Gaspard Bangerezako

University of Burundi
Faculty of Sciences
Department of Mathematics

An Introduction to
q-Difference Equations

Preprint

Bujumbura, 2008
To Flaschka, Keldisch and Gosta B
Contents

Introduction 1

1 Elements of q-difference calculus 3

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 q-Hypergeometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 q-Derivation and q-integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 q-Difference equations of first order 15

2.1 Linear q-difference equations of first order . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Nonlinear q-difference equations transformable into linear equa-
tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3 Systems of linear q-difference equations 27

3.1 General theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Autonomous systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4 Linear q-difference equations of higher order 35

4.1 General theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 Linear q-difference equations with constant coefficients . . . 38
4.3 Nonlinear q-difference equations transformable into linear equa-
tions of higher order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4 Linear q-difference equations of second order . . . . . . . . . 41
4.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5 q-Laplace transform 57
5.1 Properties of the q-Laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

i
ii CONTENTS

5.2 q-Laplace transforms of some elementary functions . . . . . . 64

5.3 Inverse q-Laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.4 Application of q-Laplace transform to certain q-difference
equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

6 q-Difference orthogonal polynomials 75

6.1 The factorization method for the solvability of q-difference
equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.1.1 The general theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.1.2 The hypergeometric q-difference equation . . . . . . . 79
6.1.3 The Askey-Wilson second order q-difference equation
case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2 The factorization method for the transformation of q-difference
equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.2.1 The general theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.2.2 The hypergeometric q-difference equation . . . . . . . 89
6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

7 q-Difference linear control systems 93

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.2 Controllability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.2.1 Controllability canonical forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.3 Observability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.3.1 Observability canonical forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.4 Controllability and polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

8 q-Difference variational calculus 111

8.1 The q-Euler-Lagrange equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8.2.1 On the continuous variational calculus . . . . . . . . . 116
8.2.2 The q-isoperimetric problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.2.3 The q-Lagrange problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.2.4 A q-version of the commutation equations . . . . . . . 121
8.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Contents iii

9 q-Difference optimal control 125

9.1 The q-optimal control problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.2 Interconnection between the variational q-calculus, the q-optimal
control and the q-Hamilton system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.3 Energy q-optimal control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
iv Contents
Introduction

Studies on q-difference equations appeared already at the beginning of the

last century in intensive works especially by F H Jackson [32], R D Carmichael
[22], T E Mason [46], C R Adams [5], W J Trjitzinsky [54] and other authors
such us Poincare, Picard, Ramanujan. Unfortunately, from the thirties up
to the beginning of the eighties, only nonsignificant interest in the area was
observed.
Since years eighties [30], an intensive and somewhat surprising inter-
est in the subject reappeared in many areas of mathematics and applica-
tions including mainly new difference calculus and orthogonal polynomi-
als, q-combinatorics, q-arithmetics, q-integrable systems and variational q-
calculus.
However, though the abundance of specialized scientific publications and
a relative classicality of the subject, a lack of popularized publications in
the form of books accessible to a broad public including under and upper
graduated students is very sensitive. This book is intended to participate to
the bridging of this gap.

It is to be understood that the choice of approach to be followed in the

book as well as that of material to be treated in most of chapters are mainly
dictated by the center of interest of the author. However, in preparing the
present text, our underlying motivation does’nt consist in any kind of spe-
cialization but in our wish of making available a most possibly coherent and
self contained material, that should appear very useful for graduate students
and beginning researchers in the area itself or in its applications.

The first five chapters are concerned with an introduction to q-difference

equations and q-Laplace transform, while the subsequent chapters are con-
cerned with applications to orthogonal polynomials and mathematical con-
trol theories.

1
2 Introduction

Among existing books on the subject, we can cite for the interested reader
the well known books on q-series and their applications [6, 28] and the more
recent ones on q-calculus [27, 33].

Acknowledgments. The Professor Alphonse P. Magnus (UCLouvain) is

greatly gratified for having introduced me in the world of mathematics on
”special nonuniform lattices” (snul). He is also acknowledged for many com-
ments that allowed to improve the original manuscript. Also, my colleagues
F Ndayiragije (University of Burundi), M N Hounkonnou (IMSP, Benin) and
M Foupouagnigni (University of Yaounde I, Cameroun) are remembered.
Last but not least, I greatly appreciate the support from ICTP (Trieste,
Italy) and CUD (Belgium) having, these years, benefited me a few grants
for developing countries.
Chapter 1

Elements of q-difference
calculus

1.1 Introduction
Following [43, 45], mathematical analysis can be considered on special lat-
tices:
-The constant x(s) = cte,
-The uniform x(s) = s,
-The q-uniform x(s) = q s ,
-The q-nonuniform x(s) = (q s + q −s )/2, s ∈ Z, 0 < |q| < 1, the subja-
cent theory being founded on the corresponding divided difference derivative
[42, 43]:

f (x(s+ 21 ))−f (x(s− 12 ))

Df (x(s)) = x(s+ 12 )−x(s− 21 )
. (1.1)

The basic property of this derivative is that it sends a polynomial of degree

n to a polynomial of degree n − 1. In this connection it seems to be the most
general one having this vital characteristic. When x(s) is given by the first
three lattices, the corresponding divided derivative gives respectively

d
Df (x) = dx f (x) (1.2)
d
1
∆ 1 f (x) = ∆f (t) = f (t + 1) − f (t) = (e dt − 1)f (t); t = x − 2 (1.3)
2
(q−1)t d 1
f (qt)−f (t) e −1
D 1 f (x) = Dq f (t) = qt−t = dt
qt−t f (t); t = q − 2 x. (1.4)
q2

3
4 Introduction

When x(s) is given by the latest lattice, the corresponding derivative is

usually referred to as the Askey-Wilson first order divided difference operator
[7] that one can write:
1 1
f (x(q 2 z))−f (x(q − 2 z)) z+z −1
Df (x(z)) = 1 1 , x(z) = 2 , z = qs (1.5)
x(q 2 z)−x(q − 2 z)

This book is concerned with studies of q-difference equations that is q-

functional equations of the form

F (x, y(x), Dq y(x), . . . , Dqk y(x)) = 0, x ∈ C (1.6)

where Dq is the derivative in (1.4), the so-called Jackson derivative [32],

f (qx)−f (x)
Dq f (x) = qx−x , x(s) = q s , s ∈ Z. (1.7)

The functional equations implying the first two derivatives in (1.2)-(1.3)

correspond respectively to the very classical popularized differential (con-
tinuous) and difference equations while those implying the Askey-Wilson
derivative in (1.5) is essentially at its embryonic state, except for numerous
applications in orthogonal polynomials theory [44, 49] and a few applications
in others area (see, e.g., [6, 10, 9]).
In this connection, our book is concerned with a fairly developed matter of
mathematical analysis on lattices.
It is worth to be noted that the q-difference equations theory considered in
this book is a special case of the general q-functional equations

F (x, y(x), y(qx), . . . , y(xq k )) = 0, x ∈ C (1.8)

(studied e.g., in [17, 51]), since in our case, x belongs necessary to the q-
uniform lattice q s , s ∈ Z. In this book, for concreteness, it will be under-
stood, unless the contrary is noted, that q is real and 0 < q < 1.
Hence our lattice reads

T = [0 = q ∞ , . . . , q s+1 , q s , . . . , q 2 , q, q 0 = 1,
q −1 , q −2 , . . . , q −s , q −s−1 , . . . , q −∞ = ∞]. (1.9)

This is clearly a geometric progression with a proportion equals to q. For

this reason, q-difference equations are some times referred to as geometric
difference equations [30].
Examples of geometric variables can be found in any area of life or social
sciences (here q may be ≥ 1).
Elements of q-difference calculus 5

1. Suppose given the simplest model of evolution of species

p(s + 1) = rp(s); p(0) = p0 (1.10)
where p(s) is the population of the species at the period s and r is the
constant rate of change. (1.10) gives
p(s) = rs p0 . (1.11)
p(s) is clearly a geometric variable with q = r, p0 = 1.

2. In economy or epidemiology, we can consider a certain quantity that

increases or decreases at every period s, in a rate equal to r. We get the
difference equation
q(s + 1) = (1 + r)q(s); q(0) = q0 (1.12)
so that
q(s) = (1 + r)s q0 . (1.13)
which is a geometric variable with q = 1 + r and q0 = 1.

3. In a national economy, let R(s), I(s), C(s) and G(s) be respectively the
national income, the investment, the consumer expenditure and the govern-
ment expenditure in a given period s. We have [26]
R(s + 2) − α(1 + β)R(s + 1) + αβR(s) = 1, (1.14)
with the assumptions that
C(s) = αR(s − 1), α > 0, (1.15)

I(s) = β[C(s) − C(s − 1)] β > 0 (1.16)

and G(s) = const. The general solution of (1.14) reads
R(s) = c1 λs1 + c2 λs2 + c3 . (1.17)
where λ1 and λ2 are roots of
λ2 − α(1 + β)λ + αβ = 1. (1.18)
We can clearly get geometric variables by convenient choices of the constants
c1 , c2 , and c3 . In the particular case when αβ = 1, we can take λ1 = q and
λ2 = 1/q and (1.17) is nothing else than a form of the q-nonuniform variable
noted in the beginning of this section.
6 q-Hypergeometric Series

4. Consider the amortization of a loan that is the process by which a loan

is repaid by a sequence of periodic payments, each of which is part pay-
ment of interest and part payment to reduce the outstanding principal. Let
p(s) represent the outstanding principal after the sth constant payment T
and, suppose that the interest charges compound at the rate r per payment
period. In this case, we have the equation

p(s + 1) = (1 + r)p(s) − T ; p(0) = p0 (1.19)

which solution reads

T T
p(s) = (p0 − )(1 + r)s + . (1.20)
r r
This is also a generalized geometric variable and it can be found in any
phenomenon with similar evolution process.

1.2 q-Hypergeometric Series

When dealing with q-difference equations, arise naturally series solutions of
the type
∞
cn xn .
X
y(x) = (1.21)
n=0

Among them, are of particular interest these for which

cn+1
(1.22)
cn

is a rational function in q n . If for example

r Q −n
cn+1 i=1 (αi − q )
= Qs −n
, (1.23)
cn i=1 (βi − q )(q − q −n )

such series are seen to have the form

 !
α1 , α2 , . . . , αr 
r ϕs  q; z
β 1 , β 2 , . . . , βs 
 1+s−r
k(k−1)
P∞ (α1 ;q)k (α2 ;q)k ...(αr ;q)k zk
= k=0 (β1 ;q)k (β2 ;q)k ...(βs ;q)k (−1)k q 2
(q;q)k , (1.24)
Elements of q-difference calculus 7

where (a1, . . . , ap ; q)k := (a1 ; q)k . . . (ap ; q)k , (a; q)0 = 1, (a; q)k = (1 − a)(1 −
aq)(1 − aq 2 ) . . . (1 − aq k−1), k = 1, 2 . . .. These series are referred to as the
a ;q)
q-(basic)hypergeometric series [28]. Since limq→1 (q (1−q)k
k
= (a)k , we have
 !
q α1 , q α2 , . . . , q αr 
1+s−r
limq→1 r ϕs  q; (q − 1) z

q β1 , q β2 , . . . , q βs 
 !
α1 , α2 , . . . , αr 
= r Fs z , (1.25)
β1 , β2 , . . . , βs 

where
 !
α1 , α2 , . . . , αr 
r Fs z
β 1 , β 2 , . . . , βs 
P∞ (α1 )k (α2 )k ...(αr )k z k
= k=0 (β1 )k (β2 )k ...(βs )k k! , (1.26)

where (a1, . . . , ap )k := (a1)k . . . (ap )k , (a)0 = 1, (a)k = a(a+1) . . . (a+k−1) =

Γ(a+k)
Γ(a) , series referred to as hypergeometric series. As well for the generalized
hypergeometric series as for the basic ones , the radius of convergence is given
by

 ∞,
 r <s+1
ρc = 1, r =s+1 (1.27)
 0,

r > s + 1.

Take for example the simplest q-difference equation

Dq y(x) = y(x). (1.28)

Its solution reads

∞
X ((1 − q)x)n
y(x) = =1 ϕ0 (0; −; q, (1 − q)x), (1.29)
n=0
(q; q)n

a q-version of the exp(x) function [35] (see also section 2.1 below).

1.3 q-Derivation and q-integration

Basic formulae for the q-derivation and q-integration are concerned, similarly
to the differential or difference situations.
8 q-Derivation and q-integration

Derivative and integral

We define the q-derivative also referred to as the Jackson derivative [32] as
follows
f (qx) − f (x)
Dq f (x) = . (1.30)
qx − x

This derivative sends naturally a polynomial of degree n in a polynomial of

k −1
degree n − 1, since Dq xk = qq−1 xk−1 and if p(x) = nk=0 ak xk , then
P

n−1
X q k+1 − 1 k
Dq p(x) = ak+1 x . (1.31)
k=0
q−1

Together with the question of the q-derivative, arises naturally that of the
q-primitive or q-indefinite integral of a given function. This is equivalent to
solving the following simplest q-difference equation in g with known f

Dq g(x) = f (x). (1.32)

Detailing (1.32) gives

1 − Eq
g(x) = f (x), Eq h(x) = h(qx) (1.33)
(1 − q)x
or
∞
g(x) = (1 − Eq )−1 [(1 − q)xf (x)] = (1 − q) Eqi [xf (x)],
X
(1.34)
i=0

or
∞
q i f (q i x).
X
g(x) = (1 − q)x (1.35)
i=0

The preceding calculus is clearly valid only if the series in the rhs of (1.35)
is convergent. To say that if the series in the rhs of (1.35) is convergent, the
function in the rhs of that equality is a certain primitive of f (x), namely
that primitive that vanishes at x = x0 = 0. Hence we can write
Z x ∞
q i f (q i x).
X
f (x)dq x = (1 − q)x (1.36)
0 i=0
Elements of q-difference calculus 9

It is easily seen that the expression on the rhs of (1.36) is a Riemann integral
sum of the function f on [0, x], x 6= ∞, where the segmentation is given by
the geometric lattice q s , s = 0, . . . , ∞. This means that if f (x) is Riemann
integrable (RI) around x0 = 0, then we can naturally give its primitive as in
(1.36) which is defined for x ∈ T , x 6= ∞.
However, if the function f (x) is not RI around x0 = 0 but is RI around
x0 = ∞, then one will find a primitive of f (x) under the form
Rx P∞
∞ f (x)dq x = (1 − q −1 )x −i
i=0 q f (q
−1−i
x),
P∞ −i −i
= (q − 1)x i=1 q f (q x) (1.37)
which is defined on the lattice T in (1.9) except for x = 0. Furthermore, if
the function f (x) is not RI neither around x0 = 0, nor around x0 = ∞, but
RI around some x0 = c = q d , d ∈ Z, then the primitive of f (x) reads
Rx Ps−1
c f (x)dq x = (q − 1) i=d q i f (q i ), c = q d ≥ x = q s
Pq−1 x
= (q − 1) t=c tf (t). (1.38)
For example taking c = q 0 = 1, we get
Rx Ps−1
c f (x)dq x = (q − 1) i=0 q i f (q i ). (1.39)
Note that the integral in (1.36) is clearly a particular case of the more general
integral
Z x ∞
f (t)dq t =def (x − a)(1 − q) q i f (a + q i (x − a)).
X
(1.40)
a 0
where we set a = 0 to obtain (1.36).
Next we define the definite integral as
Rb Pβ i i α
a f (x)dq x = (1 − q) i=α q f (q ), b = q ≥ a = q β+1
Pb
= (1 − q) x=q−1 a xf (x). (1.41)
If the function f (x) is RI around x0 = 0, (1.41) can be written another way:
Rb Rb Ra
a f (x)dq x = [ 0 − 0 ]f (x)dq x. (1.42)
Clearly, if the function f (x) is differentiable on the point x, the q-derivative
in (1.30) tends to the ordinary derivative in the classical analysis when q
tends to 1. Identically, if the function f (x) is RI on the concerned intervals,
the integrals in (1.36), (1.37), (1.39) and (1.40) tend to the Riemann integrals
of f (x) on the corresponding intervals when q tends to 1. Moreover, one
easily remarks that the q-integral admits the general properties of Riemann
integral on finite or infinite intervals.
10 q-Derivation and q-integration

Example 1. Evaluate xα dq x
R

Solution. One distinguishes

a) α > −1: f (x) = xα is RI around x0 = 0. Hence,
Rx α P∞ i αi α
0 x dq x = (1 − q)x 0 q q x
α+1
1−q α+1
; xα+1 = 0x xα dx, q ;
R
= 1−q α+1 x 1. (1.43)

b) α < −1: f (x) = xα is not RRI around x0 = 0 but is RI around x0 = ∞.

x α
x dx = (q − 1)x ∞ −(i+1) α −(i+1)α
P
Hence, using (1.37), one has ∞ 0 q x q =
1−q x α+1 x α
α+1
R
1−q α+1
x ; α+1 = 0 x dx, q ; 1.
c) α = −1: In this case, the function f (x) = x1 is not RI neither around
x0 = 0 nor around x0 = ∞. Hence the formulas (1.36) and (1.37) don’t work.
R d x
However using (1.39), one gets 1x xq = (q −1) i=0 (1) = (q −1)s = q−1
Ps−1
lnq ln x
R x dx
; ln x = 1 x , q ; 1.
It follows in particular from a) that the indefinite integral of a polynomial
of degree n is a polynomial of degree n + 1.

Example 2. Evaluate 0∞ f (x)dq x for a function f RI on [0, ∞].

R

Solution. Considering (1.36) and (1.37) with x = 1, we have

Z ∞ Z 1 Z ∞
f (x)dq x = f (x)dq x + f (x)dq x
0 0 1
∞ ∞
q i f (q i ) + (1 − q) q −i f (q −i )
X X
= (1 − q)
0 1
∞
q i f (q i )
X
= (1 − q) (1.44)
−∞

Note that the last expression in (1.44) is a Riemann integral sum of f on

[0, ∞] with the segmentation in (1.9).

Derivative of a product

Dq (f g)(x) = g(qx)Dq f (x) + f (x)Dq g(x)

= f (qx)Dq g(x) + g(x)Dq f (x). (1.45)

Derivative of a ratio

g(x)Dq f (x)−f (x)Dq g(x)

Dq ( fg )(x) = g(qx)g(x) . (1.46)
Elements of q-difference calculus 11

Chain rule

f (g(qx))−f (g(x)) g(qx)−g(x)

Dq (f (g))(x) = g(qx)−g(x) . qx−x
= Dq,g f (g).Dq,x g(x) (1.47)

Derivative of the inverse function

Let y = f (x). In that case, x = f −1 (y) where f −1 is the inverse function to
f . Applying the q-derivative on each side of the equality, one gets

f −1 (y(qx))−f −1 (y(x)) y(qx)−y(x)

1 = Dq x = Dq f −1 (y) = y(qx)−y(x) . qx−x
−1
= Dq,y f (y).Dq,xy(x). (1.48)

Consequently
1
Dq,y f −1 (y) = Dq,x y . (1.49)

Fundamental principles of the q-analysis

(i)
Rx i P∞ i P∞ i i
Dq [ a f (x)dq x] = Dq {(1 − q)[x 0 q f (q x) − a 0 q f (q a)]}
P∞ P∞ i+1
= (1 − q)x[ 0 q i f (q i x) − 0 q f (q i+1 x]/[(1 − q)x] = f (x) (1.50)

(ii)
Rx Rx f (qx)−f (x)
a Dq f (x)dq x = a qx−x dq x
i i+1 x) i i+1 a)
q i f (q (1−q)xq
x)−f (q
q i f (q (1−q)aq
a)−f (q
P∞ P∞
= (1 − q)x 0 i − (1 − q)a 0 i

= f (x) − f (a). (1.51)

Clearly, (1.51) is a q-version of the Newton-Leibniz formula

Integration by parts
Consider the equality

f (x)Dq g(x) = Dq (f g) − g(qx)Dq f (x). (1.52)

12 Exercises

Let h(x) = f (x)g(x). We have

Rb P∞ P∞
a Dq hdq x = 0 (h(q i b) − h(q i+1b)) − 0 (h(q i a) − h(q i+1 a))
= h(b) − h(a)

Hence
Rb Rb
a f (x)Dq g(x)dq x = [f g]ba − a g(qx)Dq f (x)dq x (1.53)

Clearly, when q ; 1, the formulae (1.30)-(1.53) converge to the correspond-

ing formulae of the continuous analysis.

1.4 Exercises
1. Prove that
n
!
n
Dqn (f g)(x) Dqk (f )(xq n−k )Dqn−k (g)(x)
X
= (1.54)
k
k=0 q

(q − Leibnizf ormula) where

!
n (q; q)n
= (1.55)
k (q; q)k (q; q)n−k
q

and evaluate successively Dqi (f g)(x) i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

2. Evaluate explicitly the operators A and B such that

a)

Dqi (f y) = [A(f )]y, i = 1, 2, . . . , n (1.56)

b)
n
Y
(Dq − ai )(f y) = [B(f )]y. (1.57)
i=1

3. [27] Prove the reciprocal formulae

Elements of q-difference calculus 13

a)

Dqn (f )(x) =
! !
n k
− n
!
2 n 2
(q − 1)−n x−n q (−1)k q f (q n−k x)
X
(1.58)
k
k=0 q

b)
!
k
n
!
n k k 2 n
Dqn (f )(x).
X
f (q x) = (q − 1) x q (1.59)
k
k=0 q

4. Write formally the solution y of

y(qx) − ay(x) = f (x). (1.60)

5. Integrate by parts
Z b
p(x)f (x)dq x; p(x) = ax2 + bx + c; f (x) = ln x. (1.61)
a

6. Let f (x) = xm ; m > 0. Calculate

Z b
xm dq x (1.62)
a

a) By definition,

b) Using the q-Newton-Leibniz formula.

7. [27] Let g(x) = cxk and f (x) a given function. Prove that Dq (f ◦g)(x) =
(Dqk (f ))(g(x))Dq (g)(x).

8. [27] Prove that (now q ∈ C and |q| = 1) if q p = 1 and p is prime, then

Dqp (f ) = 0.
14 Exercises

9. [27] Prove that if p is a polynomial, then

[Dq x − qxDq ]p(x) = p(x)

[Dq x − xDq ]p(x) = p(qx) (1.63)

and

[Dq xk − q k xk Dq ]p(x) = {k}q xk−1 p(x)

[Dq xk − xk Dq ]p(x) = {k}q xk−1 p(qx) (1.64)
Pn k−1 ,
where {k}q = k=1 q {0}q = 0.

10. [27] Prove the q-Pascal identity

! ! !
n+1 n k n
= q +
k k k−1
q q q
! !
n n
= + q n+1−k (1.65)
k k−1
q q

and the equivalent dual identities

Dqk x − q k xDqk = {k}q Dqk−1

Dqk x − xDqk = Eq {k}q Dqk−1 . (1.66)

11. Let

Pn (x, y) = (x − y)(x − qy) . . . (x − q n−1 y). (1.67)

Prove that

a)

Dq,x Pn (x, y) = [n]q Pn−1 (x, y), (1.68)

b)

Dq,y Pn (x, y) = −[n]q Pn−1 (x, qy). (1.69)

Chapter 2

q-Difference equations of first

order

By a q-difference equation of first order, one can understand an equation of

the form

f (x, y(x), Dq y(x)) = 0, (2.1)

but also an equation of the form

g(x, y(x), y(qx)) = 0. (2.2)

The difference between (2.1) and (2.2) is that the former is first order in
the operator Dq , while the later is first order in Eq , with Eq f (x) = f (qx).
Clearly, from an equation of the type (2.1), one can derive an equivalent
equation of the type (2.2) and conversely. However, for their apparent adapt-
ability in discretization of differential equations, we will consider in this book
mainly equations of type (2.1) instead of equations of type (2.2).
Although there is no general analytical method for solving general q-difference
equations of first order, some of their special cases can be solved explicitly.
This is the cases of linear q-difference equations and equations transformable
to them, as we shall see in the following sections.

