STUDENT SUPPORT MATERIAL

CLASS XI
GEOGRAPHY

TERM - II
SESSION 2021-22

KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

AHMEDABAD REGION

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 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
AHMEDABAD REGION
Chief Patron
DR.JAIDEEP DAS
Deputy Commissioner, KVS RO AHMEDABAD

Patron

SMT. SHRUTI BHARGAVA

Assistant Commissioner, KVS RO AHMEDABAD

Patron

SMT. VINITA SHARMA

Assistant Commissioner, KVS RO AHMEDABAD

Co-Ordinator

DR.MAMTA SINGH

Principal K.V. VIRAMGAM

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 CONTENT DEVELOPERS

1. MR. BHAVESH SINHA, PGT-GEOGRAPHY, KV AFS JAMNAGAR

2. MR. GIRI RAJ MEENA, PGT-GEOGRAPHY, KV AFS NALIYA

3. MR. MANOJ KUMAR ASERI, PGT GEOGRAPHY, KV EME BARODA

4. MRS. MADHUMITA DEB, PGT –GEOGRAPHY, KV NO 1 SURAT

5. MRS. NEELIMA SRIVASTAVA, PGT –GEOGRAPHY, KV NO1 SHAHIBAUG

6. MR.PRATAP SINGH SHEKHAWAT, PGT-GEOGRAPHY, KV AFS BHUJ

EDITED AND COMPILED BY

MRS. MADHUMITA DEB,

PGT –GEOGRAPHY, KV NO 1 SURAT

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 GEOGRAPHY (Code No. 029)

XI-XII (2021-22)

Geography is introduced as an elective subject at the senior secondary stage. After ten years of general
education, students branch out at the beginning of this stage and are exposed to the rigors of the discipline
for the first time. Being an entry point for the higher education, students choose Geography for pursuing
their academic interest and, therefore, need a broader and deeper understanding of the subject. For others,
geographical knowledge is useful in daily lives because it is a valuable medium for the education of young
people. Its contribution lies in the content, cognitive processes, skills and values that Geography promotes
and thus helps the students explore, understand and evaluate the environmental and social dimensions of the
world in a better manner. Since Geography explores the relationship between people and their environment,
it includes studies of physical and human environments and their interactions at different scales-local,
state/region, nation and the world. The fundamental principles responsible for the varieties in the
distributional pattern of physical and human features and phenomena over the earth's surface need to be
understood properly. Application of these principles would be taken up through selected case studies from
the world and India. Thus, the physical and human environment of India and study of some issues from a
geographical point of view will be covered in greater detail. Students will be exposed to different methods
used in geographical investigations.

Objectives: The course in Geography will help learners to:

i. Familiarize with key concepts, terminology and core principles of Geography. Describe locations and
correlate with Geographical Perspectives.

ii. List/describe what students might see, hear, and smell at a place. List /describe ways a place is linked
with other places.

iii. Compare conditions and connections in one place to another. Analyse /describe how conditions in one
place can affect nearby places. Identify regions as places that are similar or connected.

iv. Describe and interpret the spatial pattern features on a thematic map.
v. Search for, recognize and understand the processes and patterns of the spatial arrangement of the natural
features as well as human aspects and phenomena on the earth's surface.

vi. Understandandanalyzetheinter-
relationshipbetweenphysicalandhumanenvironmentsandutilizesuchknowledgeinreflectingonissuesrelatedtoco
mmunity.

vii. Apply geographical knowledge and methods of inquiry to emerging situations or problems at different
levels local, regional, national, and global level.

viii. Develop geographical skills, relating to collection, processing and analysis of spatial data/ information
and preparation of report including maps and graphs and use of computers where ever possible; and to be
sensitive to issues

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 Geography

Code No. 029

Class XI (2021-22)

Term wise Syllabus

COURSE CONTENT TERM II

TOTAL WEIGHTAGE-THEORY (35M) & PRACTICAL (15M) = 50 M

Part A: Fundamentals of Physical Geography 15 M

Unit IV: Climate 8M

Atmosphere- composition and structure; elements of weather and
climate Insolation-angle of incidence and distribution; heat budget of
the earth-heating and cooling of atmosphere (conduction, convection,
terrestrial radiation and advection); temperature - factors controlling
temperature; distribution of temperature - horizontal and vertical;
inversion of temperature .Pressure-pressure belts; winds-planetary,
seasonal and local; air masses and fronts; tropical and extra-tropical
cyclones, Precipitation-evaporation; condensation-dew, frost, fog
,mist and cloud; rainfall-types and world distribution
Unit V: Water (Oceans) 4M
Movements of ocean water-waves, tides and currents; submarine
reliefs Ocean resources and pollution
Unit VI: Life on the Earth 3M
Biosphere - importance of plants and other organisms; biodiversity
and conservation
Part B: India - Physical Environment 15M
Unit III: Climate, Vegetation and Soil 15M
• Weather and climate - spatial and temporal distribution of
temperature, pressure winds and rainfall, Indian monsoon:
mechanism, onset and withdrawal, variability of rainfalls: spatial and
temporal; use of weather charts
• Natural vegetation-forest types and distribution; wild life;
conservation; biosphere reserves
• Soils - major types (ICAR's classification) and their distribution, soil
degradation and conservation
MAP Map work on identification/ interpolation of features based on the 5M
units on the outline Physical/Political map of the world/ India
Part C: Practical Work 15M
CH6: Introduction to Aerial Photograph
CH7: Introduction to Remote Sensing
CH8: Weather Instruments, Maps and Charts

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 INDEX

SR. UNIT CHAPTER NO CONTENT PAGE NO

NO
1. Subject objective and Syllabus 4-5
BOOK-I FUNDAMENTALS 0F PHYSICAL 7
GEOGRAPHY
2. IV[ Climate] Chapter 8 Composition and structure of 8-16
Atmosphere
3. Chapter 9 Solar radiation, heat balance and 17-29
temperature
4. Chapter 10 Atmospheric circulation and 30-42
weather system
5. Chapter 11 Water in the atmosphere 43-52
6. V [Water( Ocean)] Chapter 14 Movement of Ocean Water 53-66
7. VI [Life on earth] Chapter 15 Life on earth 67-75
8. Chapter 16 Biodiversity and conservation 76-83
BOOK-II INDIA- PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 84
9. III[Climate, Chapter 4 Climate 85-97
vegetation and soil]
10. Chapter 5 Natural vegetation 98-110
11. Chapter 6 Soils 111-120
12. MAPS 121-124
13. SAMPLE PAPERS 125-132

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PART A: FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

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 CHAPTER-8: COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

COMPOSITION OF
ATMOSPHERE
1.GASES
ELEMENTS OF 2.WATER VAPOUR
WEATHER AND 3. DUST PARTICLE LAYERS OF
CLIMATE ATMOSPHERE
1.TEMPERATURE 1.TROPOSPHERE
2.PRESSURE 2.STRATOSPHERE
3.WINDS 3.MESOSPHERE
4. HUMIDITY 4.THERMOSPHERE
5.CLOUDS 5.EXOSPHERE
6. PRECIPITATION

COMPOSITION
AND STRUCTURE
OF THE
ATMOSPHERE

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE NOTES

Atmosphere is described as the air that surrounds the earth. The thickness of the earth‘s atmosphere is about
480 kms. 99 percent of the thickness lies up to the height of 32 kms from the earth. With increasing altitude,
the air pressure decreases. The atmosphere has mixture of gases that sustains the life on earth. The earth
gravity helps holding the atmosphere in place. The major role of the atmosphere is to contain the entry of
ultraviolet rays.

The composition of the earth’s atmosphere is as mentioned below:

Nitrogen — 78 percent

Oxygen — 21 percent

Argon — 0.93 percent

Carbon dioxide — 0.04 percent

Trace amounts of neon, helium, methane, krypton and hydrogen, as well as water vapour is very less. The
atmosphere is comprised of several gases, dust particles, and water vapour. The presence of oxygen becomes
insignificant at the height of 120 km from the surface of the earth with respect to the composition of the
atmosphere. Water vapour and Carbon dioxide occur only up to 90 km.

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 Ozone gas - Present around 10-50 km above earth surface and acts as a sieve, absorbing UV (ultraviolet
rays) from the sun. Ozone averts the harmful rays from reaching the surface of the earth.

Water Vapour-Water vapour is a variable gas, declines with altitude. It also drops towards the poles from
the equator. It acts like a blanket letting the earth to neither to become too hot nor too cold. It also
contributes to the stability and instability in the air.

Dust particles- Dust particles are in higher concentration in temperate and subtropical regions due to dry
winds in contrast to the Polar Regions and equatorial regions. They act as hygroscopic nuclei over which
water vapour of atmosphere condenses to create clouds.

Nitrogen-The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen. Nitrogen cannot be used directly from the air.
Biotic things need nitrogen to make proteins. The Nitrogen Cycle is the way of supplying the required
nitrogen for living things.

Oxygen-The atmosphere is composed of 21% oxygen. It is used by all living things and is essential for
respiration. It is obligatory for burning.

Argon-The atmosphere is composed of 0.9% argon. They are mainly used in light bulbs.

Carbon Dioxide-The atmosphere is composed of 0.03% carbon dioxide. Plants use it to make oxygen. It is
significant as it is opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation and transparent to incoming solar radiation. It is
also blameable for the greenhouse effect.

The structure of the atmosphere is represented in a pictorial form below:

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Structure of the Atmosphere

There are five layers in the structure of the atmosphere depending upon temperature. These layers are:

Troposphere

Stratosphere

Mesosphere

Thermosphere

Exosphere

Troposphere-It is considered as the lowest layer of Earth‘s atmosphere. The troposphere starts at the
surface of the earth and goes up to a height of 8 kms (poles) to 18 kms (equator). The main reason of higher
height at the equator is due to presence of hot convection currents that push the gases upward. All kinds of
weather changes occurs within this layer. This layer has water vapour and mature particles. Temperature
decreases with increasing height of atmosphere at the rate of 1 degree Celsius for every 165 m of height.
This is called Normal lapse rate.

Tropopause, the transitional zone, separates Troposphere and Stratosphere.

Stratosphere-It is the second layer of the atmosphere found above the troposphere. It extends up to a height
of 50 km from the earth‘s surface. This layer is very dry as it contains little water vapour. This layer
provides some advantages for flight because it is above stormy weather and has steady, strong, horizontal
winds. The ozone layer is found in this layer. The ozone layer absorbs UV rays and safeguards earth from
harmful radiation.

Stratopause separates Stratosphere and Mesosphere.

Mesosphere The Mesosphere is found above the stratosphere. It is the coldest of the atmospheric layers.
The mesosphere starts at 50 km above the surface of Earth and goes up to 80 km.The temperature drops with
altitude in this layer. By 80 km it reaches -100 degrees Celsius. Meteors burn up in this layer.

The upper limit is called Mesopause which separates Mesosphere and Thermosphere.

Thermosphere-This layer is found above Mesopause from 80 to 400 km.Radio waves that are transmitted
from the earth are reflected by this layer. The temperature starts increasing again with increasing height in
this layer. Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.

Ionosphere-The lower Thermosphere is called the Ionosphere. The ionosphere consists of electrically
charged particles known as ions. This layer is defined as the layer of the atmosphere of Earth that is ionized
by cosmic and solar radiation. It is positioned between 80 and 400 km above the Mesopause.

Exosphere-It is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. The zone where molecules and atoms escape into
space is mentioned as the exosphere. It extends from the top of the thermosphere up to 10,000 km.

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 VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2M)

Question 1. What do you understand by atmosphere?

Answer:

The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and dust particles. The proportion of gases changes in
the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at the
height of 120 km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the surface
of the earth.

Question 2. What are the elements of weather and climate?

Answer:

Weather is conditions of temperature, humidity, pressure, etc at a given point of time while climate is
condition of these elements for a longer period of time. Following are the important elements of weather and
climate:

Question 3. How does the composition of air keep changing in upper layers of the earth?

Answer:

The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be
almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are found
only up to 90 km from the surface of the earth.

Question 4.Ozone is an important constituent of atmosphere How?

Answer:

Ozone is another important component of the atmosphere. It is found between 10 and 50 km above the
earth‘s surface and acts as a filter. It absorbs the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun. It prevents them
from reaching the surface of the earth.

Question 5. What do you mean by Tropopause?

Answer: The zone separating the troposphere from stratosphere is known as the Tropopause.

Question 6.What is an important feature of stratosphere?

Answer:

The stratosphere is found above the Tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km. One important feature
of the stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer. This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and shields life
on the earth from intense, harmful form of energy.

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Question 7. What is an important feature of troposphere?

Answer:

The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly
to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator. Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at
the equator because heat is transported to great heights by strong convectional currents. This layer contains
dust particles and water vapour. All changes in climate and weather take place in this layer. The temperature
in this layer decreases at the rate of 1 C for every 165m of height.

Question 8. Name the gases found in atmosphere.

Answer:

The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and dust particles. Nitrogen constitutes 78.8%, oxygen
contributes 20.94% and argon contributes 0.93% in atmosphere. Other gases include carbon dioxide, helium,
ozone, methane, hydrogen, krypton, xenon and neon, etc.

Question 9.Explain important features of ionosphere.

Answer:

The ionosphere is located between 80 and 400 km above the Mesopause. It contains electrically charged
particles known as ions, and hence, it is known as ionosphere. Radio waves transmitted from the earth are
reflected back to the earth by this layer. Temperature here starts increasing with height.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

(3M)

Question 1. What are the elements of weather and climate?

Answer:

Weather is conditions of temperature, humidity, pressure, etc. at a given point of time while climate is
condition of these elements for a longer period of time. Following are the important elements of weather and
climate: Temperature: It affects weather as well as climate. Pressure: Pressure keeps on decreasing with
increase in height. Wind: The flow of wind also affects weather and climate. Humidity: Clouds and rain are
important factors of climate.

Question 2. Describe the composition of atmosphere.

Answer:

The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and dust particles. Nitrogen constitutes 78.8%, oxygen
contributes 20.94% and argon contributes 0.93% in atmosphere. Other gases include carbon dioxide, helium,
ozone, methane, hydrogen, krypton, xenon and neon, etc. Nitrogen and oxygen together constitute 99% of

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the atmosphere. Neon, krypton, xenon are scarce gases. The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers
of the atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km.
Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the surface of the earth.

Question 3.Why is troposphere the most important of all the layers of the atmosphere?

Answer:

The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly
to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator. It is most important layer of the
atmosphere because: Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported to
great heights by strong convectional currents. This layer contains dust particles and water vapour. All
changes in climate and weather take place in this layer. The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of
1°C for every 165m of height. All biological activities take place in this layer.

Question 4.Write a short note on water vapours.

Answer:

Water vapour: The amount of water vapour decreases with the altitudes. In warm and wet tropics, it
accounts for 4% of the air by volume whereas in dry and cold areas of deserts and Polar Regions, it may be
less than 1% of the air. It also decreases from the equator towards the poles.

It absorbs parts of the insolation received from the sun and preserves the earth‘s radiated heat and thus acts
as a blanket by allowing the earth neither to become too hot nor too cold.

Question 5.Explain about dust particles.

Answer:

Dust particles: Dust particles are concentrated in the lower layers of the atmosphere but sometimes
conventional currents take them to the higher height. Dust particles include sea salts, fine soil, smoke, ashes,
pollens, dust, and disintegrated particles of meteors. Dust particles and salt particles act as hygroscopic
nuclei around which water condenses into water vapour to produce clouds. Dust particles produce optical
phenomenon which makes the sky look beautiful at dawn and dusk. Sky looks blue due to the presence of
dust particles and water vapour which are scattered in the

Question 6.What would happen if there is no ozone in the atmosphere?

Answer:

It is the special variety of oxygen gas which is found in small quantity in atmosphere between 10 to 15 km
above the earth surface. It acts as a filter and absorbs UV radiation from the sun and prevents them from
reaching the earth surface. If ozone is not there, then UV rays will reach the surface of the earth. There will
be extreme skin problems, instances of cancer and in all probabilities life would not have been possible on
the earth.

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Question 7. What is the role of dust particles in atmosphere?

Answer:

The atmosphere has sufficient capacity to keep small solid particles which may originate from different
sources and includes sea salts, fine soil, smoke soot, ash, polan, dust and disintegrated particles of meteors.
Dust and solid particles act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses to produce clouds.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5M)

Question 1.Write about elements of weather and climate in detail.

Answer:

The main elements of atmosphere which are subject to change and which influence human life on earth are
temperature, pressure, winds, humidity, clouds and precipitation. These elements act and react on each other.
These elements determine the direction and speed of wind, amount of sunlight received, cloud formation and
amount of rainfall. These in turn affect weather and climate. These factors behave differently in different
places. All these elements are affected by a number of factors in turn. For example, temperature is affected
by latitude and height; humidity is affected by distance from the sun and pressure is affected by height from
sea level.

Question 2.Write about the structure of atmosphere in detail.

Answer:

Structure of Atmosphere: The layers of atmosphere differ from one another with respect to density and
temperature. On the basis of chemical composition the atmosphere is mainly divided into

1. Homosphere 2.Hetrosphere

1. Homosphere. It extends up to 90 km.It is uniform in chemical composition. It consists of three

layers.A.Troposphere, B.Stratosphere, C.Mesosphere

Troposphere: Lower most layer of atmosphere. Average height is 13 km although it is roughly 8 km.The
thickness of troposphere is greater at equation due to upward transportations of heat by conventional
currents. This layer consists of dust particles and water vapours. The temperature decrease with height in
this layer at a rate l degree for every 165 m. this is known as Normal Lapse Rate. It is layer is important for
all biological activities besides that all climatic and weather conditions take place in this layer.

Tropopause: The upper limit of troposphere separating it from stratosphere is called Tropopause. It is very
unstable at a thin layer and very thin layers of 1.5 km thickness. The temperature of Tropopause is -80degree
centigrade censius at equator and -40 degree centigrade at poles. The jet planes at the other activities occur
in this layer.

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Stratosphere: It extends up to 50km. It is thicker at poles then at equator. The temperature is almost
constant in its lower portion up to 20 km and their it gradually increases up to 50 km due to the presence of
Ozone which absorbs UV rays. The temperature rises in the upper limits of the stratosphere as there are no
clouds, no conventional currents, no dust particles and the air moves in the horizontal direction. The upper‘
limit of stratosphere is called stratosphere which has concentration of Ozone gas.

Mesosphere: It extends from 50* to 90 km.Temperature decreases with height in this layer and false up to
minus 100 degree centigrade at a height of 80-90 km. this is due to the clouds in high latitudes. The upper
limit of Mesosphere is called as Mesopause.

2. Hetrosphere: It has heterogeneous chemical. It consist of two layers

Ionosphere and Exosphere

Ionosphere It extends from 80 to 400 km above the mesopause.It contains electrically charged particles
known as ions.

Exosphere. It is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere above the thermosphere.

SOURCED BASED QUESTIONS

1. Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:

The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and dust particles. Nitrogen constitutes 78.8%, oxygen
contributes 20.94% and argon contributes 0.93% in atmosphere. Other gases include carbon dioxide, helium,
ozone, methane, hydrogen, krypton, xenon and neon, etc. Nitrogen and oxygen together constitute 99% of
the atmosphere. Neon, krypton, xenon are scarce gases. The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers
of the atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km.
Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the surface of the earth. Carbon
dioxide is meteorologically a very important gas as it is transparent to the incoming solar radiation but
opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation. It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some
part of it towards the earth‘s surface. It is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect. Ozone is another
important component of the atmosphere. It is found between 10 and 50 km above the earth‘s surface and
acts as a filter. It absorbs the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun. It prevents them from reaching the
surface of the earth.
1. What do you understand by atmosphere?

Ans: The vast expanse of air which envelopes the earth all around is called atmosphere.

2. What is the importance of Ozone layer?

Ans. Ozone layer shields the earth from intense, harmful ultra violet rays

3. Why carbon di oxide is meteorologically a very important gas?

Ans. Because it is transparent to incoming solar radiation but opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation.

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1. Study the following graph and answer the questions that follow:

1. Which layer of atmosphere has the lowest temperature?

Ans: Mesopause
2. The temperature increases with altitude in which layers?
Ans: Stratosphere
3. Which layers of the atmosphere is most suitable for airplanes?
Ans: Stratosphere
4. The atmosphere of earth is bound to its surface by which of the following force?
Ans: Gravity

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 CHAPTER-9: SOLAR RADIATIONS, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE

Inversion of
temperature

Distribution of
TEMPERATURE
temperature

Factors controlling
temperature
SOLAR RADIATIONS ,HEAT
BALANCE AND
TEMPERATURE
1.Rotation of the earth
VARIABLES OF
2.The angle of inclination
INSULATION
3. Length of the day

HEAT BUDGET
OFTHE EARTH

SOLAR RADIATIONS, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE NOTES:

Insolation.

The earth‘s surface receives most of its energy in short wavelengths. The energy received by the earth is
known as incoming solar radiation which in short is termed as insolation.

As the earth is a Geoid resembling a sphere, the sun‘s rays fall obliquely at the top of the atmosphere and the
earth intercepts a very small portion of the sun‘s energy.

In an average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. cm per minute at the top of its atmosphere The solar
output received at the top of the atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the variations in the distance
between the earth and the sun. During its revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from the sun (152
million km) on 4th July. This position of the earth is called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest
to the sun (147 million km). This position is called perihelion. Therefore, the annual insolation received by
the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the amount received on 4th July. However, the effect of this
variation in the solar output is masked by other factors like the distribution of land and sea and the
atmospheric circulation. Hence, this variation in the solar output does not have great effect on daily weather
changes on the surface of the earth.

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Variability of Insolation at the Surface of the Earth

The amount and the intensity of insolation vary during a day, in a season and in a year. The factors that
cause these variations in insolation are

(i) The rotation of earth on its axis;

(ii) The angle of inclination of the sun‘s rays;

(iii) The length of the day;

(iv) The transparency of the atmosphere;

(v) The configuration of land in terms of its aspect.

The second factor that determines the amount of insolation received is the angle of inclination of the rays.
This depends on the latitude of a place. The higher the latitude the less is the angle they make with the
surface of the earth resulting in slant sunrays. The area covered by vertical rays is always less than that
covered by the slant rays. If more area is covered, the energy gets distributed and the net energy received per
unit area decreases. Moreover, the slant rays are required to pass through greater depth of the atmosphere
resulting in more absorption, scattering and diffusion.

The incoming radiation is not fully reached to the earth surface. Why?

1. The atmosphere is largely transparent to short wave solar radiation. The incoming solar radiation passes
through the atmosphere before striking the earth‘s surface.

2. Within the troposphere water vapour, ozone and other gases absorb much of the near infrared radiation.

3. Very small-suspended particles in the troposphere scatter visible spectrum both to the space and towards
the earth surface.

4. This process adds colour to the sky.

5. The red colour of the rising and the setting sun and the blue colour of the sky are the result of scattering of
light within the atmosphere.

Spatial Distribution of Insolation on the Earth‘s Surface

The insolation received at the surface varies from about 320 Watt/m in the tropics to about 70 Watt/min the
poles. Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical deserts, where the cloudiness is the least.
Equator receives comparatively less insolation than the tropics. Generally, at the same latitude the insolation
is more over the continent than over the oceans. In winter, the middle and higher latitudes receive less
radiation than in summer.

HEATING AND COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE

Name the ways of heating the atmosphere.

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1. Radiation 2. Conduction 3. Advection 4. Convection

1. Horizontal movement of the air is relatively more important than the vertical movement.

2. In middle latitudes, most of diurnal (day and night) variation in daily weather is caused by advection
alone.

3. In tropical regions particularly in northern India during summer season local winds called ‗loo‘ is the
outcome of advection process.

Terrestrial Radiation

1. The insolation received by the earth is in shortwaves forms and heats up its surface.

2. The earth after being heated itself becomes a radiating body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere in
long wave form.

3. This energy heats up the atmosphere from below.

4. This process is known as terrestrial radiation.

5. The long wave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon dioxide and the other
greenhouse gases. Thus, the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the earth‘s radiation. The atmosphere in turn
radiates and transmits heat to the space. Finally the amount of heat received from the sun is returned to
space, thereby maintaining constant temperature at the earth‘s surface and in the atmosphere.

INCOMING SOLAR RADIATION

1. Figure 9.2 depicts the heat budget of the planet earth. The earth as a whole does not accumulate or loose
heat. It maintains its temperature.

2. This can happen only if the amount of heat received in the form of insolation equals the amount lost by
the earth through terrestrial radiation.

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3. Consider that the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere is 100 percent.

4. While passing through the atmosphere some amount of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed.

5. Only the remaining part reaches the earth surface.

6. Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before reaching the earth‘s surface.

7. Of these, 27 units are reflected back from the top of the clouds

8. Only 2 units from the snow and ice-covered areas of the earth.

9. The remaining 65 units are absorbed,

10. 14 units within the atmosphere and 51 units by the earth‘s surface.

TERRESTRIAL RADIATION

1. The earth radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation.

2. 17 units are radiated to space directly

3. the remaining 34 units are absorbed by the atmosphere

4.6 units absorbed directly by the atmosphere,

5.9 units through convection and turbulence

6. 19 units through latent heat of condensation

7.48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (14 units from insolation +34 units from terrestrial radiation) are also
radiated back into space.

