other cases M1 to M5 is given by Equation B.14:

Equation B.14 Moment capacity

σy Zxp
M1 to M5 =
γm γf3
where:
M1 to M5 are the moment capacities of the sections corresponding to N1 to N5
σy stress of the steel member about the major axis as defined in CS 456 [Ref 16.N]
Zxp effective plastic section modulus of beams Zpe as defined in CS 456 [Ref 16.N]
γm partial safety factor or strength, and
γf3 partial safety factor as defined in CS 456 [Ref 16.N]

132
CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix C. Suggested properties of infill material not s...

Appendix C. Suggested properties of infill material not satisfying CS 455

for the assessment of filler beams and jack arches
C1 Properties of cemented compression - only materials
The Young's Modulus of cemented materials other than concrete may be taken as 1000 times the
compression strength.
The Young's Modulus of cemented materials without the torsional shear resistance necessary to carry
the torsional shear stresses for complying filler beams in Section 7 of this document may be analysed
by a torsion beam analysis derived from a strut analogy in which the Young's Modulus is taken for filler
beams and jack arches in accordance with Equation C.1 and Equation C.2 respectively.

Equation C.1 Young's modulus for filler beams

( )0.10
h Es t3w
2.3 3 cos2 θEf
a Ef h
where:
h height between the flanges of the metal beam;
a spacing of the metal beams;
Es Young's modulus of steel;
Ef Young's modulus of the fill; and,
angle between the diagonal connecting the roots of the top and bottom of the adjacent
θ
webs (of metal beams) and the horizontal.

Equation C.2 Young's modulus for jack arches

0.35Ef
where:
Ef Young's modulus of the fill.

C2 Local bond strength

For artificial materials, including brick and weakly cemented stone the local bond strength should not be
taken greater than the greater of:

1) for weakly cemented material:

a) 1/40 times the compressive strength determined from large diameter cores; or,
b) large undisturbed specimens when practical, but not greater than 0.50 N/mm2; or,
2) for uncemented but well compacted and weakly bound material:
a) the square root of the product of 1/40 of the mean of the confined and unconfined compressive
strength; and,
b) the shear strength forecast by the principles of geotechnical engineering.

C3 Soils
Soils and other fill material beneath the blacktop on bridge decks which are predominately granular:
1) are insufficiently stiff; and,
2) suffer longitudinal shear failure at too low a load.

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CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix C. Suggested properties of infill material not s...

Using the principles of geotechnical engineering the stiffening effects of soils and other fill material on
beam cross-sections can be justified. This has been demonstrated in load tests carried out on old
bridges in accordance with CS 463 [Ref 9.N].
There is however evidence that the properties of well compacted hard standings perpendicular to the
surfaces appreciably exceed the most optimistic properties forecast by geotechnical engineering. It is
therefore premature at the present time to include geotechnical engineering principles in the routine
assessment of bridge decks.

C4 Blacktop
The stiffness of bituminous surface course is temperature dependent, but as the upper layer is
disregarded it is conservative to assume a maximum temperature of 20°C and a stiffness of 2000MPa,
when the blacktop is in direct contact with the deck.
In the absence of specific information on the adhesion of blacktop the local bond strengths in C2 may
be assumed.

C5 Restrictions on the effective cross-section

In assessing the resistance of the cross-section the restrictions numbered in 1) to 8) below apply.
1) In calculating the resistance of the composite cross section the top 75 mm of finishing should be
disregarded, the part of the fill in tension should be disregarded and, to provide an additional margin
of safety, the depth of the fill in excess of 200mm above the steelwork should be reduced by (any
material below the soffit of the metal beams should be neglected as this is liable to spall):
a) 30% for weakly cemented materials; or,
b) 40% for uncemented materials.
2) Unless justified by load tests the flexural strength of filler beams at ULS should not exceed the
strength of the composite cross-section steel/concrete cross-section by more than:
a) 35% for weakly cemented materials; or,
b) 20% for uncemented materials.
3) In the absence of contrary evidence the proportionate increase at strength at ULS should be taken
as half the increase in strength forecast in the load tests.
4) For strength assessment at loadings not exceeding those at the SLS (as for cast iron) the
proportionate increase in strength under the assessment loading should not be taken greater than
70% the increase in strength forecast from the load tests.
5) In no case should the strengthening effect at ULS assessed elastically using the modular ratios for
effect of finishing in Section 7 be taken greater than that suggested by the measured deflection (or
preferably strain) readings, nor greater than:
a) 2.5 times the strength of the bare metal section; or,
b) 1.7 times the strength of a composite section which satisfies requirements in Section 7 for cased
beams, complying filler beams and non-complying filler beams.
6) When interpreting the results of load tests, the transverse distribution characteristics are easily
established but it is less easy, and needs more instrumentation, to determine whether composite
action, partial end fixity or arching action is responsible for the low strains. However, it is acceptable
in assessment calculation to attribute the entire benefit of increased resistance to composite action.
When this is done, the limiting values in condition 5) may be increased to 3.2 times the strength of
the bare metal section or 2.2 times the strength of a composite section which satisfies requirements
in Section 7 for cased beams, complying filler beams and non-complying filler beams.
7) The rules for jack arches are as for filler beams except that, when the depth of construction is less
than 1.5 times the depth of the bare metal section, the increase in the bending resistance of the
composite section should not be taken greater than 30% of the bare metal section.

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CS 457 Revision 1 Appendix C. Suggested properties of infill material not s...

8) The approach given in condition 7) has not been checked for situations in which the ratio of the
depth of fill to the span is such that arching action in the fill occurs in the direction of the span. For
this situation, the fill within the depth of the metal beams may be considered as acting compositely
with them, and the fill above is to be considered as spanning by arching action and anchored at the
ends by friction against the composite section, or by lateral resistance from material of at least
similar compressive strength and compaction.

135
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