2.1 Linear q-difference equations of first order

Consider the q-difference equation

Dq y(x) = a(x)y(qx) + b(x). (2.3)

15
16 Linear q-difference equations of first order

This is a first order nonconstant coefficients linear non homogenous q-difference

equation. Its study is clearly equivalent to that of

Dq y(x) = a(x)y(x) + b(x). (2.4)

Indeed, (2.3) is equivalent to ,

Dq y(x) = ã(x)y(x) + b̃(x). (2.5)

where

ã(x) = a(qx); b̃(x) = b(qx), (2.6)

in that sense that (2.5) can be obtained from (2.3) by replacing x by q −1 x

and then q by q −1 and vice versa.
Consider for example the equation (2.3). The corresponding homogenous
equation reads

Dq y(x) = a(x)y(qx). (2.7)

Detailing the Dq derivative in (2.7), the equation reads

y(x) = [1 + (1 − q)xa(x)]y(qx). (2.8)

Repeating the recurrence relation in (2.8) N times, one gets

Qx
y(x) = y(x0 ) t=q −1 x0 [1 + (1 − q)ta(t)]
N QN −1
= y(q x) i=0 [1 + (1 − q)xq i a(q i x)]. (2.9)

If N ; ∞, with 0 < q < 1, then q N ; 0, and one obtains

Q∞
y(x) = y(0) i=0 [1 + (1 − q)q i xa(q i x)]. (2.10)

q k −1 1
Example. Suppose that a(x) = q−1 . q k x−1 , k ∈ N. Clearly, we have the
− q)q i xa(q i x)] = y(0) 0k−1 (1
Q∞
− q i x) =def
Q
solution y(x) = y(0) i=0 [1 + (1
y(0)(x; q)k .
Consider next the non homogenous equation (2.3). According to the method
of ”variation of constants”, let

y(x) = c(x)y0 (x) (2.11)

q-Difference equations of first order 17

be its solution where y0 (x) is the solution of the corresponding homogenous

equation (2.7) and c(x) is an unknown function to be determined. Loading
(2.11) in (2.3), and solving the obtained equation, one obtains
Z x
c(x) = y0−1 (t)b(t)dq t + c (2.12)
x0

Hence the general solution of (2.3) reads

Z x
y(x) = y0 (x)c + y0 (x)y0−1 (t)b(t)dq t (2.13)
x0

with c = y0−1 (x0 )y(x0 ). Taking x0 = 0, we get respectively

q i y0−1 (q i x)b(q i x) + c
P∞
c(x) = (1 − q)x 0 (2.14)

and
P∞
y(x) = y0 (x)c + (1 − q)x 0 q i y0 (x)y0−1 (q i x)b(q i x). (2.15)

Note that, when applied to the equation (2.4), the method of undetermined
constants leads to the solution
Z x
y(x) = y0 (x)c + y0 (x)y0−1 (qt)b(t)dq t (2.16)
x0
or
P∞
y(x) = y0 (x)c + (1 − q)x 0 q i y0 (x)y0−1 (q i+1x)b(q i x). (2.17)

for x0 = 0.
We now observe that the solutions in (2.9) or (2.10) will remain formal as
long as we will not succeed to calculate the related product explicitly, a
task which is far from being elementary. However, in certain situations, the
coefficient a(x) could suggest a particular method of resolution. When for
example, a(x) is a polynomial in x, we are suggested to search the solution
in form of series, as show the following few simple cases:

Case 1. Equations of the form

Dq y(x) = ay(x), (2.18)

with a, some constant. To solve such an equation, we rewrite it as

y(qx) = [1 + (q − 1)xa]y(x) (2.19)

18 Linear q-difference equations of first order

and search the solution under the form

P∞
y(x) = 0 cn xn . (2.20)
Loading (2.20) in (2.19), one obtains
Qn 1−q n
cn = ( k=1 1−q k )a . (2.21)
1−q k
In view of the fact that [k]q =def 1−q ; k, q ; 1, one can write (2.21) as
a n
cn = c0 [n] q!
, (2.22)
k
where [n]q ! =def nk=1 1−q
Q
1−q . Hence the solution in (2.20) is a q-version of the
exponential function c0 exp(ax):
P∞ an n
yq (x) = c0 eax
q = c0 n=0 [n]q ! x . (2.23)

Case 2. Similarly, an equation of the form

Dq y(x) = ay(qx), (2.24)
or equivalently
y(x) = [1 + (1 − q)xa]y(qx), (2.25)
has a solution of the form
P∞ an
yq−1 (x) = c0 eax
q −1 = c0
n
0 [n]q −1 ! x , (2.26)

where [n]q−1 ! is obtained from [n]q ! by replacing q by q −1 .

The functions exq and exq−1 are clearly q-versions of the usual exponential
function ex . A natural question that arises here consists in finding their
respective inverse q-functions. The answer to this question can be easily
found using the following
Theorem 2.1.1 If
Dq y = a(x)y(x)
Dq z = −a(x)z(qx) (2.27)
y(x0 )z(x0 ) = 1 (2.28)
then
y(x)z(x) = 1 (2.29)
q-Difference equations of first order 19

Proof. We have Dq (zy) = z(qx)Dq y(x) + Dq z(x).y(x) = z(qx)a(x)y(x) −

z(qx)a(x)y(x) = 0. Hence y(x)z(x) = cte. Use of (2.28) gives (2.29).
Corollary 2.1.1 The functions exq and exq−1 satisfy

exq e−x
q −1 = 1. (2.30)

Similar q-versions of the exp(x) and its inverse can be found considering the
following

Theorem 2.1.2 [35] Let

∞
X (a; q)k xk
=1 ϕ0 (a; −; q, x); |x| < 1 (2.31)
k=0
(q; q)k

be the q-binomial series. We have

P∞ (a;q)k xk (ax;q)∞
k=0 (q;q)k = (x;q)∞ (2.32)
Q∞
where (α; q)∞ = 1 (1 − q k−1 α).

Proof. Let ha (x) be the series in the lhs of (2.32). Then, one easily verifies
that (1 − x)ha (x) = (1 − ax)ha (qx), or equivalently ha (x) = 1−ax
1−x ha (qx).
(az;q)∞
Which leads recursively to ha (x) = (z;q)∞ and the theorem is proved.
P∞ xk
Corollary 2.1.2 [35] Let ẽq (x) = k=o (q;q)k =1 ϕ0 (0; −; q, x), |x| < 1 and
P∞ q k(k−1)/2 xk
Eq (x) = k=o (q;q)k =0 ϕ0 (−; −; q, −x), x ∈ T . We have that

ẽq (x)Eq (−x) = 1. (2.33)

1
Proof. Loading a = 0 in (2.32), one obtains that ẽq (x) = (x;q)∞
, |x| < 1. On
the other side, replacing in the same identity, x = x/a and letting a ; ∞,
one gets Eq (x) = (−x; q)∞ , and the corollary follows.
Note that

limq→1 ẽq ((1 − q)x) = limq→1 Eq ((1 − q)x) = ex . (2.34)

Hence ẽq ((1 − q)x) and Eq ((1 − q)x) are q-versions of the ordinary exp(x)
function. It is interesting to remark that

exq = ẽq ((1 − q)x); exq−1 = Eq ((1 − q)x). (2.35)

20 Linear q-difference equations of first order

Case 3. Equations of the form

Dq y(x) = ay(x) + b. (2.36)

According to the case 1 and the method of undetermined coefficients with

x0 = 0, its solution reads
Z x
y(x) = eax
q [y(0) + b eq−aqt
−1 dq t]
0
b −ax b
= eax
q [y(0) − eq −1 + ]. (2.37)
a a
Hence using (2.30), we get

b b
y(x) = eax
q y(0) − + eax . (2.38)
a a q

Case 4. Equations of the form

Dq y(x) = ay(qx) + b. (2.39)

Here also, according to the case 2 and the method of undetermined coeffi-
cients with x0 = 0, its solution reads
Z x
y(x) = eax
q −1 [y(0) +b e−at
q dq t]
0
b −ax b
= eax
q −1 [y(0) − eq + ], (2.40)
a a
and using (2.30), we get

b b
y(x) = eax
q −1 y(0) − + eax−1 . (2.41)
a a q

Case 5. Equations of the form

Dq y(x) = αxy(x). (2.42)

Searching the solution under the form

P∞
y(x) = 0 cn xn , (2.43)
q-Difference equations of first order 21

on gets
c2n−2 c0
c2n = α 1−q2n = αn 1−q2n 1−q2n−2 2
1−q 1−q 1−q . . . 1−q
1−q .1
c0
= αn ; n = 1, 2, . . . (2.44)
[2n]q !!

where
1 − q 2n 1 − q 2n−2 1 − q2
[2n]q !! =def ... .1; (2.45)
1−q 1−q 1−q
and c2n+1 = 0, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Its is easily seen that [2n]q !! = [n]q !(2)nq where
(2)nq =def (1 + q)(1 + q 2 ) . . . (1 + q n ) and that limq→1 [2n]q !! = (2n)!! =def
(2n)(2n − 2)(2n − 4) . . . .2.1 = 2n n! = limq→1 [n]q !(2)nq . Hence the solution of
(2.42) reads
αx2
y(x) = c0 Eq 2 (2.46)

where
∞
αx2 X αn x2n
Eq 2 = (2.47)
0
[n]q !(2)nq

αx2
is a q-version of the function e 2 (see another q-version of this function in
[25]).

2.2 Nonlinear q-difference equations transformable

into linear equations
Here, we consider nonlinear q-difference equations of type (2.1) or (2.2) trans-
formable in linear equations.

Case 1. Riccati type equations:

Dq y(x) = a(x)y(qx) + b(x)y(x)y(qx). (2.48)

To solve this equation, we set y(x) = 1/z(x) and obtain

Dq z(x) = −[a(x)z(x) + b(x)]. (2.49)

22 Nonlinear q-difference equations transformable into linear equations

Example. Solve the equation

y(qx)y(x) − y(qx) + y(x) = 0. (2.50)

Letting y(x) = 1/z(x), it gives z(x) = z(qx) + 1 which solution is z(x) =

− ln x/ ln q. Hence y(x) = − ln q/ ln x.

Case 2. Homogenous equations of the form

Dq y(x)
f( y(x) , x) = 0. (2.51)

Dq y(x)
They can be transformed into linear equations in z(x) with z(x) = y(x) .

Example. Solve the equation

[Dq y(x)]2 − 2y(x)Dq y(x) − 3[y(x)]2 = 0. (2.52)

We have

Dq y(x) 2 Dq y(x)
[ ] − 2[ ] − 3 = 0, (2.53)
y(x) y(x)

or z 2 (x) − 2z(x) − 3 = 0, z(x) = Dy(x)

q y(x)
. This gives z(x) = 3 and z(x) = 1,
3x x
or y(x) = ceq and y(x) = ceq , respectively.

Case 3. Equations of the form

[y(qx)]c1 [y(x)]c2 = g(x), (2.54)

c1 and c2 , some constants. In that case, we apply the ln function and get

c1 ln(y(qx)) + c2 ln(y(x)) = ln(g(x)) (2.55)

and set z(x) = ln(y(x)) to obtain

c1 z(qx) + c2 z(x) = ln(g(x)) (2.56)

q-Difference equations of first order 23

Example. Contemplate the equation

2
[y(x)2 ]/y(qx) = ex . (2.57)

Applying the ln function, one gets

2z(x) − z(qx) = x2 , z(x) = ln y(x) (2.58)

The solution of the homogenous equation is z(x) = xln 2/ ln q . The particular

solution can be found by inverting the operator in the lhs 1 − 21 Eq , to get
x2 x2
z(x) = (1 − 12 Eq )−1 x2 /2 =
P∞
2 0 2−i q 2i = 2−q 2 . (2.59)

x2
Hence the solution of (2.58) reads z(x) = cxln 2/ ln q + 2−q 2 . Consequently,
ln 2
x2
y(x) = exp(cx ln q + 2−q 2
)
x
x2
= exp(c2 ln q + 2−q 2
). (2.60)

2.3 Exercises
1. Let be defined the following q-versions of the cos(x), sin(x), cosh(x) and
sinh(x) functions

eix
q + eq
−ix eix
q − eq
−ix
cosq (x) = ; sinq (x) =
2 2i
exq + e−x
q ex
q − e−x
q
coshq (x) = ; sinhq (x) = , (2.61)
2 2

−ix −ix
eix
q −1 + eq −1 eix
q −1 − eq −1
cosq−1 (x) = ; sinq−1 (x) =
2 2i
exq−1 + e−x
q −1 exq−1 − e−x
q −1
coshq−1 (x) = ; sinhq−1 (x) = , (2.62)
2 2

−ix −ix
eix
q + eq −1 eix
q − eq −1
cosqq−1 (x) = ; sinqq−1 (x) =
2 2i
exq + e−x
q −1 exq − eq−x
−1
coshqq−1 (x) = ; sinhqq−1 (x) = . (2.63)
2 2
Prove that
24 Exercises

a) Dq cosq (x) = − sinq (x),

b) Dq sinq (x) = cosq (x),

c) Dq coshq (x) = sinhq (x),

d) Dq sinhq (x) = coshq (x),

e) cos2qq−1 (x) + sin2qq−1 (x) = 1,

f) cosh2qq−1 (x) − sinh2qq−1 (x) = 1,

g) cosq (x)cosq−1 (x) + sinq (x) sinq−1 (x) = 1,

h) coshq (x)coshq−1 (x) − sinhq (x) sinhq−1 (x) = 1.

2. Find the general solution of

(Dq y(x))2 − 2y(x)Dq y(x) − 3y 2 (x) = 0 (2.64)

3. Solve

a) Dq y(x) = xy(x)

b) (Dq y(x))2 − (2 + x)y(x)Dq y(x) + 2xy 2 (x) = 0

4. Solve

a) Dq y(x) = ay(x) + x2

b) Dq y(x) = ay(x) + exq

c) Dq y(x) = p2 (x)y(x); p2 (x) = ax2 + bx + c.

 q-Difference equations of first order 25

P+∞ n
5. Let f (x) = n=−∞ An x and put
+∞
y
An xn (∓ ; q)n .
X
f [x ± y]q = (2.65)
n=−∞
x

i.e
+∞
y y y
An xn (1 ± )(1 ± q ) . . . (1 ± q n−1 )
X
f [x ± y]q =
n=−∞
x x x
+∞
An (x ± y)(x ± qy) . . . (x ± q n−1 y).
X
= (2.66)
n=−∞

Prove that

eq (x)eq−1 (y) = eq [x + y]q

eq (y)
= eq [y − x]q . (2.67)
eq (x)
26 Exercises
Chapter 3

Systems of linear q-difference

equations

In this chapter, we are concerned with systems of linear q-Difference equa-

tions of first order. The methods of solving such equations are in big parts
similar to that of solving linear scalar first order q-difference equations dis-
cussed in the section 2.1. The general theory however is more rich since the
space state is now multidimensional.

3.1 General theory

Consider the system of linear q-difference equations

Dq y(x) = A(x)y(qx) + b(x), (3.1)

where

y(x) = (η1 (x), . . . , ηk (x))t , b(x) = (b1 (x), . . . , bk (x))t ∈ Rk ,

A(x) = (ai,j (x))ki,j=1, (3.2)

such that the matrix I + (1 − q)xA(x) is nonsingular. The latter requirement

can naturally be achieved by taking q sufficiently close to 1. Remark that
the notation Dq Z(x), where Z(x) is a vector or a matrix means the vector
or the matrix for which the elements are the q-derivatives of the elements of
the concerned vector or matrix.
As in the scalar case, the system (3.1) is equivalent to the following

Dq y(x) = Ã(x)y(x) + b̃(x) (3.3)

27
28 General theory

where Ã(x) = A(qx) and b̃(x) = b(qx), in the sense that one can be obtained
from the other by first replacing x by q −1 x and then q by q −1 . But for
question of convenience, we consider the system (3.1) here.
The system (3.1) is said to be non homogenous and non autonomous since
respectively, the independent term (also called input or external force) is
not vanishing, and its coefficients are dependent on x.
Thus, the corresponding to (3.1) homogenous equation is

Dq y(x) = A(x)y(qx), (3.4)

As in the case of scalar equation, one can rewrite the equations (3.1) and
(3.4) respectively in the recurrent forms

y(x) = [I + (1 − q)xA(x)]y(qx) + (1 − q)xb(x). (3.5)

and

y(x) = [I + (1 − q)xA(x)]y(qx). (3.6)

Consider first the homogenous equation (3.4). According to (3.6), the solu-
tion of this system reads:
Qx
y0 (x) = ( t=q −1 x0 [I + (1 − q)tA(t)])y(x0). (3.7)

Taking x0 = 0, (3.7) gives

Q∞
y(x) = ( 0 [I + (1 − q)q i xA(q i x)])y(0). (3.8)

From this, one deduces the following

Theorem 3.1.1 For any vector v0 ∈ Rk , there exists a unique solution of
(3.4) satisfying y(x0 ) = v0 .
Let y1 (x), . . . , yk (x) be a system of k vectors in Rk and let Y (x) be the k.k
matrix which columns are constituted by the vectors y1 (x), . . . , yk (x). The
following proposition is easily verified.
Theorem 3.1.2 The matrix Φ(x) is a solution of the homogenous system
(3.4) iff every vector of the set {y1 (x), . . . , yk (x)} is.
From theorems (3.1.1) and (3.1.2) follows clearly the
Theorem 3.1.3 For any kxk-matrix V0 , there exists a unique matrix solu-
tion of (3.4) satisfying Y (x0 ) = V0 .
Systems of linear q-Difference equations 29

Considering (3.6), such solution reads

Qx
Y (x) = ( t=q −1 x0 [I + (1 − q)tA(t)])V0, (3.9)

or for x0 = 0
Q∞
Y (x) = ( 0 [I + (1 − q)q i xA(q i x)])V0 . (3.10)

Theorem 3.1.4 Let Y and Z be such that

Dq Y (x) = A(x)Y (x)

Dq Z(x) = −Z(qx)A(x) (3.11)
Y (x0 )Z(x0 ) = I (3.12)

then

Y (x)Z(x) = I. (3.13)

where I is the unit matrix.

Proof. Dq (Z(x)Y (x)) = Z(qx).Dq Y (x) + Dq Z(x).Y (x) = Z(qx).Ay(x) −
Z(qx).AY (x) = 0 i.e. ZY = const and by (3.12), we get ZY = I.
Similarly, one easily proves the following
Theorem 3.1.5 Let Y and Z be such that

Dq Y (x) = A(x)Y (qx)

Dq Z(x) = −Z(x)A(x) (3.14)
Y (x0 )Z(x0 ) = I (3.15)

then

Y (x)Z(x) = I. (3.16)

The following corollaries are direct consequences of the preceding theorem

Corollary 3.1.1 The matrices Y (x) and Z(x) in (3.12)-(3.16) are mutually
inverse.

Corollary 3.1.2 The matrix solution of

Dq Y (x) = A(x)Y (x) (3.17)

is nonsingular iff it is nonsingular for x = x0 .

30 General theory

Definition 3.1.1 A set of k linear independent solutions {y1 (x), . . . , yk (x)}

of (3.4) is said to be a fundamental system of solutions. The corresponding
matrix Y (x), which is clearly nonsingular, is also said to be a fundamental
matrix of the system.

Theorem 3.1.6 Any system of linear q-difference equations like (3.4) ad-
mits always a fundamental system of solutions or equivalently a fundamental
matrix.

Proof. Consider then a system of k linear independent in Rk vectors

v1 , . . . , vk , and following (3.1.1), let {y1 (x), . . . , yk (x)} be solutions of (3.4)
satisfying yi (x0 ) = vi , i = 1, . . . , k. This means that the set of solutions
yi (x), i = 1, . . . , k are linear independent on the point x = x0 , or equiv-
alently, the corresponding matrix Y (x) is nonsingular for x = x0 . By the
corollary 3.1.2, this means that Y (x) is nonsingular for every x and the
corresponding system of solutions {y1 (x), . . . , yk (x)} is fundamental which
proves the theorem.
Corollary 3.1.3 The space of solutions of the homogenous system (3.4) is
a k-dimensional linear space.
Consider now the non homogenous equation (3.1). Suppose that the matrix
Y (x) is a fundamental matrix for the corresponding homogenous system
(3.4). In that case, similarly to the scalar case, the method of variation
of constants suggests to search the general solution for (3.1) under the form
y(x) = Y (x)C(x), where C(x) is an unknown k-dimensional vector. Loading
this in (3.1) gives the system

Y (x)Dq C(x) = b(x). (3.18)

The result reads

Z x
C(x) = C + Y −1 (t)b(t)dq t (3.19)
x0

and
Z x
y(x) = Y (x)C + Y (x)Y −1 (t)b(t)dq t (3.20)
x0

where C = Y −1 (x0 )y(x0 ), or equivalently

Z x
y(x) = Φ(x, x0 )y(x0 ) + Φ(x, t)b(t)dq t (3.21)
x0
Systems of linear q-Difference equations 31

with
Φ(x, y) = Y (x)Y −1 (y), (3.22)
the q-State transition matrix. In the controllability theory (see chapter 7),
one writes (3.21) in the convenient form
Z x
y(x) = Φ(x, x0 )[y(x0 ) + Φ(x0 , t)b(t)dq t]. (3.23)
x0

When x0 = 0, (3.19), (3.20), (3.21) and (3.23) take the forms

P∞
C(x) = C + (1 − q)x 0 q i Y −1 (q i x)b(q i x), (3.24)
P∞
y(x) = Y (x)C + (1 − q)x 0 q i Y (x)Y −1 (q i x)b(q i x), (3.25)

P∞
y(x) = Φ(x, 0)y(0) + (1 − q)x 0 q i Φ(x, xq i )b(q ix), (3.26)
and
P∞
y(x) = Φ(x, 0)[y(0) + (1 − q)x 0 q i Φ(0, xq i )b(q i x)]. (3.27)
The function
Rx
yp (x) = x0 Φ(x, t)b(t)dq t (3.28)
is a particular solution of (3.1). Hence we have the following
Theorem 3.1.7 The general solution of the non homogenous q-difference
equation (3.1) is a sum of its particular and the general solution of the
corresponding homogenous equation (3.4).

3.2 Autonomous systems

Let distinguish the following most interesting cases.

Case 1. Equations of the form

Dq y(x) = Ay(x), (3.29)
where A is a constant matrix. Searching its solution in series form
P∞
y(x) = 0 zn xn , (3.30)
with zn is a k-dimensional vector, one gets
yq (x) = eAx
q z0 . (3.31)
32 Autonomous systems

Case2. Equations of the form

Dq y(x) = Ay(qx). (3.32)
According to the same notation as in the first case , its solution reads
yq−1 (x) = eAx
q −1 z0
P∞ An n
= n=0 [n]q −1 ! x z0 . (3.33)

According to theorem 3.1.1 and the preceding, we have the following

Theorem 3.2.1
eq (Ax)eq−1 (−Ax) = I. (3.34)
As a consequence, the q-State transition matrix for time constant systems
takes the form:
Φ(x, t) = eq (Ax)eq−1 (−At). (3.35)
It is to be noted that the q-Cauchy problems related to the systems (3.29)
and (3.32) can be solved using the q-Picard approximations. Let solve for
example the following problem
Dq y(x) = Ay(x); y(0) = y0 . (3.36)
From (3.36), one gets easily the formal relation
P∞ i
y(x) = (1 − q)xA i=0 q y(q i x) + y(0). (3.37)
Hence the q-Picard approximations read
P∞ i y (q i x)
yn+1 (x) = (1 − q)xA i=0 q n + y(0); y0 = y(0), (3.38)
leading to
x 2
y1 (x) = (xA + I)y0 , y2 (x) = ( 1+q A2 + xA + I)y0
...
Pn xi i
yn (x) = [I + i=1 [n]q A ]y0 ,
... (3.39)
and for n → ∞, we get the solution
P∞ xi i
y(x) = [I + i=1 [n]q A ]y0

= eAx
q y0 . (3.40)
Systems of linear q-Difference equations 33

3.3 Exercises
1. Given the non homogenous linear system

Dq y(x) = A(x)y(x) + b(x). (3.41)

a) Write down the general solution of the corresponding homogenous equa-

tion

Dq y(x) = A(x)y(x), (3.42)

b) Prove that its general solution is found as y(x) = Y (x)C(x) where

Y (qx)Dq C(x) = b(x) (3.43)

and reads
Z x
y(x) = Φ(x, x0 )[y(x0 ) + Φ(x0 , qt)b(t)dq t], (3.44)
x0

with

Φ(x, y) = Y (x).Y −1 (y), (3.45)

Y (x) being the fundamental matrix of (3.42).

2. For a 2x2-matrix A and a 2-vector b, solve

a) Dq y(x) = Ay(x) + b;

b) Dq y(x) = Ay(x) + bx2 .