Thus, the total radiation returning from the earth and the atmosphere respectively is 17+48=65 units which
balance the total of 65 units received from the sun. This is termed the heat budget or heat balance of the
earth.

This explains why the earth neither warms up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of heat that takes
place.

What do you mean by ‗Albedo‘?

The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of the earth. Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the
Earth‘s Surface As explained earlier, there are variations in the amount of radiation received at the earth‘s
surface. Some part of the earth has surplus radiation balance while the other part has deficit.

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Figure 9.3 depicts the latitudinal variation in the net radiation balance of the earth the atmosphere system.
The figure shows that there is a surplus of net radiation balance between 40 degrees north and south and the
regions near the poles have a deficit. The surplus heat energy from the tropics is redistributed pole wards
and as a result the tropics do not get progressively heated up due to the accumulation of excess heat or the
high latitudes get permanently frozen due to excess deficit.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Temperature: The interaction of insolation with the atmosphere and the earth‘s surface creates heat which is
measured in terms of temperature. While heat represents the molecular movement of particles comprising a
substance, the temperature is the measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a place) is.

Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution

The temperature of air at any place is influenced by

(i) The latitude of the place;

(ii) The altitude of the place;

(iii) Distance from the sea, the air mass circulation;

(IV) The presence of warm and cold ocean currents;

(v) Local aspects.

1. The latitude: The temperature of a place depends on the insolation received. It has been explained earlier
that the insolation varies according to the latitude hence the temperature also varies accordingly.

2. The altitude: The atmosphere is indirectly heated by terrestrial radiation from below. Therefore, the
places near the sea-level record higher temperature than the places situated at higher elevations. In other
words, the temperature generally decreases with increasing height. The rate of decrease of temperature with
height is termed as the normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m.

3. Distance from the sea: Another factor that influences the temperature is the location of a place with
respect to the sea. Compared to land, the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat slowly. Land heats up and

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cools down quickly. Therefore, the variation in temperature over the sea is less compared to land. The places
situated near the sea come under the moderating influence of the sea and land breezes which moderate the
temperature.

4. Air-mass: Like the land and sea breezes, the passage of air masses also affects the temperature. The
places, which come under the influence of warm air-masses experience higher temperature and the places
that come under the influence of cold air masses experience low temperature.

5 .Ocean Currents: Similarly, the places located on the coast where the warm ocean currents flow record
higher temperature than the places located on the coast where the cold currents flow.

Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature.

Fig no. 9.4 (a) distribution of surface temperature in the month of January Figure 9.4 (a) and (b) show the
distribution of surface air temperature in the month of January and July.

1. In general the effect of the latitude on temperature is well pronounced on the map,

2. The isotherms are generally parallel to the latitude.

3. The deviation from this general trend is more pronounced in January than in July, especially in the
northern hemisphere.

4. In the northern hemisphere the land surface area is much larger than in the southern hemisphere.

5. Hence, the effects of land mass and the ocean currents are well pronounced. In January the isotherms
deviate to the north over the ocean and to the south over the continent. This can be seen on the North
Atlantic Ocean.

INVERSION OF TEMPERATURE

Normally, temperature decreases with increase in elevation. It is called normal lapse rate. At times, the
situations are reversed and the normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called Inversion of temperature. Inversion
is usually of short duration but quite common nonetheless. A long winter night with clear skies and still air
is ideal situation for inversion. The heat of the day is radiated off during the night, and by early morning
hours, the earth is cooler than the air above.

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 VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
((2M
Question 1. What factors affect the temperature of a place?

Answer: The temperature of air at any place is influenced by

1. the latitude of the place;

2. the altitude of the place;
3. distance from the sea, the air- mass circulation;
4. the presence of warm and cold ocean currents;
5. Local aspects.

Question 2. What is terrestrial radiation?

Answer: The insolation received by the earth is in short wave forms and heats up its surface. The earth after
being heated itself becomes a radiating body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere in long wave form.
This energy heats up the atmosphere from below. This process is known as terrestrial radiation.

Question3. What are the causes behind loo in tropical regions?

Answer: In tropical regions particularly in northern India during summer season local winds called ‗loo‘ is
the outcome of advection process.

Question 4. Why does sun look red during rising and setting and why does sky look blue?

Answer: Within the troposphere water vapour, ozone and other gases absorb much of the near infrared
radiation. Very small- suspended particles in the troposphere scatter visible spectrum both to the space and
towards the earth surface. This process adds colour to the sky. The red colour of the rising and the setting
sun and the blue colour of the sky are the result of scattering light of the atmosphere.

Question 5. How does some amount of energy is reflected to the atmosphere? Or what is albedo?

Answer: While passing through the atmosphere some amount of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed.
Only the remaining part reaches the earth surface. The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of
the earth.

Question 6. How do sunrays while passing through atmosphere gets absorbed?

Answer: Out of 100% received, 65 units are absorbed, 14 units within the atmosphere and 51 units by the
earth‘s surface. The earth radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation. Of these, 17 units are
radiated to space directly and the remaining 34 units are absorbed by the atmosphere (6 units absorbed
directly by the atmosphere, 9 units through convection and turbulence and 19 units through latent heat of
condensation).

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Question7. Atmosphere gets heated up indirectly by terrestrial radiation and not directly by sunrays.
Explain.

Answer: The long wave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon dioxide and
the other greenhouse gases. Thus, the atmosphere is indirectly acted by the earth‘s radiation. The atmosphere
in turn radiates and transmits heat to the space. Finally, the amount of heat received from the sun is returned
to space, thereby maintaining constant temperature at the earth‘s surface and in the atmosphere.

Question8. What is meant by insolation?

Answer: The earth‘s surface receives most of its energy in short wavelengths. The energy received by the
earth‘s is known as incoming solar radiation which in short is termed as insolation.

Question 9.Differentiate between Perihelion and Aphelion.

Answer: During its revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from the sun, on 4th July. This position of
earth is called Aphelion. And on 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to the sun. This position is called
Perihelion.

Question 10. Why the annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd January is more than that of 4th July?

Answer: The solar output received at the top of atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the variations in
the distance between the earth and the sun. Therefore, the annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd
January is more than the amount received on 4th July.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3M)

Question 1.What is inversion of temperature? When and in what regions does it take place?

Answer: At times, the situations are reversed and the normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called Inversion of
temperature. Inversion is usually of short duration but quite common nonetheless. A long winter night with
clear skies and still air is ideal situation for inversion. The heat of the day is radiated off during the night,
and by early morning hours, the earth is‘ cooler than the air above. Over polar areas, temperature inversion
is normal throughout the year. Surface inversion promotes stability in the lower layers of the atmosphere.

Smoke and dust particles get collected beneath the inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill the lower
strata of the atmosphere. Dense fogs in mornings are common occurrences especially during winter season.
This inversion commonly lasts for few7 hours until the sun comes up and beings to warm the earth. The
inversion takes place in hills and mountains due to air drainage.

Question2. How does the energy received in upper layer of the atmosphere keep changing at different times
of the year?

Answer: The solar output received at the top of the atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the variations
in the distance between the earth and the sun. During its revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from
the sun (152 million km) on 4th July. This position of the earth is called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth
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is the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This position is called perihelion. Therefore, the annual insolation
received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the amount received on 4th July.

However, the effect of this variation in the solar output is masked by other factors like the distribution of
land and sea, and the atmospheric circulation. Hence, this variation in the solar output does not have great
effect on daily weather changes on the surface of the earth.

Question3. How does the amount of insolation received depend on the angle of inclination of the rays?

Answer: The amount of insolation received depends on the angle of inclination of the rays. It depends on the
latitude of a place. The higher the latitude the less is the angle they make with the surface of the earth
resulting in slant sunrays. The area covered by vertical rays is always less than the slant rays. If more area is
covered, the energy gets distributed and the net energy received per unit area decreases. Moreover, the slant
rays are required to pass through greater depth of the atmosphere resulting in more absorption, scattering
and diffusion.

Question 4.Explain about spatial distribution of insolation on the earth‘s surface.

Answer: The insolation received at the surface varies from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to about 70
Watt/m2 in the poles. Maximum latitude insolation is received over the subtropical deserts, where the
cloudiness is the least. Equator receives comparatively less insolation than the tropics. Generally, at the
same latitude the insolation is more over the continent than over the oceans. In winter, the middle and higher
latitudes receive less radiation than in summer.

Question5.Explain the distribution of temperature in July.

Answer: Distribution of temperature in July

During this period the sun shines vertically overhead near the tropic of cancer. It is summer for the northern
hemisphere and winters for the southern hemisphere.

In the northern hemisphere the isotherm bends equator wards while crossing the oceans and pole wards
‗while crossing the landmass. In the southern hemisphere it is vice-versa.

The isotherms are most irregular and zigzag in northern hemisphere on the other hand the isotherms are
relatively more regular and straight in southern hemisphere.

Maximum temperature of about 30 degree centigrade occurs entirely in the northern hemisphere between
10° and 40° north latitude however the lowest temperature below 0° C is recorded over northern hemisphere
in the central parts of green land.

Question6. Explain the factors affecting insolation at the surface of earth.

Answer: The factors affecting insolation at the surface of earth are:-

1. The rotation of earth on its axis: The fact that the earth on its axis makes an angle of 6614 with the plane
of its orbit round the sun has a greater influence on the amount of insolation received at different latitudes.

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2. The angle of inclination of the sunrays: The higher the latitude the greater is the angle they make with the
surface of the earth resulting in slant sunrays. The areas covered by vertical rays are always less than the
slant rays. If more areas is covered the energy gets distributed and the net energy received per unit area
decreases. Thus, the slant rays are required to pass through greater depth of the atmosphere resulting in more
absorption, scattering and diffusion.

3. The transparency of the atmosphere: The atmosphere is largely transparent to the short wave solar
radiation. The incoming solar radiation passes through the atmosphere before striking the earth‘s surface.
Within the troposphere water vapour, ozone and other gases absorb much of the near infrared radiation.

4. The configuration of land in terms of its aspect: The insolation received at the surface varies from about
320 watt/ m2 in the poles. Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical deserts, when the cloudiness
is the least. Equator receives less rainfall as compared to tropics

Question7.Distribution of temperature in the month of July.

Answer: During this period the sun shines vertically overhead near tropic of cancer it is the summer for
northern hemisphere and winter for southern hemisphere.

The isotherms are relatively more regular and straight in southern hemisphere.

Maximum temperature of over 30°C occurs entirely in northern hemisphere between 10° and 40°
temperature below 0° C is recorded over northern hemisphere in the central parts of Greenland.

Question 8.Explain the distribution of temperature in January.

Answer: 1. In January the isotherms deviate to north over the ocean and to the south over the continent. This
can be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean.2. The pressure of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream and north
Atlantic drift, make the northern Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms bend towards the north.3. Over
the land the temperature decreases sharply and the isotherms bend towards south in Europe.4. It is much
pronounced in the Siberian plan. The mean January temperature along 60° E longitude is minus 20° both at
80° N and 50° N latitude. The mean monthly temperature for January is over 27° C in equatorial oceans over
24°C in the tropics and 2° C- 0° C in middle latitudes and -18° C to -48° C in Eurasian continental interior.5.
The effect of the ocean in well pronounced in southern hemisphere. Here, the isotherms are more or less
parallel to latitudes and the variations in temperature are more gradual than in the northern hemisphere. The
isotherm of 20°C, 10°C, and 0°C run parallel to 35°S, 45° and 60°S latitudes respectively.

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 LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5M)

Question1.Explain about inversion of temperature.

Answer:

At times, the situations are reversed and the normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called inversion of
temperature. Inversion is usually of short duration but quite common nonetheless. A long winter night with
clear skies and still air is ideal situation for inversion. The heat of the day is radiated off during the night,
and by early morning hours, the earth is cooler than the air above.

Over polar areas, temperature inversion is normal throughout the year. Surface inversion promotes stability
in the lower layers of the atmosphere. Smoke and dust particles get collected beneath the inversion layer and
spread horizontally to fill the lower strata of the atmosphere. Dense fogs in mornings are common
occurrences especially during winter season. This inversion commonly lasts for few hours until the sun
comes up and beings to warm the earth. The inversion takes place in hills and mountains due to air drainage.

Question 2.Explain the heating and the cooling mechanism of atmosphere.

Or

Discuss the process through which earth and the atmosphere system maintain heat balance.

Answer: (a) Conduction: The earth after being heated by insolation transmits the heat to the atmospheric
layers near to the earth in long wave form. The air in contact with the land gets heated slowly and the upper
layers in contact with the lower layers also get heated. Conduction takes place when two bodies of unequal
temperature are in contact with one another; there is a flow of energy from the warmer to cooler body. The
transfer of heat continues until both the bodies attain the same temperature or the contact is broken.
Conduction is important in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere.

(b) Convection: The air in contact with the earth rises vertically on heating in the form of currents and
further transmits the heat of the atmosphere. This vertical heating of atmosphere is known as convection.
The convection transfer of energy is confined only to the troposphere.

(c) Advection: The transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air is called advection. Horizontal
movement of the air is relatively more important than the vertical movement. In tropical regions particularly
in northern India during summer season local winds called ‗loo‘ is the outcome of advection process.

Question 3.Explain about heat budget of the earth.

Answer: The earth receives almost all of its energy from the sun. The earth in turn radiates back to space the
energy received from the sun. As a result, the earth neither warms up nor does it get cooled over a period of
time. Thus, the amount of heat received by different parts of the earth is not the same. This variation causes
pressure differences in the atmosphere. This leads to transfer of heat from one region to the other by winds.
The insolation received at the top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. While passing through the atmosphere

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some amount of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed. Only the remaining part reaches the earth
surface.

Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before reaching the earth‘s surface. Of these, 27 units are
reflected back from the top of the clouds and 2 units from the snow and ice- covered areas of the earth. The
reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of the earth. The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14 units
within the atmosphere and 51 units by the earth‘s surface. The earth radiates back 51 units in the form of
terrestrial radiation. Of these, 17 units are radiated to space directly and the remaining 34 units are absorbed
by the atmosphere (6 units absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units through convection and turbulence
and 19 units through latent heat of condensation). 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (14 units from
insolation +34 emits from terrestrial radiation) are radiated back into space.

SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS

There are different ways of heating and cooling of the atmosphere. The earth after being heated by insolation
transmits the heat to the atmospheric layers near to the earth in long wave form. The air in contact with the
land gets heated slowly and upper layers in contact with the lower layers also gets heated. This process is
called Conduction. : When two bodies of unequal temperatures are in contact with one another, there is a
flow of energy in the form of heat from warmer to cooler body. The layer of air resting upon the warmer
earth becomes heated by the process of conduction. The actual conduction during the course of the day
affects only the lowest layer of the atmosphere.Conduction.is important in heating the lower layers of
atmosphere. The air in contact with the earth rises vertically on heating in the form of currents and further
transmits of the atmosphere. The convective transfer of energy is confined only to the atmosphere. The
transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air is called advection. Horizontal movement of the air is
relatively more important than the vertical movement. In middle latitudes, most of diurnal (day and night)
variation in daily weather is caused by advection. alone. In tropical regions particularly in Northern India
during summer season, local winds called Loo is the outcome of advection process. The insolation received
by the earth is in short wave‘s forms and heat up it ‗surface. The earth after being heated itself becomes a
radiating body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere in long wave form. This energy heats up the
atmosphere from below. This process is known as terrestrial radiation. The long wave radiation is absorbed
by the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon dioxide and other green -house gases. Thus, the atmosphere
is indirectly heated by earth‘s radiation. The atmosphere in turn radiates and transmits heat to space. Finally
the amount of heat received from the sun is returned to space, thereby maintaining constant temperature at
the earth‘s surface and in the atmosphere.

Answer the following questions:

1. The earth after being heated by insolation transmits the heat to the atmospheric layers near to the
earth in the form of which radiation?
Ans: Long wave radiation.
2. In which of the process there is a flow of energy from the warmer to cooler body?
Ans: Conduction
3. What is known as Vertical heating of atmosphere?
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 Ans: Convection
4. What is called the transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air ?
Ans: Advection
5. The atmosphere is mainly heated by which process?
Ans: Long wave terrestrial radiation

2. Study the following graph and answer the questions that follows:

2.1 What amount of radiation is reflected back to the outer space directly without reaching the surface?
Ans: 35 units
2.2 What is the total amount of terrestrial radiation originating from the surface of the earth?
Ans: 51 units
2.3 What is the total amount of energy that passes through the earth‘s atmosphere?
Ans: 65 units
2.4 How much solar insolation is directly absorbed by the atmosphere?
Ans: 34 units

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 CHAPTER 10: ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER
SYSTEM

ATMOSPHERIC
CIRCULATION
AND WEATHER
SYSTEM

FORCES GENERAL
ATMOSPHERIC AFFECTING THE CIRCULATION OF
PRESSURE VELOCITY AND THE
WIND DIRECTION ATMOSPHERE

1.Pressure gradient 1. Permanent wind

VERTICAL HORIZONTAL 2. Frictional 2.Seasonal wind
VARIATION OF VARIATION OF
PRESSURE PRESSURE 3. Coriolis 3. Local wind
4.Cyclones

ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEM

NOTES
The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere
is called the atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is expressed in units of milibar. At sea level the
average atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 milibar. Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser and hence has
higher pressure. Air pressure is measured with the help of a mercury barometer or the aneroid barometer.
The pressure decreases with height. At any elevation, it varies from place to place and its variation is the
primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind which moves from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.

Vertical Variation of Pressure

In the lower atmosphere, the pressure decreases rapidly with height. The decrease amounts to about 1mb for
each 10 m increase in elevation. It does not always decrease at the same rate. The verticals pressure gradient
force is much larger than of the horizontal pressure gradient. But, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal
but opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not experience strong upward winds.

Horizontal Distribution of Pressure

Small differences in pressure are highly significant in terms of the wind direction and velocity. Horizontal
distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels. Isobars are lines connecting places

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having equal pressure. In order to eliminate the effect of altitude on pressure, it is measured at any station
after being reduced to sea level for purposes of comparison.

World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure

The world distribution of sea level pressure in January and July has been shown in Figures 10.2 and 10.3.
Near the equator the sea level pressure is low and the area is known as equatorial low. Along 30° N and 30
°S found the high-pressure areas known as the subtropical highs. Further pole wards along 60°N and 60°S,
the low-pressure belts are termed as the sub polar lows. Near the poles the pressure is high and it is known
as the polar high. These pressure belts are not permanent in nature. They oscillate with the apparent
movement of the sun. In the northern hemisphere in winter they move southwards and in the summer
northwards. Forces Affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind You already know that the air is set in
motion due to the differences in atmospheric pressure.

The air in motion is called wind. The wind blows from high pressure to low pressure, addition; rotation of
the earth also affects the wind movement. The force exerted by the rotation of the earth is known as the
Coriolis force. The horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the combined effect of three forces –
the pressure gradient force, the frictional force and the Carioles’ force. In addition, the gravitational
force acts downward. The differences in atmospheric pressure produce a force. The rate of change of
pressure with respect to distance is the pressure gradient. The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars
are close to each other and is weak where the isobars are apart.

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 General circulation of the atmosphere

The pattern of planetary winds largely depends on:

(i) Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;

(ii) Emergence of pressure belts;

(iii) The migration of belts following apparent path of the sun;

(iv) The distribution of continents and oceans;

(v) The rotation of earth.

The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is called the general circulation of the atmosphere. The
general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water circulation which influences the
earth‘s climate. A schematic description of the general circulation is shown in Figure 10.6. The air at the
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection caused by high insolation and a low
pressure is created. The winds from the tropics converge at this low pressure zone. The converged air rises
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along with the convective cell. It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km. and moves
towards the poles. This causes accumulation of air at about 30 N and S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to
the ground and forms a subtropical high. Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 30
N and S latitudes. Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the easterlies. The
easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).Such
circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is called
Hadley Cell. In the middle latitudes, the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and
the rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high. At the surface, these winds are called westerlies
and the cell is known as the polar cell. Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most important in terms
of general atmospheric circulation. The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts towards South
American coast and replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such appearance of warm water off the coast of Peru
is known as the El Nino. The El Nino event is closely associated with the pressure changes in the Central
Pacific and Australia. This change in pressure condition over Pacific is known as the southern oscillation.
The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and El Nino is known as ENSO. In the years when the
ENSO is strong, large-scale variations in weather occur over the world. The arid west coast of South
America receives heavy rainfall; drought occurs in Australia and sometimes in India and floods in China.
This phenomenon is closely monitored and is used for long range forecasting in major parts of the world.

Seasonal Winds

The pattern of wind circulation is modified indifferent seasons due to the shifting of regions of maximum
heating, pressure and wind belts. The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in the monsoons,
especially over Southeast Asia.

Land and Sea Breezes

As explained earlier, the land and sea absorb and transfer heat differently. During the day the land heats up
faster and becomes warmer than the sea. Therefore, over the land the air rises giving rise to a low pressure
area, whereas the sea is relatively cool and the pressure over sea is relatively high. Thus, pressure gradient
from sea to land is created and the wind blows from the sea to the land as the sea breeze. In the night the
reversal of condition takes place. The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea. The pressure gradient
is from the land to the sea and hence land breeze results.

Mountain and Valley Winds

In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and to fill the
resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known as the valley breeze. During
the night the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as the mountain wind. The cool air,
of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is called katabatic wind. Another type of warm
wind occurs on the leeward side of the mountain ranges. The moisture in these winds, while crossing the
mountain ranges condenses and precipitates. When it descends down the leeward side of the slope the dry air
gets warmed up by adiabatic process. This dry air may melt the snow in a short time.

The air masses are classified according to the source regions. There are five major source regions. These are:

(i) Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;

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(ii) The subtropical hot deserts;

(iii) The relatively cold high latitude oceans;

(iv) The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes;

(v) Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica. Accordingly, following types of air
masses are recognised:

(i) Maritime tropical (mT);(ii) Continental tropical (cT);(iii) Maritime polar (mP);

(iv) Continental polar (cP);(iv) Continental arctic (cA).

(v) Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are cold

FRONTS: When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone between them is called a front. The
process of formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis. There are four types of fronts: (a) Cold ;(b)
Warm;(c) Stationary;(d) Occluded.

When the front remains stationary, it is called a stationary front. When the cold air moves towards the warm
air mass, its contact zone is called the cold front, whereas if the warm air mass moves towards the cold air
mass, the contact zone is a warm front. If an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface, it is called the
occluded front.

Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and large scale destruction caused by
violent winds, very heavy rainfall, and storm surges. This is one of the most devastating natural calamities. They are
known as Cyclones in the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western Pacific and South China
Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia.Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans.

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The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are:

(i) Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27°C;

(ii) Presence of the Coriolis force;

(iii) Small variations in the vertical wind speed;

(iv) A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation;

(v) Upper divergence above the sea level system.

The energy that intensifies the storm, comes from the condensation process in the towering cumulonimbus clouds,
surrounding the centre of the storm. With continuous supply of moisture from the sea, the storm is further
strengthened. On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and the storm dissipates. The place where a
tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the cyclone. The cyclones, which cross 20 N latitude
generally, reserve and they are more destructive.

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2M)

Question 1.How many types of fronts are there?

Answer: There are four types of fronts: Cold, Warm, Stationary and Occluded.

Question 2.What do you mean by extra tropical cyclones?

Answer: The systems developing in the mid and high latitude, beyond the tropics are called the middle
latitude or extra tropical cyclones.

Question3. How do front affect weather and what is their important feature?

Answer: The important feature of fronts is that they occur in middle latitudes and are characterised by steep
gradient in temperature and pressure. They bring abrupt changes in temperature and cause the air to rise to
form clouds and cause precipitation.

Question 4.By which different names are tropical cyclones known?

Answer: They are known as Cyclones in the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the
Western Pacific and South China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia.

Question5. What is Coriolis force?

Answer: The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is called the
Coriolis force after the French physicist who described it in 1844.

Question 6.At what rate does pressure decrease with rise in height?

Answer: In the lower atmosphere, the pressure decreases rapidly with height. The decrease amounts to about
1 mb for each 10 m increase in elevation. It does not always decrease at the same rate.
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Question 7.How do the horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the combined effect of forces?

Answer: The horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the combined effect of three forces — the
pressure gradient force, the frictional force and the Coriolis force.

Question8. What is low pressure system?

Answer: Low- pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre.

Question 9.What is high pressure system?

Answer: High-pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure in the centre.

Question 10.What is polar cell?

Answer: At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as
the polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.

Question11.What is ferrel cell?

Answer: In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the
rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high. At the surface these winds are called westerlies and the
cell is known as the Ferrel cell.

Question12.What is the causes behind differences in atmospheric pressure?

Answer: Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variations in the
atmospheric pressure.

Question13. What determines the pattern of general circulation of the atmosphere?

Answer: The three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere: Hadley Cell; Ferrel Cell
and Polar Cell.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3M)

Question1. What are winds? Explain different types of winds.

Answer: Wind is the flow of a huge amount of air, usually from a high pressure area to a low pressure area.

These are the types of wind:

Seasonal wind: The wind pattern keeps on changing in different seasons due to the shifting of regions of
maximum heating, pressure and wind belts.

Local wind: Due to the differences in the heating and cooling of earth surfaces and the cycles those develop
daily or annually can create several common, local or regional winds.

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Mountain and valley wind: In valley regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope
and to fill the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley.

Question2. What is air mass? In how many categories are air masses categorized on the basis of their source
regions?

Answer: The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an air mass.
In other words, it is defined as a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and
moisture. The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions. The air
masses are classified according to the source regions into five major source regions. These are:

Warm tropical and subtropical oceans: Maritime tropical (mT);

The subtropical hot deserts: Continental tropical (cT);

The relatively cold high latitude oceans: Maritime polar (mP);

The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes: Continental polar (cP);

Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica: Continental arctic (cA).

Question 3.What is a front? How many types of front are there? Explain all of them.

Answer: When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone between them is called a front. The process
of formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis. There are four types of fronts: Cold; Warm; Stationary;
Occluded.

Stationary front: When the front remains stationary, it is called a stationary front.

Cold front: When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is called the cold front,

Warm front: If the warm air mass moves towards the cold air mass, the contact zone is a warm front.

Occluded front: If an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface, it is called the occluded front.

The fronts occur in middle latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient in temperature and pressure.
They bring abrupt changes in temperature and cause the air to rise to form clouds and cause precipitation.

Question 4.What do you mean by geostrophic wind? On what factors does their pattern depend?

Answer: When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by
the Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as the geostrophic
wind.

The pattern of these winds largely depends on: Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;

Emergence of pressure belts; The migration of belts following apparent path of the sun;

The distribution of continents and oceans; The rotation of earth.

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Question5. What is a tropical cyclone? Give its two examples. What are the favourable conditions for its
formation?

Answer: Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move over to
the coastal areas bringing about large scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall and
storm surges. This is one of the most devastating natural calamities. Cyclones in the Indian Ocean and
Hurricanes in the Atlantic are its biggest examples. Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm
tropical oceans. The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are: Large
sea surface with temperature higher than 27 C; Presence of the Coriolis force; Small variations in the
vertical wind speed; A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation; Upper
divergence above the sea level system.

Question6. Explain about mountain and valley winds.

Answer: In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and to fill
the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known as the valley breeze.
During the night the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as the mountain wind. The
cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is called katabatic wind. Another type of
warm wind occurs on the leeward side of the mountain ranges. The moisture in these winds, while crossing
the mountain ranges condenses and precipitates. When it descends down the leeward side of the slope the
dry air gets warmed up by adiabatic process. This dry air may melt the snow in a short time.

Question7.What is atmospheric pressure? Explain about different atmospheric belts.

Or

Explain horizontal distribution of atmospheric pressure on the earth.

Answer: The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the
atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is expressed in units of millibar. At
sea level the average atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 millibar. Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser
and hence has higher pressure.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5M)

Questio1. Write a detailed note on tornado.

Answer: Meaning: A thunderstorm is a well- grown cumulonimbus cloud producing thunder and lightning.
When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are formed and they come
down as hailstorm. If there is insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can generate dust- storms. A
thunderstorm is characterised by intense updraft of rising warm air, which causes the clouds to grow bigger
and rise to greater height. This causes precipitation. Later, downdraft brings down to earth the cool air and
the rain. From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling wind descends like a trunk of an elephant with
great force, with very low pressure at the centre, causing massive destruction on its way. Such a
phenomenon is called a tornado. Features:
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Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes. The tornado over the sea is called water spouts.

These violent storms are the manifestation of the atmosphere‘s adjustments to varying energy distribution.
The potential and heat energies are converted into kinetic energy in these storms and the restless atmosphere
again returns to its stable state.

Question2. Write a detailed note on Coriolis force.

Answer: The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is called the
Coriolis force after the French physicist who described it in 1844. It deflects the wind to the right direction
in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The deflection is more when the wind
velocity is high. The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the
poles and is absent at the equator.

The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient force is
perpendicular to an isobar. The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the velocity of the wind and
the larger is the deflection in the direction of wind. As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to
each other, in the low-pressure areas the wind blows around it. At the equator, the Coriolis force is zero and
the wind blows perpendicular to the isobars. The low pressure gets filled instead of getting intensified.
Differentiate between vertical variation of pressure and horizontal distribution of atmospheric pressure on
earth. Vertical variation of pressure: In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases rapidly with height. The
decrease amounts to about 1 mb for each 10 m increase in elevation. It does not always decrease at the same
rate. Horizontal Distribution of Pressure: Small differences in pressure are highly significant in terms of the
wind direction and purposes of comparison. The sea level pressure distribution is shown on weather maps.
Low- pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre. High-
pressure system is also enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure in the centre. The vertical
pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal pressure gradient. But, it is generally
balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not experience strong upward
winds.

Question3.What factors affect direction and velocity of winds?

Answer: Air is set in motion due to the differences in atmospheric pressure. The air in motion is called wind.
The wind blows from high pressure to low pressure. The wind at the surface experiences friction. Following
factors affect the direction and velocity of winds.

1. Pressure gradient force: The differences in atmospheric pressure produce a force. The rate of change of
pressure with respect to distance is the pressure gradient.

2. Frictional force: It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at the surface and its influence generally
extends up to an elevation of 1 – 3 km. Over the sea surface the friction is minimal.

3. Coriolis force: The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is called
the Coriolis force after the French physicist who described it in 1844. In addition, rotation of the earth also
affects the wind movement. The force exerted by the rotation of the earth is known as the Coriolis force.

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4. Pressure and wind: The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating forces.
The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2-3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of the surface
and are controlled mainly by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force. When isobars are straight and
when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force and the resultant wind
blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.

Question4. What are the features of El-Nino?

Answer: EI-Nino is a complex weather system that appears once every three to seven years, bringing
drought, floods and other weather extremes to different parts of the world.

Features: The system involves oceanic and atmospheric phenomena with the appearance of warm currents
off the coast of Peru in the Eastern Pacific and affects weather in many places including India. EI-Nino is
merely an extension of the warm equatorial current which gets replaced temporarily by cold Peruvian
current or Humboldt current. This current increases the temperature of water on the Peruvian coast by 10 C.

This results in: The distortion of equatorial atmospheric circulation; Irregularities in the evaporation of sea
water; Reduction in the amount of planktons which further reduce the number of fish in the sea.

Question5. Draw a simplified diagram to show the general circulation of the atmosphere over the globe.
What are the possible reasons for the formation of subtropical high pressure over 30° N and S latitudes?

Answer: The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water circulation which
influences the earth‘s climate. The general circulation of the atmosphere also affects the oceans. The large-
scale winds of the atmosphere initiate large and slow-moving currents of the ocean, which in turn provide
input of energy and water vapour into the air.

These interactions take place rather slowly over a large part of the ocean. The air at the Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection caused by high insolation and a low pressure is
created. The winds from the tropics converge at this low-pressure zone. The converged air rises along with
the convective cell. It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km. and moves towards the
poles. This causes accumulation of air at about 30° N and S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground
and forms a subtropical high. Another reason. for sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 30° N and S
latitudes.

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 SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS

Q1. Read the extract given below and answer the questions follows:

General Atmospheric Circulation and its Effects on Oceans Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is
most important in terms of general atmospheric circulation. The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean
slowly drifts towards South American coast and replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such appearance warm
water off the coast of Peru is known as the El Nino. The El Nino event is closely associated with the
pressure changes in the Central Pacific and Australia. This change in pressure condition over Pacific is
known as the southern oscillation. The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and El Nino is known
as ENSO. In the years when the ENSO is strong, large-scale variations in weather occur over the world. The
arid west coast of South America receives heavy rainfall; drought occurs in Australia and sometimes in India
and floods in China. This phenomenon is closely monitored and is used for long range forecasting in major
parts of the world.

Q1a. The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifted towards which coast?

Ans: South American coast

Q1b. Appearance of warm water off the coast of Peru is known as-

Ans: ELNINO

Q1c. The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and El Nino is known as-

Ans: ENSO

Q1d. The El Nino event is closely associated with which place?

Ans: Central pacific and Australia

Q2. Read the extract given below and answer the questions follows:

The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection caused by high
insolation and a low pressure is created. The winds from the tropics converge at this low pressure zone. The
converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of
14 km. and moves towards the poles. This causes accumulation of air at about 30o N and S. Part of the
accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high. Another reason for sinking is the cooling
of air when it reaches 30o N and S latitudes. Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the
equator as the easterlies. The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa are called cells. Such
a cell in the tropics is called Hadley Cell. In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold air
that comes from the poles and the rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high. At the surface these
winds are called westerlies and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell. At polar latitudes the cold dense air
subsides near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the polar easterlies. This cell is called the

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polar cell. These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere. The transfer of heat
energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the general circulation.

Q2a.Why he air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises?

Ans: convection caused by high insolation

Q2b. The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the ______.

Ans: ITCZ

Q2c. Cell in the tropics is called-

Ans: Hadley cell

Q2d. The pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere is set by_____.

Ans: Hadley Cell, Ferrel Cell &Polar Cell

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 CHAPTER 11: WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

PRECIPITATION CONDENSATION

FORMS OF
FORMS OF CLOUDS FORMS OF
PRECIPITATION
RAINFALL 1. Cirrus CONDENSATION
1. Snowfall
1. Convectional 2.Cumulous 1. Dew
2. Sleet
2. Orographic 3. Stratus 2. Frost
3. Hailstorms
3. Cyclonic 4. Nimbus 3. Frost and mist
4. Rainfall

WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE NOTES

The air contains water vapour. It varies from zero to four per cent by volume of the atmosphere and plays an
important role in the weather phenomena.

Water is present in the atmosphere in three forms namely—gaseous, liquid and solid.

The moisture in the atmosphere is derived from water bodies through evaporation and from plants through
transpiration. Thus, there is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the oceans and the
continents through the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation.

The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated. It means that
the air at the given temperature is incapable of holding any additional amount of moisture at that stage. The
temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as dew point.

The ability of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature. The absolute humidity
differs from place to place on the surface of the earth. The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere
as compared to its full capacity at a given temperature is known as the relative humidity. With the change
of air temperature, the capacity to retain moisture increases or decreases and the relative humidity is also
affected. It is greater over the oceans and least over the continents.

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Movement of air replaces the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer. Hence, the greater the movement of
air, the greater is the evaporation.

The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation. Condensation is caused by the loss of
heat. When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity to hold water vapour ceases.
Condensation also takes place when the moist air comes in contact with some colder object and it may also
take place when the temperature is close to the dew point. After condensation the moisture of atmosphere or
humidity gets converted into dew, fog, mist, frost and clouds.

The ideal conditions for formation of dew are clear sky, calm air, high relative humidity, and cold and long
nights.

Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point (0°C), i.e. the dew point is
at or below the freezing point.

The only difference between the mist and fog is that mist contains more moisture than the fog. In mist each
nuclei contains a thicker layer of moisture.

Fogs are drier than mist and they are prevalent where warm currents of air come in contact with cold
currents. Fogs are mini clouds in which condensation takes place around nuclei provided by the dust, smoke,
and the salt particles.

Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the water
vapour in free air at considerable elevations. According to their height, expanse, density and transparency or
opaqueness clouds are grouped under four types :cirrus, cumulus ,stratus ,nimbus. Cirrus clouds are formed
at high altitudes (8,000-12,000m). They are thin and detached clouds having a feathery appearance. They are
always white in colour. Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They are generally formed at a height
of4,000-7,000 m. They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there. They have a flat base.
Stratus are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky. These clouds are generally formed either due to
loss of heat or the mixing of air masses with different temperatures. Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray.
They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of the earth.

On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types — the convectional, orographic or
relief and the cyclonic or frontal. Convectional rain takes place when the air on being heated, becomes light
and rises up in convection currents. As it rises, it expands and loses neat and consequently, condensation
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takes place and cumulous clouds are formed. With thunder and lightning, heavy rainfall takes place but this
does not last long. Orographic rain occurs when the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is
forced to ascend and as it rises, it expands; the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed. The chief
characteristic of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes receive greater rainfall.

Different places on the earth‘s surface receive different amounts of rainfall in a year and that too in different
seasons. In general, as we proceed from the equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing steadily.
The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of the continents. The
rainfall is more over the oceans than on the landmasses of the world. Between the latitudes 35° and 40° N
and S of the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern coasts and goes on decreasing towards the west. But,
between 45° and 65° N and S of equator, the rainfall is first received on the western margins of the
continents and it goes on decreasing towards the east. In some regions rainfall is distributed evenly
throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and in the western parts of cool temperate re

VERY SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS (2M)

Question1. What is smog?

Answer: Such a condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is described as smog.

Question2. How is humidity received in atmosphere?

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Answer: The moisture in the atmosphere is derived from water bodies through evaporation and from plants
through transpiration.

Question 3.What is relative humidity?

Answer: The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a given
temperature is known as the relative humidity.

Question 4.What is absolute humidity?

Answer: The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the absolute
humidity. It is the weight of water vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed in terms of grams per
cubic metre.

Question5. By what processes there a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the oceans and
the continents?

Answer: There is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the oceans and the continents
through the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation.

Question6. How are clouds classified?

Answer: According to their height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness clouds are grouped
under four types : cirrus, cumulus; stratus; nimbus. A combination of these four basic types can give rise to
the following types of clouds: high clouds cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus; middle clouds—altostratus and
altocumulus; low clouds—stratocumulus and nimbostratus and clouds with extensive vertical development
cumulus and cumulonimbus.

Question7. When does condensation take place?

Answer: The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation. Condensation is caused by
the loss of heat.

Question8. What are the suitable conditions for making of dew?

Answer: The ideal conditions for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high relative humidity, and cold and
long nights. For the formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew point is above the freezing point.

Question9.What is hailstones?

Answer: Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the clouds become solidified into small rounded
solid pieces of ice and which reach the surface of the earth are called hailstones.

Question10. What is rain shadow area?

Answer: The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area.

Question 11.What is precipitation?

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Answer: After the condensation of water vapour, the release of moisture is known as precipitation. This may
take place in liquid or solid form.

Question 12.What is convectional rain?

Answer: Convectional Rain: The air on being heated becomes light and rises up in convection currents. As it
rises, it expands and loses heat and consequently, condensation takes place and cumulous clouds are formed.
With thunder and lightning, heavy rainfall takes place but this does not last for long.

Question13. What factors influence the process of condensation?

Answer: Condensation is influenced by the volume of air, temperature, pressure and humidity. Condensation
takes place: 1.when the temperature of the air is reduced to dew point with its volume remaining constant;
2.when both the volume and the temperature are reduced;3. when moisture is added to the air through
evaporation

SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS (3M)

Question 1.Name and define three important types of rainfall.

Answer: On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types:

The convectional rain

Orographic or relief rain and

Cyclonic or frontal rainfall

1. Convectional rain: The air on being heated becomes light and rises up in convection currents. As it rises,
it expands and loses heat and consequently, condensation takes place and cumulous clouds are formed. With
thunder and lightning, heavy rainfall takes place but this does not last for long. Such rain is common in the
summer or in the hotter part of the day. It is very common in the equatorial regions and interior parts of the
continents, particularly in the northern hemisphere.

2. Orographic rain: When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it
rises, it expands; the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed. In this sort of rain the windward
slopes receive greater rainfall. After giving rain on the windward side, when these winds reach the other
slope, they descend, and their temperature rises. Then their capacity to take in moisture increases and hence,
these leeward slopes remain rainless and dry. The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall
is known as the rain-shadow area. It is also known as the relief rain.

3. Cyclonic rainfall: These rains take place in low pressure areas where air moves from low pressure area to
high pressure are a and this movement brings rainfall.

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Question2. Explain the process of evaporation.

Answer: Evaporation is a process by which water is transformed from liquid to gaseous state. Heat is the
main cause for evaporation. The temperature at which the water starts evaporating is referred to as the latent
heat of vaporisation. Increase in temperature increases water absorption and retention capacity of the given
parcel of air. Similarly, if the moisture content is low, air has a potentiality of absorbing and retaining
moisture. Movement of air replaces the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer. Hence, the greater the
movement of air, the greater is the evaporation.

Question3 Explain cyclonic rain.

Answer: Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variations in the
atmospheric pressure. The result is that it causes the movement of air from high pressure to low pressure,
setting the air in motion. Air in horizontal motion is wind. Atmospheric pressure also determines when the
air will rise or sink. The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across the planet, thereby, maintaining a
constant temperature for the planet as a whole. The vertical rising of moist air cools it down to form the
clouds and bring precipitation. It is called cyclonic rain.

Question 4.Name the three types of precipitation.

Answer: There are many forms of precipitation like dew, fog, rainfall, snowfall, hailstones etc.

Rainfall: The precipitation in the form of water is called rainfall.

Snowfall: When the temperature is lower than the 0°C, precipitation takes place in the form of fine flakes of
snow and is called snowfall.

Hailstones: Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the clouds become solidified into small rounded
solid pieces of ice and which reach the surface of the earth are called hailstones.

Question 5.Explain relative humidity.

Answer: The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a given
temperature is known as the relative humidity. It is highest over oceans and lowest over continents. With the
change of air temperature, the capacity to retain moisture increases or decreases and the relative humidity is
also affected.

Question 6.Why does the amount of water vapour decreases rapidly with altitude?

Answer: The quantity of water vapour existing in the air depends upon the rate of evaporation and the
temperature of the air which determines its holding capacity of water vapour. Both temperature and
evaporation decreases with altitude and as a result water vapour also decreases rapidly with altitude.

Question 8...How are clouds formed? Classify them.

Answer: Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the
water vapour in free air at considerable elevations. As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface

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of the earth, they take various shapes. According to their height, expanse, density and transparency or
opaqueness clouds are grouped under four types: cirrus, cumulus, stratus, and nimbus.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5M)

Question 1.Discuss the salient features of the world distribution of precipitation.

Answer: Salient features of the world distribution of precipitation are given below:

1. Different places on the earth‘s surface receive different amounts of rainfall in a year and that too in
different seasons. In general, as we proceed from the equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing
steadily. The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of the continents.
The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the landmasses of the world.

2. Between the latitudes 35° and 40° N and S of the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern coasts and
goes on decreasing towards the west. But, between 45° and 65° N and S of equator, the rainfall is first
received on the western margins of the continents and it goes on decreasing towards the east.

3. In some regions rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and in the
western parts of cool temperate regions. .

4. On the basis of the total amount of annual precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the world are
identified as follows.

The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along the western coasts in the cool temperate
zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm per annum. Interior
continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from 100-200 cm per annum. The coastal areas of the
continents receive moderate amount of rainfall. The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and
interior parts of the temperate lands receive rainfall varying between 50-100 cm per annum. Areas lying in
the rain shadow zone of the interior of the continents and high latitudes receive very low rainfall-less than 50
cm per annum.

Question2. What are forms of condensation? Describe the process of dew and frost formation.

Answer: Condensation: The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation. Condensation
is caused by the loss of heat. When the water vapour or the moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the
following forms — dew, frost, fog and clouds. Forms of condensation can be classified on the basis of
temperature and location. Condensation takes place when the dew point is lower than the freezing point as
well as higher than the freezing point.

Dew: When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects (rather
than nuclei in air above the surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant leaves, it is known as dew.

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Frost: Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point (CPC), i.e. the dew
point is at or below the freezing point.

Fog and Mist: When the temperature of an air mass containing a large quantity of water vapour falls all of a
sudden, condensation takes place within itself on fine dust particles. So, the fog is a cloud with its base at or
very near to the ground.

Smog: Such a condition when fog is mixed with smoke is described as smog.

Clouds: Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the
water vapour in free air at considerable elevations. As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface
of the earth, they take various shapes.

Question3. Explain about condensation in detail.

Answer: 1. Meaning: The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation. Cause:
Condensation is caused by the loss of heat.

2. Sublimation: When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity to hold water vapour ceases.
Then, the excess water vapour condenses into liquid form. If it directly condenses into solid form, it is
known as sublimation.

3. Process: In free air, condensation results from cooling around very small particles termed as hygroscopic
condensation nuclei. Particles of dust, smoke and salt from the ocean are particularly good nuclei because
they absorb water. Condensation also takes place when the moist air comes in contact with some colder
object and it may also take place when the temperature is close to the dew point. Condensation, therefore,
depends upon the amount of cooling and the relative humidity of the air.

Factors affecting condensation:

When the temperature of the air is reduced to dew point with its volume remaining constant;

When both the volume and the temperature are reduced;

When moisture is added to the air through evaporation.

However, the most favourable condition for condensation is the decrease in air temperature. After
condensation the water vapour or the moisture in the atmosphere takes form of dew, frost, fog and clouds.

Question4. Explain about fog and mist.

Answer: When the temperature of an air mass containing a large quantity of water vapour falls all of a
sudden, condensation takes place within itself on fine dust particles. So, the fog is a cloud with its base at or
very near to the ground.

Because of the fog and mist, the visibility becomes poor to zero. In urban and industrial centres smoke
provides plenty of nuclei which help in the formation of fog and mist.

Such a condition when fog is mixed with smoke is described as smog.

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The only difference between the mist and fog is that mist contains more moisture than the fog. In mist each
nuclei contains a thicker layer of moisture. Mists are frequent over mountains as the warm air rises up the
slopes and meets a cold surface. Fogs are drier than mist and they are prevalent where warm currents of air
come in contact with cold currents. Fogs are mini clouds in which condensation takes place around nuclei
provided by the dust, smoke, and the salt particles.

Question5. On the basis of rainfall received, in how many groups can we classify the world?

Answer: On the basis of rainfall received, we can classify the world into five groups.

The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along the western coasts in the cool temperate
zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm per annum.

Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from 100 – 200 cm per annum.

The coastal areas of the continents receive moderate amount of rainfall.

The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior parts of the temperate lands receive rainfall
varying between 50-100 cm per annum.

Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the continents and high latitudes receive very low
rainfall-less than 50 cm per annum.

SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS

1. Study the following diagram & answer the following questions.

1.1 Identify the type of rainfall.

Ans. Orographic rain or Relief rainfall

1.2 How is Orographic rain caused?

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 Ans. It is caused when masses of air pushed by wind are forced up the side of elevated land
formations, such as large mountains

1.3What is rain shadow area?

Ans. The dry area on one side of a mountain or mountain range where less rain falls.

2. Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.

Water vapour present in the air is known as humidity. It is expressed quantitatively in different ways. The
actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the absolute humidity. It is the
weight of water vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed in terms of grams per cubic metre. The
ability of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature. The absolute humidity differs
from place to place on the surface of the earth. The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as
compared to its full capacity at a given temperature is known as the relative. humidity. With the change of
air temperature, the capacity to retain moisture increases or decreases and the relative humidity is also
affected. It is greater over the oceans and least over the continents. The air containing moisture to its full
capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated. It means. that the air at the given temperature is
incapable of holding any additional amount of moisture at that stage. The temperature at which saturation
occurs in a given sample of air is known as dew point.

The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is added or withdrawn due to evaporation and condensation
respectively. Evaporation is a process by which water is transformed from liquid to gaseous state. Heat is the
main cause for evaporation. The temperature at which the water starts evaporating is referred to as the latent
heat of vaporization. Increase in temperature increases water absorption and retention capacity of the given
parcel of air. Similarly, if the moisture content is low, air has a potentiality of absorbing and retaining
moisture. Movement of air replaces the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer. Hence, the greater the
movement of air, the greater is the evaporation. The transformation of water vapour into water is called
condensation. Condensation is caused by the loss of heat. When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level
when its capacity to hold water vapour ceases. Then, the excess water vapour condenses into liquid form. If
it directly condenses into solid form, it is known as sublimation.

2.1 Relative humidity is greatest in which region of the earth?

Ans: Rainforest
2.2 Through which process moisture is added in the atmosphere?
Ans: Evaporation
2.3 Saturation of air occurs at a particular temperature .This temperature is known as -

Ans: Dew point

2.4 Which factor will affect the relative humidity of a place?

Ans: Temperature

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 CHAPTER 14: MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER

This chapter deals with

• Waves

• Characteristics of Waves Tides Factors Influencing Waves and Tides

• Types Of Tides Semi diurnal, Diurnal Tide, Mixed, spring, Neap Tides

• Importance Of Tides

• Ocean Currents

• Types Of Ocean Currents

• Major Ocean Currents

• Effects Of Ocean Currents

The ocean water is dynamic. Its physical characteristics like temperature, salinity, density and the external
forces like of the sun, moon and the winds influence the movement of ocean water. The horizontal and
vertical motions are common in ocean water bodies. The horizontal motion refers to the ocean currents and
waves. The vertical motion refers to tides. Ocean currents are the continuous flow of huge amount of water
in a definite direction while the waves are the horizontal motion of water. Water moves ahead from one
place to another through ocean currents while the water in the waves does not move, but the wave trains
move ahead. The vertical motion refers to the rise and fall of water in the oceans and seas.