34 Exercises
Chapter 4

Linear q-difference equations

of higher order

4.1 General theory

Consider the equation
[Dqk−1 + a1 (x)Dqk−1
−1 + . . . + ak−1 (x)Dq −1 + ak (x)]y(x) = g(x). (4.1)
It is said to be a k-order nonconstant coefficients linear non homogenous
q-difference equation of order k. The corresponding homogenous equation
reads
[Dqk−1 + a1 (x)Dqk−1
−1 + . . . + ak−1 (x)Dq −1 + ak (x)]y(x) = 0. (4.2)
The general theory of a scalar equation such as (4.1) is reduced to the general
theory for a system of equations such as (3.1). The reason for this is that
an equation such as (4.1) can be reduced to a system such as (3.1). Indeed,
supposing
z1 (x) = y(x); z2 (x) = Dq−1 y(x); . . . ; zk (x) = Dqk−1
−1 y(x), (4.3)
we obtain the system
Dq−1 z1 (x) = z2 (x),
Dq−1 z2 (x) = z3 (x),
...
Dq−1 zk−1 (x) = zk (x)
Dq−1 zk (x) = −(a1 (x)zk (x) + . . . + ak (x)z1 (x)) + g(x) (4.4)

35
36 General theory

In matrices terms, we have

Dq z(x) = A(x)z(qx) + G(x) (4.5)

where z(x) = (z1 (x), . . . , zk (x))t ,

 
0 1 0 0 ... 0

 0 0 1 0 ... 0 

A(x) =  . . . . . . (4.6)
 

0 . . . 0 1
 
 
−ak (qx), . . . . −a1 (qx)

and G(x) = (0, . . . , 0, g(qx))t . So, from (4.3), it follows that the exis-
tence of a unique solution of (4.1) under the initial constraints y(x0 ) = y0 ,
Dq−1 y(x0 ) = y1 , . . ., Dqk−1 −1 y(x0 ) = yk−1 , is equivalent to the existence

of a unique solution of (4.5) under the constraints (z1 (x0 ), . . . , zk (x0 ))t =
(y0 , . . . , yk−1 )t . As a consequence, the existence of a fundamental system of
solutions y1 (x), . . . , yk (x) of (4.2) is equivalent to the existence of a funda-
mental system (y1 (x), Dq−1 y1 (x), . . . , Dqk−1 t k−1
−1 y1 (x)) , . . ., (yk (x), Dq −1 yk (x), . . . , Dq −1 yk (x))
t

of the homogenous part of(4.5)

Dq z(x) = A(x)z(qx), (4.7)

with the fundamental matrix

 
y1 (x) y2 (x) ... yk (x)
 Dq−1 y1 (x) Dq−1 y2 (x) . . . Dq−1 yk (x) 
Φ(x) =  . (4.8)
 
 . . . . 
k−1 k−1 k−1
Dq−1 y1 (x) Dq−1 y2 (x) . . . Dq−1 yk (x)

Indeed, if
Pk
i=1 αi yi (x) =0 (4.9)

then
Pk
i=1 αi Dq −1 yi (x) =0
...
Pk k−1
i=1 αi Dq −1 yi (x) =0 (4.10)

or

Φ(x)α = 0 (4.11)
Linear q-Difference equations of higher order 37

where Φ(x) is in (4.8) and α = (α1 , . . . , αk )t . Hence the system yi , i =

1, . . . , k is linear independent iff the matrix Φ(x) in (4.8) is non singular.
The matrix Φ(x) can naturally be called the q-Wronskian or q-Casoratian
of the equation (4.2), correspondingly to the continuous or discrete cases.
Consider now the question of deriving the solution of the non homogenous
(4.1). If y1 (x), . . . , yk (x) is a fundamental system of solution of the homoge-
nous equation (4.2), corresponding to the fundamental matrix Φ(x), then
according to the general theory of q-difference systems, the general solution
of (4.5) is found as

z(x) = Φ(x).C(x) (4.12)

where C(x) = (C1 (x), . . . , Ck (x))t is the solution of the system

Φ(x)Dq C(x) = G(x), (4.13)

and reads
P∞
C(x) = C + (1 − q)x 0 q i Φ−1 (q i x)G(q i x), (4.14)

and the general solution of (4.1) reads

Pk
y(x) = z1 (x) = i=1 Ci (x)yi (x). (4.15)

Note that for the q-difference equation

[Dqk + a1 (x)Dqk−1 + . . . + ak−1(x)Dq + ak (x)]y(x) = g(x), (4.16)

the solution of the corresponding system reads z(x) = φ(x)C(x) where

 
y1 (x) y2 (x) ... yk (x)
 Dq y1 (x) Dq y2 (x) . . . Dq yk (x) 
Φ(x) =  , (4.17)
 
 . . . . 
Dqk−1 y1 (x) Dqk−1 y2 (x) . . . Dqk−1 yk (x)

and C(x) is the solution of the system

Φ(qx)Dq C(x) = h(x), (4.18)

with h(x) = (0, . . . , 0, g(x))t , giving

P∞
C(x) = C + (1 − q)x 0 q i Φ−1 (q i+1 x)h(q ix). (4.19)
38 Linear q-difference equations with constant coefficients

4.2 Linear q-difference equations with constant co-

efficients
Consider now the equations (4.1) and (4.2) in the cases when the coefficients
ai are not dependent of x. We have

[Dqk−1 + a1 Dqk−1
−1 + . . . + ak−1 Dq −1 + ak ]y(x) = g(x) (4.20)

and

[Dqk−1 + a1 Dqk−1
−1 + . . . + ak−1 Dq −1 + ak ]y(x) = 0. (4.21)

In this case, the equations can be solved explicitly whether or not it is

true for the corresponding algebraic equation. Consider first the equation
Dq−1 y(x) = λy(x). According to the treatment of the chapter 1, its solution
reads y(x) = expq−1 (λx). Loading this function in (4.21), one obtains the
following algebraic equation in λ called the characteristic equation of (4.21):

λk + a1 λk−1 + . . . + ak−1 λ + ak = 0. (4.22)

Here we distinguish two cases:

Theorem 4.2.1 (i) If the equation (4.22) has k distinct roots, λ1 , λ2 , . . .,

λk , then, the equation (4.21) admits as k linear independent solutions the
functions yi (x) = expq−1 (λi x), i = 1, . . . , k.
(ii) If some of the roots of the characteristic equation are not distinct, then
in that case also, the equation (4.21) admits k linear independent solutions.
If for example a given root λ admits a multiplicity equal to m, so the corre-
sponding independent solutions need to be searched among functions of the
form
P∞ n
y(x) = n=0 cn x (4.23)

where the coefficients cn satisfies

" #
Pm i Qi−1 1−q −(n+i)+k
i=0 ( )(−λ)m−i ( k=0 1−q −1
) cn+i = 0 (4.24)
m

a difference homogenous equation of order m.

Linear q-Difference equations of higher order 39

Proof. The first part of the theorem is proved straightforwardly. To prove

the second part, it suffices also to load (4.23) in the following auxiliary
equation
(Dq−1 − λ)m y(x) = 0 (4.25)
Note finally that the particular solution of (4.20) can be obtained by the
method of variation of constants as in the case of non constant coefficients.
The equation (4.1) admits another interesting particular cases. Consider for
example the case when all the coefficients ai (x) have the form ai (x) = xi di
i = 0, . . . , k, where the di are constants. After simplifying, the equation
reads
Pk i
i=0 bi y(q x) = g(x), (4.26)
for some constants bi , i = 0, . . . , k. The homogenous version naturally reads
Pk i x)
i=0 bi y(q = 0, (4.27)
To solve it, one first solves the equation y(qx) = λy(x). Its solution was seen
in the first chapter to be
ln λ
y(x) = x ln q . (4.28)
Loading (4.28) in (4.27), one gets a k-order algebraic equation called char-
acteristic equation for (4.27)
Pk i
i=0 bi λ = 0. (4.29)

Here as well two possible situations arise, as shows the following

Theorem 4.2.2 (i) If the characteristic equation (4.29) has k distinct roots,
λi , i = 1, . . . , k. In that case, (4.27) admits k linear independent solutions
ln λi
yi (x) = x ln q , i = 1, . . . , k.
(ii) If some roots are multiple, then the equation (4.27) admits as well k
linear independent solutions: If a root say λ is m-iple, then to it correspond
i
ln λ ln x
m solutions reading yi (x) = x ln q i , where i = 0, . . . , m − 1.
ln q
Proof. The proof of the first part of the theorem is straightforward. For
the second part, it suffices to prove that
ln λ lni x
(Eq − λ)m x ln q = 0; 0 ≤ i ≤ m − 1. (4.30)
lni q
40 Linear q-difference equations with constant coefficients

Indeed,
ln λ lni x
(Eq − λ)m x ln q
lni q
ln λ lni x
= λm x ln q (Eq − 1)m = 0; 0 ≤ i ≤ m − 1. (4.31)
lni q

Example. Solve the q-difference equation

Dq2 y − 5Dq y + 6y = x2 . (4.32)
Solution. The characteristic equation of that equation reads
λ2 − 5λ + 6 = 0 (4.33)
and have solutions λ1 = 3 and λ2 = 2. This leads to the fundamental
system of the corresponding homogenous equation y1 = e3x 2x
q , y2 = eq and
the general solution of (4.32) is y(x) = c1 (x)y1 + c2 (x)y2 , where
! !
Dq c1 (x) 0
Φ(qx) = , (4.34)
Dq c2 (x) x2
and
!
e3x
q e2x
q
Φ(x) = . (4.35)
3x
3eq 2e2x
q

This leads to Dq c1 = x2 e−3qx 2 −2qx

q −1 and Dq c2 = −x eq −1 . q-Integrations by parts
give
1 2 1 2 1 3 1 3
c1 (x) = c1 + e−3x
q −1 [(− 3 )x − ( 3 ) (q + 1)x − ( 3 ) (q + 1)] + ( 3 ) (q + 1)
(4.36)
and
1 1 1 1
c2 (x) = c2 + e−3x
q −1
[(− )x2 − ( )2 (q + 1)x − ( )3 (q + 1)] + ( )3 (q + 1).
2 2 2 2
(4.37)
Consequently, the general solution of (4.32) is
1 2 1 2 1 3 1 3
y(x) = e3x 3x
q c1 + [(− )x − ( ) (q + 1)x − ( ) (q + 1)] + ( ) (q + 1)eq
3 3 3 3
1 2 1 2 1 3 1 3
+e2x 3x
q c2 + [(− )x − ( ) (q + 1)x − ( ) (q + 1)] + ( ) (q + 1)eq .
2 2 2 2
(4.38)
Linear q-difference equations of higher order 41

4.3 Nonlinear q-difference equations transformable

into linear equations of higher order
As in the case of first order, some nonlinear q-difference equations are trans-
formable into linear ones.

Case 1. q-Difference equations of the form

Qk i r
i=0 [Dq −1 y(x)]i =0 (4.39)

or equivalently
Qk i x)]r
i=0 [y(q i = 0. (4.40)

It is made linear by applying the ln function on the lhs of the equality.

Case 2. The Riccati type equation:

y(x) + y(qx)
a0 (x)Dq y(x) = b0 (x)y(x)y(qx) + c0 (x) + d0 (x). (4.41)
2
This equation can be written in the following homographic form
a(x)y(x)+b(x)
y(qx) = c(x)y(x)+d(x) . (4.42)

To make (4.42) linear, it suffices to suppose

z(qx)/z(x) = c(x)y(x) + d(x). (4.43)

The resulting second order linear q-difference equation reads

[c(x)]z(q 2x) + [−c(x)d(qx) − c(qx)a(x)]z(qx)

+[c(qx)a(x)d(x) − c(qx)b(x)c(x)]z(x) = 0. (4.44)

4.4 Linear q-difference equations of second order

As in the case of differential or difference equations, linear second order q-
difference equations are of particular interest in the theory and applications
of q-difference equations. Examples of such applications can be found in
42 Linear q-difference equations of second order

the chapter 6 in connection with orthogonal polynomials. We can write a

general linear q-difference equation of second order in the form:

a0 (x)Dq2 y + a1 (x)Dq y + a2 (x)y = b(x). (4.45)

This is a non homogenous equation while the corresponding homogenous one

reads

a0 (x)Dq2 y + a1 (x)Dq y + a2 (x)y = 0. (4.46)

However, in some investigations, it is appropriate to consider the equations

of the forms

a0 (x)Dq−1 Dq y + a1 (x)Dq y + a2 (x)y = b(x) (4.47)

and

a0 (x)Dq−1 Dq y + a1 (x)Dq y + a2 (x)y = 0 (4.48)

respectively. As it appeared in the theory of general higher order linear q-

difference equations, the essential part of the study of (4.45) or (4.47) consists
in the one done for (4.46) or (4.48). Hence, the crux of the matter in this
section will concern the equation (4.46). Here we consider particularly some
questions of solvability and orthogonality of solutions of (4.46) or (4.48).

Solvability
For the questions to be treated here, we can consider quite simply the nor-
malized form of (4.46):

Dq2 y + a1 (x)Dq y + a2 (x)y = 0. (4.49)

1. According to the general theory of linear q-difference equations, the

equation (4.49) admits two linear independent solutions forming a funda-
mental system of solutions. But when the coefficients a1 and a2 are not
constant, there is generally no way for finding in quadratures these solu-
tions. However, when one solution of the equation is known, this allows as
in general, to decrease by one the degree of the equation and consequently
to find the second solution. Indeed, let y1 = y1 (x) be one of the solutions.
The second solution will be searched under the form:

y2 = z(x)y1 (x) (4.50)

Linear q-difference equations of higher order 43

where z(x) is an unknown function to be determined. Loading (4.50) in

(4.49) and taking in account the fact that y1 is a solution of (4.49), one
obtains the following equation for z:

y1 (q 2 x)Dq2 z + {a1 y1 (qx) + Dq [y1 (qx)] + [Dq y1 ](qx)}Dq z = 0. (4.51)

Letting

Dq z = t(x) (4.52)

one obtains a first order q-difference equation for t(x), which can naturally
be solved explicitly in quadratures.

2. Another way of finding the second solution y2 , once one solution y1 of

(4.49) is known, consists in using a q-version of the so called in differential
equations theory Liouville-Ostrogradsky formula. To establish the formula,
let write (4.49) in the form

y(q 2 x) + ã1 (x)y(qx) + ã2 (x)y(x) = 0, (4.53)

where ã1 (x) = a1 (q −1)xq −q −1 and ã2 (x) = a2 (q −1)2 x2 q −a1 (q −1)xq +q.
Since y1 and y2 are solutions of (4.53), we have
    
y(x) y1 (x) y2 (x) 1 0
 y(qx) y1 (qx) y2 (qx)   ã1 (x)  =  0  (4.54)
    
y(q 2 x) y1 (q 2 x) y2 (q 2 x) ã2 (x) 0

 
 y(x) y1 (x) y2 (x) 
 
⇔  y(qx) y1 (qx) y2 (qx) =0 (4.55)
 
 y(q 2 x) y1 (q 2 x) y2 (q 2 x)
 


Developing the determinant by the first column and comparing the resulting
equation with (4.49) gives

V (qx) = ã2 (x)V (x), (4.56)

with V (x) = y1 (x)y2 (qx) − y2 (x)y1 (qx). Let

 
 y (x) y2 (x) 
1
W (x) =   = y1 (x)Dq y2 (x) − y2 (x)Dq y1 (x). (4.57)
 
 Dq y1 (x) Dq y2 (x) 
44 Linear q-difference equations of second order

We have

V (x) = (q − 1)xW (x). (4.58)

Using (4.56), we get

Dq W (x) = [(q − 1)xa2 (x) − a1 ]W (x). (4.59)

Clearly, for q ; 1, (4.59) tends to the Liouville-Ostrogradsky formula in the

differential calculus. Hence we can refer to (4.59) as q-Liouville-Ostrogradsky
formula. On the other side if in (4.59), y1 is known, the second solution y2
satisfies a first order q-difference equation and consequently can be found in
quadratures.

3. Solutions in series (here we suppose that the variable x ∈ C, as we

are concerned with analytic functions). Contemplating the nature of the
coefficients ai , i = 0, 1, 2, in (4.46), one can guess which kind of solutions is
involved. For example, if the related coefficients in (4.46) are polynomials,
so one can expect that the solutions are of polynomial type. This case will
be discussed in details in the chapter 6. Consider here the situation when
the coefficients in (4.46) are analytic functions at the origin i.e. they can be
developed in convergent entire powers series:
∞ ∞
fn xn ; g(x) = gn xn .
X X
f (x) = (4.60)
n=0 n=0

and attempt to prove that the equation admits analytic solutions. We have
the following

Theorem 4.4.1 The second order q-difference equation

Dq2 y + f (x)Dq + g(x)y = 0 (4.61)

with f (x) and g(x) analytic functions say at the origin, admits two linear
independent analytic solutions at the origin.

Proof. As f (x) and g(x) are analytic at the origin, they can be developed
in entire powers series:
∞ ∞
fn xn ; g(x) = gn xn .
X X
f (x) = (4.62)
n=0 n=0
Linear q-difference equations of higher order 45

As the solutions are expected to be analytic at the origin, we write

∞
an xn .
X
y= (4.63)
n=0

Loading (4.62) and (4.63) in (4.61) and equating the coefficients to zero, one
gets

q n+2 − 1 q n+1 − 1
an+2 =
q−1 q−1
n
X q k+1 − 1
− (fn−k ak+1 + gn−k ak ), n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (4.64)
k=0
q−1

This equation allows to determine the coefficients an , n = 2, 3 . . . in (4.63).

The coefficients a0 and a1 being arbitrarily, they can be chosen so that the
corresponding solutions be linear independent, and the theorem is proved.

4. Constant coefficients. As noted for the higher order case, second order
linear q-difference equations can be solved explicitly. Consider the equation
(4.49) with a1 and a2 constant in x:

Dq2 y + a1 Dq y + a2 y = 0. (4.65)

Suppose that the function eq (λx) is a solution of (4.65). We get

λ2 + a1 λ + a2 = 0, (4.66)

which is said to be the characteristic equation of (4.65). Let a and b be the

roots of (4.66). This means that (4.65) can be written as

(Dq − b)(Dq − a)y = (Dq − a)(Dq − b)y = 0. (4.67)

There is here two possibilities:

Case 1. The roots are distinct. In this case, the two independent solutions
of (4.65) read clearly

y1 (x) = eq (ax); y2 (x) = eq (bx) (4.68)

Case 2. The equation (4.66) has a double root and we need to solve

(Dq − a)2 y = Dq2 + a1 Dq y + a2 y = 0, (4.69)

46 Linear q-difference equations of second order

with a1 = −2a and a2 = a2 . Here the first solution reads clearly y1 = eq (ax).
Let search next the second solution under the form y2 = z(x)y1 (x). Loading
this expression in (4.69), one gets

y1 (qx)Dq2 z(x) + [a1 y1 (qx) + Dq y1 (qx)]Dq z(x) + Dq [y1 (qx)]Dq z(qx) = 0.

(4.70)

Letting Dq z(x) = t(x), one gets

y1 (qx)Dq t(x) + [a1 y1 (qx) + Dq y1 (qx)]t(x) + Dq [y1 (qx)]t(qx) = 0. (4.71)

Considering the value of y1 (x) and taking in account the fact that Dq eq (λx) =
λeq (λx), (4.71) simplifies in

Dq t(x) + [a1 + a]t(x) + aqt(qx) = 0 (4.72)

or

Dq t(x) − at(x) + aqt(qx) = 0. (4.73)

Searching the solution of (4.73) under the form

∞
tn xn
X
t(x) = (4.74)
n=0

we get the recurrence equation for the coefficients

q n+1
tn+1 + a(q n+1 − 1)tn = 0 (4.75)
q−1

which solution reads

tn = (1 − q)n an t0 . (4.76)

Consider next the equation

∞
(1 − q)n an xn
X
Dq z(x) = t(x) = t0 (4.77)
0
P∞
and letting z(x) = 0 zn xn , one gets

q n+1 − 1
zn+1 = t0 (1 − q)n an (4.78)
q−1
Linear q-difference equations of higher order 47

or
((1 − q)a)n (1 − q)n−1 an−1
zn = t0 = t0 , n = 1, 2 . . . (4.79)
a(1 − q n ) 1 + q + q 2 + . . . + q n−1

z0 being arbitrarily. Hence

y2 = z(x)y1 (x) (4.80)

with
∞
(1 − q)n−2 an−1
xn
X
z(x) = z0 + t0 x + t0 (1 − q) (4.81)
2
1 + q + q 2 + . . . + q n−1

It is worth remarking that for q ; 1, z(x) ; z0 + t0 x and y1 and y2 take the

form of solutions of a constant coefficients second order differential equation
whose characteristic equation has a double root.

Classification of Singularities. Solutions in the neighborhood of a

regular singularity
(here also, we suppose that the variable x ∈ C)

1. z = z0 , finite. Consider the equation

Dq2 y(x) + f (x)Dq y(x) + g(x)y(x) = 0 (4.82)

where x ∈ C and let x0 be a given point in C. If the functions f (x) and g(x)
are analytic at the point x = x0 , then x0 is said to be an ordinary point of
the q-difference equation (4.82). On the other side, if x0 is not an ordinary
point but the functions (x−x0 )f (x) and (x−x0 )2 g(x) are analytic at x = x0 ,
then x = x0 is said to be a regular singular point for the equation (4.82). If
x = x0 is a pole for both f (x) and g(x), and l is the least integer such that
(x − x0 )l f (x) and (x − x0 )2l g(x) are both analytic at x = x0 , then x = x0 is
said to have a singularity of rank l − 1. Thus for example, a regular singular
point is of rank zero. If either f (x) or g(x) has an essential singularity at
x = x0 , then x = x0 is said to have a singularity of infinite rank.
Consider now the question of solvability of (4.82) in series around a regular
singular point x = x0 . For simplicity, we let x0 = 0. We remember from
the preceding section that if x = 0 is an ordinary point, then the equation
(4.82) admits a pair of independent solutions given in form of series. We now
48 Linear q-difference equations of second order

extend this result in the situation when x = 0 is a regular singular point.

Clearly, when x = 0 is a regular singular point, (4.82) may be written as

f (x) g(x)
Dq2 y(x) + Dq y(x) + 2 y(x) = 0 (4.83)
x x
P∞ k
where f (x) and g(x) are analytic functions at x = 0. Let f (x) = k=0 fk x
and g(x) = ∞ k
P
k=0 gk x and try the following form for the solution

∞
ak xk+α
X
y(x) = (4.84)
k=0

Loading these expressions in (4.83), and equating the resulting coefficient to

zero, we get
k−1
q α+j − 1
Q(q α+k )ak = −
X
(fk−j + gk−j )aj (4.85)
j=0
q−1
k = 1, 2, . . . (4.86)

where
q α − 1 q α−1 − 1 qα − 1
Q(q α ) = + f0 + g0 . (4.87)
q−1 q−1 q−1
The equation

E(α) = Q(q α ) = 0 (4.88)

is called the indicial equation and its roots indices or exponents. From
(4.86) it appears that if the roots of the indicial equation are distinct and do
not differ by an integer, then one gets two distinct sequences of coefficients
ak , corresponding to two distinct solutions of (4.83) in form (4.84). In other
cases, only one solution of this type is available, unless the rhs of (4.86)
vanishes at the same value of the positive integer k for which E(α + k) =
Q(q α+k ) = 0.

2. z0 = ∞. Consider again the equation (4.82). To precise that the q-

derivative is performed along the variable x, we will write Dqx instead of
Dq . Thus we write (4.82) as
2
Dqx y(x) + f (x)Dqx y(x) + g(x)y(x) = 0 (4.89)
Linear q-difference equations of higher order 49

To discuss the character of the point at the infinity, we need to make the
transformation x = 1/t. At the same time the parameter q is replaced by
q −1 . Considering the relation

Dqx w(x) = −qt2 Dqt w(1/t) (4.90)

the equation (4.82) becomes

2
Dqt y(1/t) + p(t)Dqt y(1/t) + q(t)y(1/t) = 0 (4.91)

where
q+1 1 1
p(t) = 2
− 3 2 f (1/t); q(t) = 4 4 g(1/t). (4.92)
q t q t q t
Hence we have

(1) z = ∞ is an ordinary point for the equation (4.89) iff the point t = 0

is an ordinary point for the equation (4.91), i.e. the functions p(t) and q(t)
x2
are analytic at the point t = 0 or equivalently the functions q+1
q x − q 3 f (x)
x4
and q 4 g(x) are analytic at the point x = ∞.

(2) z = ∞ is a regular singular point for the equation (4.89) iff the point
t = 0 is a regular singular point for (4.91) that is the functions
q+1 1 1
tp(t) = − 3 f (1/t); t2 q(t) = 4 2 g(1/t) (4.93)
q2 q t q t
are analytic at the point t = 0 or equivalently xf (x) and x2 g(x) are analytic
at x = ∞. This suggests that
∞
1X
f (x) = f−k x−k (4.94)
x k=0
∞
1 X
g(x) = g−k x−k . (4.95)
x2 k=0

Loading (4.94) and (4.95) in (4.89), we get (4.86) with k and α replaced by
−k and −α respectively. For f (x) = fx0 ; g(x) = xg02 ; y(x) = x−α , we get

q −α − 1 q −α−1 − 1 q −α − 1
+ f0 + g0 = 0 (4.96)
q−1 q−1 q−1
also called indicial equation.
50 Linear q-difference equations of second order

3. Example. Consider for example the q-hypergeometric equation[35]

1 − qc 1 − qa 1 − q b+1
x(q c − q a+b+1x)Dq2 y(x) + [ − (q b + qa )x]Dq y(x)
1−q 1−q 1−q
1 − qa 1 − qb
− y(x) = 0.(4.97)
1−q 1−q
This is a q-version of the classical hypergeometric differential equation

x(1 − x)y ′′ (x) + (c − (a + b + 1)z)y ′ (x) − aby(x) = 0 (4.98)

having as particular solutions

y1 (x) =2 F1 (a, b; c; x); y2 (x) = x1−c

2 F1 (a − c + 1, b − c + 1; 2 − c; x).(4.99)

The equation (4.97) can clearly be written in the form (4.82) with

(1 − q c ) − (q b (1 − q a ) + q a (1 − q b+1 ))x
f (x) =
(1 − q)x(q c − q a+b+1 x)
(q a − 1)(1 − q b )
g(x) = . (4.100)
(1 − q)2 x(q c − q a+b+1 x)
The equation (4.97) has three regular singularities at the points x = 0,
x = q c−a−b−1 and x = ∞ corresponding to the regular singularities x = 0,
x = 1 and x = ∞ of (4.98) .
Considering the indicial equation (4.88), that one can write

[α]2q − (1 − qf0 )[α]q + qg0 = 0, (4.101)

where
1 − qα
[α]q = , (4.102)
1−q
we have

(1) For x = 0:

f0 = −(q −c − 1)/(−1 + q); g0 = 0 (4.103)

and

[α]q,1 = 0; [α]q,2 = (−1 + q −c+1 )/(−1 + q). (4.104)

Linear q-difference equations of higher order 51

(2) For x = q c−a−b−1 :

f0 = −(−q −c+1 + q −a − 1 + q −b )/(q(−1 + q)); g0 = 0 (4.105)
and
[α]q,1 = 0; [α]q,2 = −(q −c+1 − q −a + 2 − q − q −b )/(−1 + q). (4.106)
For the regular singular point at x = ∞, we consider the indicial equation
(4.96), that one can write
[−α]2q − (1 − qf0 )[−α]q + qg0 = 0, (4.107)
where
1 − q −α
[−α]q = , (4.108)
1−q
for
f0 = −(q −a − 1 + q −b − q)/(q(−1 + q));
g0 = −(−q −a−b + q −a + q −b − 1)/((−1 + q)2q) (4.109)
and obtain
[−α]q,1 = 1/2(2q − q 2 − q −a + 1 − q −b
−sqrt((−2q 2 − 4q 3 + q 4 − 4q −a+1 + 6q −a+2 + 4q
−4q −b+1 + 6q −b+2 + q −2a − 2q −a + 2q −a−b
+1 − 2q −b + q −2b − 4q 2−a−b)/(q 2 (−1 + q)2 ))q
+sqrt((−2q 2 − 4q 3 + q 4 − 4q −a+1 + 6q −a+2 + 4q − 4q −b+1
+6q −b+2 + q −2a − 2q −a + 2q −a−b
+1 − 2q −b + q −2b
−4q 2−a−b )/(q 2 (−1 + q)2 ))q 2)/(q 2 (−1 + q)) (4.110)
and
[−α]q,2 = −1/2(−2q + q 2 + q −a − 1 + q −b
−sqrt((−2q 2 − 4q 3 + q 4 − 4q −a+1 + 6q −a+2
+4q − 4q −b+1 + 6q −b+2 + q −2a − 2q −a + 2q −a−b
+1 − 2q −b + q −2b − 4q 2−a−b)/(q 2 (−1 + q)2 ))q
+sqrt((−2q 2 − 4q 3 + q 4 − 4q −a+1 + 6q −a+2 + 4q − 4q −b+1
+6q −b+2 + q −2a − 2q −a + 2q −a−b
+1 − 2q −b + q −2b
−4q 2−a−b )/(q 2 (−1 + q)2 ))q 2)/(q 2 (−1 + q)). (4.111)
52 Linear q-difference equations of second order

Consider for example the simplest case when the regular singularity is located
at x = 0. Searching the solution under the form
∞
cs xs
X
y(x) = (4.112)
s=0

we get
cs+1
cs
(1 − q a+α+s )(1 − q b+α+s )
= (4.113)
(1 − q c+α+s )(1 − q 1+α+s )

which lead to the particular solutions of (4.97)

y1 (x) =2 φ1 (q a , q b ; q c ; q, x), y2 (x) = x1−c

2 φ1 (q
1+a−c 1+b−c 2−c
,q ; q ; q, x),
(4.114)

(q-analogues of (4.99)), corresponding to the roots of the indicial equations

[α]q,1 = 0 and [α]q,2 = [1 − c] respectively.

Orthogonality
For this purpose, we write the second order linear q-difference equation in
the form

a0 (x)Dq−1 Dq y + a1 (x)Dq y + a2 (x)y = 0. (4.115)

This equation can be written as

A(x)y(x) = [u(x)Eq + v(x) + w(x)Eq−1 ]y(x) = λy(x), (4.116)

where Eq f (x) = f (qx) and Eq−1 f (x) = Eq−1 f (x) = f (x/q). Let yn (x) and
ym (x) be two sequences of its eigenfunctions corresponding to two distinct
sequences of eigenvalues λn and λm respectively. We will search the condi-
tions under which yn (x) and ym (x) are orthogonal. The usual receipt is to
find the conditions under which

(A(x)yn (x), ym (x))ρ(x) = (yn (x), A(x)ym (x))ρ(x) (4.117)

where (f (x), g(x))ρ(x) stands for the q-discrete weighted inner product:
Rb
(f (x), g(x))ρ(x) =def a f (x)g(x)ρ(x)dq x. (4.118)
Linear q-difference equations of higher order 53

Subtracting member with member the equalities

(Ayn )ym = λn yn ym (4.119)

and

(Aym )yn = λm yn ym (4.120)

one gets

(λn − λm )yn ym = (Ayn )ym − (Aym )yn . (4.121)

Multiplying next the two members of the equality by ρ(x) and q-integrating
from 0 to x, we obtain
P∞ i y (xq i )y (xq i )ρ(xq i )
(λn − λm )(1 − q)x i=0 q n m
P∞ i [(Ay )(xq i )y (xq i ) − (Ay )(xq i )y (xq i )]ρ(xq i(4.122)
= (1 − q)x i=0 q n m m n ).

Simplifications give
P∞ i
(λn − λm )(1 − q)x i=0 q yn (xq i )ym (xq i )ρ(xq i )
= (1 − q)xq −1 u(xq −1 )ρ(xq −1)[yn (xq −1 )ym (x) − yn (x)ym (xq −1 )],
(4.123)

under the constraint defining the q-discrete weight ρ(x):

ρ(qx) u(x)
ρ(x) = qw(qx) . (4.124)

As a consequence we get
Rb
(λn − λm )
a yn (x)ym (x)ρ(x)dq x
= −1 −1 b .
(1 − q)xq u(xq )ρ(xq )[yn (xq −1 )ym (x) − yn (x)ym (xq −1 )] |(4.125)
−1
a

From where we obtain the condition of q-orthogonality for yn and ym , n 6= m:

u(xq −1 )ρ(xq −1 )[yn (xq −1 )ym (x) − yn (x)ym (xq −1 )] |ba = 0. (4.126)

4.5 Exercises
1. Prove that
54 Exercises

a) the functions cosq (x), sinq (x) are solutions of

Dq2 y(x) + y(x) = 0,

Dq4 y(x) − y(x) = 0, (4.127)

b) the functions coshq (x), sinhq (x) are solutions of

Dq2 y(x) − y(x) = 0,

Dq4 y(x) − y(x) = 0, (4.128)

c) the functions cosq−1 (x), sinq−1 (x) are solutions of

Dq2−1 y(x) + y(x) = 0,

Dq4−1 y(x) + y(x) = 0, (4.129)

d) the functions coshq−1 (x), sinhq−1 (x) are solutions of

Dq2−1 y(x) − y(x) = 0,

Dq4−1 y(x) − y(x) = 0, (4.130)

e)the functions cosqq−1 (x), sinqq−1 (x) are solutions of

(Dq + 1)(Dq−1 + 1)y(x) = 0, (4.131)

f) the functions coshqq−1 (x), sinhqq−1 (x) are solutions of

(Dq − 1)(Dq−1 − 1)y(x) = 0. (4.132)

2. Solve

a) Dq2 y(x) = ay(x) + b,

b) Dq2 y(x) − 3Dq y(x) + 2y(x) = x3

c)

ay(x) + b
y(q −1 x) = . (4.133)
cy(x) + d
Linear q-difference equations of higher order 55

3. Find two q-operators A = Dq3 + u1 (x)Dq2 + u2 (x)Dq + u3 (x) and B =

Dq2 + v1 (x)Dq + v2 (x) such that their q-commutation

[A, B] = A.B − qB.A (4.134)

is an operator of degree zero in Dq .

4. Prove that the functions sinq−1 (x) and cosq−1 (x) are solutions of

(q − 1)2 Dq2 y(x) + qy(q 2 x) = 0 (4.135)

and that the functions sinq (x) and cosq (x) solve

(q − 1)2 Dq2 y(x) + y(x) = 0. (4.136)

56 Exercises
Chapter 5

q-Laplace transform

Laplace transform of an exponential type function f (x) is given by

Z +∞
F (p) = L{f (x)} = e−px f (x)dx, p = a + ib ∈ C. (5.1)
0

and plays a major role in pure and applied analysis, specially in solving
differential equations. If we consider f (x) as a function of a discrete variable
i.e. t ∈ Z, then the transformation (5.1) reads

+∞
f (j)z −j , z = e−p .
X
F (z) = Z{f (x)} = (5.2)
j=0

It is referred to as Z transform and plays similar role in difference analysis

as Laplace transform in continuous analysis, specially in solving difference
equations.
In this chapter, we are concerned with a q-version of the Laplace trans-
form (5.1) which is expected to play similar role in q-difference analysis as
Laplace transform in continuous analysis or Z transform in difference anal-
ysis, specially in solving q-difference equations.
Studies of q-versions of Laplace transform go back up to Hahn [31]. Re-
searches in the area were then pursued in many works by W H Abdi [1, 2, 3, 4]
and more recently in [37]. However, there is very significant difference be-
tween the approach in the latter work and the previous ones. Indeed, in the
studies by Hahn and Abdi, the q-version of the Laplace transform consists
in choosing a q-version of the exponential function e−px and then replace
the integral in (5.1) by the corresponding q-integral. On the other side, in

57
58 Properties of the q-Laplace transform

work of Lenzi and coauthors, the q-version of the Laplace transform consists
in replacing simply the e−px function in (5.1) by its certain q-deformation.
In this chapter, we are clearly concerned with the first of the two ap-
proaches. The definitions of the ”q-Laplace transform” by Hahn [31] are
cited by Abdi in Equation (1.1) and Equation (1.2) in [1]. The first one
replaces e−px by e−px
1/q and the q-integral is performed from 0 to p ; The
−1

second replaces e −px −px

by eq and the q-integral is performed from 0 to ∞ as
usual. Abdi gives details for the two types of q-Laplace transform. As noted
Abdi, each option has advantages and drawbacks: For the first choice, the
convolution product property works but the theorem of Goldstein does’nt
while for the second, the situation is conversed. The q-Laplace transform
−px
approach of this chapter replaces e−px by e1/q and the q-integral is per-
formed from 0 to ∞, as usual. This version is closer to the 2nd option
of Hahn not only from the point of view of similarity in forms but also in
properties. Thus the properties of attenuation, translation and convolution
product work only formally (presence of p in the calculated originals or x in
the images). Also, the three properties aren’t available in the second version
of Hahn-Abdi (they are absent in [1]) while only the third among the three
properties-the convolution product-is available in the case of the first version.
However all the three properties works in the version of Lenzi, although for
example the transformation of xn works with difficulties. Moreover Lenzi
works with q-deformation of the continuous case as noted above. Summary,
the q-version of this chapter is less or more equivalent to the second option
of Hahn-Abdi. Both are feasible given that each function e−px q or e−px
1/q tends
to zero when x tend to ∞, which makes possible the integration by parts
from 0 to ∞. However,it seemed to us natural to take e−px q −1
, as the q-version
of e−px , since e−px px
q −1 is the exact inverse of eq , as e
−px is the exact inverse of
px
e .
More exactly, for a given function f (x) on the lattice (1.9), we define its
q-Laplace transform as the function

Z +∞
F (p) = Lq {f (x)} = e−px
q −1 f (x)dq x, p = s + iσ ∈ C. (5.3)
0

and we denote f (x) ⇀ ↽q F (p). Here, f (x) is referred to as the q-original of

F (p), while F (p) is referred to as the q-image of f (x) by the q-Laplace trans-
form operation. In the following paragraphes, we study its basic properties
and apply it to certain q-difference equations.
q-Laplace transform 59

5.1 Properties of the q-Laplace transform

1. Linearity. Clearly

Lq {αf (x) + βg(x)} = αLq {f (x)} + βLq {g(x)} (5.4)

2. Scaling. Let
Z +∞
F (p) = e−px
q −1
f (x)dq x. (5.5)
0

We get

p
Z +∞ − p x
α
F( ) = eq−1 f (x)dq x
α 0
Z +∞
=α e−px
q −1
f (αx)dq x. (5.6)
0

Or
1 p
Z +∞ − p x
α
F( ) = eq−1 f (x)dq x
α α 0
Z +∞
= e−px
q −1 f (αx)dq x. (5.7)
0

Hence
1 p
f (αx) ⇀
↽q F ( ). (5.8)
α α

3. Attenuation, or Substitution. We have

Z +∞
−(p−p0 )x
F (p − p0 ) = eq−1 f (x)dq x
0
Z +∞
−px+p0 x px
= e−px
q −1 [eq −1 eq f (x)]dq x
0
0 x px
= Lq {eq−px+p
−1 eq f (x)}. (5.9)

Hence, formally
0 x px
eq−px+p
−1 eq f (x) ⇀
↽q F (p − p0 ). (5.10)
60 Properties of the q-Laplace transform

4. Translation. Consider the function

(
0, x < 0
η(x) = . (5.11)
1, x ≥ 0

It is clear that f (x) = f (x)η(x) for x ≥ 0. Hence we have

Z ∞
Lq {f (x − x0 )} = e−px
q −1 f (x − x0 )η(x − x0 )dq x. (5.12)
x0

Supposing x − x0 = t, we get
∞
x + x0 −p(x+x0 )
Z
Lq {f (x − x0 )} = eq−1 f (x)dq x
0 x
x + x0 px0 px −p(x+x0 )
= eq−px 0
−1 Lq { eq eq eq−1 f (x)}. (5.13)
x

5. Transform of derivatives. Let

f (x) ⇀
↽q F (p). (5.14)
We have
Z +∞
G(p) = e−px
q −1 [Dq f (x)]dq x
0
Z ∞
= [e−px +∞
q −1 f (x)]0 +p f (qx)e−pqx
q −1 dq x
0
Z ∞
= −f (0) + p f (qx)e−pqx
q −1 dq x
0
Z ∞
= −f (0) + pq −1 f (x)e−px
q −1 dq x
0
p
= F (p) − f (0), (5.15)
q
where we used the q-integration by parts and the change of variable x :=
xq −1 . Thus
p
Dq f (x) ⇀
↽q F (p) − f (0). (5.16)
q
As a consequence, we get
p p
Dq2 f (x) ⇀
↽q [ F (p) − f (0)] − Dq f (0)
q q
p2 p
= 2 F (p) − f (0) − Dq f (0), (5.17)
q q
q-Laplace transform 61

p3 p2 p
Dq3 f (x) ⇀
↽q 3
F (p) − 2 f (0) − Dq f (0) − Dq2 f (0), (5.18)
q q q

... ... ... (5.19)

pn pn−1 pn−2
Dqn f (x) ⇀
↽q F (p) − f (0) − Dq f (0) − . . . − Dqn−1 f (0). (5.20)
qn q n−1 q n−2

Hence
n−1
pn X p
Dqn f (x) ⇀
↽q n
F (p) − ( )n−1−j Dqj f (0). (5.21)
q j=0
q

6. Derivative of transforms. Again, let

Z +∞
F (p) = e−px
q −1 f (x)dq x. (5.22)
0

Calculate

Dq,p e−px
q −1
= −xe−pqx
q −1
, (5.23)

x 2
2 −px
Dq,p eq−1 = (−x)(−qx)eq−pq
−1 , (5.24)

x 3
3 −px
Dq,p eq−1 = (−x)(−qx)(−q 2x)e−pq
q −1
, (5.25)

... ... ... (5.26)

nx
n −px
Dq,p eq−1 = (−x)(−qx)(−q 2x) . . . (−q n−1 x)eq−pq
−1
n n
x
= (−x)n q 2 (n−1) eq−pq
−1 . (5.27)

Thus
Z +∞ n n
x
n
Dq,p F (p) = (−x)n q 2 (n−1) eq−pq
−1 f (x)dq x (5.28)
0
62 Properties of the q-Laplace transform

Using the summation form of the integral and then making the replacing
x := xq −n gives
+∞
nx n
n
x(−x)n q 2 (n−1) eq−pq
X
Dq,p F (p) = (1 − q) −1 f (x)
x=0
+∞
n
= q −n (1 − q) xe−px −n n 2 (n−1)
f (xq −n )
X
q −1 (−xq ) q
x=0
Z +∞ n
= q −n e−px
q −1
(−xq −n )n q 2 (n−1) f (xq −n )dq x
0
Z +∞
e−px
−n
n (n+3)
= q −1 [(−x) q
2 f (xq −n )]dq x
0
−n
= Lq {(−x)n q 2
(n+3)
f (xq −n )}. (5.29)

Hence
−n
(−x)n q 2
(n+3)
f (xq −n ) ⇀ n
↽q Dq,p F (P ). (5.30)

7. Transform of integrals. We have

Z x Z ∞ Z x
Lq { f (x)dq x} = e−px
q −1 [ f (x)dq x]dq x
0
∞ Z0 x 0
q −px
Z
q
=− [ f (x)dq x][Dq eq−1 ]dq x
0 0 p
q
Z x − pq x ∞ q
Z ∞
= − [( f (x)dq x)eq−1 ]0 + e−px
q −1
f (x)dq x
p 0 p 0
q
Z ∞ F (p)
= e−px
q −1
f (x)dq x =q . (5.31)
p 0 p

Hence
Z x F (p)
f (x)dq x ⇀
↽q q (5.32)
0 p

8. Integral of transforms. q-Integrating (5.5) both sides from p to ∞, and

interchanging the integrals (supposing that the conditions for this are satis-
fied), we get
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
F (p)dq p = ( e−px
q −1 dq p)f (x)dq x
p 0 p
q-Laplace transform 63

−px
q
Z ∞ eq−1
=q f (x)dq x
0 x
Z ∞ f (qx) f (qx)
=q e−px
q −1
dq x = qLq { }. (5.33)
0 x x
Hence
Z ∞ f (qx)
F (p)dq p ⇀
↽q q . (5.34)
p x
This formula is especially useful for the calculus of infinite integrals. Indeed,
letting p → 0 in (5.34), we get the useful formula
Z ∞ Z ∞ f (qx)
Z ∞ f (x)
F (p)dq p = q dq x = q dq x. (5.35)
0 0 x 0 x

9. Product of transforms.
Let define the q-convolution product between f and g as
Z x
def
f (x) ∗q g(x) = f (x)g̃(x − τ )dq x (5.36)
0

where the relation between g(x) and g̃(x) is to be determined latter, in order
that be fulfilled the condition

f (x) ∗q g(x) ⇀
↽q Lq {f (x)}Lq {g(x)} = F (p)G(p). (5.37)

We have
Z ∞ Z x
f (x) ∗q g(x) ⇀
↽q e−px
q −1 ( f (t)g̃(x − t)dq t)dq x
0 0
Z ∞Z x
= e−px
q −1 f (t)g̃(x − t)dq tdq x
0 0
Z ∞ Z ∞
= f (t)( e−px
q −1 g̃(x − t)dq x)dq t.
0 qt
(5.38)

We calculate
Z ∞
I1 = e−px
q −1 g̃(x − t)dq x
qt
∞
−1 x
q −1 xe−pq
X
= (1 − q) q −1
g̃(q −1 x − t)
x=qt
64 q-Laplace transforms of some elementary functions

∞
xeq−px
X
= (1 − q) −1 g̃(x − t)
x=t
∞
X −p(r+t)
= (1 − q) (r + t)eq−1 g̃(r)
r=0
∞
r + t −p(r+t)
X
= (1 − q) e −1r[ g̃(r)]
r=0
r q
Z ∞
r + t −p(r+t)
= e −1 g̃(r)dq r
r=0 r q
Z ∞
r + t −p(r+t) pt pr
= e−pt
q −1 e−pr
q −1 [ r eq −1 eq eq g̃(r)]dq r (5.39)
r=0
Thus, if we set
r p(r+t) −pt −pr
g̃(r) = e eq−1 eq−1 g(r), (5.40)
r+t q
or
x − t px −pt −p(x−t)
g̃(x − t) = e e −1 e −1 g(x − t), (5.41)
x q q q
we get
Z ∞ Z ∞
f (x) ∗q g(x) ⇀
↽q ( e−pt
q −1 f (t)dq t)( e−pr
q −1 g(r)dq r)
0 0
= F (p)G(p). (5.42)
In other words, if we define formally the q-convolution product between f
and g as
Z x
x − t px −pt −p(x−t)
f (x) ∗q g(x) =def f (x) e e −1 e −1 g(x − t)dq x, (5.43)
0 x q q q
we get
f (x) ∗q g(x) ⇀
↽q F (p)G(p). (5.44)

5.2 q-Laplace transforms of some elementary func-

tions
1. f (x) = 1. We have
Z ∞ q
Z ∞ −px
F (p) = e−px
q −1 dq x = −
q
Dq eq−1 dq x
0 p 0
q − pq x ∞ q
= − [eq−1 ]0 = (5.45)
p p
q-Laplace transform 65

2. f (x) = x. We calculate
Z ∞ q
Z ∞ −px
F (p) = e−px
q −1 xdq x =− q
xDq eq−1 dq x
0 p 0
q − pq x ∞ ∞ Z
= − {[xeq−1 ]0 − e−px
q −1 dq x}
p 0
q ∞ −px q2
Z
= eq−1 dq x = 2 . (5.46)
p 0 p

3. f (x) = xn . Contemplate the formula (5.30) and consider the case when
f (t) = 1. Then, using (5.45), we obtain the following
n
n q
(−x)n ⇀↽q q 2 (n+3) Dq,p ( ). (5.47)
p
Next, using iteratively the fact that
q −k − 1 −(k+1)
Dq p−k = p , k = 1, 2, . . . , (5.48)
q−1
one easily finds that
n
Dqn p−1 = (−1)n q − 2 (n+1) [n]q !p−(n+1) . (5.49)
Finally (5.47) and (5.49) leads to
q
↽q [n]q !( )n+1 .
xn ⇀ (5.50)
p

1, x=x0 =q s0
4. f (x) = δ(x − x0 ) = {0, x6=x0 . We have
Z ∞
F (p) = e−px
q −1 δ(x − x0 )dq x
0
∞
i
q i eq−pq i s0
X
= (1 − q) −1 δ(q − q )
i=−∞
s0
= (1 − q)q s0 e−pq
q −1 = (1 − q)x0 eq−px 0
−1 . (5.51)

P∞ a n xn
5. f (x) = eax ax
q . Since eq = n=0 [n]q ! , we get
∞ ∞
an qX qa
Lq {xn } = ( )n
X
F (p) =
0
[n]q ! p 0 p
q
= , |p| > |aq| (5.52)
p − qa
where we used (5.50).
66 q-Laplace transforms of some elementary functions

6. f (x) = eax
q −1 . Since

∞ ∞
an xn n an xn
eax q 2 (n−1)
X X
q −1 = = , (5.53)
n=0
[n]q−1 ! n=0
[n]q !

we have
∞ ∞
n an qX n qa
q 2 (n−1) Lq {xn } = q 2 (n−1) ( )n .
X
F (p) = (5.54)
0
[n]q ! p 0 p

eiwx
q +e−iwx
q
7. f (x) = cosq wx = 2 . Now

Lq {eiwx −iwx
q } + Lq {eq }
F (p) = Lq {cosq wx} =
2
qp
= 2 (5.55)
p + q 2 w2

eiwx
q −e−iwx
q
8. f (x) = sinq wx = 2i . We get

Lq {eiwx −iwx }
q } − Lq {eq
F (p) = Lq {sinq wx} =
2i
q2w
= 2 . (5.56)
p + q 2 w2

ewx
q +eq
−wx
9. f (x) = coshq wx = 2 . We have

Lq {ewx −wx }
q } + Lq {eq
F (p) = Lq {coshq wx} =
2
qp
= 2 . (5.57)
p − q 2 w2

ewx
q −eq
−wx
10. f (x) = sinhq wx = 2 . We get

Lq {ewx −wx
q } − Lq {eq }
F (p) = Lq {sinq wx} =
2
q2w
= 2 . (5.58)
p − q 2 w2
q-Laplace transform 67

P∞
11. f (x) = 0 an xn . We get
∞ ∞
qX q
an Lq {xn } = an [n]q !( )n .
X
F (p) = (5.59)
0
p 0 p

5.3 Inverse q-Laplace transform

In most of the cases, the search of the q-original of a given q-image is per-
formed using the results of the transformation of basic elementary functions
combined with the application of the properties of the q-Laplace transform.
In other cases, it is useful to refer to the so called first or second theorems
of development or simply to the inversion integral formula. We discus these
concepts in this section.
Theorem 5.3.1 (First theorem of development) If the q-image of the un-
known q-original can be developed in an integer series of powers of p1 of the
form
∞
aj p−j−1
X
F (p) = (5.60)
j=0

(this series is convergent to F (p) for |p| > R, where R = limn→∞ | an+1
an | =
6
∞.), then the q-original f (x) is given by the formula
∞
aj
xj
X
f (x) = j+1
(5.61)
j=0
q [j]q !
the series being convergent for every value of x.
Proof. Note first that if a function g(x) is given by the power series g(x) =
P∞ j Dqj g(0) P∞ −j−1 ,
j=0 cj x , then clearly cj = [j]q ! . Hence, if F (p) = j=0 aj p then
Dqj [p−1 F (p−1 )]p=0
aj = [j]q ! . Next, denoting the inverse of the q-Laplace transform
−1
by f (t) = Lq {F (p)}, we calculate
∞
X Dqj [p−1 F (p−1 )]p=0
f (t) = L−1
q {F (p)} = L−1
q {p
−j−1
}
0
[j]q !
∞
X Dqj [p−1 F (p−1 )]p=0 xj
= ( )
0
[j]q ! [j]q !q j+1
∞ ∞
Dqj [p−1 F (p−1 )]p=0 j aj
xj
X X
= x = (5.62)
0
[j]2q !q j+1 j=0
q j+1 [j]q !
68 Inverse q-Laplace transform

and the theorem is proved.