Due to attraction of the sun and the moon, the ocean water is raised up and falls down twice a day. The
upwelling of cold water from subsurface and the sinking of surface water are also forms of vertical motion
of ocean water.

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Waves are actually the energy, not the water as such, which moves across the ocean surface. Water particles
only travel in a small circle as a wave passes. Wind provides energy to the waves. Wind causes waves to
travel in the ocean and the energy is released on shorelines.

Characteristics of Waves .Wave crest and trough: The highest and lowest points of a wave are called the
crest and trough respectively. Wave height: It is the vertical distance from the bottom of a trough to the top
of a crest of a wave. Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave height. Wave period : It is merely the
time interval between two successive wave crests or troughs as they pass a fixed point. Wavelength: It is the
horizontal distance between two successive crests. Wave speed : It is the rate at which the wave moves
through the water, and is measured in knots. Wave frequency: It is the number of waves passing a given
point during a one second time interval.

TIDES

The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the sun and
the moon, is called a tide. Movement of water caused by meteorological effects (winds and atmospheric
pressure changes) are called surges. Surges are not regular like tides. The ‗tide-generating ‗force is the
difference between these two forces; i.e. the gravitational attraction of the moon and the centrifugal force.

On the surface of the earth, the horizontal tide generating forces are more important than the vertical forces
in generating the tidal bulges. The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves, have greater height. When tidal
bulges hit the mid- oceanic islands they become low. The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can
also magnify the intensity of tides. Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes. When the tide is
channelled between islands or into bays and estuaries they are called tidal currents. Tides of Bay of Fundy,
Canada. The highest tides in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada. The tidal bulge is
15 - 16m. Because there are two high tides and two low tides every day (roughly a 24 hour period); then a
tide must come in within about a six hour period. As a rough estimate, the tide rises about 240 cm an hour
(1,440 cm divided by 6 hours). If you have walked down a beach with a steep cliff alongside (which is
common there), make sure you watch the tides. If you walk for about an hour and then notice that the tide is
coming in, the water will be over your head before you get back to where you started!

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Types of Tides

Tides vary in their frequency, direction and movement from place to place and also from time to time. Tides
may be grouped into various types based on their frequency of occurrence in one day or 24 hours or based
on their height.

Tides based on Frequency

Semi-diurnal tide :The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each day. The
successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.

Diurnal tide : There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The successive high and low
tides are approximately of the same height.

Mixed tide : Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. These tides generally occur along
the west coast of North America and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.

Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positions The height of rising water (high tide) varies
appreciably depending upon the position of sun and moon with respect to the earth. Spring tides and neap
tides come under this category.

Spring tides : The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth has direct bearing on tide
height. When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide will be higher.
These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on full moon period and another during new
moon

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Period. there is a seven day interval between the spring tides and neap tides. At this time the sun and moon
are at right angles to each other and the forces of the sun and moon tend to counteract one another. The
Moon‗s attraction, though more than twice as strong as the sun‗s, is diminished by the counteracting force of
the sun‗s gravitational pull. Once in a month, when the moon‗s orbit is closest to the earth (perigee),
unusually high and low tides occur. During this time the tidal range is greater than normal. Two weeks later,
when the moon is farthest from earth (apogee), the moon‗s gravitational force is limited and the tidal ranges
are less than their average heights. When the earth is closest to the sun(perihelion), around 3rd January each
year, tidal ranges are also much greater, with unusually high and unusually low tides. When the earth is
farthest from the sun (aphelion),around 4th July each year, tidal ranges are much less than average. The time
between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is falling, is called the ebb. The time between the
low tide and high tide, when the tide is rising, is called the flow or flood.

Importance of Tides

Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-sun positions which are known accurately, the tides can be
predicted well in advance. This helps the navigators and fishermen plan their activities. Tidal flows are of
great importance in navigation. Tidal heights are very important, especially harbours near rivers and within
estuaries having shallow ‗bars‗at the entrance, which prevent ships and boats from entering into the harbour.
Tides are also helpful in desilting the sediments and in removing polluted water from river estuaries. Tides
are used to generate electrical power (in Canada, France, Russia, and China). A 3 MW tidal power project at
Durgaduani in Sundarban of West Bengal is under way.

OCEAN CURRENTS

The primary forces that influence the currents are:

(i) Heating by solar energy;

(ii) Wind; (iii) gravity; (iv) Coriolis force.

Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular volume of water in a definite path and
direction. Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely :

(i) Primary forces that initiate the movement of water;

(ii) Secondary forces that influence the currents to flow.

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 Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand. That is why, near the equator the ocean water is about
8 cm higher in level than in the middle latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to flow
down the slope. Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between the
wind and the water surface affects the movement of the water body in its course. Gravity tends to pull the
water down the pile and create gradient variation. The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to
move to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. These large
accumulations of water and the flow around them are called Gyres. These produce large circular currents in
all the ocean basins.

Characteristics of Ocean Currents

1. Currents are referred to by their ―drift‖.

2. the currents are strongest near the surface and may attain speeds over five knots.

3. At depths, currents are generally slow with speeds less than 0.5 knots.

4. We refer to the speed of a current as its ―drift.‖

5. Drift is measured in terms of knots.

6. The strength of a current refers to the speed of the current. A fast current is considered strong.

7. A current is usually strongest at the surface and decreases in strength (speed) with depth. 8.Most
currents have speeds less than or equal to 5 knots.

9 .Differences in water density affect vertical mobility of ocean currents.

10. Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity and in the same way cold water is
denser than warm water.

11. Denser water tends to sink, while relatively lighter water tends to rise.

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12. Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold water at the poles sinks and slowly moves towards
the equator.

Warm-water currents travel out from the equator along the surface, flowing towards the poles toreplace the
sinking cold water.

Types of Ocean Currents

The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth as surface currents and deep water currents :

(i) Surface currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these waters are the upper
400 m of the ocean;

(iii) deep water currents make up the other 90 per cent of the ocean water. These waters move around the
ocean basins due to variations in the density and gravity. Deep waters sink into the deep ocean basins at high
latitudes, where the temperatures are cold enough to cause the density to increase.

Ocean currents can also be classified based on temperature as cold currents and warm currents: cold
currents bring cold water into warm water areas. These currents are usually found on the west coast of the
continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher
latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere; warm currents bring warm water into cold water areas and are usually
observed on the east coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres). In the
northern hemisphere they are found on the west coasts of continents in high latitude.

Major Ocean Currents Figure 14.3

1. Major ocean currents are greatly influenced by the stresses exerted by the prevailing winds and
Coriolis force.

2. The oceanic circulation pattern roughly corresponds to the earth‗s atmospheric circulation pattern.

3. The air circulation over the oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly anticyclone (more pronounced in
the southern hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere).

4. The oceanic circulation pattern also corresponds with the same. At higher latitudes, where the wind
flow is mostly cyclonic, the oceanic circulation follows this pattern.
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5. In regions of pronounced monsoonal flow, the monsoon winds influence the current movements.

6. Due to the Coriolis force, the warm currents from low latitudes tend to move to the right in the
northern hemisphere and to their left in the southern hemisphere.

7. The oceanic circulation transports heat from one latitude belt to another in a manner similar to the
heat transported by the general circulation of the atmosphere. 8. The cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic
circles move towards warmer water in tropical and equatorial regions, while the warm waters of the lower
latitudes move pole wards.

9. The major currents in the different oceans are shown in the above figure. Prepare a list of currents which
are found in Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Ocean

How is the movement of currents influenced by prevailing winds? Give some examples from Figure14.3.

Effects of Ocean Currents

Ocean currents have a number of direct and indirect influences on human activities.

1. West coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes (except close to the equator) are
bordered by cool waters.

2. Their average temperatures are relatively low with a narrow diurnal and annual ranges.

3. There is fog, but generally the areas are arid.

4. West coasts of the continents in the middle and higher latitudes are bordered by warm waters which
cause a distinct marine climate.

5. They are characterized by cool summers and relatively mild winters with a narrow annual range of
temperatures.

6. Warm currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes.
This results in warm and rainy climates.

7. These areas lie in the western margins of the subtropical anti-cyclones.

8. The mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of
planktons, the primary food for fish population.

9. The best fishing grounds of the world exist mainly in these mixing zones.

Very short answer type (2 marks)

Q1 Which forces influence the movement of ocean water?

Answer: The external forces like of the sun, moon and the winds influence the movement of ocean water.

Q 2.What types of movements take place in ocean water.

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Answer: The horizontal and vertical motions are common in ocean water bodies. The horizontal motion
refers to the ocean currents and waves. The vertical motion refers to tides.

Q 3.Explain different types of vertical movement in the ocean water.

Answer: The vertical motion refers to the rise and fall of water in the oceans and seas. Due to attraction of
the sun and the moon, the ocean water is raised up and falls down twice twice a day. The upwelling of cold
water from subsurface and the sinking of surface water are also forms of vertical motion of ocean water.

Q 4.How are ripples formed?

Answer: When a breeze of two knots or less blows over calm water, small ripples form and grows as the
wind speed increases until white caps appear in the breaking waves.

Q 5.How do steep and steady waves form?

Answer: Steep waves are fairly young ones and are probably formed by local wind. Slow and steady waves
originate from far away places, possibly from another hemisphere.

Q 6.What factors cause tides?

Answer: The moon‘s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the sun‘s gravitational pull, are
the major causes for the occurrence of tides. Another factor is centrifugal force, which is the force that acts
to counter balance the gravity. Together, the gravitational pull and the centrifugal force are responsible for
creating the two major tidal bulges on the earth.

Q 7.What are Spring tides?

Answer: The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth has direct bearing on tide height.
When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide will be higher. These are
called spring tides.

Q 8 What are neap tides?

Answer: When the sun and moon are at right angles to each other and the forces of the sun and moon tend to
counteract one another. The moon‘s attraction, though more than twice as strong as the sun‘s, is diminished
by the counteracting force of the sun‘s gravitational pull. These are called neap tides.

Q 9 Define ocean currents.

Answer: Ocean currents are the continuous flow of huge amount of water in a definite direction. Ocean
currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular volume of water in a definite path and
direction.

Q 10 How are fishing and oceanic currents related?

Answer: The mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of
planktons, the primary food for fish population. The best fishing grounds of the world exist mainly in these
mixing zones.
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 Short answer type questions, (3 marks)

Q1- What are the characteristics of waves?

Answer: 1-Wave crest and trough:-The highest and lowest points of a wave are called the crest and trough
respectively

2- Wave height- It is the vertical distance from the bottom of a trough to the top of a crest of a wave.

3- Wave amplitude- It is one half of the wave height.

4- Wave period - It is merely the time interval between two successive wave crests or troughs as they
pass a fixed point.

5- Wavelength - It is the horizontal distance between two successive crests

6- Wave speed – It is the rate at which the wave moves through the water, and is measured in knots.

7- Wave frequency-It is the number of waves passing a given point during a one second time interval.

Q 2-How are the tides caused?

Answer: The periodical rise and fall of the sea level once or twice a day mainly due to the attraction of the
Sun and the Moon is called a tide.

The moon‘s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the sun‘s gravitational pull, are the
major causes for the occurrence of tides. Another factor is centrifugal forces which is the force that acts to
counter balance the gravity. Together the gravitational pull and the centrifugal force are responsible for
creating two major tidal bulges on the earth. On the side of the earth facing the moon, a tidal bulge occurs
while on the opposite side the gravitational attraction of the moon is less as it is farther away, the centrifugal
force causes tidal bulge on the other side

.Q-3. What are the types of ocean current?

Answer- Ocea currents on the basis of depth.

1- Surface current- These constitute about 10% of all the water in the ocean, these waters are the upper
400 m of the ocean

2- Deep water current:-Make up the other 90% of ocean water

On the basis of temperature

1- Cold currents -Bring cold water into warm water areas.These current are usually found on the west
coast of the continents in the low and middle latitudes (true on both hemispheres) and on the east coast in the
higher latitude in the Northern Hemisphere.

2- Warm currents -Bring warm water into cold water areas and are usually observed on the east coast of
continents in the low and middle latitudes (true on both hemispheres).In the northern hemisphere they are
found on the west coast of continents in high latitudes.
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Q4-Differentiate between Spring tide and Neap tide.

Spring Tide

1-These tides occur when the Sun, the Moon and the Earth are in a straight line

2-They occur twice a month one on full moon period and another during New

Moon period. 3-During these tides the rise and fall is more than the normal

Neap Tide

1-These tides occur when the Sun and the Moon are at right angle to each other

2-They occur at a seven days interval between spring tide and neap tide

3-During these tides the rise and the fall is considerably low than the normal level.

Q 5-Differentiate between Perihelion and Aphelion

Perihelion Aphelion

1-The earth is closest to the sun 1-The earth is farthest to the sun

2-This position occur around 3rd January each year 2-This position occur around 4th July each year

3-On this day unusually high and unusually low tides occur 3-On this day tidal ranges are much less than
average

Q 6- What is the importance of tide?

Answer 1- Tides keep the ocean water emotion, hence the water neither freezes nor polluted. 2- The tides
can be predicted well in advance. This helps the navigators and fishermen to plan their activities. 3- Tides
are helpful in desilting the sediments from river estuaries. 4- Tides are used to generate electric power.

Q 7 How do ocean currents affect the climate? Explain.

Answer: Effects of currents influenced by temperature.

Warm currents makes the place warmer whereas the cold currents makes the place colder. Example, Warm
currents of Koroshio makes the southern Japan less cold in winter whereas the cold current of Koroshio
makes the winter longer and severe in north Japan. Winds passing over warm currents absorb lot of moisture
and cause heavy rainfall in coastal areas. On the other hand winds passing over long currents do not get any
warm currents as such, they make the climate of coastal areas dry. This is the reason why hot deserts are
located near the coastal areas from where the cold current passes. The places where cold current and warm
current near the coastal areas are found in abundance are rich fishing ground. For example, Newfoundland,
the east coast of North America where Labrador Current and Gulf stream meet.

Q 8 How do ocean currents get affected by winds and Coriolis force?

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Answer: Wind: Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between the
wind and the water surface affects the movement of the water body in its course.

The Coriolis force: The Coriolis intervenes and cause the water to move to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

Q 9 Explain different types of ocean currents.

Answer: On the basis of depth:

Surface currents constitute about l0 percent of all the water in the ocean. This water are the upper 400 m of
the ocean. Deep water currents make up the other 90 percent of the ocean water. Deep waters sink into the
deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where the . Temperatures- are cold enough to cause the density to
increase.

On the basis of temperature:

Cold currents: Cold currents bring cold water into warm water areas. These currents are usually found on the
west coast of the continents in the low and middle latitudes and on the east coast in the higher latitudes in
the northern hemisphere;

Warm currents: Warm currents bring warm water into cold water areas and are usually observed on the east
coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes. In the northern hemisphere they are found on the west
coasts of continents in high latitudes.

Q 10 How is the movement of currents influenced by prevailing winds? Give examples.

Answer: The prevailing winds, or winds that usually blow in the same direction, Influence Ocean currents
because the wind causes friction on the water surface causing the water to move in the same direction as the
wind. Some prevailing winds are called ―trade winds‖ because merchants on sailboats used these regular
winds to sail across the Indian Ocean or Atlantic Ocean to trade their goods. The wind made sailing to some
places very easy and other places very difficult. Some of these regular winds change direction during certain
months. This is called monsoon. Monsoon winds blow one direction from May to October, then change
directions from November to April, which allowed the merchants to sail home in Monsoon areas of the
world. The monsoon winds mainly effects South Asia (India). Indian traders sailed west to Africa in the
summer and east back to India in the winter.

Long answer type questions (5 marks)

Q1- Explain how heating of solar energy, wind, gravitation and coriolis force effect the ocean currents?

or

Which primary forces initiate the movement of ocean currents?

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 Answer1-Heating of solar energy: Heating of solar energy causes the water to rise that is why near the
equator the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle latitude, this causes a very slight
gradient and water tends to flow down the slope. 2-Wind

Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between the wind and the
water surface affects the movement of water body in its course.

3-Gravity Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient variation.

4- Coriolis force The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in southern hemisphere.

Q2- Classify the tides based on frequency and on the position of the Sun the Moon and the Earth

Answer - Tides based on Frequency

1- Semi- diurnal tide- The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each
day. The successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.

2- Diurnal tide- There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The successive high and
low tides are approximately of the same height.

3- Mixed tide- Tides having variation in height are known as mixed tides. These types generally occur
along the west coast of North America and on many Islands of the Pacific Ocean.

Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth position

1- Spring tide - When the Sun the Moon and the Earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide will be
higher. These are called spring tide and they occur twice a month one on full moon period and another
during new moon period.

2- Neap tide - Normally there is a seven day interval between the spring tides and neap tides.At this
time the Sun and the Moon are at right angle to each other and the forces of the sun and moon tend to
counteract one another.

Q 3-What are the effects of Ocean currents?

Ans; The west coasts of continents are bordered by warm currents and enjoy distinct marine climate.

1- Ocean currents increase the temperature of the ocean whereas cold currents decrease the temperature
of the ocean.

2- West coasts of the continents in the middle and higher latitudes are bordered by warm waters which
cause a distinct marine climate

2-North Atlantic drift and the Labrador Current decreases the temperature of western Atlantic coast, while
the warm Gulf Stream increases the temperature of ocean water along the western European coast.

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4- The mixing of warm and cold currents favours the growth of plankton, which is the primary food for
fish population. Therefore such areas are the best fishing grounds of the world.

Q4 White the characteristics of waves in the oceanic water.

Answer: Characteristics of waves in the oceanic water are given below:

The highest and lowest points of a wave are called the crest and trough. Wave height is the vertical distance
from the bottom of a trough to the top of a crest of a wave.

Wave amplitude is one-half of the wave height.

Wave period is merely the time interval between two successive wave crests.

Wavelength is the horizontal distance between two successive crests.

Wave speed is the rate at which the wave moves through the water, and is measured in knots.

Wave frequency is the number of waves passing a given point during a one- second time interval.

Question 5. Explain how heating of solar energy, wind, gravitation and Coriolis force affect the ocean
currents.

Answer: Heating by solar energy: Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand, that is why, near the
equator the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle latitudes. This causes a very slight
gradient and water tends to flow down the slope.

Wind: Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between the wind and
the water surface affects the movement of the water body in its course. Gravity: Gravity tends to pull the
water down the pile and create gradient variation.

The Coriolis force: The Coriolis intervenes and cause the water to move to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

Diagram based question N0-01

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Q1-Due to centrifugal force the tidal bulge occurs in which direction?

Ans: In the opposite direction of the Moon

Q 2-Due to which these tidal bulges occur? Ans: The moon

Q3-Due to gravitational force the tidal bulge occurs in which direction? Ans: In the direction of the Moon.

Q 4- Which forces are responsible for the formation of tidal bulges?

Ans: Gravitational force and Centrifugal force

Source Based Questions 1

―The highest tide in the world occurs in the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada. The tidal bulge is 15-16
m. Because there are two high tides and two low tides everyday (roughly a 24 hour period); then a tide must
come in within about 6 hour period. As a rough estimate, the tide rises about 24Ocm and an hour (1440
divided by 6 hours). If you have walked down a beach with a steep cliff alongside (which is common there)
,make sure you watch the tides. If you walk for about an hour and then notice that the tide is coming in, the
water will be over your head before you get back to where you started.‖

Q1-In which water body does the highest tide occur in the world? Ans: Bay of Fundy

Q-2. The bay, where the highest tide occurs, is located in which country? Ans: Canada

Q 3- The tidal bulge is 15 -16 m. Because there are how many high and low tides occur?:- Ans: Two

Q 4-The tide rises about-------cm an hour Ans: 240 cm

Source Based Questions 2

The ocean water is dynamic. Its physical characteristics like temperature, salinity, density and the external
forces like of the sun, moon and the winds influence the movement of ocean water. The horizontal and
vertical motions are common in ocean water bodies. The horizontal motion refers to the ocean currents and
waves. The vertical motion refers to tides. Ocean currents are the continuous flow of huge amount of water
in a definite direction while the waves are the horizontal motion of water. Water moves ahead from one
place to another through ocean currents while the water in the waves does not move, but the wave trains
move ahead. The vertical motion refers to the rise and fall of water in the oceans and seas. Due to attraction
of the sun and the moon, the ocean water is raised up and falls down twice a day. The upwelling of cold
water from subsurface and the sinking of surface water are also forms of vertical motion of ocean water

Q.1 Name the external forces which influence the movement of ocean water.

Ans: the sun, moon and the winds

Q 2 What is tides? Ans: The vertical motion refers to tides

Q3 What are waves? Ans: The horizontal motion refers to waves

Q 4 Which is the two motions common in ocean water bodies? Ans: Ocean current and Tides.
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 CHAPTER-15 :LIFE ON THE EARTH

STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION

ECOSYSTEM
TYPES-BIOMS
1. TERRESTRIAL
LIFE ON EARTH 2. AQUATIC

1. NITROGEN CYCLE
BIO-GEOCHEMICAL
2. OXYGEN CYCLE
CYCLE
3. CARBON CYCLE

GIST OF THE LESSON.

The biosphere includes all the living components of the earth.

It consists of all plants and animals, including all the micro-organisms that live on the planet earth and their
interactions with the surrounding environment.

The interactions of biosphere with land, air and water are important to the growth, development and
evolution of the organism.

ECOLOGY

A German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who used the term as ‗oekologie‘ in 1869, became the first person to use
the term ‗ecology‘. The study of interactions between life forms (biotic) and the physical environment
(abiotic) is the science of ecology.

Or

Ecology can be defined as a scientific study of the interactions of organisms with their physical environment
and with each other.

ECOSYSTEMS ARE OF TWO MAJOR TYPES: Terrestrial and Aquatic.

Terrestrial ecosystem can be further be classified into ‗biomes‘

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A biome is a plant and animal community that covers a large geographical area. The boundaries of different
biomes on land are determined mainly by climate.

There are five major biomes — forest, desert, grassland, aquatic and altitudinal biomes.

Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature, sunlight, atmospheric pressure, humidity, soil conditions,
inorganic substances (carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium)

Biotic factors include the producers, the consumers (primary, secondary, tertiary) and the decomposers. The
producers include all the green plants, which manufacture their own food through photosynthesis. The
primary consumers include herbivorous animals like deer, goats, mice and all plant-eating animals. The
carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals like snakes, tigers and lions. Top carnivores feed on
carnivores eg .hawks and mongooses. Decomposers feed on dead organisms (for example, scavengers like
vultures and crows), and further breaking down of the dead matter by other decomposing agents like
bacteria and various micro-organisms.

THE FOOD-CHAIN is the sequence of eating and being eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from one
level to another.

TWO TYPES OF FOOD-CHAINS recognised are: Grazing food-chain and Detritus food- chain. In a
grazing food-chain, the first level starts with plants as producers and ends with carnivores as consumers at
the last level, with the herbivores being at the intermediate level.

Detritus food-chain is based on autotrophs energy capture initiated by grazing animals and involves the
decomposition or breaking down of organic wastes and dead matter derived from the grazing food-chain.

ECOLOGICAL BALANCE- Ecological balance is a state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of

organisms in a habitat or ecosystem. It can happen when the diversity of the living organisms remains
relatively stable. This balance is brought about by the fact that certain species compete with one another
determined by the environment in which they grow

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE- These cyclic movements of chemical elements of the biosphere between the
organism and the environment are referred to as biogeochemical cycles. Bio refers to living organisms and
geo to rocks, soil, air and water on the earth.

TWO TYPES OF BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES-The gaseous and the sedimentary cycle. In the gaseous
cycle, the main reservoir of nutrients is the atmosphere and the ocean. In the sedimentary cycle, the main
reservoir is the soil and the sedimentary and other rocks of the earth‘s crust

CARBON CYCLE-The carbon cycle describes the process in which carbon atoms continually travel from
the atmosphere to the Earth and then back into the atmosphere. Since our planet and its atmosphere form a
closed environment, the amount of carbon in this system does not change. On Earth, most carbon is stored in
rocks and sediments, while the rest is located in the ocean, atmosphere, and in living organisms. These are
the reservoirs, or sinks, through which carbon cycles. Carbon is released back into the atmosphere when
organisms die, volcanoes erupt, fires blaze, fossil fuels are burned, and through a variety of other
mechanisms. In the case of the ocean, carbon is continually exchanged between the ocean‘s surface waters
and the atmosphere, or is stored for long periods of time in the ocean depths.
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OXYGEN CYCLE-The following are the major processes involved in the oxygen cycle.

Photosynthesis Process -The Process in which plants absorb carbon dioxide for the production of glucose
and energy, in presence of UV rays while having oxygen liberated into the atmosphere is called

photosynthesis.

Respiration Process- The Process, by which humans and animals consume oxygen from the atmosphere for
the breakdown of glucose and carbohydrates to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, is known as
respiration. Oxygen occurs in a number of chemical forms and combinations. It combines with nitrogen to
form nitrates and with many other minerals and elements to form various oxides such as the iron oxide,
aluminium oxide and others.

NITROGEN CYCLE- The air we breathe contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and remaining are other trace
gases. The nitrogen component of air is inert. So this means plants and animals cannot use it directly. To be
able to use nitrogen, plants convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates, nitrites and ammonia compounds by a
process called the nitrogen cycle. Animals derive their nitrogen requirements from plants.