Example. Using the first theorem of development, find the inverse of

1
F (p) = p−p 0
.
P∞ j −j−1 P∞ pj0 j
Solution. We have F (p) = j=0 p0 p . Hence f (x) = j=0 [j]q !q j+1 x =
1 P∞ (p0 q −1 x)j
q j=0 [j]q ! = q −1 epq 0 q −1 x
.

The second theorem of development gives the possibility of determining

the q-original of a q-image that is a rational function of p:
u(p)
F (p) = , (5.63)
v(p)
where u(p) and v(p) are polynomial functions of p of degree m and k (m < k),
respectively. If the development of the function v(p) in simple factors has
the form
r r
(p − pi )ki , (
Y X
v(p) = ki = k), (5.64)
i=1 i=1

then it is known that F (p) can be developed in sum of simple fractions of

the form
A
(5.65)
(p − p0 )n
where A is a constant, p0 a root of v(p) and n is ≤ the algebraic multiplicity
of that root. Hence, to handle the inversion of a function of type (5.63), it
suffices to handle that of functions of type
1
(5.66)
(p − p0 )n
If all the roots of v(p) are simple, then n ≡ 1 and the problem is reduced to
the inversion of
1
. (5.67)
p − p0
In this case, one quickly thinks about (5.52) and gets
1
q −1 epq 0 q
−1 t
⇀
↽q . (5.68)
p − p0
q-Laplace transform 69

On the other side, if some of the roots of v(p) are not simple, one should
have to deal with the inversion of (5.66) with n > 1. In this case, one can
also attempt to use the combining of (5.42) and (5.10) which formally gives
0 t pt n
1 eq−pt+p
−1 eq t
⇀
↽q . (5.69)
(p − p0 )n+1 q n+1 [n]q !

However, considering even the simplest case of n = 0 in (5.69), we have

q −pt+p t
epq 0 q
−1 t
⇀
↽q ↽q eq−1 0 ept
⇀ q (5.70)
p − p0
or equivalently
q −pt+qat pt
eat ⇀
q ↽q
⇀
↽q eq−1 eq (5.71)
p − qa
and one should be quickly disenchanted noting that the right hand side of
(5.71) is not a solution of the q-difference equation

Dq y(x) = ay(x) (5.72)

which its self leads to the left hand side of (5.71).

To handle a little better the difficulty, we must push father our thinking
in the q-world. For that we need remark that as the function
(−1)n n!
(5.73)
(p − p0 )n

is obtained from (5.67) by deriving it n times, the q-version of (5.73) should

be determined by q-deriving (5.67) n times also. This gives

1 (−1)n [n]q !
Dqn = Qn i
(5.74)
p − p0 i=0 (pq − p0 )

Next, putting (5.68) in 5.30) and using 5.74), we get

n
tn q − 2 (n+3) eqp0 q
−n−1 t
1
Qn ⇀
↽q (5.75)
i
i=0 (pq − p0 ) q[n]q !

But, ni=0 (pq i − p0 ), tough it is a natural q-deformation of (p − p0 )n , it has

Q

no multiple roots. Hence, we can summarize the thinking as follows: (i) If all
the roots v(p), F (p) = u(p)
v(p) , degu(p) < degv(p), are simple, so we can either
70 Inverse q-Laplace transform

use (5.75) if the roots are in the form q −i p0 , i = 1,¯n, or develop F (p) in sum
of simple fractions and use (5.68), (ii) If some roots of v(p) are multiple, so
one should resort to the first theorem of development or to the more general
inversion formula that we now derive:
For that, consider the equation (5.60) and q-integrate the both sides on a
closed path γ + containing and positively oriented with respect to, the origin
p = 0. We get
1
I
aj = F (p)pj dp (5.76)
2πi γ+

Putting this in (5.61) gives

p
1 1
I
x
f (x) = F (p)eqq dp (5.77)
q 2πi γ+

which is the inversion integral formula for type (5.60) complex functions.
More generally, we show that the formula remains valid for any function
F (p) analytic outside the disk |p| < R and F (∞) = 0. For that, calculate
the q-Laplace transform of the function in (5.77) where now F (p) is any
function that is zero at infinity and analytic outside the disk |p| < R, where
lies now the path γ + . We have
Z ∞ 1 1
Z ∞ I p
x
e−zx
q −1 f (x)dq x = ( F (p)e−zx q
q −1 eq dp)dq x (5.78)
0 q 2πi 0 γ+

1 1
I Z ∞ p
x
= F (p)( e−zx q
q −1 eq dq x)dp (5.79)
q 2πi γ+ 0

1 1
I
= F (p) dp; |z| > |p| (5.80)
2πi γ+ z−p

1 1
I
= F (p) dp (5.81)
2πi γ− p−z
where now γ − is now positively oriented with respect to the domain con-
taining the infinity. By the Cauchy integral formula we get get
1 1
I
F (p) dp = F (z) − F (∞) = F (z) (5.82)
2πi γ− p−z
which proves the expected inversion integral formula.
q-Laplace transform 71

5.4 Application of q-Laplace transform to certain

q-difference equations
As Laplace transform and Z-transform are largely applied in solving dif-
ferential and difference equations respectively, the q-Laplace transform is
expected to play the same role but now in q-difference equations. The prin-
ciple lying behind is always the same:

1. Given a k-order linear constant coefficients q-difference equation, with

initial conditions

a0 Dqk y(x) + a1 Dqk−1 y(x) + . . . + ak−1 Dq y(x) + ak y(x) = b(x),

y(0) = y0 , Dq y(0) = y1 , . . . , Dk−1 y(0) = yk−1 , (5.83)

we apply the q-Laplace transform on both sides of the equation, algebraically

solve for Y (p) ⇀
↽q y(x) and then carefully use the inverse q-Laplace transform
to find the unknown function y(x).
Consider for example the second order case:

a0 Dq2 y(x) + a1 Dq y(x) + . . . + a2 y(x) = b(x)

y(0) = y0 , Dq y(0) = y1 . (5.84)

Suppose y(x) ⇀
↽q Y (p), f (x) ⇀
↽q B(p). Next, using (5.21), one gets

p
Dq y(x) ⇀
↽q Y (p) − y(0),
q
p p
Dq2 y(x) ⇀
↽q ( )2 Y (p) − y(0) − Dq y(0) (5.85)
q q

Loading (5.85) in (5.84), one gets

B(p) + a0 y0 pq + (a0 y1 + a1 y0 )
Y (p) = . (5.86)
a0 ( pq )2 + a1 pq + a2

The remaining task consists in finding the explicit version of y(t) = L−1
q {Y (p)},
i.e. that not containing the parameter p (for example the lhs of (5.71) in-
stead of its rhs, when solving the first order q-difference equation (5.72))
which is the expected solution of (5.84).
72 Exercises

2. Given a constant coefficients linear system of q-difference equations of

the form

Dq y(x) = Ay(x) + b(x),

y(0) = y0 , (5.87)

where A is a k.k. matrix, y(x) and b(x), k-vectors. Applying the q-Laplace
transform on both sides leads to
p
Y (p) − y(0) = AY (p) + B(p), (5.88)
q

where we used the rule that if z(x) = (z1 (x), . . . , zk (x)), then
Lq {z(x)}=(Lq {z1 (x)}, . . . , Lq {zk (x)}). From (5.88), we get
p
Y (p) = ( I − A)−1 (y0 + B(p)), (5.89)
q

which gives y(t) = L−1

q {Y (p)}.

Example. Using the q-Laplace transform, solve the equations

a)

Dq2 y(x) + y(x) = 0, y(0) = 1, Dq y(0) = 0 (5.90)

b)

Dq2 y(x) − y(x) = 0, y(0) = 0, Dq y(0) = 1 (5.91)

qp
Solution. a) Using (5.86) and the data in (5.90), we get Y (p) = p2 +q 2
, which
by (5.55) with w = 1, gives y(t) = cosq (x).
q2
b) Similarly, using (5.86) and the data in (5.94), we get Y (p) = p2 −q 2
, which
by (5.58) with w = 1, gives y(t) = sinhq (x).

5.5 Exercises
1. Find the q-original of

p+1
a) F (p) = p(p−1)(p−2)(p−3) ,
q-Laplace transform 73

a
b) F (p) = Q5 ,
i=0
(pq i −a)

2p+3
c) F (p) = p(p2 +1)
,

1
d) F (p) = p(p2 +1)(p2 +4)
.

2. Using the q-Laplace transform, solve the equations

a)

Dq2 y(x) = ay(x) + b, y(0) = 1, Dq y(0) = 0 (5.92)

b)

Dq2 y(x) − 3Dq y(x) + 2y(x) = 0, y(0) = 0, Dq y(0) = 1 (5.93)

c)

(q − 1)2 Dq2 y(x) + y(x) = 0, y(0) = 1, Dq y(0) = 2. (5.94)

3. Find the q-image of

a)
Z x
h(x) = Dq y(x) + y(x) + y(t)dq t;
0
y(0) = 1, y(t) ⇀
↽q Y (p) (5.95)

b)
Z x
h(x) = Dq y(x) − y(t)dq t;
0
y(0) = 0, y(t) ⇀
↽q Y (p). (5.96)

4. Solve
74 Exercises

a) The q-difference equation

Dq2 y(x) + Dq y(x) − 2y(x) = e−x ;

y(0) = 0, Dq y(0) = 1 (5.97)

b) The q-integral equation

Z x
y(x) = y(t)dq t + 1. (5.98)
0

5. Solve the system of q-difference equations

(
Dq x(t) = x(t) + 2y(t)
, x(0) = y(0 == 0. (5.99)
Dq y(t) = 2x(t) + y(t) + 1

6. Solve the q-difference equation with variable coefficients

(x2 + a20 )Dq2 y(x) + a1 xDq y(x) + a2 y(x) = b(x); (5.100)

y(0) = Dq y(0) = 0. (5.101)
Chapter 6

q-Difference orthogonal
polynomials

As in the case of differential and difference equations, orthogonal polynomi-

als are probably the most beautiful and applicable solutions of q-difference
equations. The main method of deriving or transforming polynomial solu-
tions of q-difference equations are special versions of the famous factorization
method also known as Darboux transformation [23]. In this chapter, we will
focused on polynomial solutions of the linear second order q-difference equa-
tions. In the first section we first use the factorization method to obtain
(polynomial) solutions of the equations. In the second we show how to use
the factorization method for transforming a solvable linear equation into a
new one. In each section the general theory is illustrated by the case of the
hypergeometric q-difference equations.

6.1 The factorization method for the solvability of

q-difference equations
6.1.1 The general theory
Consider the general second order q-difference eigenvalue equation

[u(x)Eq + v(x) + w(x)Eq−1 ]yn (x) = λn yn (x), (6.1)

where v(x) = −(u(x) + w(x)). Our objective is to study the solvability of

such an equation. Here, a type [15, 14, 11] factorization method will be used.

75
76The factorization method for the transformation of q-difference equations

First, write (6.1) under the form

Lyn (x) = [a(x)Eq + b(x) + c(x)Eq−1 ]yn (x) = λ(n)θ(x)yn (x), (6.2)

where

a(x) = θ(x)u(x); b(x) = θ(x)v(x); c(x) = θ(x)w(x) (6.3)

for some θ(x) 6= 0. Consider next the operator

H(x, n) = Eq [ρ(L − λθ)ρ−1 ] = Eq2 + (b(qx) − λ(n)θ(qx))Eq + d(qx), (6.4)

where

ρ(qx)/ρ(x) = a(x); d(x) = a(x/q)c(x). (6.5)

So the eigenvalue equation (6.2) is ”equivalent” to the equation

H(x, n)yn (x) = 0, (6.6)

in the sense that if yn (x) is a solution of (6.2), then ρ(x)yn (x) is a solution
of (6.6) and conversely if yn (x) is a solution of (6.6), then ρ−1 (x)yn (x) is a
solution of (6.2).
Consider now for H, the following type of factorization

H(x, n) − µ(n) = (Eq + g(x, n))(Eq + f (x, n)),

H(x, n + 1) − µ(n) = (Eq + f (x, n))(Eq + g(x, n)), (6.7)

for some functions f (x, n), g(x, n), and constants (in x) λ(n), µ(n). Consider
next the eigenvalue equation

L̃ỹn (x) = [g(x, −1)Eq − b(x) + f (x/q, −1)Eq−1 ]yn (x) = −λ(n)θ(x)ỹn (x),(6.8)

and the operator

˜
H̃(x, n) = Eq [ρ̃(L̃ − λθ)ρ̃−1 ] = Eq2 + (b(qx) − λ(n)θ(qx))Eq + d(qx), (6.9)

where
˜ = g(x/q, −1)f (x/q, −1).
ρ̃(qx)/ρ̃(x) = −g(x, −1); d(x) (6.10)

It is easily seen in this case also that the eigenvalue equation (6.8) is ”equiv-
alent” to the equation

H̃(x, n)ỹn (x) = 0. (6.11)

q-Difference equations and orthogonal polynomials 77

Consider also for H̃, the factorization

H̃(x, n) − µ̃(n) = (Eq + g(x, n))(Eq + f (x, n)),

H̃(x, n + 1) − µ̃(n) = (Eq + f (x, n))(Eq + g(x, n)), (6.12)

with µ̃(n) = µ(n) − µ(−1), and some f (x, n), g(x, n), and constants (in x)
λ(n), µ(n) as in (6.7). We can now give the main statement of this section

Theorem 6.1.1 Suppose that

There exist functions f (x, n), g(x, n), constants (in x) λ(n), µ(n), for which
H admits the factorization (6.7) with f and g such that

f (x, n) − g(x, n − 1) = c1 (n)x + c2 (n), (6.13)

c1 (n) 6= 0, ∞.
In that case, the following situations hold:
(i) The eigenvalue equation (6.8) admits a sequence of polynomial solutions
satisfying the difference relations

ỹn+1 (x) = (−g(x, −1)Eq + f (x, n))ỹn (x)

−µ̃(n − 1)ỹn−1 (x) = (−g(x, −1)Eq + g(x, n − 1))ỹn (x), n = 0, 1, 2 . . .(6.14)

and the three-term recurrence relations (TTRR)

ỹn+1 (x) + µ̃(n − 1)ỹn−1 (x) = (c1 (n)x + c2 (n))ỹn(x), (6.15)

ỹ0 = 1, ỹ1 = c1 (0)x + c2 (0). (6.16)

(ii) The eigenvalue equation (6.2) admits a sequence of eigenfunctions sat-

isfying the difference relations

ψn+1 (x) = (a(x)Eq + f (x, n))ψn (x),

−µ(n − 1)ψn−1 (x) = (a(x)Eq + g(x, n − 1))ψn (x), n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (6.17)

and the TTRR

ψn+1 (x) + µ(n − 1)ψn−1 (x) = (c1 (n)x + c2 (n))ψn(x), (6.18)

n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

(iii) If µ(−1) = 0, the equations (6.8) and (6.2) as well as their solutions in
(i) and (ii), become identical .
78The factorization method for the transformation of q-difference equations

Proof.
(i)Note first that from the relations in (6.7) follow in particular the equations

f (x, n)g(x, n) = d(qx) − µ(n), (6.19)

f (qx, n) + g(x, n) = b(qx) − θ(qx)λ(n), (6.20)

with

f (qx, n + 1) + g(x, n + 1) = f (x, n) + g(qx, n), (6.21)

f (x, n + 1)g(x, n + 1) = f (x, n)g(x, n) + µ(n) − µ(n + 1), (6.22)

or equivalently the equations (6.19) and (6.20) together with the q-difference
equation

∆q (f (x, n) − g(x, n)) = (λ(n + 1) − λ(n))θ(x); ∆q = Eq − 1. (6.23)

Remark next that from (6.4), (6.9), (6.10) and (6.19) (with n = −1), it
follows that H = H̃ + µ(−1). Hence from (6.7) follows (6.12). On the other
side, from (6.12) follows the interconnection relations

H̃(x, n + 1)(Eq + f (x, n)) = (Eq + f (x, n))H̃(x, n),

H̃(x, n)(Eq + g(x, n)) = (Eq + g(x, n))H̃(x, n + 1), (6.24)

from which one deduces a sequence of solutions of (6.12) satisfying

φn+1 (x) = (Eq + f (x, n))φn (x),

−µ̃(n − 1)φn−1 (x) = (Eq + g(x, n − 1))φn (x), n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (6.25)

On the other side from (6.20) (with n = 0) and (6.21) (with n = −1) follows
that ỹ0 = 1 is a solution of (6.8) with n = 0. Hence from (6.9) and (6.10)
follows that ρ̃(x) is a solution of (6.12) with n = 0. Hence from (6.25) follows
(6.14) and consequently (6.15). To obtain the remaining relation which is
the second equality in (6.16), one needs only consider (6.13) (with n = 0)
and the first relation in (6.14) (with n = 0).
(ii) To obtain (6.17) and then obviously (6.18), one needs to use intercon-
nection relations for H similar to the ones in (6.24) for H̃.
(iii) This is a direct consequence of the fact that if µ(−1) = 0 then H̃ = H.

Note that if the polynomials ỹn (x) satisfy (6.15), then their normalized
monic forms Pn = ỹn (x)/̺(n) where

̺(n + 1)/̺(n) = c1 (n) (6.26)

q-Difference equations and orthogonal polynomials 79

satisfies

Pn+1 + a2n Pn−1 = (x − bn )Pn (6.27)

where
µ(n − 1)
a2n = ; bn = −c2 (n)/c1 (n). (6.28)
c1 (n)c1 (n − 1)

6.1.2 The hypergeometric q-difference equation

Consider the hypergeometric q-difference equation

[σ(x)Dq−1 Dq + τ (x)Dq ]yn (x) = λn yn (x), (6.29)

where σ(x) = σ0 x2 + σ1 x + σ2 , τ (x) = τ0 x + τ1 , τ0 6= 0. This equation may

be written as in (6.2):

[a(x)Eq + b(x) + c(x)Eq−1 ]yn (x) = θ(x)λ(n)yn (x) (6.30)

with

a(x) = (σ0 + (1 − 1/q)τ0 )x + σ1 + (1 − 1/q)τ1 + σ2 /x;

c(x) = q(σ0 x + σ1 + σ2 /x); b(x) = −(a(x) + c(x));
θ(x) = (1 − 1/q)x. (6.31)

Theorem 6.1.2 The operator

H(x, n) = Eq2 + (b(qx) − λ(n)θ(qx))Eq + d(qx), (6.32)

d(x) = a(x/q)c(x), admits a factorization of the type (6.7) with

f (x, n) = −σ2 /x − 1/2(−τ1 − qc0 (n) + τ1 q + qσ1 + q 2 σ1 )/q − (−τ0

+q 2 σ0 + qσ0 + τ0 q + λ(n)q − λ(n + 1))x/(1 + q);
g(x, n) = −σ2 /x − 1/2(−τ1 − qc0 (n) + τ1 q + qσ1 + q 2 σ1 )/q − c0 (n)
+(−(−τ0 + q 2 σ0 + qσ0 + τ0 q + λ(n)q − λ(n + 1))/(1 + q)
−λ(n + 1) + λ(n))x; (6.33)

µ(n) = 1/4(−q 6 σ12 + 2τ12 q 2 − 8q 4 σ2 σ0 + 4q 3 σ2 τ0 + c20 (n)q 4 − q 2 σ12

+c20 (n)q 2 + 2τ1 qσ1 − 4τ1 q 3 σ1 − τ12 − τ12 q 4 + 2q 4 σ12 + 2c20 (n)q 3
+4q 2 σ2 λ(n) + 4q 2 σ2 τ0 − 4qτ0 σ2 + 4q 2 σ0 σ2 + 4q 2 λ(n + 1)σ2 − 4q 4 σ2 τ0
−4q 4 σ2 λ(n + 1) − 4q 4 λ(n)σ2 + 2τ1 q 5 σ1 + 4q 6 σ2 σ0 )/(q 2(1 + q)2) (6.34)
80The factorization method for the transformation of q-difference equations

where

c0 (n) = (−2τ1 q 4 σ0 + q 3 σ1 λ(n) + q 3 σ1 λ(n + 1) + 2τ1 q 3 σ0 + q 2 λ(n)τ1

+2τ1 q 2 σ0 + τ1 q 2 λ(n + 1) + 2τ1 q 2 τ0 − qλ(n + 1)σ1 − 2qλ(n + 1)τ1
−2τ1 qλ(n) − qσ1 λ(n) − 4τ1 qτ0 − 2τ1 qσ0 + λ(n + 1)τ1
+τ1 λ(n) + 2τ1 τ0 )/(q(1 + q)(λ(n + 1) − λ(n))) (6.35)

and

λ(n) = ((1 − q)q −n + q 2 σ0 /k)(q nqσ0 + q n τ0 q − kq − q n τ0 + k)(q − 1)−2(6.36)

,

where k is a free parameter.

Proof. The proof of the theorem consists in direct computations.

We will note that the functions f and g satisfy the condition (6.13).
(6.36) can equivalently be written as

q 2 σ0 qσ0
λ(n) = −[1 − tq −n ][ −( + τ0 )t−1 q n ], (6.37)
q−1 q−1

where t = qq−1
2 σ k. Note finally that all the functions of the variable n (f, g, µ)
0
are explicit functions in λ(n) and λ(n + 1) but implicit in n.
Next, let f , g, µ and λ be given in the theorem 6.1.2. We have the following

Corollary 6.1.1 (a) Type (6.8) equation admits a sequence of polynomial

solutions satisfying type (6.14) and (6.15)-(6.16) relations.
(b) For t 6= 1, we have µ(−1) 6= 0 and λ(0) 6= 0. However equation (6.30)
admits a sequence of eigenfunctions satisfying type (6.17) and (6.18) rela-
tions where µ(n) = µ̃(n + r) = µ̃(n) + µ(−1), t = q r , that is r-associated
relations to the ones in (a).
(c) For t ; 1, we obtain µ(−1) = λ(0) = 0, µ(n) = µ̃(n), H = H̃, £̃ = −£
and the cases (a) and (b) become identical.

Example 1. The q-Hahn case.

In the q-Hahn case, we have

a(x) = α(x − 1)(xβq − q −N )/(x);

b(x) = (x2 − xq −N − xαq + q −N +1 α)/x (6.38)
q-Difference equations and orthogonal polynomials 81

and the formulas for f (x, n), g(x, n), µ(n), λ(n) for the factorization are ob-
tained from the ones above by substituting

σ0 = 1/q; σ1 = −(q −N + qα)/q; σ2 = q −N α; τ0 = (αβq 2 − 1)/(q − 1);

τ1 = −(αβq 2 + q −N +1 α − q −N − qα)/(q − 1). (6.39)

Example 2. The q-Big Jacobi case.

In the q-Big Jacobi case, we have

a(x) = aq(x − 1)(bx − c)/x;

b(x) = (x − aq)(x − cq)/x (6.40)

and the formulas for f (x, n), g(x, n), µ(n), λ(n) for the factorization are ob-
tained from the ones above by substituting

σ0 = 1/q; σ1 = −(a + c); σ2 = aqc; τ0 = (aq 2 b − 1)/(q − 1);

τ1 = (q(a + c) − aq 2 (b + c))/(q − 1). (6.41)

The data above for the q-Hahn and q-Big Jacobi cases are clearly identical
up to the correspondence: a = α, b = β, c = q −1−N .

6.1.3 The Askey-Wilson second order q-difference equation

case.
Consider now the Askey-Wilson second order q-difference equation (the
equation can also be written using the derivative in (1.5) (see e.g. [14])):

Lyn (x) = [a(x)Eq − [a(x) + b(x)] + b(x)Eq−1]yn (x) = λ(n)θ(x)yn (x) (6.42)

where
a−2 x−2 +a−1 x−1 +a0 +a1 x+a2 x2 a2 x−2 +a1 x−1 +a0 +a−1 x+a−2 x2
a(x) = qx−x−1 ; b(x) = x−qx−1
a−2 = 1; a−1 = −(a + b + c + d); a0 = ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd
a1 = −(abc + abd + bcd + acd); a2 = abcd; θ(x) = x − x−1 . (6.43)

The operator

H(x, n) = Eq2 + (b(qx) − λ(n)θ(qx))Eq + d(qx), (6.44)

82The factorization method for the transformation of q-difference equations

d(x) = a(x/q)c(x), admits a factorization as the one in (6.7), with

f−2 x−2 +f−1 x−1 +f0 +f1 x+f2 x2

f (x; n) = qx−x−1 ;
(f−2 −β−1 )x−2 +(f−1 −β0 )x−1 +f0 +(f1 +β0 q)x+(f2 +β1 q)x2
g(x; n) = qx−x−1
; (6.45)

where

λ(n)−qλ(n+1) 2 +qa
f−2 (n) = q 2 −1
− q+a 2
; f (n) = λ(n)q−λ(n+1)
q 2 +q 2 1−q 2
q 2 − q q+1 2
;
λ(n)q−λ(n+1) 2
β0 (n) 1−q
= (λ(n)−λ(n+1))q 3 {(2 1−q 2
q + λ(n+1)−λ(n)
1−q q2;
2
−2 q 1+q
+qa2
)(a1 + qa−1 ) + (2a1 q 2 + 2a2 a−1 q)};
λ(n+1)−λ(n)
β−1 = 1−q ; β1 = qβ−1 ;
f−1 (n) = β02(n) − a1 +qA
2q
−1
; f1 (n) = − qβ02(n) − a1 +qa
2
−1
;
1 2 3 2 2
f0 (n) = q+q 2 {q − q − a0 (q + q ) + a2 (q − 1) + q (λ(n) + λ(n + 1))};
(6.46)

while

µ(n) = a0 + a1 a−1 q −1 + a0 a2 q −2 + f0 (n)β−1(n) + f−1 (n)β0(n)

2
−2f−2 (n)f0(n) − f−1 (n), (6.47)

and

λ(n) = −(1 − tq −n )(1 − abcdt−1 q n−1). (6.48)

Here also, as one can verify, for t = 1, we have µ(−1) = λ(0) = 0 (and
f (x/q, −1) = −c(x); g(x, −1) = −a(x)), and the corresponding polynomials
in (6.15)-(6.16) are of classical type. Taking t = q −r , we obtain Laguerre-
Hahn polynomials r-associated to classical polynomials. Otherwise (if such
an exponential expression is not allowed for t), the corresponding polynomi-
als are Laguerre-Hahn ones, not necessary r-associated to classical polyno-
mials.
It is worth noting that these results are surely characteristic for the ”clas-
sical” polynomials since they are valid not only for the q-hypergeometric
and the Askey-Wilson second order q-difference equations but also for the
difference hypergeometric ones (see [15]).
q-Difference equations and orthogonal polynomials 83

6.2 The factorization method for the transforma-

tion of q-difference equations
6.2.1 The general theory
Consider the general second-order q-difference operator

H(x) = u(x)Eq + v(x) + w(x)Eq−1 . (6.49)

Suppose next that it is ”bispectral” in the sense that it admits two sequences
of distinct systems of eigenelements say (λn , yn ) and (γn , zn ):

Hyn (x) = λn yn (x)

Hzn (x) = γn zn (x), n = 0, 1, . . . . (6.50)

In that case, one can use one of the two eigenelements , say for example
(γn , zn ), to transform H into another solvable operator H̃ in the following
manner. Factorize H and define H̃ as follows,

H − γ m = Lm R m
H̃ − γm = Rm Lm , m = 0, 1, . . . . (6.51)

where

Rm = 1 + f (x, m)Eq−1 Lm = u(x)Eq + g(x, m)

zm (x)
f (x, m) = − zm (x/q) g(x, m) = −w(x) zm (x/q)
zm (x) . (6.52)

It follows from (6.51) that the functions ỹn (x, m), m, n = 0, 1, . . . defined by

[u(x)Eq + g(x, m)]ỹ0 (x, m) = 0,

ỹn (x, m) = [1 + f (x, m)Eq−1 ]yn−1 (x), m = 0, 1, . . . , n = 1, 2 . . . ,(6.53)

are eigenfunctions of H̃(x, m) corresponding to the eigenvalues γm , λn , for

m = 0, 1, . . .,n = 0, 1, . . . respectively. We will refer here to H and yn as the
transformable operator and functions respectively, zn as the transformation
functions and finally H̃ and ỹn as the transformed operator and functions
respectively. The point here is that if
yn (x) zn (x)
yn (x/q) 6= zn (x/q) (6.54)
84The factorization method for the transformation of q-difference equations

so, for a fixed m, the transformed functions ỹn (x, m), n = 0, 1, . . . are non-
trivial solutions of the transformed operator H̃. Moreover under some ad-
ditional conditions, the transformed functions ỹn admit most of the math-
ematical properties of the transformable yn , such as polynomial character,
difference eigenvalue equations, closure and orthogonality, difference and re-
currence relations, duality, transformability property [12]:

Difference equations
Clearly, the functions ỹn (x, m) satisfy the eigenvalue equation
H̃(x, m)ỹ0 (x, m) = γm ỹ0 (x, m)
H̃(x, m)ỹn (x, m) = λn−1 ỹn (x, m), n = 1, 2, . . . (6.55)
for
H̃(x, m) = u(x)Eq + ṽ(x, m) + w̃(x, m)Eq−1 (6.56)
where
ṽ(x, m) = g(x, m) + f (x, m)u(x/q) + γm
= v(x) + f (x, m)u(x/q) − u(x)f (qx, m)
w̃(x, m) = f (x, m)g(x/q, m) = w(x) g(x/q,m)
g(x,m) . (6.57)

Orthogonality, closure
Consider the functions ρ(x) and ρ̃(x) defined by
ρ2 (qx) u(x) u(x)
ρ2 (x) = qf (qx,m)g(qx,m) = qw(qx) ;
ρ̃2 (qx,m) u(x) u(x)g(qx,m)
ρ̃2 (x,m) = qf (qx,m)g(x,m) = qw(qx)g(x,m) ; (6.58)

Interesting relations exist between ρ(x), ρ̃(x, m) and ỹ0 (x, m). One has
ρ̃2 (x, m) = ρ2 (x)g(x, m);
1
ỹ0 (x, m) = 1 1
ρ2 (x)g(x,m)zm (x)(xq − 2 −xq 2 )
1
= 1 1 (6.59)
ρ̃2 (x,m)zm (x)(xq − 2 −xq 2 )

Next, as it is easily seen, the similarity reductions ρHρ−1 and ρ̃H̃ ρ̃−1 send
H and H̃ respectively, in their formal symmetric form , that is like
qc(qx)Eq + b(x) + c(x)Eq−1 (6.60)
q-Difference equations and orthogonal polynomials 85

or

a(x)Eq + b(x) + q −1 a(x/q)Eq−1 . (6.61)

Denote by ℓ2 (q β , q α ; ρ2 ) the linear space of q-discrete functions

ψ(x), x = q β , q β−1 , . . . , q α ; α, β ∈ Z ∪ {−∞, ∞} (6.62)

in which is defined a discrete-weighted inner product

R qα
(ψ, φ)ρ2 = (1 − q) qβ
ψ(x)φ(x)ρ2 (x)dh x =
Pβ−1
α q i ψ(q i )φ(q i )ρ2(q i ) (6.63)

The similar space for ρ̃2 will be denoted by ℓ̃2 (q β̃ , q α̃ ; ρ̃2 ). Moreover, one
easily verifies, using the q-summation by parts, that for ψ and φ satisfying
boundary constraints
β
u(xq −1 )̺(xq −1)[ψ(x)φ(xq −1 ) − ψ(xq −1 )φ(x)]|qqα = 0 (6.64)

for ̺2 equals ρ2 and ρ̃2 respectively, we have

(Hψ, φ)ρ2 = (ψ, Hφ)ρ2 ; (H̃ψ, φ)ρ̃2 = (ψ, H̃φ)ρ̃2 . (6.65)

Also, for ψ and φ satisfying

β
u(xq −1 )ρ(xq −1 )φ(x)ψ(xq −1 )|qqα
=0 (6.66)

we have

(φ, Rm ψ)ρ̃2 = (Lm φ, ψ)ρ2 . (6.67)

The following theorem defers the properties of orthogonality and closure of

{ỹn }n≥0 in ℓ̃2 (q β̃ , q α̃ ; ρ̃2 ) to these of {yn }n≥0 in ℓ2 (q β , q α ; ρ2 ).

Theorem 6.2.1 If (6.66) is satisfied for ψ = yj and φ = ỹi , i, j = 0, 1, . . .

then
(i) From the orthogonality of {yn }n≥0 in ℓ2 (q β , q α ; ρ2 ) follows that of {ỹn }n≥0
in ℓ̃2 (q β̃ , q α̃ ; ρ̃2 )
(i) From the completeness of {yn }n≥0 in ℓ2 (q β , q α ; ρ2 ) follows that of {ỹn }n≥0
in ℓ̃2 (q β̃ , q α̃ ; ρ̃2 )
86The factorization method for the transformation of q-difference equations

Proof. (i) In (6.67) take φ = Rm yi and ψ = yj . We obtain (Rm yi , Rm yj )ρ̃2 =

(Lm Rm yi , yj )ρ2 = (γm − λj )(yi , yj )ρ2 = 0. Hence ỹi+1 = Rm yi ⊥ ỹj+1 =
Rm yj , i, j = 0, 1, . . .. Taking φ = ỹ0 and ψ = yj , we have (ỹ0 , Rm )yj )ρ̃2 =
(Lm ỹ0 , yj )ρ2 = 0, j = 1, . . . (since Lm ỹ0 =def 0). Hence ỹ0 ⊥ ỹj , j = 0, 1 . . ..
In sum ỹi ⊥ ỹj , i, j = 0, 1 . . ..
(ii) Suppose that exists a certain y such that y ⊥ ỹj ,  = 1, . . .. Take φ = y
and ψ = ỹj . We get 0 = (y, ỹj )ρ̃2 = (y, Rm yj )ρ̃2 = (Lm y, yj )ρ2 . From the
closure of {yj }j≥0 , it follows that Lm y = 0. In other words y = ỹ0 . Hence
the system {ỹn }n≥0 is closed ℓ̃2 (q β̃ , q α̃ ; ρ̃2 ) and the theorem is completely
proved.

Difference and recurrence relations

Suppose that the transformable functions satisfy the difference relations
αn yn+1 = Hn− yn
βn yn = Hn+ yn+1 , n = 0, 1, . . . (6.68)
On the other side, from (6.51), one has
ỹn+1 = Rm yn
(λn − γm )yn = Lm ỹn+1 , n = 0, 1, . . . (6.69)
A combination of (6.68) and (6.69) leads to the following three-term differ-
ence relations for ỹn , n = 1, 2, . . .
αn (λn − γm )ỹn+2 = Rm Hn− Lm ỹn+1
βn (λn+1 − γm )ỹn+1 = Rm Hn+ Lm ỹn+2 . (6.70)
Using the difference eigenvalue equation satisfied by the ỹn (see (6.55)) and
the preceding relations, one can naturally reach first order difference rela-
tions connecting ỹn , n = 1, 2, . . ..
Suppose now that the transformable functions yn satisfy a three-term recur-
rence relation
yn+1 + (bn − x)yn + a2n yn−1 = 0, (6.71)
so, using the first relation in (6.69), one shows that the transformed ỹn ,
n = 1, 2, . . ., satisfy the following five-term recurrence relation
ỹn+4 + [bn+2 + bn+1 − x − x/q]ỹn+3
+[(bn+1 − x)(bn+1 − x/q) + a2n+1 + a2n+2 ]ỹn+2
+a2n+1 [bn+1 + bn − x − x/q]ỹn+1 + a2n+1 a2n ỹn = 0. (6.72)
q-Difference equations and orthogonal polynomials 87

We remark however that the preceding relations do not include ỹ0 . If for
a2n in (6.71), one has a20 = 0, or if one suppose that y−1 = 0, so using the
second relation in (6.69), one establishes the following difference-recurrence
relations for the system of transformed functions ỹn , n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

(λn−1 − γm )(λn − γm )Lm ỹn+2

+(λn−1 − γm )(λn+1 − γm )(bn − h(x))Lm ỹn+1
+(λn+1 − γm )(λn − γm )Lm ỹn = 0. (6.73)

Duality
Suppose that the transformable functions yn (x) = yn (q s ) are also explicit
functions of n. In that case, one can consider the functions θs (n) = ỹn (q s , m)
dual to the transformed ỹn (x, m), n = 0, 1, . . . defining

θs (0) = ỹ0 (q s , m);

θs (n) = Rm yn (q s ) = yn (q s ) + f (q s , m)yn (q s−1 ), n = 1, 2, . . . (6.74)

From (6.51), one finds that the functions θs (n) satisfy the three-term recur-
rence relation

θs+1 (n) + (ṽ(q s ) − δn )θs (n) + w̃(q s )u(q s−1 )θs−1(n) = 0,

δ0 = γm , δn = λn−1 , n ≥ 1. (6.75)

If w̃(1)u(q −1) = 0, then the functions in (6.75) are up to a multiplication

by θ0 (n), polynomials in δn of degree s. If ṽ(q s ) is real for s ≥ 0 and
w̃(q s )u(q s−1 ) > 0, s > 0, so the polynomials are naturally orthogonal with
positive discrete weight (Favard theorem).

A typical example
Consider the eigenvalue equation

[a(x)Eq + b(x) + c(x)Eq−1 ]ȳn (x) = γn ȳn (x). (6.76)

where b(x) = −(a(x) + c(x)).

Consider the situation when c(x) doesn’t depend explicitly on q and a(x) =
dc(x), d, a constant (a similar reasoning should be developed considering
88The factorization method for the transformation of q-difference equations

that a(x) does not depend explicitly on q and c(x)=d a(x) ). In that case
(6.76) reads

[dc(x)Eq − (dc(x) + c(x)) + c(x)Eq−1 ]ȳn (x, q) = γn (q)ȳn (x, q). (6.77)

Substituting q by q −1 in (6.77), and performing a similarity reduction on the

obtained operator in the left hand side, one gets

[dc(x)Eq − (dc(x) + c(x)) + c(x)Eq−1 ]π(x)ȳn (x, q −1 )

= γn (1/q)π(x)ȳn (x, q −1 ). (6.78)

where

π(qx)/π(x) = 1/d. (6.79)

This means that the operator in the left hand side of (6.77) and (6.78)
is ”bispectral” with two distinct systems of eigenelements (γn (q), ȳn (x, q))
and (γn (q −1), z̄n (x, q)) where z̄n (x, q) = π(x)ȳn (x, q −1 ). Hence it can be
transformed according to the scheme studied in the first subsection. But as
one can see, if a(x) is for example a polynomial, the functions ȳn (x, q) are not
in general orthogonal (the interval of orthogonality is empty). That is why we
rewrite (6.77) and (6.78) in a more convenient form for the transformation.
For that, supposing that λn (q) 6= 0, for n > 0 (this is generally the case for
polynomial type of solutions), we define the functions yn (x, q) by
1
yn (x, q) = γn+1 (q) [dEq − (d + 1) + Eq−1 ]ȳn+1 (x, q)
n = 0, 1, . . . (6.80)

As one can verify, the functions yn (x, q) are given by

ȳn+1 (x,q)
yn (x, q) = c(x) , n = 0, 1 . . . (6.81)

and satisfy the eigenvalue equation

[u(x)Eq + v(x) + w(x)Eq−1 ]yn (x, q) = λn (q)yn (x, q). (6.82)

where

u(x) = dc(qx); v(x) = −(d + 1)c(x) − γ1 (q);

w(x) = c(x/q); λn (q) = γn+1 (q) − γ1 (q). (6.83)
q-Difference equations and orthogonal polynomials 89

In particular, if y0 (x, q) ≡ const, then v(x) = −(u(x) + w(x)). Similarly, the

functions

zn (x, q) = π(x)yn (x, q −1 ) (6.84)

satisfy the equation

[u(x)Eq + v(x) + w(x)Eq−1 ]zn (x, q) = νn (q)zn (x, q). (6.85)

where νn (q) = γn+1 (q −1 ) − γ1(q). Thus, the operator in the left hand side of
(6.82) and (6.85) is ”bispectral” and under additional boundary constraints,
the functions yn (x, q) are orthogonal with the weight
w(qx)
ρ(x) = xπ(x) . (6.86)

Hence the considerations from the first subsection can be reported here.

6.2.2 The hypergeometric q-difference equation

The transformable and transformation functions.
Applying the preceding considerations to the q-hypergeometric case,

[ā(x)Eq + b̄(x) + c̄(x)Eq−1 ]ȳn (x) = γn ȳn (x), (6.87)

with

ā(x) = [(σ0 + (1 − 1/q)τ0 )x2 + (σ1 + (1 − 1/q)τ1 )x + σ2 ]/x2 ;

c̄(x) = [q(σ0 x2 + σ1 x + σ2 )]/x2 ; b̄(x) = −(ā(x) + c̄(x)), (6.88)

one is led to the following simple ”bispectral” situation

[u(x)Eq + v(x) + w(x)Eq−1 ]yn (x, q) = λn (q)yn (x, q)

[u(x)Eq + v(x) + w(x)Eq−1 ]zn (x, q) = γn (q)zn (x, q), (6.89)

where

u(x) = −c(q 3 x − 1)/x; w(x) = −(xq − 1)/x; v(x) = −(u(x) + w(x))

(6.90)

λn = q 1−n (1 − q n )(cq 2+n − 1); γn = q 1−n (q 2+n − 1)(c − q n ) (6.91)

90The factorization method for the transformation of q-difference equations

and the functions yn (x, q) are a special case of the Little q-Jacobi pn (qx; c, q|q)
or equivalently Big q-Jacobi Pn (q 3 x; q, c, 0; q) polynomials. The transforma-
tion functions zn (x, q) being on the other side defined as in (6.79) and (6.84).
For their use in the formulas (6.70) and (6.72), we give here for the poly-
nomials yn (x, q) the difference relations (in literature, they are not given in
this form) and recurrence ones. We have

c1 (n)yn+1 (x, q) = [r(x)Eq + fn (x)]yn (x, q)

−a2n+1 c1 (n + 1)c1 (n)yn (x, q) = [r(x)Eq + gn (x)]yn+1 (x, q), (6.92)

yn+1 (x, q) + (bn − x)yn (x, q) + a2n yn−1 (x, q) = 0 (6.93)

where (Q = q n )
2 q 3 +cQ2 q 2 +Q6 c3 q 7 −c2 Q4 q 6 −c2 Q4 q 4 −q−q 5 c2 Q4 +q 4 Q2 c
c1 (n) = − cQ Q(cQ2 q 3 −1)(cQ2 q−1)
(6.94)

(Q2 c2 q 2 −Qcq 2 +cQ2 q 2 −2Qcq+c−Qc+1)Q

bn = (cQ2 q−1)(cQ2 q 3 −1)q
(6.95)

Q2 (Qc−1)(Qcq−1)(−1+Q)(−1+qQ)c
a2n = (−1+cQ2 )(cQ2 q−1)2 (−1+cQ2 q 2 )q 3
; r(x) = −c(q 3 x − 1) (6.96)

qx −1−c+Qcq 2 +Qcq 2 +Qcq 2 −q−1

fn (x) = Q − cQ2 q 3 −1 ; gn (x) = xcq 4 Q − cqQ Qq cQ2 q 3 −1 (. 6.97)
5
Note finally that the polynomials yn (x) are orthogonal on the interval [0, q − 2 ]
with respect to the weight ρ(x) given by (6.86) where w(x) is given by (6.90)
and π(x) by (6.79). As the interval of orthogonality is finite, they are also
closed in the corresponding inner product space.

The transformed functions. For a given m, the properties of the trans-

formed functions ỹn (x, m), n = 0, 1, . . . are those derived in the first sub-
section of the current section: They satisfy type (6.55) difference equations,
type (6.70), (6.72) and (6.73) difference and recurrence relations. And since
the conditions of orthogonality of the theorem (6.2.1) are satisfied, they are
5
orthogonal in the inner product space ℓ̃22 (0, q − 2 ; ρ̃2 ) where ρ̃2 is given by
the formula in (6.59). For the closure, we have that the system ỹn (x, m),
n = 0, 1, . . . is closed in the space since the unique element ỹ0 (x, m) orthog-
onal to it in its totality is not quadratically integrable.
q-Difference equations and orthogonal polynomials 91

How seem the transformed objects? Let us note that, using simple proce-
dures in Maple computation system for example, allows to evaluate explicitly
any one of them at least for no very higher m and n (as long as the software
and the computer capacities allow).
The case m = 1 illustrates the first non-classical situation for the trans-
formed objects. As only in this case, the required volume to display the
main data is admissible, we consider only this case here. The main data are
(m = 1, n = 0, 1, 2):
4
(cq−q )x−c+q (xq−1)c(xc−q 3 x−c+q)
f (x, 1) = − ((c−q 3 )x−c+q)c ; g(x, 1) = (xcq−c−xq 4 +q)x
(6.98)

ṽ(x, 1) = [(c3 q 4 − 2q 7 c2 + c2 q 2 + cq 10 − 2cq 5 + q 8 )x3 + (−c3 q 4 − c3 q 3

−qc3 + q 7 c2 + q 6 c2 + 2q 5 c2 + c2 q 4 − 2qc2 − 2cq 8 + cq 5 + 2cq 4 + q 3 c
+cq 2 − q 8 − q 6 − q 5 )x2 + (c3 q 3 + qc3 + c3 − 3c2 q 4 − c2 q 3 + qc2 + cq 5
−q 3 c − 3cq 2 + q 6 + q 3 + q 5 )x − c3 + qc2 + cq 2 − q 3 ]/
[((cq − q 4 )x − c + q)((c − q 3 )x − c + q)x] (6.99)

4 3 x−cq+q 2 )
w̃(x, 1) = − (xcq−c−xq(xc−q
+q)(x−1)(xc−q
3 x−c+q)2 x (6.100)

2 3
x−1 (xq−1)(xc−q x−c+q)
ρ̃2 (x, 1) = c1 ρ2 (x)g(x, 1) = c2 xq3 π(x) (xcq−c−xq 4 +q)
(6.101)

c3
ỹ0 (x, 1) = 1 1
ρ̃2 (x,1)π(x)y1 (x,1/q)(h(xq − 2 )−h(xq 2 ))
(xq−1)(xc−q 3 x−c+q)
= c4 (q2 x−1)(xcq−c−xq4 +q)2 (6.102)

where ci , i = 1, . . . , 4 are some constants of integration,

(−q+c)(xc−c−q 3 x+1)
ỹ1 (x, 1) = (xc−q 3 x−c+q)c (6.103)

ỹ2 (x, 1) = [q(c2 q 2 x + c − c2 q 2 − c2 x2 q − q + xc2 q 4 − xc3 q

+q 3 c2 x + cq 7 x2 − c2 q 4 x2 + c2 q 5 x + c3 q 4 x2 − c2 q 7 x2 − xc3 q 4
+x2 cq − q 5 cx − xcq − q 3 cx − xcq 4 + cq 2 + qc3 − qc2 + c2 x + xq 4
−q 4 x2 + xq + xc2 q + cq 4 x2 − c2 + cq − cq 2 x − xc)]/
[(q 3 c − 1)(xc − q 3 x − c + q)c] (6.104)
1
We will remark that if w(x) ∼ xα while x ; ∞, so ỹ0 (x, m) ∼ xm+α and
ỹn (x, m) ∼ xm+n−1 , n = 1, 2, . . . (in our particular case, α = 0 and m = 1).
92 Exercises

6.3 Exercises
1. Using the corresponding difference and three term recurrence relations,
write down the first five polynomials for the q-Hahn, q-Big Jacobi and Askey-
Wilson cases (use a computer algebra system).

2. Find a special case of the Askey-Wilson second order q-difference equa-

tion that can be transformable following the factorization method given in
section 6.2.

3. Find the interconnection between the factorization method given in sec-

tion 6.2 and that given in [29].

4. Use (4.124) and (4.126) to find the weights and the intervals of orthog-
onality of the q-Hahn, q-Big Jacobi and Askey-Wilson polynomials.
Chapter 7

q-Difference linear control

systems

7.1 Introduction
Linear control systems theory consists in study of controllability of linear
systems, that is a set of well defined interconnected objects which interac-
tions can be modeled by mathematically linear systems of divided difference
functional equations. Thus a divided difference linear control system can be
modeled as

(Dy)(x(s)) = A(x(s))y(x(s + 12 )) + B(x(s))u(x(s)) (7.1)

where y is a k-vector, A a k.k matrix, B, a k.m matrix, and u, a m-vector.