Nitrogen cycle consists of four main steps namely:

(i) Nitrogen Fixation- In this process, nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia (another
form of nitrogen) by certain bacterial species like Rhizobium.

(ii) Ammonification/ Decay-Ammonification is the process where microscopic organisms like bacteria
or other types of decomposing organisms, break down nitrogen containing chemicals from dead organic
matter ,into simple substances like ammonia.

(iii) Nitrification-process by which reduced nitrogen compounds (primarily ammonia)are sequentially

oxidized to nitrite and nitrate.

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(iv)De-nitrification-A process by which bacteria convert nitrates into free nitrogen is known as
denitrification.

VSA QUESTIONS (2 Marks)

Q1.What are autotrophs?

Ans:-The autotrophs include all the green plants, which manufacture their own food through photosynthesis

Q2.What is denitrification?

Ans:- A process by which bacteria convert nitrates into free nitrogen known as denitrification.

Q3.Who are decomposers?

Ans:- .Decomposers are those that feed on dead organisms (for example, scavengers like vultures and
crows), and further breaking down of the dead matter by other decomposing agents like bacteria and various
micro-organisms

Q4Define, ‗trophic level‘.

Ans :- The various steps in a food chain at which the transfer of food (or energy) takes place are called
trophic levels.

Q5. What do you understand by the term ‗food web‘?

Ans: The interconnecting network of various food chains is known as food web.

Q6. Define the term Ecology?

Ans:- Ecology may be defined as a scientific study of the interaction of organisms with their physical
environment and with each other.

Q7. What is a Habitat?

Ans:– A habitat in ecological sense is the totality of the physical and chemical factors that constitute the
general Environment.

Q8.What is a biome?

Ans:- A biome is a plant and animal community that covers a large geographical area.

Q9. Define the term biosphere

Ans:- All the living organism of earth comprise biosphere.

Q10.What is food chain?

Ans. The transfer of energy from one level to another level is known as food chain.
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 SA QUESTIONS (3 Marks)

Q1.What is a Biome? Name important biomes of the world.

Ans:- A biome is a plant and animal community that covers at large geographical area. A biome can be
defined as the total assemblage of plant and animal species interacting within specific conditions. These
include rainfall, temperature, humidity and soil conditions.

Some of the major biomes of the world are forest, grassland, desert and tundra biomes.

Q2.What is an ecological system? Identify the major types of ecosystem in the world.

Ans:- The interactions of a particular group of organisms with abiotic factors within a particular habitat
resulting in clearly defined energy flows and material cycles on land, water and air, are called ecological
systems .Ecosystems are of two major types: terrestrial and aquatic.

Terrestrial ecosystem can be further be classified into biomes‘. Aquatic ecosystems can be classed as marine
and freshwater ecosystems.

Q3. How does nitrogen get fixed?

Answer:- Nitrogen is a major constituent of the atmosphere comprising about 79% of the atmospheric gases
.Only a few types of organisms like certain species of soil bacteria and blue green algae are capable of
utilising it directly in its gaseous form. Ninety % of fixed nitrogen is biological. The principal source of free
nitrogen is the action of soil micro-organisms and associated plant roots on atmospheric nitrogen found in
pore spaces of the soil. Nitrogen can also be fixed in the atmosphere by lightning and cosmic radiation.

Q4. Explain the following terms.

Ans:- (i)Food-chain: The sequence of eating and being eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from one
level to another is known as a food-chain.

(ii)Food- web: When the food chain becomes interlocked with one another. This interconnecting network of
species is known as food- web.

(iii)Flow of energy : Transfer of energy that occurs during the process of a food chain from one level to
another is known as flow of energy.

Q5. Distinguish between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem.

Ans:- Terrestrial-

This is found on land determine mainly by climate.

It can be divided into forest, grassland, and desert.

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Aquatic-

This is found in any water bodies.

It can be divided into Marine and Fresh water.

Q6. What is meaning of ecological adaptation.

Ans:- The components of eco system temperature and rainfall vary from place to place. The resulting in
different types of species in living organisms because of these change the living organisms modify
themselves. It is known as ecological adaptation.

Q7. Explain two types of bio-geochemical cycles?

Ans:- Gaseous-Atmosphere is main receiver of nutrients.

Sedimentary- soil and other rocks are sources of main receiver of nutrients.

Q8. Describe the carbon cycle?

Ans:- The carbon cycle is mainly the conversion of CO2 through photosynthesis. CO2 is generated and
released through leaves during the day and remaining carbohydrates not being utilized by the plant become
part of plant tissues. Plant tissues are eaten by herbivorous animals. The herbivorous release CO2 into the
air through respiration.

Q9. Write the differences between hot deserts and cold deserts.

Ans.- Hot deserts-They are found in tropical zone. Maximum temp. is 20o c to 45oc

Example-Sahara, Thar

Cold desert- They are found in temperate and polar zone. Maximum temp. is 2o c to 25oc

Example- Gobi, Leh.

Q10- Explain the grassland and their types.

Ans:- Grasslands are the vast areas covered by grass where the rainfall is less. It is divided into two parts-
Tropical grassland and temperate grassland.

LA QUESTIONS (5 Marks)

Q1.How does an ecosystem work? Explain the concept of food chain.

Ans:- An ecosystem works with the help of producers and consumers. The producers include all the green
plants, which manufacture their own food through photosynthesis.

( i).The primary consumers: The primary consumers include herbivorous animals like deer, goats, mice and
all plant-eating animals.

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(ii) The carnivores: The carnivores include all the flesh eating animals like snakes, tigers and lions. Certain
carnivores that feed also on carnivores are known as top carnivores like hawks and mongooses.

(iii) Decomposers: Decomposers are those that feed on dead organisms (for example, scavengers like
vultures and crows), and further breaking down of the dead matterby other decomposing agents like bacteria
and various micro-organisms.

Q2.What is carbon cycle?

Ans:- The carbon cycle is mainly the conversion of carbon dioxide. This conversion is initiated by the
fixation of carbon-dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. (i) Such conversion
result in the production of carbohydrates, glucoses that may be converted to other organic compounds such
as sucrose, starch, cellulose, etc.

(ii) During this process, more carbon dioxide is generated and is released through its leaves or roots during
the day. The remaining carbohydrates not being utilised by the plant become part of the plant tissue.

(iii) Plant tissues are either being eaten by the herbivorous animals or get decomposed bythe micro-
organisms.

(iv)The herbivores convert some of the consumed carbohydrates into carbon dioxide for release into the air
through respiration.

(v) The micro-organisms decompose the remaining carbohydrates after the animals die.

Q3. Describe the structure and functions of Ecosystem.

Ans- The structure of an ecosystem involves description of the available plant and animal species. From a
structural point of view, all ecosystems consist of Abiotic and biotic factors.

(i) Abiotic factors- Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature, sunlight, atmospheric humidity, soil
conditions, in organic substances.

(ii) Biotic factors- Biotic factors include the producers (primary, secondary & tertiary) the consumers and
the decomposers. The producers include all the green plants, which manufacture their own food through
photosynthesis.

(iii) Primary consumers –Primary consumers include herbivorous animals like deer, goats, mice and all plant
eating animals.

(iv) Secondary consumers (carnivores) – Carnivores include all the flesh eating animals like snakes, tiger
and lion. Certain carnivores that feed also on carnivores are known as top carnivores like hawks and
mongooses.

(v) Decomposers- Decomposers are those that feed on dead organisms (for example, scavengers like
vultures and crows), and further breaking down of the dead matter by other decomposing agents like
bacteria and various micro- organisms.

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Q4. What do you understand by the term ecological balance? Discuss the causes of Ecological imbalances?

Ans – Ecological balance is a state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms in a habitat or
ecosystem. Causes of ecological balances are:-

(i) Clearing the forest for shifting cultivation usually brings about a change in the species distribution.

(ii) Ecological balance may be disturbed due to introduction of new species, natural hazards or human
causes.

(iii) Human interference has affected the balance of plant community leading to disturbance in the
ecosystem.

(iv)Human pressure on the earth‗s resource has put a heavy toll on the ecosystem. This has destroyed its
originality and has cause adverse effects to the general environment.

SOURCE BASED QUES -1

B
C

D
A

Q1.Label the following A,B,C.

Ans:- A-Producer B- Secondary Consumer C- Tertiary Consumer D- Apex Predator

Q2.What is Food chain?

Ans:- This sequence of eating and being eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from one level to another
is known as the food-chain

Q3.What is the function of a decomposer?

Ans:- .Decomposers feed on dead organisms (for example, scavengers like vultures and crows), and help in
breaking down of the dead matter by other decomposing agents like bacteria and various micro-organisms.
They help in recycling the nutrients within the ecosystem.

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 SOURCE BASED QUES. -2

Ecological balance is a state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms in a habitat or eco-
system. It can happen when the diversity of the living organisms remains relatively stable. Gradual changes
do take place but that happens only through natural succession. It can also be explained as a stable balance
in the numbers of each species in an ecosystem. This occurs through competition and cooperation between
different organisms where population remains stable. This balance is brought about by the fact that certain
species compete with one another determined by the environment in which they grow. This balance is also
attained by the fact that some species depend on others for their food and sustenance. Such accounts are
encountered in vast grasslands where the herbivorous animals (deer, zebras, buffaloes, etc.) are found in
plenty. On the other hand, the carnivorous animals (tigers, lions, etc.) that are not usually in large numbers,
hunt and feed on the herbivores, thereby controlling their population. In the plants, any disturbance in the
native forests such as clearing the forest for shifting cultivation usually brings about a change in the species
distribution. This change is due to competition where the secondary forest species such as grasses, bamboos
or pines overtakes the native species changing the original forest structure. This is called succession.

Q1.How is ecological balance maintained?

Ans:- Living organisms live in harmony without disturbing the natural balance. The changes that take place
in environment are gradual. The stable balance is maintained in the number of species.

Q2.What is plant succession?

Ans:- Plant succession can be defined as the process of gradual replacement of one plant community by
another plant community which is of stable type. It occurs over a period of time.

Q3.How do carnivores control the population of herbivores?

Ans:- Through hunting, carnivores maintain herbivore populations at a healthy level, preventing an
overabundance of herbivores and thereby protecting vegetation from being too heavily grazed or browsed.

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 CHAPTER – 16: BIO-DIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

LEVELS
1. Genetic divesity
2. Species diversity
3. Ecosystem diversity
BIODIVERSITY
IMPORTANCE
1. Ecological role
2. Economic role
BIODIVERSITY AND 3. Scientific role
CONSERVATION

1. Preserve endengered
speices
2. Proper planning and
CONSERVATION
management
3. Regulation of
international trade

GIST OF THE LESSON:-

Biodiversity refers to variety of life form or variety of organisms found within a specified geographic
region. Biodiversity is not found evenly on the earth. It is richer in the tropics in comparison to the polar
regions.

TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY

Genetic diversity refers to the diversity of gene in a species Species diversity refers to the variety of species
in a well-defined area. Ecosystem diversity refers to the variation in the ecosystems found in a region or the
variation in ecosystems over the whole planet.

IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

Every organism, besides extracting its needs, also contributes something useful to other organisms. The
more diverse an ecosystem, better are the chances for the species to survive through adversities and attacks,
and consequently, is more productive .In other words, the more the variety of species in an ecosystem, the
more stable the ecosystem is likely tobe.

Biodiversity is seen as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of food,
pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products.

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity loss refers to the decline or disappearance of biological diversity.

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Since the last few decades, growth in human population has increased the rate of consumption of natural
resources. It has accelerated the loss of species and habitation in different parts of the world. Climate
change, Pollution, Destruction of habitats, Invasive alien species, Overexploitation of the natural
environment and Natural calamities.

IUCN CLASSIFICATION OF THREATENED SPECIES

The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has classified the
threatened species of plants and animals into three categories for the purpose of their conservation:

(a) Endangered species-which are in danger of extinction

(b) Vulnerable species –which are likely to be in danger of extinction

(c) Rare species –which are very small in number.

CONSERVATION AND BIODIVERSITY

All forms of life are so closely interlinked that disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in the others. If
species of plants and animals become endangered, they cause degradation in the environment, which may
threaten human being‘s own existence. The Government of India along with 155 other nations have signed
the Convention of Biodiversity at the Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992. Government
of India passed the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, under which national parks and sanctuaries were
established and biosphere reserves declared.

MEGA DIVERSITY CENTERS:--There are some countries which are situated in the tropical region; they
possess a large number of the world‘s species diversity. There are 12 such countries, namely Mexico,
Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, China, India, Malaysia,
Indonesia and Australia in which these centres are located.

VSA Question (2 Marks)

Q1.Why is the biodiversity is unevenly distributed over the earth.?

Ans:- Biodiversity is not found evenly on the earth. It is richer in the tropics in comparison to the polar
regions because of variation in climatic conditions.

Q2.What is mega diversity centres?

Ans:- There are some countries which are situated in the tropical region; they possess a large number of the
world‘s species diversity. Such centres having richness of flora and fauna are called mega diversity centres.

Q3.What are endangered species?

Ans:- Species which are at a high risk of becoming extinct in the near future, if nothing is done to improve
their situation are called endangered species.

Q4.What are exotic species?

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Ans:- Species which are not the natural inhabitants of the local habitat but are introduced into the system,
are called exotic species.

Q5 What is a habitat?

Ans:- Habitat is a location where a plant or animal lives

Q6. What are ecological hotspots?

Ans- Area rich in species diversity are called ecological hotspot.

Q7. Write the full form of IUCN?

Ans- International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

Q8. Where was earth summit held in June 1992? How many countries signed the convention?

Ans. Rio de Janerio in Brazil. 155 countries signed the convention.

Q9. Define Crop diversity/Agro diversity?

Ans. It means many varities of crops can be grown in a particular area due to favourable climatic conditions.

Q10 Who are Homo-sapiens?

Ans:- Group of human beings differ in characteristics as height, color, physical, appearance etc. Are termed
as homo sapiens.

SA QUESTIONS (3 Marks)

Q1.Write about genetic biodiversity?

Ans:- Genetic biodiversity refers to the variation of genes within species. Groups of individual organisms
having certain similarities in their physical characteristics are called species. Genes are the basic building
blocks of various life forms. Human beings genetically belong to the Homo sapiens group and also differ in
their characteristics such as height, colour, physicalappearance,etc.,considerably. This is due to diversity.
This genetic diversity is essential for a healthy breeding of population of species.

Q2 .Differentiate between extinct, endangered, vulnerable and rare species.

Ans:- The following terms are used to describe some species of plants and animals:

(i) Extinct: A species is considered extinct if it has not been seen in the wild for at least fifty years.

(ii) Endangered: Species which are at a high risk of becoming extinct in the near future, if nothing is done to
improve their situation.

(iii) Vulnerable: Species which are likely to become endangered within the next25 years, if nothing is done
to improve their situation.

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(iv)Rare: Species which have small populations or only live in a small number of places, and could become
vulnerable or endangered quite quickly.

Q3. Why is the conservation of biodiversity essential?

Ans:- (i) Biodiversity is important for human existence. All forms of life are so closely interlinked that
disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in the others

(ii) If species of plants and animals becomes endangered, they cause degradation in the environment, which
may threatened human beings, own existence.

(iii) There is an urgent need to educate people to adopt environment – friendly practices and reorient their
activities in such a way that our development is harmonious with other life forms.

Q4. Classify the three levels of biodiversity?

Ans: – (i) Genetic: It is reflected by morphological, physiological and genetic features.

(ii) Species: It comprises genetic or other variations within a species.

(iii) Ecosystem: It is reflected in diverse biogeographic zones.

Q5. What does scientific role of biodiversity mean?

Ans.(i) Biodiversity is an important resource in the day-to-day life of humans.

(ii) It helps in understanding life functions and role of each species in sustaining various ecosystems.

(iii) Every species has the intrinsic right to exist on the globe.

Q6. What are the causes of natural calamities for the loss of biodiversity?

Ans:-(i) Floods, (ii) Earthquakes , (iii) Volcanic eruptions , (iv) Forest fires ,(v) Droughts.

Q7. Examine the economic role of biodiversity.

Ans:- (i) Crop diversity means agro-diversity.

(ii) Biodiversity is a reservoir of resources for manufacturing food, medicinal and cosmetic products.

(iii) It provides us food crops, livestock‘s, forest products etc.

Q8. What is meant by the boundaries of biodiversity?

Ans. The boundaries of biodiversity means the undefined limited areas within which particular species of
biodiversity exists. They are not rigid, generally overlapping the surrounding areas.

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Q9. . What is Biodiversity?

Ans- Biodiversity is the number and variety of organisms found within a specified geographic region. It
refers to the varieties of plants, animals and micro- organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystem
they form.

Q10.What is the difference between wild life sanctuary and national parks?

Answer: National Park: A national park is a reserved area where wild animals are preserved in their natural
setting. The purpose of setting up of national parks is to preserve natural vegetation and wildlife.

Wild Life Sanctuary: A wildlife sanctuary is a specific habitat of an animal that is endangered. The purpose
of setting up of wildlife sanctuary is to preserve endangered animals and birds.

LA QUESTIONS (5Marks)

Q1.What are the major factors that are responsible for the loss of biodiversity?

Ans:- The major factors that are responsible for the loss of biodiversity are:-

(i) Increase in the rate of consumption of natural resources due to growth in human population.

(ii) Over exploitation of resources and deforestation to fulfil the needs of large population.

(iii) Change in biodiversity due to natural calamities such as earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, forest
fires, droughts, etc. cause damage to the flora and fauna of the earth,

(iv) Pesticides and other pollutants such as hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy the weak and
sensitive species.

(v) Introduction of alien species, invasive species, introduced species, non-indigenous species causes
extensive damage to the regional ecosystem.

(vi) Hunting and poaching of certain type of some animals like tigers, elephants, rhinoceros, crocodiles,
minks and birds have led to their extinction.

Q2.How can the loss of biodiversity be prevented?

Ans:- The occurrence of different types of habitat, species, ecosystem, gene pool, a gene in a particular area
in biodiversity. It can be conserved with various conservational strategies and management of abiotic and
biotic resources. Listed below are a few conservational strategies:

(i) Natural conservation or protection of useful plants and animals in their natural habitats.

(ii)Conserving crucial habitats like breeding and feeding areas, facilitating the growth and multiplication of
endangered species

(iii) Regulation or banning hunting activities

(iv)Through bilateral or multilateral agreements, habitats of migratory entities should be conserved

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(v) Spreading awareness of the significance of conservation of biodiversity

(vi)Avoiding over-exploitation of natural resources

Q3.Biodiversity is important not only for geographers but also for economists. How?

Ans:- It is rightly said that the biodiversity is important not only for geographers but also for economists.

(i) For all humans, biodiversity is an important resource in their day-to- day life.

(ii) Crop Diversity: One important part of biodiversity is ‗crop diversity‘, which is also called agro-
biodiversity.

(iii) Manufacturing: Biodiversity is seen as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of
food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products.

(iv) Tourism: Biodiversity has given boost to tourism industry.

(v) Economic Commodities: At the same time, it is also the origin of new conflicts dealing with rules of
division and appropriation of natural resources.

(vi) Some of the important economic commodities that biodiversity supplies to humankind are: food crops,
livestock, forests, fish, medicinal resources, etc.

Q4. What steps have been suggested by the world conservation strategy for the conservation of biodiversity?

Ans- The world conservation strategy has suggested the following steps for biodiversity conservation:

(i) Efforts should be made to preserve the species that are endangered.

(ii) Prevention of extinction requires proper planning and management.

(iii) Varieties of food crops, forage plants, timber trees, livestock, animals and their wild relatives should be
preserved.

(iv) Each country should identify habitats of wild relatives and ensures their protection.

(v) Habitats where species feed, breed, rest and nurse their young should be safeguarded and protected.

(vi) International trade in wild plants and animals is regulated.

Q5.What were the conservation strategies taken after the Earth Summit,1992?

Ans:- (i) Efforts should be made to preserve the species that are endangered.

(ii) Prevention of extinction requires proper planning and management.

(iii) Varieties of food crops, forage plants, timber trees, livestock, animals and their wild relatives should be
preserved

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(iv) Each country should identify habitats of wild relatives and ensure their protection

(v) Habitats where species feed, breed, rest and nurse their young should be safeguarded and protected.

(vi) International trade in wild plants and animals be regulated.

SOURCE BASED QUES. -1

Since the last few decades, growth in human population has increased the rate of consumption of natural
resources. It has accelerated the loss of species and habitation in different parts of the world. Tropical
regions which occupy only about one-fourth of the total area of the world, contain about three fourth of the
world human population. Overexploitation of resources and deforestation have become rampant to fulfil the
needs of large population. As these tropical rain forests contain 50 per cent of the species on the earth,
destruction of natural habitats have proved disastrous for the entire biosphere. Natural calamities such as
earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, droughts, etc. cause damage to the flora and fauna of the
earth, bringing change the biodiversity of respective affected regions .Pesticides and other pollutants such as
hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy the weak and sensitive species. Species which are not the
natural inhabitants of the local habitat but are introduced into the system, are called exotic species. There are
many examples when a natural biotic community of the ecosystem suffered extensive damage because of the
introduction of exotic species. During the last few decades, some animals like tigers, elephants , rhinoceros,
crocodiles, minks and birds were hunted mercilessly by poachers for their horn, tusks, hides, etc. It has
resulted in the rendering of certain types of organisms as endangered category.

Q1. What was the impact of introduction of exotic species on the flora and fauna?

Ans:- Species which are not the natural inhabitants of the local habitat but are introduced into the system,
are called exotic species. Invasive species are capable of causing extinctions of native plants and animals,
reducing biodiversity, competing with native organisms for limited resources, and altering habitats

Q2. What are the factors that determine a species as threatened?

Ans:- The following criteria need to be used in categorizing a species as threatened:

(i) Declination in the number of species at an alarming rate.

(ii) Destruction and modification of their habitat

(iii) Increasing activities of poachers

Q3.Which are the natural factors that cause damage to flora and fauna?

Ans:- Natural calamities such as earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, droughts, etc. cause
damage to the flora and fauna of the earth, bringing change the biodiversity of respective affected regions.

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 SOURCE BASED QUES. -2

Q1.Identify the animal species? Ans:- Red Panda

Q2.Under which category does it come? Ans:- Endangered species

Q3.Who publishes the threatened species list? Ans:- IUCN.

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PART B: INDIA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

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 CHAPTER 4: CLIMATE

WEATHER AND CLIMATE:

Weather is the momentary state of the atmosphere while climate refers to the average of the weather
conditions over a longer period of time. Weather changes quickly, may be within a day or week but
climate changes imperceptivity and may be noted after 50 years or even more.
Monsoon connotes the climate associated with seasonal reversal in the direction of winds. India has hot
monsoonal climate.
FACTORS DETERMINING THE CLIMATE OF INDIA
Broadly divided into two groups — factors related to location and relief, and factors related to air pressure
and winds.
Factors related to Location and Relief-
1- Latitude -.
2-The Himalayan Mountains
3- Distribution of Land and Water
4- Distance from the Sea
5-Altitude
6- Relief

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Factors Related to Air Pressure and Wind
1-Distribution of air pressure and winds on the surface of the earth
2- Upper air circulation caused by factors controlling global weather and the inflow of different air masses
and jet streams.
3 - Inflow of western cyclones during the winter season and tropical depressions during the south-west
monsoon period into India.
MECHANISM OF WEATHER IN THE WINTER SEASON
1. Surface Pressure and Winds:
 In winter months, the weather conditions over India are influenced by the distribution of pressure in
Central and Western Asia.
 A high pressure centre in the region lying to the north of the Himalayas develops during winter. This
centre of high pressure gives rise to the flow of air at the low level from the north towards the Indian
subcontinent, south of the mountain range.
 The surface winds blowing out of the high pressure centre over Central Asia reach India in the form of a
dry continental air mass.
2. Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation:
 All of Western and Central Asia remains under the influence of westerly winds along the altitude of 9-
13 km from west to east.
 These winds blow across the Asian continent at latitudes north of the Himalayas roughly parallel to the
Tibetan highlands these are known as jet streams. It blows in an eastward direction, south of the
Himalayas.
 Southern branch of the jet stream exercises an important influence on the winter weather in India.
3. Western Cyclonic Disturbance and Tropical Cyclones:
 The western cyclonic disturbances which enter the Indian subcontinent from the west and the northwest
during the winter months originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are brought into India by the
westerly jet stream.
 Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. These tropical cyclones have
very high wind velocity and heavy rainfall and hit the Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa coast.
Most of these cyclones are very destructive due to high wind velocity and torrential rain that
accompanies.
MECHANISM OF WEATHER IN THE SUMMER SEASON
1. Surface Pressure and Winds:
 As the summer sets in and the sun shifts northwards, the wind circulation over the subcontinent
undergoes a complete reversal at both, the lower as well as the upper levels.
 By the middle of July, the low pressure belt nearer the surface [termed as Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ)] shifts northwards and the westerly jet stream withdraws from the Indian region.
 The ITCZ being a zone of low pressure attracts inflow of winds from different directions.