The divided difference derivative and the variable x = x(s), s ∈ Z+ , are
given the section 1.1. The vector y stands for the state variable of the sys-
tem, describing the state of the system at a given time s, while u stands for
the input or the external force constraining the system that is the resulting
trajectory to adopt a predetermined behavior. Thus, u controls the system
from which one says of controlled systems. The matrices A and B are in-
trinsic characterization or description of the system. In (7.1), the state of
the system is described by k variables and the external forces act with m
inputs.
When x = x(s) = x0 , or x = x(s) = s (7.1) is an usual differential [16]

y ′ (x) = A(x)y(x) + B(x)u(x), (7.2)

93
94 Controllability

or difference[26]
y(x + 1) = A(x)y(x) + B(x)u(x). (7.3)
linear control system. In this book, we are concerned with the case when
x = x(s) = q s . In this case, (7.1) is a q-difference linear control system that
one can write:
Dq y(x) = A(x)y(qx) + B(x)u(x). (7.4)
Clearly, the differentiation between (7.2), (7.3), and (7.4) resides in how
varies the time s and how vary the independent variable x at the time
s. However, the idea acting behind the controllability concept remains the
same: How to choose the input u so that to bring the state of the system
from a given position to a predetermined second one.
In practice, it is often difficult even impossible to determine the state of a
system its self because it is generally characterized by very numerous vari-
ables. Instead, one observes the out put of the system z(x), characterized
by a small number of variables. For example, to inquire of the health of his
patient, the doctor collect some indicator data such as the blood pressure,
the color of eyes, and so on. Hence, a mathematical model more suitable
than (7.4) for the study of the systems controllability reads
Dq y(x) = A(x)y(qx) + B(x)u(x)
z(x) = C(x)y(x). (7.5)
with c, a r.k matrix and z, a r-vector. In the subsequent sections, we will
study the controllability and observability and the interconnection between
these concepts and that of mutually prime polynomials.

7.2 Controllability
There are many versions of definition of the concept of controllability in
mathematical control theory: The controllability of the state, controllability
of the output, controllability at the origin, complete controllability and so
on. The following definition that we adopt in this book, consists in the
complete controllability of the state system.
Definition 7.2.1 The system (7.5) is said to be completely controllable (c.c.)
if for any given value of x = x0 = q s0 , and any initial value of y = y0 =
y(x0 ), and any final value of y = yf , there exists a finite value x = x1 = q s1 ,
and a control u(x), x0 ≤ x ≤ x1 such that y(x1 ) = yf .
q-Difference linear control systems 95

According to (3.23), the solution of (7.5) reads

Rx
y(x) = Φ(x, x0 )[y0 + x0 Φ(x0 , t)B(t)u(t)dq t] (7.6)

Hence, the system is c.c. if for any q-discrete value x0 = q s0 and any values
y0 and yf , there exists a finite q-discrete value x1 = q s1 and a q-discrete
function u(x), x0 ≤ x ≤ x1 , such that
R x1
yf = y(x1 ) = Φ(x1 , x0 )[y0 + x0 Φ(x0 , t)B(t)u(t)dq t] (7.7)

Example. Is the scalar system

Dq y(x) = ay(qx) + bu(x)

z(x) = cy(x). (7.8)

c.c.?

Solution : The solution of the first order linear non homogenous q-

difference equation reads (as the system is of constant coefficients, one can
take x0 = 0)
Rx −at
y(x) = eax
q [ t=0 eq −1 bu(t)dq t]
P∞ −aq i x
= eax
q [(1 − q)x
i
i=0 eq −1 bu(q x)] . (7.9)

and clearly for any yf there exists finite x1 and a control u(x) such that

−aq i x1
= e−ax
P∞
i=0 eq −1 u(q i x1 ) q −1
1
yf /[b(1 − q)x1 ] . (7.10)

Such a function can be defined for example as

0, x 6= x1
u(x) = { (7.11)
yf /[b(1 − q)x1 ], x = x1 .

As we shall see in the subsequent sections, even higher order linear q-

difference equations are always c.c.
However, it is not difficult to imagine an example of non c.c. system. The
classical one is similar to the following:
96 Controllability

Example.

Dq y1 (x) = a11 y1 (qx) + a12 y2 (qx) + u(x)

Dq y2 (x) = a22 y2 (qx). (7.12)

This system is not c.c. since y2 (x) = const.eqa−1

22 x
and consequently u(x) has
not any control on y2 (x).

Suppose next that the q-State transition matrix transfers y(x0 ) in yf =

y(x1 ). In this case we have
R x1
y(x1 ) = Φ(x1 , x0 )[y0 + x0 Φ(x0 , t)B(t)u(t)dq t] (7.13)
R x1
⇔ 0 = Φ(x1 , x0 )[y0 − Φ(x0 , x1 )yf + x0 Φ(x0 , t)B(t)u(t)dq t] (7.14)

This means that at the same interval of time, the state y0 − Φ(x0 , x1 )yf is
transferred to 0. As y0 is arbitrary, one can always suppose that yf = 0.
Consider next the case when the matrices A, B and C are constant:

Dq y(x) = Ay(qx) + Bu(x)

z(x) = Cy(x). (7.15)

In this case, we get a simple but powerful criterion of c.c:

Theorem 7.2.1 The system (7.15) is c.c. iff the controllability matrix

U (A, B) = [B, AB, . . . , Ak−1 B] (7.16)

is of rank = k.

Proof. Necessity. Suppose the contrary, i.e. rankU < k. It follows that
there exists a k-dimensional row vector p 6= 0 such that

pB = 0, pAB = 0, . . . , . . . , pAk−1 B = 0 (7.17)

−At
Let (7.6) be the solution of (7.15) with Φ(x, t) = eAt
q eq −1 . As the system is
constant, we can take x0 = 0. However, the system being c.c., there exists
x1 :
R x1
0 = y(x1 ) = Φ(x1 , 0)[y0 + 0 Φ(0, t)B(t)u(t)dq t]
R x1
−At
= eAx
q [y0 + 0 eq−1 B(t)u(t)dq t]
y0 + 0x1 eq−At
R
⇔0= −1 B(t)u(t)dq t. (7.18)
q-Difference linear control systems 97

On the other side e−At

q −1
(by the Cayley-Hamilton theorem) can be expressed
as r(A), where r(λ) is a polynomial of degree ≤ k − 1. Hence e−Ax q −1
Bu(t) =
k−1 k−1
(r0 I + r1 A + . . . + rk−1 A )Bu(t) = (r0 B + r1 AB + . . . + rk−1 A B)u(t).
And consequently
R x1
0 = y0 + 0 (r0 I + r1 A + . . . + rk−1 Ak−1 )Bu(t)dq t (7.19)
Multiplying both side of the equality by p and considering (7.17), one obtains
py0 = 0 which implies that p = 0, since y0 is arbitrary, contradicting the
fact that rank U < k.
Sufficiency. Suppose now that rankU = k and show that the system is c.c.
Consider again the equation
R x1
y(x1 ) = Φ(x1 , 0)[y0 + 0 Φ(0, t)B(t)u(t)dq t] (7.20)
R x1
⇔ eq−1 −Ax1 y(x1 ) = y0 + 0 r(A)Bu(t)dq t (7.21)
k−1
R x1
= y0 + Bs0 + ABs1 + . . . + A Bsk−1 ; si = x0 ri udq t (7.22)
As rankU = k, there exists a solution s = [s0 , . . . , sk−1 ] of the system
U s = −y0 ⇔ y(x1 ) = 0, and the theorem is completely proved.

In [8], in an appendix section, is given a simple Maple Procedure [47]

that allows to detect the controllability of any type (7.15) system using the
preceding c.c. criterion. This procedure removes clearly any suspicion that
one may cast on the non calculability character of the criterion for large
matrices. The procedure is tested on the following examples:

1.
Dq y1 (x) = −2y1 (qx) + y2 (qx) + u2 (x)
Dq y2 (x) = −2y2 (qx) + y3 (qx)
Dq y3 (x) = −2y3 (qx) + 3u1 (x)
Dq y4 (x) = −5y4 (qx) + y5 (qx)
Dq y5 (x) = −5y5 (qx) + 2u1 (x) + u2 (x) (7.23)
which is found to be c.c. and

2.
Dq y1 (x) = y1 (qx) + 2y2 (qx) − y3 (qx)
Dq y2 (x) = y2 (qx)
Dq y3 (x) = y1 (qx) − 4y2 (qx) + 3y3 (qx) + u(x) (7.24)
98 Controllability

which is found to be non c.c.

The following controllability criterion is valid not only for constant sys-
tems but also for varying ones. Moreover it gives an explicit expression for
the control function u(x).

Theorem 7.2.2 The system (7.5) is c.c. iff the k.k symmetric matrix
R x1
U (x0 , x1 ) = x0 Φ(x0 , t)B(t)B T (t)Φ(x0 , t)T dq (t) (7.25)

is nonsingular. In the latter case, the control function is given by

u(x) = −B T (x)Φ(x0 , x)T U −1 (x0 , x1 )[y0 − Φ(x0 , x)yf ]

x0 ≤ x ≤ x1 (7.26)

and transfers y0 = y(x0 ) to yf = y(x1 ).

Proof. Necessity. By contradiction: Suppose that the system is c.c. while

the matrix U (x0 , x1 ) is singular. As U (x0 , x1 ) is symmetric, we have that
for an arbitrary k − vector α:
R x1
αT U α = x φT (t, x0 )φ(t, x0 )dq t
R x10
= x0 k φ k2 dq t ≥ 0 (7.27)

where φ(x, x0 ) = B T (x)ΦT (x0 , x)α. Thus U is positive semi-definite. It

remains to show that the inequality is rigorous. Suppose that there exists
α̂ : α̂T U α̂ = 0. In that case
R x1
x0 k φ̂ k2 dq t = 0; φ̂ = B T (x)ΦT (x0 , x)α̂ ⇔k φ̂ k= 0 ⇔ φ̂ = 0. (7.28)

As the system is c.c. let û(x) be the control that transfers y(x0 ) = α̂ in
y(x1 ) = 0. We get
R x1
α̂ = − x0 Φ(x0 , t)B(t)û(t)dq t. (7.29)

Hence

k α̂ k2
R x1
= α̂T α̂ = − x0 ûT (t)B T (t)ΦT (x0 , t)α̂dq t = 0 ⇔ α̂ = 0. (7.30)

Thus U is positive definite hence it is nonsingular.

Sufficiency. If U is nonsingular, the control in (7.26) is defined and we need
q-Difference linear control systems 99

to show that it transfers y0 = y(x0 ) to yf = y(x1 ). Loading (7.26) in (7.7)

gives
R x1
y(x1 ) = Φ(x, x0 )[y0 − ( x0 Φ(x0 , t)B(t)B T (t)ΦT (x0 , t)dq t)U −1 (x0 , x1 )(y0 − Φ(x0 , x1 )yf )]
= Φ(x, x0 )[y0 − (y0 − Φ(x0 , x1 )yf )] = yf (7.31)

and the theorem is proved.

If the system is not c.c., for some y0 and yf , there can be or not a control
u(x) that joins them. The existence of such a connection control between
two given states is given by the following

Theorem 7.2.3 If for given (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , yf ), there exists a k-vector γ
such that

U (x0 , x1 )γ = y0 − Φ(x0 , x1 )yf (7.32)

then the control u(x) = B T (x)ΦT (x0 , x)γ transfers y0 = y(x0 ) in yf = y(x1 ).

Proof. Loading u(x) in (7.7) gives

R x1
y(x1 ) = Φ(x, x0 )[y0 − ( x0 Φ(x0 , t)B(t)B T (t)ΦT (x0 , t)γ]
= Φ(x, x0 )[y0 − (y0 − Φ(x0 , x1 )yf )] = yf . (7.33)

We now analyze the impact of the transformation of coordinates on the

controllability propriety of a q-difference system. Let S be a k.k nonsingular
matrix and let

ŷ(x) = Sy(x). (7.34)

From

Dq y = A(x)y(qx) + B(x)u (7.35)

we have Dq ŷ = Dq (Sy) = SDq y = S(Ay(qx) + Bu) = SAy(qx) + SBu that

is Dq ŷ = [SAS −1 ]ŷ(qx) + [SB]u or

Dq ŷ = Âŷ(qx) + B̂u
 = SAS −1 ; B̂ = SB (7.36)

The system (7.36) is said to be algebraically equivalent to (7.35). For alge-

braically equivalent systems we have the following property
100 Controllability

Theorem 7.2.4 If Φ(x, x0 ) is the q-State transition matrix for (7.35) then
Φ̂(x, x0 ) = SΦ(x, x0 )S −1 is the one for (7.36).

Proof. We need to prove that Dq Φ̂(x, x0 ) = ÂΦ̂(qx, x0 ) provided Dq Φ(x, x0 ) =

AΦ(qx, x0 ). In other words, we need to prove that Dq [SΦ(x, x0 )S −1 ] =
[SAS −1 ]SΦ(qx, x0 )S −1 . The rhs equals SAΦ(qx, x0 )S −1 and the lhs is
[SDq Φ(x, x0 )]S −1 = SAΦ(qx, x0 )S −1 and the theorem is proved.
Important for the sequel is the invariance of controllability propriety given
by the following

Theorem 7.2.5 If the system (7.35) is c.c. then (7.36) is also c.c.

Proof. Loading the values of B̂ and Φ̂ in

R x1
Û (x0 , x1 ) = x0 Φ̂(x0 , t)B̂(t)B̂ T (t)Φ̂T (x0 , t) (7.37)

we get
R x1
Û (x0 , x1 ) = x0 SΦ(x0 , t)S −1 SB(t)B T (t)S T (S −1 )T ΦT (x0 , t)S T dq t.
(7.38)

This means that

Û (x0 , x1 ) = SU (x0 , x1 )S T . (7.39)

Hence Û (x0 , x1 ) is nonsingular iff U (x0 , x1 ) is like that, and the theorem is

proved.

7.2.1 Controllability canonical forms

Consider the following constant coefficients linear q-difference equation of
order k

Dqk−1 y(x) + a1 Dqk−1

−1 y(x) + . . . + ak−1 Dq −1 y(x) + ak y(x) = u(q
−1
x). (7.40)

By the change of dependent variables

z1 = y, z2 = Dq−1 y, . . . , zk = Dqk−1
−1 y, (7.41)

write (7.40) in the matrix form

Dq z(x) = Ĉz(qx) + du(x), (7.42)

q-Difference linear control systems 101

with
 
0 1 0 . . . 0

 0 0 1 . . . . 

Ĉ =  . . . . . . . , (7.43)
 
. . . . . . 1
 
 
−ak −ak−1 −ak−2 . . . −a1

and

z = [z1 , . . . , zk ]T , d = [0, . . . , 1]T . (7.44)

By the way, note that the matrix Ĉ has the same characteristic equation as
the equation (7.40):

λk + a1 λk−1 + . . . + ak = 0. (7.45)

Thus, the question of controllability of the scalar q-difference equation (7.40)

is reducible to that of the controllability of the linear system in canonical
form (7.42). To inquire about the controllability of (7.42), we naturally refer
to the theorem 7.2.1 and evaluate the rank of U (Ĉ, d). We have

U (Ĉ, d) = [d, Ĉd, . . . , Ĉ k−1 d] (7.46)

 
0 0 0 . 0 1
0 0 0 . 1 v1
 
 
. . . . . .
 
 
 
=
 . . . . . . ,
 (7.47)

 0 0 1 . . vk−3 

0 1 v1 . . vk−2
 
 
1 v1 v2 . . vk−1

where
j−1
X
vj = − ai+1 vj−i−1 ,
i=0
j = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1; v0 = 1. (7.48)

The matrix U (Ĉ, d) is in triangular form and clearly has rank k. Hence the
system (7.42) is completely controllable. The matrix Ĉ in (7.43) is generally
said to have a companion form and the system (7.42) with Ĉ and d given by
102 Controllability

(7.43) and (7.44) is said to be in controllability canonical form.

Thus, any q-difference linear scalar equation of the form (7.40) is equivalent
to a system in the controllable canonical form and consequently is necessary
c.c. The converse is also valid that is to say if the system

Dq y(x) = Ay(qx) + bu(x), (7.49)

with A a kxk-matrix, b a k-vector, is c.c., then it is algebraically equivalent

to a system in controllability canonical form such as (7.42). To see this,
consider the kxk controllability matrix for (7.49): U = [b, Ab, . . . , Ak−1 b]. As
the system is c.c., the matrix U is nonsingular and consequently invertible.
Let write U −1 in terms of its rows as

U −1 = [w1 , . . . , wk ]T . (7.50)

Next, consider the set wk , wk A, . . . , wk Ak−1 and show that it is linearly in-
dependent. For this suppose that for some constants a1 , . . . , ak , we have

a1 wk b + a2 wk Ab + . . . + ak wk Ak−1 b = 0. (7.51)

Since U −1 U = I, we have wk b = wk Ab = dots = wk Ak−2 b = 0 and

wk Ak−1 b = 1. Hence it follows from (7.51) that ak = 0. One may re-
peat this procedure by multiplying (7.51) by A with ak = 0 to conclude
that ak−1 = 0. Continuing this procedure, one may show that ai = 0 for
1 ≤ i ≤ k. This proves that the vectors wk , wk A, . . . , wk Ak−1 are linearly
independent. Hence the matrix

wk
 

 wk A 

 . 
P = (7.52)
 
.

 
 
 . 
wk Ak−1

is nonsingular. Next, define a change of variables for the system (7.49) by

ŷ(x) = P y(x) (7.53)

to obtain

Dq ŷ(x) = Ãŷ(qx) + b̃u(x), (7.54)

q-Difference linear control systems 103

with

à = P AP −1 , b̃ = P b. (7.55)

Clearly

b̃ = P b = (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1)T . (7.56)

Next
wk A
 

 wk A 2 

 . 
à = P AP −1
 −1
= P . (7.57)



. 

 . 
wk A k
since wk A is the second row in P , it follows that

wk AP −1 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0). (7.58)

Similarly

wk A2 P −1 = (0, 0, 1, . . . , 0) (7.59)

...

wk Ak−1 P −1 = (0, 0, . . . , 1), (7.60)

while

wk Ak P −1 = (−pk , −pk−1 , . . . , −p1 ), (7.61)

with −pk , −pk−1 , . . . , −p1 , some constants. Thus

 
0 1 0 . . . 0

 0 0 1 . . . . 

à =  . . . . . . . , (7.62)
 
. . . . . . 1
 
 
−pk −pk−1 −pk−2 . . . −p1
with the same characteristic equation as A,

λk + p1 λk−1 + . . . + pk = 0. (7.63)

The preceding leads to the following

104 Observability

Theorem 7.2.6 The system

Dq y(x) = Ay(qx) + bu(x), (7.64)

is c.c. iff it is equivalent to a kth order q-difference equation of the form

(7.40).

Another controllable canonical form is the following c.c. (due to the corol-
lary 7.4.1 below) system

Dq ŷ(x) = Ãŷ(qx) + b̃u(x), (7.65)

with

0 0 0 . . . . −pk
 

 1 0 0 . . . . −pk−1 

 0 1 0 . . . . −pk−2 
à =  (7.66)
 
. . . . . .

 
 
 0 . 0 1 0 −p2 
0 . . . 1 −p1

and

b̃ = (1, 0 . . . , 0)T . (7.67)

It is a more popular form among engineers due to its simple derivative.

7.3 Observability
The concept of observability is closed related to that of controllability. Gen-
erally speaking, a system is completely observable iff the knowledge of the
input and output suffices to determine the state of the system.

Definition 7.3.1 The system (7.5) is completely observable (c.o.) if for

any x0 , there exists a finite x1 such that the knowledge of z(x) and u(x) for
x0 ≤ x ≤ x1 suffice to determine y0 = y(x0 ).

Similarly to the theorem 7.2.2, the basic observability criterion for time
varying systems reads
q-Difference linear control systems 105

Theorem 7.3.1 The system (7.5) is c.o. iff the symmetric matrix
R x1
V (x0 , x1 ) = x0 ΦT (t, x0 )C T (t)C(t)Φ(t, x0 )dq t (7.68)

is nonsingular. In the latter case, we have

R x1
y0 = V −1 (x0 , x1 ) x0 ΦT (t, x0 )C T (t)z(t)dq t. (7.69)

Proof. Necessity. The proof is similar to the corresponding one in theorem

7.2.2.
Sufficiency. Supposing that u(x) ≡ 0 (this does’t decrease the generalities),
x0 ≤ x ≤ x1 , we have y(x) = Φ(x, x0 )y0 . Hence z(x) = C(x)y(x) =
C(x)Φ(x, x0 )y0 . Multiplying on the left by ΦT (x, x0 )C T (x), we obtain
R x1 T T
x0 Φ (t, x0 )C (t)z(t)dq t
R x1
=( x0 ΦT (t, x0 )C T (t)C(t)Φ(t, x0 )dq t)
= V (x0 , x1 )y0 . (7.70)

Thus if V (x0 , x1 ) is nonsingular, we have

R x1
y0 = V −1 (x0 , x1 ) x0 ΦT (t, x0 )C T (t)z(t)dq t. (7.71)

The controllability and observability are two concepts with distinct physi-
cally meanings but that are mathematically equivalent as shows the following
”q-duality theorem”:
Theorem 7.3.2 The system (7.5) is c.c. iff the dual system

Dq y(x) = −AT (x)y(x) + C T (x)u(x)

z(x) = B T (x)y(x) (7.72)

is c.o. and conversely.

Proof. Considering (7.5),(7.25),(7.68), and (7.72), we remark that it suffices
to prove that if Dq Φ(x, x0 ) = A(x)Φ(qx, x0 ) then Dq ΦT (x0 , x) = −AT (x)ΦT (x0 , qx).
Indeed from the theorem 3.1.5 follows that if Φ(x, x0 ) satisfies Dq Y (x) =
A(x)Y (qx) then its inverse that is Φ(x0 , x) satisfies Dq Z(x) = −Z(x)A(x).
Carrying out the transpose on both sides, one gets the required equality.

This duality allows greatly to relate most of results in controllability

and observability theories. In particular, the controllability criterion for
time constant systems given in theorem 7.2.1 leads to the following one for
observability:
106 Observability

Theorem 7.3.3 The system (7.15) is c.o. iff the observability matrix

V (A, C) = [C, CA, . . . , CAk−1 ]T (7.73)

has rank = k.

7.3.1 Observability canonical forms

Consider the system

Dq y(x) = Ay(qx) + bu(x),

z(x) = cy(x) (7.74)

with A a constant kxk matrix, b = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bk )T and c = (c1 , c2 , . . . , ck ),

and suppose that it is c.o. In subsection 7.2.1, we derived two canonical
forms of (7.49) reading as (7.42) and (7.65). By exactly parallel procedures,
we can obtain two observability canonical forms of (7.74). Both procedures
are based on the nonsingularity of the observability matrix

V = [c, cA, . . . , cAk−1 ]T . (7.75)

By the change of variables

ŷ(x) = V y(x) (7.76)

one obtains the first observability canonical form

Dq ŷ(x) = Ãŷ(qx) + b̃u(x),

z(x) = c̃ŷ(x) (7.77)

with
 
0 1 0 . . . 0

 0 0 1 . . . . 

à =  . . . . . . . , (7.78)
 
. . . . . . 1
 
 
−ak −ak−1 −ak−2 . . . −a1

and

b̃ = V b, c̃ = (1, 0, . . . , 0, 0). (7.79)

q-Difference linear control systems 107

This canonical form is c.o. due to the complete controllability of (7.65) and
the q-duality theorem.

The second observability canonical form of (7.74) reads as

Dq ŷ(x) = Ãŷ(qx) + b̃u(x),
z(x) = c̃ŷ(x) (7.80)
with
0 0 0 . . . . −pk
 

 1 0 0 . . . . −pk−1 

 0 1 0 . . . . −pk−2 
à =  (7.81)
 
. . . . . .

 
 
 0 . 0 1 0 −p2 
0 . . . 1 −p1
and
c̃ = (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1). (7.82)
This canonical form is c.o. due to the complete controllability of (7.42) and
the q-duality theorem.

7.4 Controllability and polynomials

Here we derive interesting interconnection between the concepts of controlla-
bility (similar results can be obtained for observability) and that of mutually
prime polynomials. Consider the time constant system
Dq y(x) = Ay(x) + bu(x)
z(x) = Cy(x), (7.83)
with scalar input and suppose that A is in the ”companion form”
0 0 0 . . . . −ak
 

 1 0 0 . . . . −ak−1 

 0 1 0 . . . . −ak−2 
A= . (7.84)
 


. . . . . . 

 0 . 0 1 0 −a2 
0 . . . 1 −a1
We have the following
108 Exercises

Theorem 7.4.1 The system (7.83) is c.c. iff the polynomials k(λ) = det(λI−
A) = λk + a1 λk−1 + . . . + ak and p(λ) = bk λk−1 + bk−1 λk−2 + . . . + b1 are
relatively prime.

Proof. We have that if λ1 , . . . , λk are characteristic roots of A, so p(λ1 ), . . . , p(λk )

are characteristic roots of p(A). Hence det(p(A)) = p(λ1 ) . . . p(λk ). Hence
p(A) is singular iff p(λ) and k(λ) have common roots. It remains to prove
that p(A) = U (A, b): Let ei and fi be the ith columns of I and p(A) re-
spectively. One easily verifies: f1 = [b1 , . . . , bk ] = b. Moreover ei = Aei−1 ,
i = 2, . . . , k and fi = p(A)ei . Hence fi = p(A)ei = p(A)Aei−1= Ap(A)ei−1=
Afi−1 , i = 2, . . . , k. We get fi = Ai−1 b, i = 2, . . . , k. In other words
p(A) = U (A, b), and the theorem is proved.