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 2. Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation:
 An easterly jet stream flows over the southern part of the Peninsula in June, and has a maximum speed
of 90 km per hour.
3. Easterly Jet Stream and Tropical Cyclones:
 The easterly jet stream steers the tropical depressions into India. These depressions play a significant
role in the distribution of monsoon rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.
THE INTER TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE (ITCZ)
 A low pressure zone located at the equator where trade winds converge, and so, it is a zone where air
tends to ascend.
 In July, the ITCZ is located around 20°N-25°N latitudes (over the Gangetic plain), sometimes called the
monsoon trough.
 In winter, the ITCZ moves southward, and so the reversal of winds from northeast to south and
southwest, takes place. They are called northeast monsoons.
THE NATURE OF INDIAN MONSOON
Onset of the Monsoon
 During April and May when the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer, the large landmass in
the north of Indian Ocean gets intensely heated. This causes the formation of an intense low pressure in
the north-western part of the subcontinent.
 Since the pressure in the Indian Ocean in the south of the landmass is high as water gets heated slowly,
the low pressure cell attracts the southeast trades wind across the Equator between 40°E and 60°E
longitudes..
Rain-bearing Systems and Rainfall Distribution
There seem to be two rain-bearing systems in India.
1- In the Bay of Bengal causing rainfall over the plains of north India.
2- The Arabian Sea current of the south- west monsoon which brings rain to the west coast of India. Much
of the rainfall along the Western Ghats is orographic as the moist air is obstructed and forced to rise along
the Ghats.
EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon
 EI-Nino is a complex weather system that appears once every three to seven years, bringing drought,
floods and other weather extremes to different parts of the world.
 The system involves oceanic and atmospheric phenomena with the appearance of warm currents of the
coast of Peru in the Eastern Pacific and affects weather in many places including India.
 EI-Nino is merely an extension of the warm equatorial current which gets replaced temporarily by cold
Peruvian current or Humboldt current. This current increases the temperature of water on the Peruvian
coast by 10°C. This results in:
(i) The distortion of equatorial atmospheric circulation;
(ii) Irregularities in the evaporation of sea water;
(iii) Reduction in the amount of planktons which further reduces the number of fish in the sea.

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Break in the Monsoon
 During the south-west monsoon period after having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur for one or
more weeks, it is known as break in the monsoon. These dry spells are quite common during the rainy
season.
THE RHYTHM OF SEASONS
The climatic conditions of India can best be described in terms of an annual cycle of seasons. Four seasons:
(i) The cold weather season
(ii) The hot weather season
(iii) The southwest monsoon season
(iv) The retreating monsoon season
The Cold Weather Season
1-Temperature : Usually, the cold weather season sets in by mid-November in northern India. December
and January are the coldest months in the northern plain.
2- Pressure and Winds : By the end of December (22nd December), the sun shines vertically over the
Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere. The weather in this season is characterised by feeble high
pressure conditions over the northern plain.
3-Rainfall : Winter monsoons do not cause rainfall as they move from land to the sea. It is because firstly,
they have little humidity; and secondly, due to anti cyclonic circulation on land, the possibility of rainfall
from them reduces. So, most parts of India do not have rainfall in the winter season.
The Hot Weather Season
1. Temperature: With the apparent northward movement of the sun towards the Tropic of Cancer in March,
temperatures start rising in north India. April, May and June are the months of summer in north India.
2. Pressure and Winds: The summer months are a period of excessive heat and falling air pressure in the
northern half of the country. Because of the heating of the subcontinent, the ITCZ moves northwards
occupying a position centred at 25°N in July.
Some Famous Local Storms of Hot Weather Season
(i) Mango Shower : Towards the end of summer, there are pre-monsoon showers which are a common
phenomenon in Kerala and coastal areas of Karnataka. Locally, they are known as mango showers since
they help in the early ripening of mangoes.
(ii) Blossom Shower : With this shower, coffee flowers blossom in Kerala and nearby areas.
(iii) Nor Westers :These are dreaded evening thunderstorms in Bengal and Assam. Their notorious nature
can be understood from the local nomenclature of ‗Kalbaisakhi‘, a calamity of the month of Baisakh. These
showers are useful for tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, these storms are known as ―Bardoli
Chheerha‖.
(iv) Loo : Hot, dry and oppressing winds blowing in the Northern plains from Punjab to Bihar with higher
intensity between lhi and Patna.
The Southwest Monsoon Season

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 Increase of temperature in May over the north-western plains, the low pressure conditions over there get
further intensified. By early June, they are powerful enough to attract the trade winds of Southern
Hemisphere coming from the Indian Ocean.
 These southeast trade winds cross the equator and enter the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, . Passing
over the equatorial warm currents, they bring with them moisture in abundance. After crossing the
equator, they follow a south westerly direction. That is why they are known as southwest monsoons.
The monsoon approaches the landmass in two branches:
(i) The Arabian Sea branch
(ii) The Bay of Bengal branch.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MONSOONAL RAINFALL
 Southwest monsoons is seasonal in character, which occurs between June and September.
 Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by relief or topography.
 The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with increasing distance from the sea.
 The monsoon rains occur in wet spells of few days duration at a time. The wet spells are interspersed
with rainless interval known as monsoon breaks.
 Monsoons play a pivotal role in the agrarian economy of India
 Its spatial distribution is also uneven which ranges from 12 cm to more than 250 cm.
 The beginning of the rains sometimes is considerably delayed over the whole or a part of the country.
Season of Retreating Monsoon
 The months of October and November are known for retreating monsoons.
 By the end of September, the southwest monsoon becomes weak as the low pressure trough of the Ganga
plain starts moving southward in response to the southward march of the sun.
 The retreating southwest monsoon season is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. The land is
still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather
oppressive. This is commonly known as the ‗October heat’.
 The widespread rain in this season is associated with the passage of cyclonic depressions which originate
over the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the eastern coast of the southern Peninsula.
Distribution of Rainfall
The average annual rainfall in India is about 125 cm, but it has great spatial variations
 Areas of High Rainfall : The highest rainfall occurs along the west coast, on the Western Ghats, as
well as in the sub-Himalayan areas is the northeast and the hills of Meghalaya. Here the rainfall exceeds
200 cm. In some parts of Khasi and Jaintia hills, the rainfall exceeds 1,000 cm. In the Brahmaputra
valley and the adjoining hills, the rainfall is less than 200 cm.
 Areas of Medium Rainfall : Rainfall between 100-200 cm is received in the southern parts of Gujarat,
east Tamil Nadu, northeastern Peninsula covering Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh,
northern Ganga plain along the sub-Himalayas and the Cachar Valley and Manipur.
 Areas of Low Rainfall : Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, eastern
Rajasthan, Gujarat and Deccan Plateau receive rainfall between 50-100 cm.

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 Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of the Peninsula, especially in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Maharashtra, Ladakh and most of western Rajasthan receive rainfall below 50 cm.
Climatic Regions of India
Major climatic types of India based on Koeppen‗s scheme: Koeppen based his scheme of Climatic
classification on monthly values of temperature and precipitation. He identified five major climatic types,
namely:
(i) Tropical climates, where mean monthly temperature throughout the year is over 18°C.
(ii) Dry climates, where precipitation is very low in comparison to temperature, and hence, dry. If dryness is
less, it is semi arid (S); if it is more, the climate is arid(W).
(iii) Warm temperate climates, where mean temperature of the coldest month is between 18°C and minus
3°C.
(iv) Cool temperate climates, where mean temperature of the warmest month is over 10°C, and mean
temperature of the coldest month is under minus 3°C.
(v) Ice climates, where mean temperature of the warmest month is under 10°C.

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS ( 2 MARKS EACH)

Q. 1. What do you mean by the word ―Monsoon‘?
Ans: It is derived from the Arabic word Mausim meaning Season. Monsoon connotes the climate associated
with seasonal reversal in the direction of winds.
Q.2. Explain two factors helpful in affecting Indian Monsoon.
Ans: Two factors helpful in Indian monsoon are: Jet stream winds and difference in atmospheric pressure.
Q.3. What is a jet stream?
Ans: The winds that blow across the Asian continent at latitudes north of the Himalayas roughly parallel to
the Tibetan highlands are called jet stream.
Q.4. What is break in monsoon?
Ans: During the south-west monsoon period after having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur for one or
more weeks, it is known as break in the monsoon.
Q.5. What is mango shower?
Ans:Towards the end of summer, there are pre-monsoon showers which are a common phenomena in Kerala
and coastal areas of Karnataka. They are known as mango showers, locally since they help in the early
ripening of mangoes.
Q.6. What are western cyclones?
Ans:-The western cyclonic disturbances enter the Indian subcontinent from the west and the north-west
during the winter months. It originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are brought into India by the westerly
jet stream.
Q.7. What is meant by bursting of monsoon?
Ans: The sudden onset of the moisture-laden winds associated with violent thunder and lightning is often
termed as the ‗break‘ or ‗burst‖ of the monsoon.
Q.8.What is meant by October-heat‘?
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Answer: The retreating south-west monsoon season is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. The
land is still moist. Owing to the condition of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather
oppressive and this is known as the October-heat.
Q.9. Where do tropical cyclones originate? Which states do they hit the most?
Ans: Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. These tropical cyclones have
very high wind velocity and heavy rainfall and hit the Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa coast. Most
of these cyclones are very destructive due to high wind velocity and torrential rain that accompanies it.
Q.10. What are important features of Kalbaisakhi?
Ans: These are dreaded evening thunderstorms in Bengal and Assam. Their notorious nature can be
understood from the local nomenclature of ‗Kalbaisakhi‘. It is a calamity of the month of Baisakh.
Q.11. What is El-Nino?
Ans: EI-Nino is a complex weather system that appears once every three to seven years, bringing drought,
floods and other weather extremes to different parts of the world.
Q.12. Why do the Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during south-west monsoon?
Ans: The Tamil Nadu coast is situated parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of southwest monsoon.
It lies in the rain shadow area of the Arabian Sea branch of the south-west monsoon.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS ( 3 MARKS EACH)

Q.1. Explain the characteristics of monsoonal rainfall in India.

Ans: Rainfall received from the south-west monsoons is seasonal is character, which occurs between June
and September.
The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with increasing distance from the sea. Kolkata receives 119 cm
during the south-west monsoon period, Patna 105 cm, Allahabad 76 cm and Delhi 56 cm.
The summer rainfall comes in a heavy downpour leading to considerable runoff and soil erosion.
Monsoon play a pivotal role in the agrarian economy of India because over three-fourth of the total rain in
the country is received during the south-west monsoon season.
Its spatial distribution is also uneven which ranges from 12 cm to more than 250 cm.
The beginning of the rains sometimes is considerably delayed over the whole or a part of the country.
Q. 2. What is meant by break in the monsoon? Give features of hot weather season.
Ans: During the south-west monsoon period after having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur for one or
more weeks, it is known as break in the monsoon.
Features of hot weather season are:
With the apparent-northward movement of the sun towards the tropic of cancer in March, temperature starts
rising in north India.
April, May and June are the months of summer in North India.
The hot weather season in south India is mild and not so intense as found in North India.
Because of the heating of the subcontinent, the ITCZ moves northwards occupying a position centered at
25°N in July.

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Roughly, this elongated low pressure monsoon trough extends over the Thar Desert in the north-west to
Patna and Chota Nagpur Plateau in the east-south east.
In the heart of ITCZ in the northwest, the dry and hot winds known as ‗loo‘ blow in the afternoon and very
often, they continue to well into midnight.
Dust storms in the evening are very common during May in Punjab, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh.
Q.3.What are features of El-Nino?
Ans: EI-Nino is a complex weather system that appears once every three to seven years, bringing drought,
floods and other weather extremes to different parts of the world.
Features:
The system involves oceanic and atmospheric phenomena with the appearance of warm currents off the
coast of Peru in the Eastern Pacific and affects weather in many places including India.
EI-Nino is merely an extension of the warm equatorial current which gets replaced temporarily by cold
Peruvian current or Humbolt current.
This current increases the temperature of water on the Peruvian coast by 10°C. id) This results in:
The distortion of equatorial atmospheric circulation;
Irregularities in the evaporation of sea water;
Reduction in the amount of planktons which further reduces the number of fish in the sea.

Q.4. Differentiate between Weather and Climate.

Weather Climate
Weather is the momentary state of the atmosphere. Climate refers to the average of the weather
conditions over a longer period of time.

Weather changes quickly, may be within a day or Climate changes imperceptivity and may be noted
week. after 50 years or even more.
Frequency of weather change can be many times a Frequency of climate change is a very long process
day and can‘t be seen so easily.

Q.5. Explain the meaning of retreating of monsoon. Give its features.

Ans: i) During October and November, the south-west monsoon winds become weaker and start retreating.
ii) The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and an increase in mercury level in the northern
plains.
iii) This increase in temperature along with high level of humidity is termed as ‗October heat‘.
iv) At this time, the low pressure conditions shift to the Bay of Bengal giving rise to cyclonic depressions.
These cyclonic depressions often result in the destruction of life and property generally on the eastern and
southern coasts.
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v) By the beginning of October, the low pressure covers northern parts of the Bay of Bengal and by early
November, it moves over Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
vi) By the middle of December, the center of low pressure is completely removed from the Peninsula.
Q.6. How does the monsoon affect the economic life in India?
Ans. Monsoon is that axis around which revolves the entire agricultural cycle of India. It is because about 64
per cent people of India depend on agriculture for their livelihood and agriculture itself is based on
southwest monsoon. Agricultural prosperity of India depends very much on timely and adequately
distributed rainfall. If it fails, agriculture is adversely affected particularly in those regions where means of
irrigation are not developed.
Q.7. Write three characteristics of cold weather seasons.
Ans. (i) December and January are the coldest months in the northern plain.
(ii) The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan ranges creates cold wave situation.
(iii) In south India, the air pressure is slightly lower.
(iv) Northeast monsoon causes torrential rainfall over the Tamil Nadu coast, southern Andhra Pradesh,
southeast Karnataka and southeast Kerala.
Q.8. What is the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone?
Ans. The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a low pressure zone located at the equator where trade
winds converge, and so, it is a zone where air tends to ascend. In July, the ITCZ is located around 20°N-
25°N latitudes (over the Gangetic plain), sometimes called the monsoon trough. This monsoon trough
encourages the development of thermal low over north and northwest India.
Q.9. Why Mawsynram and Cherrapunji get very high rainfall?
Ans: Mawsynram receives the highest amount of rainfall in the world in the rainy season because it is
surrounded by the North-east hills of India, mainly Khasi, Garo, Jaintia in Meghalaya plateau is funnel-
shaped. The Bay of Bengal branch of the south-west monsoon is enclosed by these hills resulting in the
heaviest amount of rains.
Q.10. What is Break in Monsoon? What are its causes?
Ans: During the south-west monsoon period after having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur for one or
more weeks, it is known as break in the monsoon. These dry spells are quite common during the rainy
season. These breaks in the different regions are due to different reasons: -
1) In northern India rains are likely to fail if the rain-bearing storms are not very frequent along the monsoon
trough or the ITCZ over this region.
2) Over the west coast the dry spells are associated with days when winds blow parallel to the coast.
Q.11 ―In spite of abundant rainfall, India is a water thirsty land‖. Why is it so?
Ans: India is a water thirsty land in spite of abundant rainfall. This is because of the following factors:
Occurrence of rainfall in a few months (from June to September).
Rapid run off and the quick evaporation of rainwater.
Long breaks and delays in the Monsoons.

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 LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS ( 5 MARKS EACH)
Q. 1. Explain the important features of Winter Season of India.
Ans: By October, the rainy season comes to an end all over the country and the days become short and the
night become long. The rays of the sun are not overhead. The air turns cooler in the plains marking the
coming of the winter season.
The winter season lasts from November to February every year. In the Northern Plains, very cold wind blow
making the winter months severe. December and January are the coldest months in the northern plain. The
mean daily temperature remains below 21°C over most parts of northern India.

Most of the hilly areas receive heavy snowfall. January is the coldest month in the Northern Plains. The
winter season in Peninsular India is mild as a result of the influence of the surrounding water bodies. The
coromandel Coast receives heavy rainfall during this season.
The desert is cool during the day but cold at night. The air starts warming up in the month of March, and the
weather is neither cold nor hot. This time of early summer is also called the spring season. Every part of our
country regularly experiences this cycle of seasons.
Q. 2. Explain the spatial variation in the rainfall throughout the country.
Ans: There is great variation in rainfall throughout the country.
While Cherrapunji and Mawsynram in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya receive rainfall over 1,080 cm in a
year, Jaisalmer in Rajasthan rarely gets more than 9 cm of rainfall during the same period.
Tura situated in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya may receive an amount of rainfall in a single day which is
equal to 10 years of rainfall at Jaisalmer. While the annual precipitation is less than 10 cm in the north-west
Himalayas and the western deserts, it exceeds 400 cm in Meghalaya.
The highest rainfall occurs along the west coast, on the western Ghats as well as in the sub-Himalayan areas
in the north-west and the hills of Meghalaya, rainfall exceeding 200 cm. In some parts of Khasi and Jaintia
hills, the rainfall exceeds 1,000 cm. In the Brahmaputra valley and the adjoining hills, the rainfall is less than
200 cm.
Rainfall between 100-200 cm is received in southern parts of Gujarat, east Tamil Nadu, North-eastern
Peninsular covering Orissa, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh, Northern Ganga Plain along the sub-
Himalayas and the Cachar valley and Manipur.
Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat and
Deccan Plateau receive rainfall between 50-100 cm.
Question 3. Explain the spatial variation in temperature in India.
Ans: India has hot monsoonal climate which is the prevalent climate in south and south-east Asia.
While in the summer the mercury occasionally touches 55°C in the western Rajasthan, it drops down to as
low as minus 45°C in winter around Leh.
Churu in Rajasthan may record a temperature of 50°C or more on a June day while the mercury hardly
touches 19°C in Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh) on the same day.
On a December night, temperature in Drass (Jammu and Kashmir) may drop down to minus 45°C while
Thiruvananthapuram or Chennai on the same night records 20°C or 22°C.
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In Kerala and in the Andaman Islands, the difference between day and night temperatures may be hardly
seven or eight degree Celsius. But in the Thar desert, if the day temperature is around 50°C, at night, it may
drop down considerably upto 15°-20°C.
While snowfall occurs in the Himalayas, it only rains over the rest of the country. Similarly, variations are
noticeable not only in the type of precipitation but also in its amount.
Question 4. How economic life in India is affected by monsoon?
Ans: Economic life of India is extremely affected by the monsoon.
Monsoon is that axis around which revolves the entire agricultural cycle of India. Around 64 % people of
India depend on agriculture for their livelihood and agriculture itself is based on south-west monsoon.
Except Himalayas all the parts of the country have temperature above the threshold level to grow the crops
or plants throughout the year.
Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various types of crops.
Variability of rainfall brings droughts or floods every year in some parts of the country.
Agricultural property of India depends very much on timely and adequately distributed rainfall. If it fails,
agriculture is adversely affected particularly in those regions where means of irrigation are not developed.
Sudden monsoon burst creates problems of soil erosion over large areas in India.
Winter rainfall by temperate cyclones in north India is highly beneficial for Rabi crops.
Regional climatic variation in India is reflected in the vast variety of food, clothes and house types.
Question5. ―Monsoon is a gambling for Indian farmers.‖ Explain.
Ans: Agricultural property of India depends very much on timely and adequately distributed rainfall. If it
fails, agriculture is adversely affected particularly in those regions where means of irrigation are not
developed. Monsoon is that axis around which revolves the entire agricultural cycle of India. Around 64%
people of India depend on agriculture for their livelihood and agriculture itself is based on south-west
monsoon. Except Himalayas all the parts of the country have temperature above the threshold level to grow
the crops or plants throughout the year. Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various
types of crops. Variability of rainfall brings droughts or floods every year in some parts of the country.
Q.6 Write the five Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall.
Ans. 1.Rainfall received from the southwest monsoons is seasonal in character, which occurs between June
and September.
2. Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by relief or topography.
3. The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with increasing distance from the sea.
4. The summer rainfall comes in a heavy downpour leading to considerable run off and soil erosion.
5. Its spatial distribution is also uneven which ranges from 12 cm to more than 250cm.
6. The beginning of the rains sometimes considerably delayed over the whole or a part of the country.

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 CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS
1. Read the case study given below and answer the questions that follow:
You know that change is the law of nature. Climate has also witnessed change in the past at the global as
well as at local levels. It is changing even now but the change is imperceptible. A number of geological
evidences suggest that once upon a time large part of the earth was under ice cover. Besides the natural
causes, human activities such as large scale industrialisation and presence of polluting gas in the atmosphere
are also important factors responsible for global warming. You might have heard about the ―greenhouse
effect‖ while discussing global warming.
The temperature of the world is significantly increasing. Carbon dioxide produced by human activities is
a major source of concern. This gas, released to the atmosphere in large quantities by burning of fossil fuel,
is increasing gradually. Other gases like methane, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide which are present
in much smaller concentrations in the atmosphere, together with carbon dioxide are known as greenhouse
gases. These gases are better absorbers of long wave radiations than carbon dioxide, and so, are more
effective at enhancing the greenhouse effect. These gases have been contributing to global warming. It is
said that due to global warming the polar ice caps and mountain glaciers would melt and the amount of
water in the oceans would increase.

i) Which human activities are responsible for global warming?

Ans: Human activities such as large scale industrialisation and presence of polluting gas in the atmosphere
are also important factors responsible for global warming.
ii) What do you mean by ―greenhouse effect‖?
Ans: Concentration of greenhouses increased in the atmosphere due to pollution which increased the
temperature of earth is known as greenhouse effect.
iii) Mention some of the consequences of global warming.
Ans: It is said that due to global warming the polar ice caps and mountain glaciers would melt and the
amount of water in the oceans would increase.
iv) Name any two greenhouse gas.
Ans: Methane, Chlorofluorocarbons, Nitrous oxide etc.

2. Read the case study given below and answer the questions that follow:
THE SOUTHWEST MONSOON SEASON
As a result of rapid increase of temperature in May over the north western plains, the low pressure
conditions over there get further intensified. By early June, they are powerful enough to attract the trade
winds of Southern Hemisphere coming from the Indian Ocean. These southeast trade winds cross the
equator and enter the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, only to be caught up in the air circulation over
India. Passing over the equatorial warm currents, they bring with them moisture in abundance, after crossing
the equator, they follow a south westerly direction. That is why they are known as southwest monsoons. The
rain in the southwest monsoon season begins rather abruptly. One result of the first rain is that it brings
down the temperature substantially. This sudden onset of the moisture-laden winds associated with violent
thunder and lightning, is often termed as the ―break‖ or ―burst‖ of the monsoons. The monsoon may burst in
the first week of June in the coastal areas of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra while in the interior
parts of the country; it may be delayed to the first week of July. The day temperature registers a decline of

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5°C to 8°C between mid- June and mid-July. As these winds approach the land, their south westerly
direction is modified by the relief and thermal low pressure over the North West India.
i) What do you mean by ―break‖ or ―burst‖ of the monsoons?
Ans: This sudden onset of the moisture-laden winds associated with violent thunder and lightning, is often
termed as the ―break‖ or ―burst‖ of the monsoons.
ii) Which weather condition is responsible to attract trade winds of Southern Hemisphere?
Ans: The low pressure condition over the North western plains due to rapid increase in temperature in the
month of May attract trade winds of Southern Hemisphere.
iii) In which month burst in the interior parts of India?
Ans: In the month of July.
iv) Describe the term Southwest monsoons..
Ans: Southeast trade winds cross the equator and enter the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, only to be
caught up in the air circulation over India. Passing over the equatorial warm currents, they bring with them
moisture in abundance, after crossing the equator, they follow a south westerly direction. That is why they
are known as southwest monsoons.

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 CHAPTER 5: NATURAL VEGETATION

TYPES OF FORESTS
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests
(iv) Montane forests
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests.
Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests
 Found in the western slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the north-eastern region and the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
 Annual precipitation of over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22°C.
 Well stratified, with layers closer to the ground and are covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
structured trees followed by tall variety of trees.
 Trees reach great heights up to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves,
flowering and fruition. As such these forests appear green all the year round.
 Species found in these forests include rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc.

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The semi evergreen
 Found in the less rainy parts of these regions.
 Such forests have a mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous trees. The under growing climbers
provide an evergreen character to these forests.
 Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
 The British were aware of the economic value of the forests in India; hence, large scale exploitation
of these forests was started.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
 These are the most widespread forests in India.
 They are also called the monsoon forests.
 They spread over regions which receive rainfall between 70-200 cm.
 On the basis of the availability of water, these forests ar divided into moist and dry deciduous.
The Moist deciduous:
 Forests are more pronounced in the regions which record rainfall between 100-200 cm.
 These forests are found in the north-eastern states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of
the Western Ghats and Odisha.
 Teak, Sal, Shisham, Hurra, Mahua, Amla, and sandalwood etc. are the main species of these forests.
Dry deciduous forest –
 Covers vast areas of the country, where rainfall ranges between 70 -100 cm. found in rainier areas
of the Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
 The dry season begins, the trees shed their leaves completely and the forest appears like vast
grassland with naked trees all around.
 Tendu, Palas, Amaltas, Bel, Khair, Axlewood, etc. are the common trees of these forests.
Tropical Thorn Forests
 In the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm.
 These consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs.
 It includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh.
 Plants remain leafless for most part of the year and give an expression of scrub vegetation.
 Babul, Ber, and wild date palm, Khair, Neem, Khejri, Palas, etc. Tussocky grass grows upto a height
of 2 m as the under growth.
Montane Forests
 In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to a corresponding
change in natural vegetation.
 Mountain forests can be classified into two types, the northern mountain forests and the southern
mountain forests
 The Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, which change
in with the altitude. Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the Himalayas.
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The southern mountain forests-
 Found in three distinct areas of Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas and the
Nilgiris.
 As they are closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the sea level, vegetation is temperate in the
higher regions and subtropical on the lower regions of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala,
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
 The temperate forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of the other
trees of this forest of economic significance include, magnolia, laurel, cinchona and wattle.
Littoral and Swamp Forests
 India has a rich variety of wetland habitats.
 About 70 per cent of this comprises areas under paddy cultivation.
 Two sites — Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-
fowl habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention).
The country‘s wetlands have been grouped into eight categories, viz.
 The reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the lagoons and other wetlands of
the southern west coast;
 The vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh
 Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan (Keoladeo National Park)
and Madhya Pradesh;
 The delta wetlands and lagoons of India‗s east coast (Chilika Lake);
 The freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain;
 The floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast India and the
Himalayan foothills;
 The lakes and rivers of the montane region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and
 The mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
FOREST COVER IN INDIA
 The forest area covers 23.28 per cent of the total land area of the country.
 It is important to note that the forest area and the actual forest cover are not the same. The forest area
is the area notified and recorded as the forest land irrespective of the existence of trees, while the
actual forest cover is the area occupied by forests with canopy.
 The former is based on the records of the State Revenue Department, while the latter is based on
aerial photographs and satellite imageries.
 According to India State of Forest Report 2011, the actual forest cover in India is only 21.05 per
cent.
 Lakshadweep has zero per cent forest area;
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands have 86.93 per cent.

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 FOREST CONSERVATION
 A forest policy in 1952, which was further modified in 1988. According to the new forest policy, the
Government will emphasise sustainable forest management in order to conserve and expand forest
reserve on the one hand, and to meet the needs of local people on the other.
The forest policy aimed at :
 Bringing 33 per cent of the geographical areas under forest cover;
 Maintaining environmental stability and to restore forests where ecological balance was disturbed;
 Conserving the natural heritage of the country, its biological diversity and genetic pool;
 Checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands and reduction of floods and droughts;
 Increasing the forest cover through social forestry and afforestation on degraded land;
 Increasing the productivity of forests to make timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural
population dependant on forests, and encourage the substitution of wood;
 Creating of a massive peoples movement involving women to encourage planting of trees, stop
felling of trees and thus, reduce pressure on the existing forest
Social Forestry
Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands with
the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development.
The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry into three categories.
These are urban forestry, rural forestry and Farm forestry.
Urban forestry pertains to the raising and management of trees on public and privately owned lands in and
around urban centres such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues, industrial and commercial green belts,
etc.
Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion of agro-forestry and community-forestry.
Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land inclusive of the waste patches. It
combines forestry with agriculture, thus, altering the simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel, timber
and fruit.
Community forestry involves the raising of trees on public or community land such as the village pasture
and temple land, roadside, canal bank, strips along railway lines, and schools etc.
Farm forestry is a term applied to the process under which farmers grow trees for commercial and non-
commercial purposes on their farm lands.
WILDLIFE
 Wildlife of India is a great natural heritage. It is estimated that about 4-5 per cent of all known plant
and animal species on the earth are found in India. The main reason for this remarkable diversity of
life forms is the great diversity of the ecosystem which this country has preserved and supported
through the ages.
Some of the important reasons of the declining of wildlife are as follows:
 Industrial and technological advancement brought about a rapid increase in the exploitation of forest
resources.
 More and more lands were cleared for agriculture, human settlement, roads, mining, reservoirs, etc.

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  (Pressure on forests mounted due to lopping for fodder and fuel wood and removal of small timber
by the local people.
 Grazing by domestic cattle caused an adverse effect on wildlife and its habitat.
 Hunting was taken up as a sport by the elite and hundreds of wild animals were killed in a single
hunt. Now commercial poaching is rampant.
 Incidence of forest fire.
WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN INDIA
 In 1972, a comprehensive Wildlife Act was enacted, which provides the main legal framework for
conservation and protection of wildlife in India.
 Two main objectives are –
 1. to provide protection to the endangered species listed in the schedule of the Act and
 2. to provide legal support to the conservation areas of the country classified as National parks,
sanctuaries and closed areas.
 Amended in 1991, making punishments more stringent and has also made provisions for the
protection of specified plant species and conservation of endangered species of wild animals
 There are 102 National parks and 515 wildlife sanctuaries
 Special schemes like Project Tiger (1973) and Project Elephant (1992) have been launched to
conserve these species and their habitat in a sustainable manner.
 Project Tiger 1973 The main objective of the scheme is to ensure maintenance of viable population
of tigers in India.
 Project Elephant was launched in 1992 to assist states having free ranging population of wild
elephants.
BIOSPHERE RESERVES
 A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and representative ecosystem of terrestrial and coastal areas which
are internationally recognised within the framework of UNESCOK Man and Biosphere (MAB)
Programme.
 There are 14 Biosphere Reserves in India .
 Four Biosphere Reserves
 (i) Nilgiri; (ii) Nanda Devi (iii) Sunderbans; and (iv) Gulf of Mannar have been recognised by the
UNESCO on World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
 the first of the fourteen biosphere reserves of India, was established in September 1986.
 The total area of the biosphere reserve is around 5,520 sq. km.
 The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve possesses different habitat types, unspoilt areas of natural vegetation
types with several dry scrubs, dry and moist deciduous, semi- evergreen and wet evergreen forests,
evergreen sholas, grasslands and swamps.
 It includes the largest known population of two endangered animal species, namely the Nilgiri Tahr
and the Lion-tailed macaque.

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 Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
 The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve situated in Uttaranchal includes parts of Chamoli, Almora,
Pithoragarh and Bageshwar districts.
 The major forest types of the reserve are temperate. A few important species are silver weed and
orchids like latifolie and rhododendron.
 The biosphere reserve has a rich fauna, for example the snow leopard, black bear, brown bear, musk
deer, snow- cock, golden eagle and black eagle.
 Major threats to the ecosystem are the collection of endangered plants for medicinal use, forest fires
and poaching.
Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve
It is located in the swampy delta of the river Ganga in West Bengal.
It extends over a vast area of 9,630 sq. km and
consists of mangrove forests, swamps and forested islands.
Sunderbans is the home of nearly 200 Royal Bengal tigers.
 In the Sunderbans, the mangrove forests are characterised by Heritiera fomes, a species valued for its
timber.
Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
 The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers an area of 105,000 hectares on the southeast coast of
India.
 one of the world‗s richest regions from a marine biodiversity perspective. The biosphere reserve
comprises 21 islands with estuaries, beaches, forests of the nearshore environment, sea grasses, coral
reefs, salt marshes and mangroves.
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS ( 2 MARKS EACH)
Q.1.What is natural vegetation?
Ans: Natural vegetation refers to a plant community that has been left undisturbed over a long time, so as to
allow its individual species to adjust themselves to climate and soil conditions as fully as possible.
Q.2. In how many categories have vegetation of Himalayas been classified?
Ans: Vegetation of Himalayas has been classified into four groups. These are:
- Deciduous forests
- Wet temperate forests
- Cold climate vegetation
- Alpine vegetation.
Q.3. When was National Forest Policy adopted in India?
Ans: National Forest Policy was adopted in 1952 under which Forest Conservation Board was established.
This policy was modified in 1988.
Q.4. When was Project Tiger and Project Elephant launched?
Ans: Project Tiger was launched in 1973 and Project Elephant was launched in 1992.
Q.5. Name important trees of tropical evergreen forests.
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Ans: Important trees of tropical evergreen forests include rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc.
Q.6. Name important trees of tropical deciduous forests.
Ans: Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood etc. are the main species of
tropical deciduous forests.
Q.7.Which state has highest and lowest percentage of forests?
Ans: Mizoram has highest forests and Haryana has lowest forests.
Q.8.On the basis of actual forest covers, in how many categories have Indian states been divided?
Ans: On the basis of the percentage of the actual forest cover, the states have been grouped into four regions:
The region of high concentration > 40
The region of medium concentration 20-40
The region of low concentration 10-20
The region of very low concentration < 10.
Q.9. What is a national park?
Ans: A national park is an area which is strictly reserved for the protection of the wildlife and where
activities such as forestry, grazing or cultivation are not allowed.
Q.10.What is social forestry?
Ans: Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands with
the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development.
Q.11. Name the first Biosphere reserve?
Ans: The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserves was the first of the fourteen biosphere reserve of India.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS ( 3 MARKS EACH)

Q.1. Define social forestry. Classify social forestry as per the National Commission on Agriculture.
Ans: Definition of Social Forestry: Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and
afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development.
Classification of Social Forestry: The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social
forestry into three categories. These are Urban forestry, Rural forestry and Farm forestry.
Q. 2. Write the objectives of Project Tiger and Project Elephant and in how many states they are
implemented.
Ans: The objectives of Project Tiger and Project Elephant are:
i) Maintenance of viable population of tigers in India for scientific, aesthetic, cultural and ecological values.
ii) To preserve areas of biological importance as natural heritage for the benefit, education and enjoyment of
the people.
iii) The Project Tiger was launched in 1973 under which 27 tiger reserves have been set up in 17 states.
Project Elephant was launched in 1992. 14 elephant reserves have been set up during the year.
iv) Its main objective to ensure long-term survival of identified viable population of elephants in their
natural habitat.
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Q.3. What is Biosphere Reserve and what are its objectives?
Ans: Biosphere Reserve is a unique and representative ecosystem of terrestrial and coastal areas which are
internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme.
The main objectives of biosphere reserve are:
Conservation: Conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem.
Development: Association of environment with development.
Logistics: International network for research and monitoring.
Q.4. Mangrove forests are unique in their own way. Explain.
Ans: Mangrove forest:
i) The tidal forests are found in the areas of the coastal margins of Krishna, Kaveri, and Brahmaputra delta
mainly occupying the estuaries, etc.
ii) They are found in the swamp and marshy areas.
iii) They can survive both in fresh and salty water.
iv) The trees have stilt like breathing or support rots, sticking out of mud and water.
v) They are exposed at low tides and get submerged at high tides.
vi) Hot and wet climate favours their dense growth.
vii) Sundari is the well known Mangrove trees. Sunderban deltas are named after these trees.
Q.5. In which year Wildlife Act was enacted in India? What are the two main objectives of this Act?
Ans: The Wildlife Act was enacted in India in 1972.
The two main objectives of the Act are-
(i) To provide protection to the endangered species listed in the schedule of the Act, and
(ii) To provide legal support to the conservation areas of the country classified as National parks, sanctuaries
and closed areas.
Q.6. Differentiate between Natural Vegetation and Forests.
Answer:
Basis Natural Vegetation Forests
Natural vegetation refers to a plant
community that has been left
Group and community of plants and trees
undisturbed over a long time, so as to
Meaning which are found in a particular climatic
allow its individual species to adjust
conditions are called forests.
themselves to climate and soil
conditions as fully as possible.
Collection These may not be similar. These are generally similar.
Scope These include forests. Forests are a type of natural vegetation.
Q.7.Differentiate between Dry deciduous and moist deciduous Forest.
Basis Dry Deciduous Forest Moist Deciduous Forest

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Rainfall It‘s rainfall ranges between 70-100 cm. It‘s rainfall ranges between 100200 cm.
These forests are found in the northern-
These forests are found in the rain areas of
eastern states along the foothills of
Areas the peninsular and the plains of the Uttar
Himalayas, eastern slopes of the western
Pradesh and Bihar.
Ghats and Orissa.
Mainspecies:Tendu, palas, khair, Main species: Teak, sal, shisham, kusum
Species
axlewood, etc. and sandalwood, etc.

Q.8. Differentiate between Forest cover and Forest area

Basis Forest Cover Forest Area
The forest area is the area notified and
The forest cover is the area occupied by
Meaning recorded as the forest land irrespective of
forests with canopy.
the existence of land.
It is based on aerial photographs and It is based on the records of the state
Findings
satellite imageries. revenue department.
The forest cover area is 23.28 % of the total
Coverage The actual forest cover was only 20.55 %
area of the country.
Actual forest cover ranges from 9.56 % Lakshadweep has zero percent forest area
Example and in Jammu and Kashmir to 84.01 % in Andaman and Nicobar Islands have
Andaman and Nicobar Island. 86.93% etc.
Q.9. Differentiate between National Park and Sanctuary
A sanctuary is an area which is reserved for
A national park is an area which is strictly the conservation of animals only and
reserved for the protection of the wildlife operations such as harvesting of timber,
Meaning
and where activities such as forestry, collection of minor forest products are
grazing or cultivation are not allowed. allowed so long as they do not affect the
animals adversely.
Number There are 105 national parks in India. There are 514 wildlife sanctuaries in India.
Actual forest cover ranges from 9.56% Lakshadweep has zero percent forest area;
Example and in Jammu and Kashmir to 84.01% in Andaman and Nicobar Island have 86.93%
Andaman and Nicobar Island. etc.
Q.10. Differentiate between National Park and Biosphere Reserve.
Basis National Park Biosphere Reserve
A biosphere reserve is a unique and
A national park is an area which is strictly representative ecosystem of terrestrial and
reserved for the protection of the wildlife coastal areas which are internationally
Meaning
and where activities such as forestry, recognised within the framework of
grazing or cultivation are not allowed. UNESCO‘s Man and Biosphere (MAE)
Programme.

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Number There are 105 national parks in India. There are 18 biosphere reserves in India.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS ( 5 MARKS EACH)

Q.1. ―Natural vegetation is an outcome of climate.‖ Substantiate the statement by taking example of Indian
vegetation.
Ans: 1) India is a land of great variety of natural vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked with temperate
vegetation; the Western Ghats and the Andaman Nicobar Islands have tropical rain forests.
2) Tropical evergreen forests are found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of over 200
cm and mean annual temperature above 22°C. The semi evergreen forests are found in the less rainy parts of
these regions.
3) Tropical deciduous forests are spread over regions which receive rainfall between 70 -200 cm.
4) The moist deciduous forests are found in the regions which record rainfall between 100- 200 cm.
5) Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas of the country, where rainfall ranges between 70- 100 cm.
6) Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm.
7) The Himalayan ranges show a series of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, with change in the
altitude.
8) Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the Himalayas. Wet temperate types of forests are found
between altitudes of 1,000-2,000 m.
9) In the higher hill ranges of north-eastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal and Uttarakhand, evergreen
broad leaf trees such as oak and chestnut are predominant.
Q. 2. Mention any five important reasons of the declining of wildlife in India.
Ans: Some of the important reasons of the declining of wildlife are as follows:
(i) Industrial and technological advancement brought about a rapid increase in the exploitation of forest
resources.
(ii) More and more lands were cleared for agriculture, human settlement, roads, mining, reservoirs, etc.
(iii) Pressure on forests mounted due to lopping for fodder and fuel wood and removal of small timber by
the local people.
(iv) Grazing by domestic cattle caused an adverse effect on wildlife and its habitat.
(v) Hunting was taken up as a sport by the elite and hundreds of wild animals were killed in a single hunt.
Now commercial poaching is rampant.
Q.3. Explain the main features of Tropical Evergreen Forests.
Ans: 1) Introduction: - Tropical evergreen forests are found in the areas having rainfall more than 200 cm
per annum.
2) Nature: - Height of these trees is up to 60 m or above.

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3) Specification: - Since the region is warm and wet throughout the year so it has all type of vegetation i.e.
trees, shrubs and creepers giving it a multi layered structure.
4) Specialisation: - These trees remain evergreen throughout the year as there is no specific season for trees
to shed their leaves.
5) Important Plant Species: - Some of the important trees of this forest are Ebony Mahogany, Rosewood,
Rubber and Cinchona.
6) Important Animal Species: - The common animals found in these forests are elephants monkey and deer
plenty of birds, bats, scorpions etc.
Q.4. Describe the various aims of Forest policy.
(i) Bringing 33 per cent of the geographical areas under forest cover;
(ii) Maintaining environmental stability and to restore forests where ecological balance was disturbed;
(iii) Conserving the natural heritage of the country, its biological diversity and genetic pool;
(iv) Checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands and reduction of floods and droughts;
(v) Increasing the forest cover through social forestry and afforestation on degraded land;
(vi) Increasing the productivity of forests to make timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural population
dependant on forests, and encourage the substitution of wood;
(vii) creating of a massive people movement involving women to encourage planting of trees, stop felling of
trees and thus, reduce pressure on the existing forest.
Q.5. How can people‘s participation be effective in conserving forests and wildlife?
Ans: 1) People‘s participation can be very effective in conserving forests and wildlife. It is the common
people who harm the wildlife and forests the most.
2) They cut trees for shifting cultivation. They kill animals for entertainment. Therefore in 1972,
government of India has passes Wildlife Protection Act according to which it is illegal to do hunting. Since
then the hunting and poaching eases have reduced to a great extent.
3) This Act has been comprehensively amended in 1991, making punishments stricter and has also made
provisions for the protection of specified plant species and conservation of endangered species of wild
animals.
4) These actions are taken by the government but their implementation and maintenance depend on the
participation and cooperation of the people.
Q.6.―Forest and tribal are very closely related‖. Justify the statement.
Ans: i) To a vast number of tribal people, the forest, is a home, a livelihood, their very existence.
ii) It provides them food, fruits of all kinds, edible leaves, honey nourishing roots and wild game.
iii) It provides them with material to build their houses and items for practising their arts.
iv) The importance of forests in tribal economy is well-known as they are the source of sustenance and
livelihood for tribal communities.
v) The age old knowledge of tribals regarding forestry can be used in the development of forests.

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 CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS
1. Read the case study given below and answer the questions that follow:
To a vast number of tribal people, the forest is a home, a livelihood, their very existence. It provides them
food, fruits of all kinds, edible leaves, honey, nourishing roots and wild game. It provides them with material
to build their houses and items for practising their arts. The importance of forests in tribal economy is well-
known as they are the source of sustenance and livelihood for tribal communities. It is commonly believed
that the tribal communities live in harmony with nature and protect forests. Out of a total of 593 districts 187
(2001) have been identified as tribal districts. The tribal districts account for about 59.8 per cent of the total
forest cover of the country whereas the geographical area of 187 tribal districts forms only 33.6 per cent of
the total geographical area of the country. It demonstrates that tribal districts are generally rich in forest
cover.
Forest and tribals are very closely related. The age-old knowledge of tribals regarding forestry can be used
in the development of forests. Rather than treating tribals as minor forest produce collectors they should be
made growers of minor forest produce and encouraged to participate in conservation.
Answer the following questions
1. Why forest is the home land of tribal people?
Ans: It provides them food, fruits of all kinds, edible leaves, honey, nourishing roots and wild game. It
provides them with material to build their houses and items for practising their arts.
2) About what per cent of total forest cover in India comes under tribal districts?
Ans: 60%
3) How tribal people help in forest conservation?
Ans: Forest and tribals are very closely related. The age-old knowledge of tribals regarding forestry can be
used in the development of forests. Rather than treating tribals as minor forest produce collectors they
should be made growers of minor forest produce and encouraged to participate in conservation.
4) With whom tribal people lives with harmony?
Ans : The tribal communities live in harmony with nature and protect forests.
2. Read the case study given below and answer the questions that follow:
The protection of wildlife has a long tradition in India. Many stories of Panchtantra and Jungle Books,
etc. have stood the test of time relating to the love for wildlife. These have a profound impact on young
minds. In 1972, a comprehensive Wildlife Act was enacted, which provides the main legal framework for
conservation and protection of wildlife in India. The two main objectives of the Act are; to provide
protection to the endangered species listed in the schedule of the Act and to provide legal support to the
conservation areas of the country classified as National parks, sanctuaries and closed areas. This Act has
been comprehensively amended in 1991, making punishments more stringent and has also made provisions
for the protection of specified plant species and conservation of endangered species of wild animals. There
are 92 National parks and 492 wildlife sanctuaries covering an area of 15.67 million hectares in the country.
Wildlife conservation has a very large ambit with unbounded potential for the wellbeing of humankind.
However, this can be achieved only when every individual understands its significance and contributes his
bit. For the purpose of effective conservation of flora and fauna, special steps have been initiated by the
Government of India in collaboration with UNESCO‘s ‗Man and Biosphere Programme‘. Special schemes
like Project Tiger (1973) and Project Elephant (1992) have been launched to conserve these species and their
habitat in a sustainable manner.
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i) Which act provides a legal framework for conservation and protection of wildlife in India? Ans: 1972, a
comprehensive Wildlife Act
ii) Mention the objectives of Wildlife protection act 1972.
Ans: The two main objectives of the Act are; to provide protection to the endangered species listed in the
schedule of the Act and to provide legal support to the conservation areas of the country classified as
National parks, sanctuaries and closed areas..
iii) Mention any two provisions of Wildlife protection act 1972.
Ans: making punishments more stringent and has also made provisions for the protection of specified plant
species and conservation of endangered species of wild animals.
iv) What special steps have been initiated by the Government of India for conservation of flora and fauna?
Ans: Special schemes like Project Tiger (1973) and Project Elephant (1992) have been launched to conserve
these species and their habitat in a sustainable manner.

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 CHAPTER 6: SOILS

 The mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth‗s surface. The major
factors affecting the formation of soil are relief, parent material, climate, vegetation and other life-
forms and time human activities also influence it to a large extent.
 Components of the soil are mineral particles, humus, water and air.
 Horizon A‗ is the topmost zone, where organic materials have got incorporated with the mineral
matter, nutrients and water, which are necessary for the growth of plants. ‗
 Horizon B‗ is a transition zone between the ‗horizon A‗ and ‗horizon C‗, and contains matter
derived from below as well as from above. It has some organic matter in it, although the mineral
matter is noticeably weathered. ‗
 Horizon C‘ is composed of the loose parent material. This layer is the first stage in the soil
formation process and eventually forms the above two layers. This arrangement of layers is known as
the soil profile.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS
In ancient times, soils used to be classified into two main groups – Urvara and Usara, which were
fertile and sterile, respectively.

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 Soil Survey of India, established in 1956, made comprehensive studies of soils in selected areas like
in the Damodar Valley
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) did a lot of studies on Indian soils
On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the soils of India have been classified into:
1. Alluvial soils
2. Black soils
3. Red and Yellow soils
4. Laterite soils
5. Arid soils
6. Saline soils
7. Peaty soils
8. Forest soils
Alluvial Soils
Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains and the river valleys. These soils cover
about 40 per cent of the total area of the country.
They are depositional soils, transported and deposited by rivers and streams.
Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan, they extend into the plains of Gujarat. In the Peninsular
region, they are found in deltas of the east coast and in the river valleys.
Rich in potash but poor in phosphorous.
Two different types of alluvial soils have developed, viz. Khadar and Bangar.
 Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by floods annually, which enriches the soil by
depositing fine silts.
 Bangar represents a system of older alluvium, deposited away from the flood plains. Both the
Khadar and Bangar soils contain calcareous concretions (Kankars).
The colour of the alluvial soils varies from the light grey to ash grey. Alluvial soils are
intensively cultivated.
Black Soil
 Black soil covers most of the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu in the upper reaches of the Godavari and the
Krishna, and the north western part of the Deccan Plateau.
 The black soil is very deep. These soils are also known as the Regur Soil‗ or the Black Cotton Soil‗.
Generally clayey, deep and impermeable.
 They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried. So, during the dry season, these soil
develop wide cracks.
 Thus, there occurs a kind of self-ploughing‗. Because of this character of slow absorption and loss of
moisture, the black soil retains the moisture for a very long time, which helps the crops, especially,
the rain fed ones, to sustain even during the dry season.

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  Chemically, the black soils are rich in lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They also contain potash.
But they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter.
Red and Yellow Soil
 Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern
part of the Deccan Plateau.
 Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil.
Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha and Chattisgarh and in the southern parts of
the middle Ganga plain.
 The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic
rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
 The fine-grained red and yellow soils are normally fertile, whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry
upland areas are poor in fertility.
 They are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus
Laterite Soil
 Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‗Later‗ which means brick.
 The laterite soils develop in areas with high temperature and high rainfall. These are the result of
intense leaching due to tropical rains. With rain, lime and silica are leached away, and soils rich in
iron oxide and aluminium compound are left behind.
 Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that thrives well in high temperature.
 Poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide and potash are in excess.
Hence, laterites are not suitable for cultivation; however, application of manures and fertilisers are
required for making the soils fertile for cultivation.
 Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree crops like
cashewnut.
 The laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the
hilly areas of Odisha and Assam.
Arid Soils
 Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
 They are generally sandy in structure and saline in nature.They lack moisture and humus.
 Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate content is normal.
 Arid soils are characteristically developed in western Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic arid
topography. These soils are poor and contain little humus and organic matter.
Saline Soils
 Also known as Usara soils.
 Saline soils contain a larger proportion of sodium, potassium and magnesium, and thus, they are
infertile, and do not support any vegetative growth.
 They occur in arid and semi-arid regions, and in waterlogged and swampy areas.
 Their structure ranges from sandy to loamy.

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  They lack in nitrogen and calcium. Saline soils are more widespread in western Gujarat, deltas of the
eastern coast and in Sunderban areas of West Bengal. In the Rann of Kuchchh, the Southwest
Monsoon brings salt particles and deposits there as a crust.
 In such areas, especially in Punjab and Haryana, farmers are advised to add gypsum to solve the
problem of salinity in the soil.
Peaty Soils
 Found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a good growth of vegetation.
 Thus, large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates in these areas, and this gives a rich humus
and organic content to the soil.
 Soils are normally heavy and black in colour.
 Occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas of
West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
Forest Soils
 Forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available.
 The soils vary in structure and texture depending on the mountain environment where they are
formed.
 Loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in the upper slopes.
 In the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they experience denudation, and are acidic with low
humus content. The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile.
SOIL DEGRADATION
 Defined as the decline in soil fertility, when the nutritional status declines and depth of the soil goes
down due to erosion and misuse.
 Soil degradation is the main factor leading to the depleting soil resource base in India.
 The degree of soil degradation varies from place to place according to the topography, wind velocity
and amount of the rainfall.

SOIL EROSION
 The destruction of the soil cover is described as soil erosion.
 The soil forming processes and the erosional processes of running water and wind go on
simultaneously. But generally, there is a balance between these two processes. The rate of removal of
fine particles from the surface is the same as the rate of addition of particles to the soil layer.
 Wind and water are powerful agents of soil erosion because of their ability to remove soil and
transport it.
 Wind erosion is significant in arid and semi-arid regions.
 In regions with heavy rainfall and steep slopes, erosion by running water is more significant.
 Water erosion which is more serious and occurs extensively in different parts of India, takes place
mainly in the form of sheet and gully erosion.
 Sheet erosion takes place on level lands after a heavy shower and the soil removal is not easily
noticeable. But it is harmful since it removes the finer and more fertile top soil.
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  Gully erosion is common on steep slopes. Gullies deepen with rainfall, cut the agricultural lands into
small fragments and make them unfit for cultivation. A region with a large number of deep gullies or
ravines is called bad land topography. Ravines are widespread, in the Chambal basin. Besides this,
they are also found in Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.
 Deforestation is one of the major causes of soil erosion. They also add humus to the soil by shedding
leaves and twigs.
 A fairly large area of arable land in the irrigated zones of India is becoming saline because of over-
irrigation. The salt lodged in the lower profiles of the soil comes up to the surface and destroys its
fertility.
 Chemical fertilisers in the absence of organic manures are also harmful to the soil. Unless the soil
gets enough humus, chemicals harden it and reduce its fertility in the long run. This problem is
common in all the command areas of the river valley projects, which were the first beneficiaries of
the Green Revolution. According to estimates, about half of the total land of India is under some
degree of degradation.
Soil Conservation
 Soil conservation is a methodology to maintain soil fertility, prevent soil erosion and exhaustion, and
improve the degraded condition of the soil.
 Soil erosion is essentially aggravated by faulty practices. The first step in any rational solution is to
check open cultivable lands on slopes from farming.
 Lands with a slope gradient of 15 - 25 per cent should not be used for cultivation. If at all the land is
to be used for agriculture, terraces should carefully be made.
 Over-grazing and shifting cultivation in many parts of India have affected the natural cover of land
and given rise to extensive erosion. It should be regulated and controlled by educating villagers about
the consequences.
 Contour bunding, Contour terracing, regulated forestry, controlled grazing, cover cropping, mixed
farming and crop rotation are some of the remedial measures which are often adopted to reduce soil
erosion
 The Central Soil Conservation Board, set up by the Government of India, has prepared a number of
plans for soil conservation in different parts of the country. These plans are based on the climatic
conditions, configuration of land and the social behaviour of people .

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE (2 MARKS EACH)

Q.1. What is soil?
Ans: Soil is a layer of unconsolidated material at the surface of the earth which has been derived from rocks
and organic matte
Q.2. How is soil formed?
Ans: It is formed by gradual disintegration under the influence of various agents.
Q.3. Name the major factors in the formation of soils.
Ans: Parent material, relief, climate, vegetation and drainage.
Q.4. Name the three horizons of the soil.
Answer: A horizon – topmost B horizon – less leached C horizon – illuvial

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Q.5. Name the physical properties of the soil.
Ans: Size, shape and arrangement of particles, the volume and effective depth of the soil.
Q.6. What is ravine?
Ans: It is a small narrow valley with steep sides. It is larger than a gully and smaller than a canyon.
Q.7. Why soil conservation is important?
Ans: Because it is the most important natural resource for plants, animals and human beings.
Q.8. Define soil texture.
Ans: Soil texture is the arrangement and relationship of particles of the soil.
Q.9. What does the black colour of the soil indicate?
Ans: It indicates the presence of rich organic matter in the soil.
Q.10. What is meant by slight, moderate and severe erosion?
Ans: If the soil erosion is less than 25% of the surface – light. If it is between 25%-75% – moderate. If it is
more than 75% – severe.
Q.11. Which organisms play an effective role in the fertility of the soil?
Ans: These are bacteria, fungi, earthworms, ants and other insects and animals.
Q.12. Which two groups the soils used to be classified into in ancient India?
Ans: Urvara and Usara, meaning fertile and sterile respectively.
Q.13. What does ICAR stand for?
Ans: ICAR stands for Indian Council of Agricultural Research.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE (3 MARKS EACH)

Q.1. Which elements are required by plants as nutrients?
Ans: A large number of elements namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
sulphur, magnesium, calcium, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron and molybdenum are required by a plant
as nutrients.
Q.2. Classify the soil on the basis of various types of water in India.
Ans: There are four types of soils identified on the basis of different types of water. They are Barani, Chari,
Nahari and sailable. Soils dependent on rainwater are called Barani, that on well irrigation Chari, that on
canal irrigation Nahari and that on river percolation sailable.
Q.3. Define alluvium.
Ans: The alluvium is the unconsolidated, loose material left only soil but also the gravel and sand brought
down by a river and deposited in its bed, flood plain, delta or estuary, or in a lake, or land down like cone
deposits on the flood plains of the large rivers.
Q.4. Which type of soil is derived from Deccan lavas? Explain its important characteristics?
Ans: Black soil is derived from Deccan lavas. The important characteristics are:
1. It chemically consists of lime, iron, magnesia and alumina.
2. It is generally clayey, deep and impermeable.
It lacks in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter but contains potash.
Q.5. Which type of soil is the most dominant type and where is it found? Describe its two properties.
Ans: Alluvial soils are the most widespread soil covering an area of 8 lakh sq. km. from Punjab to Assam. It

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is found over about 43.7% area in India. It is found in river basins, flood plains and coastal areas. This soil is
rich in potash but poor in nitrogen. Alluvial soiIs are of three types:
(I)Khadar soils -f fine and deposited in flood plains.
(II)Bangar soils – older alluvium soil.
(III)Newest alluvial soils – fine alluvial soil found in delta.
Q.6. What are the characteristics of laterite soils?
Ans: The laterite soils are brick coloured.
These are shallow, acidic and less fertile.
(I)these less fertile due to leaching of soil.
(II)These are poor in nitrogen, potash but rich in iron. This is found in Tamil Nadu.
Q.7. What is the parent material of soil?
Ans: The soils are formed due to the weathering and erosion of rocks exposed on the surface. The material
which has undergone weathering and erosion and had contributed to soil formation is known as the parent
material. The type and nature of parent materials play a vital role in determining the properties of soil.
Q.8 What is contour ploughing?
Ans: The method of tilting or ploughing hillsides or sloping lands among the contour lines, that is, around
rather than up and down a slope mainly with a view of conserving soil and water.
Q.9 How can we improve the fertility of soils?
Ans: The fertility of the soil means the presence of humus contents and enough soil nutrients which provides
nourishment to the plants. To improve the fertility of the soil following methods should be used:

Q.10 Distinguish between soil erosion and soil conservation

.
Soil erosion Soil conservation

(1) It is black in colour and hence called black

(1) It is yellow in colour.
soil.

(2) It is formed by the decomposition of lava. (2) It is formed by leaching in tropical areas.

(3) It is suitable for the cultivation of cotton. (3) It is suitable for millets.

(4) Et is found in Deccan plateau. (4) It is found over a low plateau in Bihar.

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 LONG ANSWER TYPE (5 MARKS)
Q.1. Describe the areas affected by soil erosion. What are the factors responsible for it? Suggest measures to
conserve it.
Ans: The areas affected by the soil erosion are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Delhi, Rajasthan and many other parts of India.
(I) Potato cultivation in the region of Meghalaya on Nigiri hills causes soil erosion.
(II)Cleaning of forests in the Himalayas and on the Western Ghats.
(III) Excessive grazing by cattle on these lopes of hills amuse rapid soil erosion.
(IV)On steep slopes due to running water soil-erosion increases.
(V)Strong winds cause soil erosion. They blow away soil in dry areas.
(VI)Heavy rainfall causes soil-erosion.
(VII)Jumping by the tribal population in different parts of the country have caused considerable depletion of
the soils.
(VIII)Deforestation causes soil erosion.
The followings are the measures to conserve the soils:
(I)By scientific use of land.
(II)Crop-rotation, contour ploughing and banding.
(III)Afforestation in the upper reaches of river basins.
(V)Increased use of organic manures.
(VI)Construction of water barriers against gullies in wet regions.
Q.2. Write a short note on Arid soils and Saline soils.
Ans: Arid soils – Arid soi 1 is red to brown in colour. They are generally sandy and alkaline. In some areas,
the salt content is so high that common salt is obtained by evaporating the saline water. In a dry climate, due
to high temperature and accelerated evaporation. They lack moisture and humus content is normal. Lower
horizons of soils are occupied by Kankar due to increased calcium downward. This type of soil is found in
Rajasthan where desert topography is found. These soils contain less humus and. organic matter. These are
suitable for Jowar, Bajra, Ragi and oilseeds, etc.
Saline soils – These are known as Usara soils. It contains a larger portion of sodium, potassium and
magnesium. It is poorly fertile. These require more salts largely because of the dry climate and poor
drainage. These are found in arid and semi-arid regions and water-logged and swampy areas. Its structure
ranges from sandy to loamy. It lacks nitrogen and calcium. Saline soils are found in the region of western
Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coasts and Sundarbans area of West Bengal. With the excessive use of
cultivation and irrigation, the fertile alluvial soils are becoming saline.
Q.3. Describe the major characteristics and distribution of the soils in India.
Ans: Characteristics and distribution of soils in India:
(I). Alluvial soil – It is fine silt deposited in the plains by rivers, brought from the mountain regions. It is
very fertile and famous for agriculture. Relatively fine and new soil of the flood plains and deltas is known
as Khadar and older deposits as Bangar. Great plains of the north and deltas of peninsular rivers abound in
alluvial soil.
(II). Black soil – Black soil is made of volcanic rocks of lava flows. The soil is fertile and clayey. It can
maintain moisture for long periods. Due to black in colour, it is said to be black soil. Cotton is grown
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abundantly in this soil. Locally it is named as regur soil. Gujarat, parts of M.P. and Maharashtra have black
soil over large areas.
(III). Red soil – Red soil has developed on the crystalline igneous rocks. They are less fertile but with the
help of manures and fertilisers, good crops are raised in it. Relatively hot and dry parts of southern and
eastern peninsula abound in red soils.
(IV) Laterite soil – Due to heavy rains fertile portion of the soil has been washed away leading to leaching.
Hence the soil is infertile. Hilly regions of Western Ghats and Chhota Nagpur plateau with heavy rainfall
and hot weather are represented by this type of soil.
(V) Mountain soils are found in the Himalayan region. They are good for tea growing. Desert soil is found
in Rajasthan. They are sandy and do not produce any significant crop.
Q.4. Discuss the type of physical conditions leading to the formation of peaty and organic soils.
Ans: The peaty and organic soils are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a
good growth of vegetation. A large amount of dead organic matter accumulates in these areas and this gives
rich humus and organic content to the soil. Hence, they are peaty and organic soils. Organic matter in these
soils may go even up to 40 to 50%.
These soils are normally heavy and black in colour. They occur widely in the northern part of Bihar, the
southern part of Uttaranchal and coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. Such soils are used
for cultivation of high and less soil exhaustive crops.
Q.5. So long a balance exists between the processes of soils formation and soil erosion, there is no nutrient,
but when the balance has distributed the erosion of the soil becomes a menace. Comment.
Ans: The removal of soil by running water and the erosion process of running water and wind are
continuous. Generally, there is a balance between these two processes. The rate of removal of fine particles
from the surface is the same as the rate of addition of particles to the soil layer. Sometimes such a balance is
distributed by natural or human factors, leading to a greater rate of removal of soil. When this happens, the
entire soil layer may be removed in a few years.
Indiscriminate felling of trees, careless overgrazing of pasture lands, unscientific drainage operations and
improper land use are some of the important causes which upset.
Source based questions answers
1. Read the passage carefully and answer these questions
In arid and semi -arid areas, efforts should be made to protect cultivable lands from encroachment by sand
dunes through developing shelter belts of trees and agro-forestry. Lands not suitable for cultivation should
be converted into pastures for grazing. Experiments have been made to stabilise sand dunes in Western
Rajasthan by Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI).
The Central Soil Conservation Board, set up by the government of India, has prepared a number of plans for
soil conservation in different parts of the country. These plans are based on the climatic conditions,
configuration of land and the social behaviour of people. Even these plans are fragmental in nature.
Integrated land use planning, therefore, seems to be the best techniques for proper soil conservation. Lands
should be classified according to their capability; land use maps should be prepared and land should put to
right uses. The final responsibility for achieving the conservation of land will rest on the people who operate
on it and receive the benefits.
Q.1. Central Soil Conservation Board is set up for.
Ans: Government of India
Q.2. Shelter belt of tree and Agro – forestry is mainly used for

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Ans: To stop sand dunes expansion
Q.3. The final responsibility to conserve the land is upon.
Ans: The people who operate it
Q 2 Read the passage carefully and answers these questions
The destruction of the soil cover is described as soil erosion. Wind and water are powerful agents of soil
erosion because of their ability to remove soil and transport it. Wind erosion is significant in arid and semi-
arid region, in regions with heavy rain fall and steep slopes, erosion by running water is more significant.
Water erosion which is more serious and occurs extensively in different part of India, takes places mainly in
the form of sheet and gully erosion. Sheet erosion takes place on level lands after heavy shower and soil
removal is not easily noticeable. But it is harm full since it removes the finer and more fertile top soil. Gully
erosion is common on steep slopes. Gullies deepen with rain fall, cut the agricultural land into small
fragments and make them unfit for cultivation. A region with large no. of deep gully or ravines is called a
bad land topography, Ravines are wide spread, in the Chambal basin. Beside this they are also found in
Tamil Nadu and West Bangal. The current is loosing about 8000 hectare of land to ravines every year.
Q.1 Explain gully erosion.
Ans: Gully erosion is common on steep slopes. Gullies deepen with rain fall, cut the agricultural land into
small fragments and make them unfit for cultivation. A region with large no. of deep gully or ravines is
called a bad land topography
Q.2 Explain Sheet erosion.
Ans: Sheet erosion takes place on level lands after heavy shower and soil removal is not easily noticeable.
But it is harm full since it removes the finer and more fertile top soil.
Q.3 Wind erosion is significant in which region
Ans: Arid and Semi-Arid region

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 MAP

India – Physical Environment Class XI-Textbook II (NCERT)

Map Items for locating and labelling only on the outline political map of India
Ch. 4
• Annual rainfall in India
• Normal dates of onset of southwest monsoon
• Climatic regions according to Koeppen‘s scheme
Ch. 5
• Natural vegetation of India
• Biosphere reserves of India
Fundamentals of Physical Geography Class XI-Textbook I (NCERT)
Map Items for locating and labelling only on the outline political map of world
Ch. 14
• Warm Ocean currents
• Cold ocean currents
Ch. 16
• Ecological hotspots of world
INDIA
Annual rainfall in India
Climatic regions according to Koeppen’s scheme

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Climatic regions according to Koeppen’s scheme

Normal dates of onset of southwest monsoon

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Natural vegetation of India

Biosphere reserves of India

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 WORLD
Warm Ocean currents and Cold ocean currents

Ecological hotspots of world

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 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER-1
TERM II SESSION 2021-22
Class: XI Max. Marks: 35
Subject: Geography Time: 1 Hr. 30 mints

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:

I) Question paper is divided into 5 sections A, B, C, D & E

II) In section A question number 1 to 3 are Very Short Answer type questions.
Attempt any 3 questions.
III) In section B question number 4 is Source based question.
IV) In section C question number 5 & 6 are Short Answer based questions.
V) In section D question number 7 to 9 are Long Answer based questions.
VI) In section E question number 10 is a map-based question.

SECTION A (VSA) 2 X 3=6

1. What are the three movements of ocean water? 2
2. What is the difference between spring tide and neap tide? 2
3. Describe social forestry. 2
OR
Mention any two aims of Forest Policy of India.

SECTION B (SOURCE BASED QUESTION) 3X1=3

4. Read the paragraph given below and answer the questions. 3

FOREST COVER IN INDIA

According to the state records, the forest area covers 23.28 per cent of the total land area of the country. It is
important to note that the forest area and the actual forest cover are not the same. The forest area is the area
notified and recorded as the forest land irrespective of the existence of trees, while the actual forest cover is
the area occupied by the forests with canopy. The former is based on the records of the State Revenue
Department, while the latter is based on aerial Photographs and satellite imageries. According to India state
of forest Reports 2011, the actual forest cover in India is only 21.05 per cent. Of the forest cover, the share
of dense and open forests is 12.29 and 8.75 per cent respectively.
Both forest area and forest cover varies from state to state. Lakshadweep has zero per cent forest area;
Andaman and Nicobar Islands have 86.93 per cent.
4.1. What is the difference between forest area and actual forest cover?
4.2. Name the union territories of India having minimum and maximum forest area.
4.3. What are the sources of data collection for forest area and actual forest cover respectively?

SECTION -C (SHORT ANSWER) 2x3=6

5. What is the composition of atmosphere? 3
Or
What is the difference between land and sea breeze? Explain with suitable diagram.

6. What is an ecological system? Identify the major types of ecosystems in the world. 3

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 SECTION-D (LONG ANSWERS) 3x5=15

7. Draw a suitable diagram for the structure of atmosphere and label it and describe it. 5
Or
Explain the Heat Budget of earth with suitable diagram?
8. Explain the factors determining the climate of India. 5
Or
Explain the mechanism of Indian monsoon.
9. What is soil? What is the classification of soils of India based on genesis, colour, composition and
location? 5
Or
What do you mean by soil degradation? Suggest some measures for soil conservation.

SECTION E (MAP) 1x5=5

10. Locate any five of the following features on the given outline map of India. 5
a) Direction of advancing south west monsoon
b) Areas of Alluvial soil
c) Areas of less than 50 cm of annual rainfall
d) Areas Evergreen forests
e) Areas of Laterite soil
f) Nanda Devi biosphere reserve
g) ) Areas of winter rainfall due to western disturbances

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 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER –2
TERM II ; SESSION 2021-22

Class: XI Max. Marks- 35

Subject: GEOGRAPHY Time: 1 Hrs 30 min.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:
I) Question paper is divided into 5 sections A, B, C, D & E
II) In section A question number 1 to 3 are Very Short Answer type questions. Attempt any 3 questions.
III) In section B question number 4 is Source based question.
IV) In section C question number 5 & 6 are Short Answer based questions.
V) In section D question number 7 to 9 are Long Answer based questions.
VI) In section E question number 10 is a map-based question.

SECTION - A (VSA) 2X3=6

Q1. Define Ocean current? How Ocean currents are caused?

Q2. How Spring tides are different from Neap tides?

Q3. What do you mean by Social forestry in Indian context?

OR

Give two characteristic of Tropical Deciduous forest in India.

SECTION –B (SOURCE BASED QUESTION) 3X1=3

Q4. Study the given passage carefully and answer the following questions.
India is land of great variety of natural vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked with temperate vegetation;
the Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar Islands have tropical rainforest, the delta regions have tropical
forest and mangroves; the deserts and semi desert areas of Rajasthan have bushes and thorny vegetation.
Depending on the variations in the climate and the soil, the vegetation of India changes from one region to
another.

Attempt all questions:

4.1. What is natural vegetation?
4.2. Which is the most widespread forest found in India?
4.3. Why India has regional variations in natural vegetation? Give two reasons.

SECTION – C (SHORT ANSWERS)

Question no. 5 & 6 2X3=6
Q5. Briefly describe the factors affecting distribution of temperature on the earth‘s surface.
Q6. In how many categories has the International union of conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) classified the threatened species of plants and animals?
OR
How do Natural calamities and illegal hunting harm biodiversity?

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 SECTION – D (LONG ANSWERS)

Question no. 7 to 9 3X5=15

Q7. Briefly explain three types of rainfall with the help of suitable diagrams?
Q8. What is Monsoon? Discuss different characteristics of Monsoon in India.
OR
How many seasons are found in India? Name them. Describe the nature and characteristic of any one season
in detail.
Q9. What is soil conservation? Suggest few measures to conserve soil in India.

SECTION – E (MAP)

Q10. On the outline map of India indicate and mark the following features. (Attempt any 5).
a. South west monsoon winds
b. An area of deciduous forest.
c. An area of Black soil in Maharashtra
d. An area receiving rainfall above 400 cm
e. An area of Thorn forest
f. An area of Red and Yellow soil

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 KENDRIYA VIDYALAY SANGTHAN
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER-3 (2021-22)
CLASS 11 - GEOGRAPHY (029) - TERM II
Time: 2 Hrs. Max. Marks 35
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
I I. Question paper is divided into 5 sections A, B, C, D & E.
II II. In section A question number 1 to 3 are Very Short Answer type questions. Attempt
any 3 questions.
III III. In section B question number 4 is Source based question.
IV IV. In section C question number 5 & 6 are Short Answer based questions.
V V. In section D question number 7 to 9 are Long Answer based questions.
VI VI. In section E question number 10 & 11 are Map based questions.

SECTION A (VSA)
Attempt all questions 2x3

1. What is a thermocline?
2. Where does neap tide occur?
3. What do you mean by ‗breaks‘ in monsoon?
OR
Why Tamil Nadu gets more rain in winter than in summer?

SECTION B (SOURCE BASED QUESTION)

4. Life on the earth and ecology. 3x1=3

The term ecology is derived from the Greek word ‗oikos‘ meaning ‗house‘, combined with
the word ‗logy‘ meaning the ‗science of‘ or ‗the study of ‘. Literally, ecology is the study of
the earth as a ‗household‘, of plants, human beings, animals and micro-organisms. They all
live together as interdependent components. A German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who used
the term as ‗oekologie‘ in 1869, became the first person to use the term ‗ecology‘. The study
of interactions between life forms (biotic) and the physical environment (abiotic) is the
science of ecology. Hence, ecology can be defined as a scientific study of the interactions of
organisms with their physical environment and with each other.
4.1 Define the term ecology.

4.2 Who used the term ‗oekologie‘?

4.3 Distinguish between biotic and abiotic.

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 SECTION C (SHORT ANSWER)

Question no. 5 & 6 2x3=6

5. Explain why the angle of the sun‘s rays falls variably on different latitudes.
6. Explain how the soil organisms play an effective role in the fertility of the soil?
OR
Discuss the types and characteristics of alluvial soils.

SECTION D (LONG ANSWER)

Question no. 7 to 9 3x5=15

7. Why is troposphere the most important of all the layers of the atmosphere?
8. What are the important factors which influence the mechanism of Indian weather?
OR
Describe the distribution of rainfall and the effect of relief on its distribution.
9. Why have certain species of animals become extinct in our country? What is being done?
to preserve wildlife?
SECTION E (MAP)
10. On the outline map of India indicate and mark the following features-
(Attempt any 3). 1x3=3
a. An Area of Tropical Evergreen Forests
b. A biosphere reserve in Orissa.
c. An Area of alluvial soil
d. An Area of desert soil

For visually impaired students in lieu of Question no. 10

(Attempt any 3) 1x3=3
a. Name one area where Tropical Evergreen Forests are found.
b. Name the biosphere reserve of Orissa.
c. Where is mainly the alluvial soil concentrated?
d. Name the major state of the desert soil.

11. On the outline map of World indicate and mark the following features-
(Attempt any 2). 1x2=2
a. Any one ecological hotspot in India
b. Ecological hotspot of Australia
c. Any one ecological hotspot of North America
For visually impaired students in lieu of Question no. 11
(Attempt any 3) 1x2=2
a. Name any one ecological hot spot in India.
b. Which is the ecological hot spot of Australia?
c. Write the name of any one ecological hot spot of North America.

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