In the particular case when b = b̃ in (7.67), then p(λ) = 1 and it is

necessary relatively prime with k(λ). Hence consequently to the theorem
7.4.1, we have the following

Corollary 7.4.1 The system (7.65) is completely controllable.

7.5 Exercises
1. Show that the change of variables ŷ = U y(x) in (7.64), where U is its
controllability matrix, transforms it in (7.64).

2. Find a change of variable that transforms (7.74) in (7.80).

3. Derive an analog theory by considering not the system (7.5) but

Dq y(x) = A(x)y(x) + B(x)u(x)

z(x) = C(x)y(x). (7.85)

4. Show that the system

Dq y1 (x) = ay1 (x) + by2 (x)

Dq y1 (x) = cy2 (x) (7.86)

is not C.c.
q-Difference linear control systems 109

5. Discuss the c.c. of the system

Dq y1 (x) = ay1 (x) + by2 (x)

Dq y1 (x) = cy1 (x) + dy2 (x) (7.87)

6. Contemplate the system

Dq y(x) = Ay(x) + bu(x). (7.88)

with
! !
0 1 1
A= ; b= (7.89)
2 1 1

a) Is it c.c.?

b) Find the control u(x) and the time x1 , necessary to reach the state
!
−4
(7.90)
0

from
!
0
. (7.91)
0
110 Exercises
Chapter 8

q-Difference variational
calculus

In this chapter we discuss some fundamental concepts of the variational

calculus on the q-uniform lattice x(s) = q s , such as the q-Euler equations and
its applications to the isoperimetric and Lagrange problem and commutation
equations [10]. Basically, we are concerned with the extremum problem for
the following functional
Rb
J(y(x)) = a F (x, y(x), Dq y(x), . . . , Dqk y(x))dq x
Pqβ
=def (1 − q) qα xF (x, y(x), Dq y(x), . . . , Dqk y(x)) (8.1)

under the boundary constraints

y(q α ) = y(q β+1 ) = c0

Dq y(q α ) = Dq y(q β+1 ) = c1
...
Dqk−1 y(q α ) = Dqk−1 y(q β+1 ) = ck−1 (8.2)

where

a = q β+1 ≤ b = q α (8.3)

and the summation is performed by x on the set (we shall sometimes write
P β
simply qqβ or L )
P

L = {q β , q β−1 , . . . , q α+1 , q α }, 0 ≤ α < β ≤ +∞. (8.4)

111
112 Exercises

For α ; 0, β ; +∞, (8.1) and (8.2) read

R1
J(y(x)) = 0 F (x, y(x), Dq y(x), . . . , Dqk y(x))dq x
P1
=def (1 − q) k
0 xF (x, y(x), Dq y(x), . . . , Dq y(x)) (8.5)

and

Dqi y(0) = Dqi y(1), i = 0, . . . , k − 1 (8.6)

respectively. If the function F̃ (x) = F (x, y(x), Dy(x), . . . , Dk y(x)) is Riemann-

integrable on the interval [0, 1], then it is easily seen that for q ; 1, the q-
integral in eq. (8.5) and the constraints in eq. (8.6) tends to the continuous
integral
Z 1
J(y(x)) = F (x, y(x), Dy(x), . . . , Dk y(x))dx (8.7)
0

d
where Df (x) = dx f (x), and the boundary constraints

y(0) = y(1) = c0
Dy(0) = Dy(1) = c1
...
Dk−1 y(0) = Dk−1 y(1) = ck−1 (8.8)

respectively. Hence the functional in eq. (8.5) can be considered as a natural

q-version of the one in eq. (8.7).
Remark 1. By carrying out in (8.1) the linear change of variable

t(s) = a + x(s)(b − a) = a + q s (b − a) (8.9)

(a , b, finite for simplicity), we obtain a q-version of the integral obtained

from (8.7) by the linear change of variable

t = a + x(b − a), (8.10)

and both the two new integrals have now a and b as boundaries of integration.
Clearly the converse to (8.9) and (8.10) transformations are also valid. Hence
in that sense, there is no lost of generalities considering in this book integrals
of type (8.5) or (8.7) or even the little bit more general integral in (8.1).
This allows to avoid cumbersome treatments unessential in addition in the
reasoning.
q-Difference equations and variational calculus 113

8.1 The q-Euler-Lagrange equation

We consider the q-integral functional,
Pqβ
J(y(x)) = (1 − q) qα xF (x, y(x), Dq y(x), . . . , Dqk y(x)). (8.11)
Here the function F (x, y0 (x), . . . , yk (x)) is defined on A as a function of x,
together with its first partial derivatives relatively to all its arguments. Let
E be the linear space of functions y(x) (q β ≤ x ≤ q α ) in which is defined the
norm
kyk = max (max |Dqi y(x)|) (8.12)
0≤i≤k x∈L

and let E ′ be the linear manifold of functions belonging in E and satisfying to

the constraints in (8.2). We study the extremum problem for the functional
J, on the manifold E ′ . We first calculate the first variation of the functional
J on the linear manifold E ′ :
d
δJ(y(x), h(x)) = dt J(y(x) + th(x))|t=0
d Pq β
= (1 − q) dt q α [xF (x, y(x) + th(x), . . . , Dqk y(x) + tDqk h(x))]|t=0
Pqβ Pk k i
= (1 − q) qα [ i=0 [xFi (x, y(x), Dq y(x), . . . , Dq y(x))Dq h(x)] (8.13)
where
∂F
Fi = ∂yi (F = F (x, y0 , y1 , . . . , yk )), i = 0, . . . , k. (8.14)
The variation is dependent of an arbitrary function h(x). Since the variation
is performed on the linear manifold E ′ , h(x) is such that y(x)+th(x) belongs
also to the linear manifold E ′ and in particular satisfies the constraints (8.2).
A direct consequence of this is that the function h(x) satisfies the constraints:
h(q α ) = h(q β+1) = 0
Dq h(q α ) = Dq h(q β+1 ) = 0
...
Dqk−1 h(q α ) = Dqk−1 h(q β+1) = 0 (8.15)
From the relation Dq (f g)(x) = f (qx)Dq g(x) + g(x)Dq f (x), one obtains the
formula of the q-integration by parts:
Pqβ
(1 − q) qα xf (qx)Dq g(x) =
P qβ Pqβ
(1 − q) qα xDq (f g) − (1 − q) qα xg(x)Dq f (x). (8.16)
114 The q-Euler-Lagrange equation

Using (8.15), and (8.16), (8.13) gives

δJ(y(x), h(x)) =
Pqβ Pk (i−1)
iq i
(1 − q) qα x[ 0 (−1) 2 Dqi [Fi (q −i x, y(q −i x), Dq y(q −i x), . . .
. . . , Dqk y(q −i x)]]h(x) (8.17)

(Very important to distinguish Dq f (kx) which means here [Dq f ](kx) with
Dq [f (kx)] meaning Dq g(x) for g(x) = f (kx)). Next, it is necessary to note
that the boundary constraints in eq. (8.15) are equivalents to the following

h(q α+i ) = h(q β+1+i ) = 0, i = 0, 1, . . . , k − 1. (8.18)

Consequently, (8.17) gives

δJ(y(x), h(x)) =
Pqβ Pk (i−1)
iq i
(1 − q) q α+k
x[ 0 (−1) 2 Dqi [Fi (q −i x, y(q −i x), Dq y(q −i x), . . .
. . . , Dqk y(q −i x)]h(x). (8.19)

For deriving the corresponding q-Euler-Lagrange equation, we need the fol-

lowing lemma, which constitutes a q-version of what is called ”fundamental
lemma of variational calculus”.

Lemma 8.1.1 Consider the functional

I(fˆ) = (1 − q) xfˆ(x)h(x)
X
(8.20)
B

where B = {q r , q r+1 , . . . , q s }. If I(fˆ) = 0, for all h defined on B, then

fˆ(x) ≡ 0 on B.

Proof. As I(fˆ) = 0, ∀h defined on B, we have that:

q r fˆ(q r )h1 (q r )+ . . . +q s fˆ(q s )h1 (q s ) = 0

q r fˆ(q r )h2 (q r )+ . . . +q s fˆ(q s )h2 (q s ) = 0
...
q f (q )hs−r+1 (q )+ . . . +q s fˆ(q s )hs−r+1 (q s ) = 0
rˆ r r
(8.21)

for any choice of the (s − r + 1)2 numbers

aij = hi (q j+r−1 ), i, j = 1, . . . , s − r + 1. (8.22)

q-Difference equations and variational calculus 115

This is a linear homogenous system with the matrix

(aij )s−r+1
i,j=1 (8.23)

and the vector [Tj = q j+r−1 fˆ(q j+r−1 )]s−r+1

j=1 . Choosing the numbers

hi (q j+r−1 ), i, j = 1, . . . , s − r + 1 (8.24)

in such a way that the corresponding matrix in (8.23) doesn’t be singular,

(8.21) gives Tj = 0, j = 1, . . . , s − r + 1 or equivalently, fˆ(q j+r−1 ) = 0, j =
1, . . . , s − r + 1 which proves the lemma.
Next, remark that (8.19) is written under the form
P β
δJ(y(x), h(x)) = I(fˆ) = (1 − q) qqα+k xfˆ(x)h(x) (8.25)

where fˆ represents the expression within the external brackets. Hence the
necessary condition for the extremum problem (8.1)-(8.4) can be written

I(fˆ) = 0 (8.26)

and this for all h(x) defined on

B = {q r , q r+1 , . . . , q s }, r = α + k, β = s (8.27)

By the fundamental lemma of the variational q-calculus (see Lemma 8.1.1),

this leads to

fˆ(x) ≡ 0. (8.28)

Thus the necessary condition for the extremum problem (8.1)-(8.4) reads
Pk (i−1)
iq i
0 (−1) 2 Dqi [Fi (q −i x, y(q −i x), Dq y(q −i x), . . . , Dqk y(q −i x)]
= 0,
Dqi y(q α ) = Dqi y(q β+1 ) = ci , i = 0, . . . , k − 1. (8.29)

For k = 1 and k = 2, for example, we have respectively:

F0 (x, y(x), Dq y(x)) − Dq [F1 (q −1 x, y(q −1 x), Dq y(q −1 x))] = 0,

y(q α ) = y(q β+1 ) = c0 (8.30)
116 Applications

and

F0 (x, y(x), Dq y(x), Dq2 y(x))

−Dq [F1 (q −1 x, y(q −1 x), Dq y(q −1 x), Dq2 y(q −1 x))]
+qDq2 [F2 (q −2 x, y(q −2 x), Dq y(q −2 x), Dq2 y(q −2 x))] = 0,
y(q α ) = y(q β+1 ) = c0 ; Dq y(q α ) = Dq y(q β+1 ) = c1 (8.31)

Let us note that while the q-integral (8.1) tends to the continuous integral
(8.7) for q ; 1, α ; 0, β ; +∞, the q-equation in (8.29) tends to the
corresponding to (8.7) differential Euler-Lagrange equation:
Pk i i k
0 (−1) D Fi (x, y(x), Dy(x), . . . , D y(x)) = 0,
Di y(0) = Di y(1)) = ci , i = 0, . . . , k − 1. (8.32)

That is why it is convenient to call (8.29), the q-Euler-Lagrange equation

corresponding to the q-integral (8.1). The equation (8.29) is a q-difference
equation of degree 2k which is in principle solved uniquely under the 2k
boundary constraints.
Remark 2. If the functional in (8.11) is dependent of more that one variable
i.e. J = J(y1 , . . . , yn ), then the necessary extremum condition leads to type
(8.29) n q-Euler-Lagrange equations with y replaced by yi , i = 1, . . . , n.

8.2 Applications
8.2.1 On the continuous variational calculus
The direct application of the variational q-calculus is its application on the
continuous (differential) variational calculus: Instead of solving the Euler-
Lagrange equation (8.32) for finding the extremum of the functional (8.7),
it suffices to solve the q-Euler-Lagrange equation (8.29) and then pass to
the limit while q ; 1. Remark that thought this can appear at the first
glad as a contradiction (by the fact of the phenomenon of discretization),
the variational q-calculus is a generalization of the continuous variational
calculus due to the presence of the extra-parameter q (which may be physical,
economical or another) in the first and its absence in the second.

Example. Suppose it is desirable to find the extremum of the integration

functional
R1
J(y(x)) = 0 (xν y + 12 (Dy)2 )dx, ν > 0, (8.33)
q-Difference equations and variational calculus 117

under the boundary constraints y(0) = c ; y(1) = c̃. The q-version of the
problem consists in finding the extremum of the q-integration functional
P1
J(y(x)) = (1 − q) ν
0 x[x y + 12 (Dq y)2 ], ν > 0, (8.34)
under the same boundary constraints. According to (8.30), the q-Euler-
Lagrange equation of the latter problem reads:
xν − Dq [Dq y(q −1 x)] = 0 (8.35)
which solution is
2 ν+1 (1−q)2 q ν+1
y(x) = xν+2 [ (1−q(1−q) q
ν+1 )(1−q ν+2 ) ] + [y(1) − y(0) − (1−q ν+1 )(1−q ν+2 )
]x
+y(0). (8.36)
As it can be verified, for q ; 1, the function in (8.36) tends to the function
xν+2 1
y(x) = (ν+1)(ν+2) + [y(1) − y(0) − (ν+1)(ν+2) ]x + y(0), (8.37)

solution of the Euler-Lagrange equation of the functional in (8.33).

8.2.2 The q-isoperimetric problem

Suppose that it is required to find the extremum of the functional
Pqβ k
J(y(x)) = (1 − q) q α xf (x, y(x), Dq y(x), . . . , Dq y(x))
Dqi y(q α ) = Dqi y(q β+1 ) = ci , i = 0, 1, . . . , k − 1 (8.38)
under the constraints
Pβ
J˜i (y(x)) = (1 − q) qqα xf i (x, y(x), Dq y(x), . . . , Dqk y(x)) = Ci ,
i = 1, . . . , m. (8.39)
To solve this problem we needs to consider the following generalities. Let
J(y) and J˜1 (y), . . . , J˜m be some differentiable functionals on the normed
space E, or on its manifold E ′ . We have the following theorem (see for ex.
[34])
Theorem 8.2.1 If a functional J(y) attains its extremum in the point ȳ
under the additional conditions J˜i (y) = Ci , i = 1, . . . , m and ȳ is not a
stationary point for any one of the functionals J˜i (δ J˜i (ȳ, h) 6= 0, i = 1, . . . , m,
identically) while the functionals δ J˜i , (i = 1, . . . , m) are linearly independent,
then ȳ is a stationary point for the functional J − m
P ˜
i=1 λi Ji where the λi are
some constants.
118 Applications

Thus by this theorem, the necessary extremum condition for the functional
J(y) under the additional constraints J˜i (y) = Ci , i = 1, . . . , m, verifying the
conditions of the theorem (let us note that considering the formula (8.17),
a type (8.11) functional i.e. satisfying the same definition conditions, is
differentiable on E ′ ), is given by the equation (8.29) with
Pm i
F =f− i=1 λi f (8.40)
It is a q-difference equation of order 2k containing m unknown parameters.
It is in principle solved uniquely under the 2k boundary constraints and the
additional m conditions.

Example. Suppose it required to solve the problem of finding the ex-

tremum of the q-integration functional
Pqβ
J(y(x)) = (1 − q) qα x[ax2 (Dq2 y)2 + b(Dq y)2 ], a, b > 0 (8.41)
under the boundary constraints
Dqi y(q α ) = Dqi y(q β+1 ) = ci , i = 0, 1, (8.42)
and an additional condition that J1 (y(x)) = c, c some constant, where J1 is
a q-integration functional given by
Pqβ
J1 (y(x)) = (1 − q) qα x2 y. (8.43)
According to the theorem 8.2.1, the problem is equivalent to that of finding
the extremum of the q-integration functional
Pqβ
J(y(x)) = (1 − q) qα x[ax2 (Dq2 y)2 + b(Dq y)2 − λxy], (8.44)
for some constant λ, under the same boundary constraints (8.42). The cor-
responding q-Euler-Lagrange equation reads
−λx − 2bDq [Dq y(q −1 x)] + 2aq −3 Dq2 [x2 Dq2 y(q −2 x)] = 0 (8.45)
or equivalently after reduction and integration (c1 , c2 , constants of integra-
tion)
(1−q)2
y(x) − [q(q − 1)2 b/a + q + 1]y(q −1 x) + qy(q −2 x) = 2a (c1 x + c2
λx3
+ (q+1)(q 2 +q+1) ). (8.46)
This is a constant coefficients linear nonhomogeneous second-order q-difference
equation which can be solved uniquely (under the constraints (8.42)) by
methods similar to that of analogous differential or difference equations.
q-Difference equations and variational calculus 119

8.2.3 The q-Lagrange problem

Suppose now that it is required to find the extremum of the functional

J(y1 (x), . . . , yn (x))

Pqβ
= (1 − q) qα xf (x, y1 (x), . . . , yn (x), Dq y1 (x), . . . , Dq yn (x)) (8.47)

under the constraints

f i (x, y1 (x), . . . , yn (x), Dq y1 (x), . . . , Dq yn (x)) = 0, i = 1, . . . , m; m < n,

yi (q α ) = yi (q β+1) = ci , i = 1, . . . , n. (8.48)

This problem can be transformed in the q-isoperimetric one as follows:

First, multiply every ith equation in (8.48) by an arbitrary function λi (x)
defined as all the remaining on L = {q β , . . . , q α } and then apply the q-
integration on L on the result:

J˜i (y1 (x), . . . , yn (x))

Pqβ
= (1 − q) qα xλi (x)f i (x, y1 (x), . . . , yn (x), Dq y1 (x), . . . , Dq yn (x)) = 0,
i = 1, . . . , m (8.49)

The remaining question is that of knowing if the two constraints (8.48) and
(8.49) are equivalent. The answer is yes since obviously from (8.48) follows
(8.49). Finally, it is by the fundamental lemma of the variational q-calculus
(see Lemma 8.1.1) that (8.48) follows from (8.49).

Example. Suppose that the problem consists in finding the extremum of

the functional
Pqβ
J(x(t), u(t)) = 21 (1 − q) qα t[u2 (t) − x2 (t)] (8.50)

under the constraints

Dq2 x = u
x(q α ) = x(q β+1 ) = c; Dq x(q α ) = Dq x(q β+1 ) = c̃. (8.51)

The problem is equivalent to the q-Lagrange problem of finding the ex-

tremum of the functional
Pqβ
J(x(t), y(t), z(t)) = 12 (1 − q) qα t[z 2 (t) − x2 (t)] (8.52)
120 Applications

under the constraints

Dq x = y; Dq y = z
x(q α ) = x(q β+1 ) = c; y(q α ) = y(q β+1 ) = c̃. (8.53)

Hence the problem is equivalent to that of finding the extremum of the

functional
Pqβ
J(x, y, z, λ1 , λ2 ) = (1 − q) qα tF (x(t), y(t), z(t), λ1 (t), λ2 (t)) (8.54)

where

F (x(t), y(t), z(t), λ1 (t), λ2 (t))

1 2 2
= 2 (z (t) − x (t)) + λ1 (t)(Dq x(t) − y(t)) + λ2 (t)(Dq y(t) − z(t))(8.55)

under the boundary constraints

x(q α ) = x(q β+1 ) = c; y(q α ) = y(q β+1 ) = c̃. (8.56)

The corresponding q-Euler-Lagrange equations give

y(t) = Dq x(t); z(t) = λ2 (t) = Dq2 x(t); λ1 (t) = −q 2 Dq3 [x(q −1 t)], (8.57)
−x(t) + q 5 Dq4 [x(q −2 t)] = 0. (8.58)

Hence it is sufficient to solve the equation (8.58). Searching its solution as

an integer power series x(t) = ∞ n
P
0 Cn t , one is led to the following fourth
order difference equation for the coefficient cn :
1−q 1−q 1−q 1−q
Cn = q 2n−5 ( 1−q n )( 1−q n−1 )( 1−q n−2 )( 1−q n−3 )Cn−4 (8.59)

with the coefficients C0 , C1 , C2 , C3 determined by the four boundary con-

straints (8.56).The solution of (8.59) reads
n−nc
Qn 1−q Q 4
Cn = i=nc ( 1−q i ) i=1 q 2(nc+4i)−5 Cnc (8.60)

where n ≡ nc mod 4, 0 ≤ nc ≤ 3.
To obtain the four basic elements for the space of solutions of (8.58), one can
make the following four independent choices for the constants C0 , C1 , C2n, C3 :
Choosing (a) Cn = n!1
for n = 0, . . . , 3 leads to x(t) = êtq ; (b) Cn = (−1)
n! for
n
(−1) 2 [(1)n +(−1)n ]
n = 0, . . . , 3 leads to x(t) = ê−t
q ; (c) Cn = 2n! for n = 0, . . . , 3
q-Difference equations and variational calculus 121

n−1
n n
leads to x(t) = cosq t; (d) Cn = (−1) [(1) −(−1) ]
2
2n! for n = 0, . . . , 3 leads to
x(t) = sinq t.
The functions êtq , ê−t
q , cosq t and sinq t have in the integer power series, the
indicated coefficients for n = 0, . . . , 3 and the coefficients in (8.60) for n > 3.
As it can be verified, for q ; 1, these functions have as limits the functions
et , e−t , cost and sint, respectively. The latter are nothing else than a basis
of the space of solutions of a similar to (8.58) differential equation for the
corresponding continuous problem.

8.2.4 A q-version of the commutation equations

Let L = −D2 + y(x), where Df (x) = dfdx (x)
= f ′ (x), be the Schrodinger oper-
ator and let Am be a sequence of differential operators of order 2m + 1, m =
0, 1, 2, . . ., which coefficients are arbitrary differential polynomials of the po-
tential y(x). By commutation equations, one understands the equations
[L, Am ] = LAm − Am L = 0, in the coefficients of the operators. It is known
since [19, 20] that for any m, m = 0, 1, 2, . . . there exists such an operator
Am of order 2m + 1, such that the operator [L, Am ] = LAm − Am L is an
operator of multiplication by a scalar function fm (y, y ′ , y ′′ , . . .): [L, Am ] =
fm (y, y ′ , y ′′ , . . .). The corresponding commutation equations then read

[L, Am ] = fm (y, y ′ , y ′′ , . . .) = 0 (8.61)

Its non-trivial solutions are elliptic or hyperelliptic (or their degenerate cases)
functions for m = 1 and m > 1 respectively (see [19, 20]). Since years
seventies of the last century (see for ex. [24], paragr. 30), it is known that the
commutation equations (8.61) are equivalent to type (8.32) Euler-Lagrange
equations for the functionals
Z b
Jm (y(x)) = Lm (y(x), y ′ (x), . . . , y (k) (x))dx (8.62)
a

with Lm related to Am in a known way (see for ex. [24]).

If m = 1 for example, L1 (y, y ′ ) = y ′2 /2 + y 3 + c1 y 2 + c2 y, (c1 , c2 : con-
stants), and the corresponding Euler-Lagrange equation (commutation equa-
tion) reads:

y ′′ = 3y 2 + 2c1 y + c2 . (8.63)

Up to a linear transformation y → c3 y + c4 , its solution is the well known

Weierstrass function P(x).
122 Exercises

Considering now the q-functional

Pqβ
Jm (y(x)) = (1 − q) qα xLm (y(x), Dq y(x), . . . , Dqk y(x)) (8.64)

we obtain that the corresponding to type (8.29) q-Euler-Lagrange equations

are q-versions of the commutation equations (8.61). For example for m = 1,
we have L1 (y(x), Dq y(x)) = [Dq y]2 /2+y 3 +c1 y 2 +c2 y and the corresponding
q-Euler-Lagrange equation reads

3y 2 + 2c1 y + c2 − qDq2 [y(q −1 x)] = 0 (8.65)

or equivalently

y(qx) = (q + 1)y(x) + (qx − x)2 (3y 2 (x) + 2c1 y(x) + c2 ) − qy(q −1 x)(8.66)
.

Obviously, the q-Euler-Lagrange equation(8.65) (or (8.66)) tends to the

Euler-Lagrange one in (8.63), while q ; 1. A particular solution (c1 =
c2 = 0) of (8.66) is given by the function
(1+q)(1+q+q 3 )
y(x) = 3q 2 x2 , (8.67)

a q-version of the degenerate case of the Weierstrass function P(x) (solution

of (8.63)) while its periods tend to ∞. One will note that even without giving
an analytical general resolution of this equation, its solution satisfying given
boundary constraints, can be found recursively. Here is naturally the main
advantage of the analysis on lattices.

8.3 Exercises
1. Determine the extremals of the functionals
Z 1
J(y) = [(Dq y)2 − y 2 ]dq x; y(0) = 0 (8.68)
0

2. Find the extremals of the functional

Z 1
J(y) = [(Dq y)2 + x2 ]dq x (8.69)
0

under the constraints

Z 1
J(y) = y 2 dq x = 2; y(0) = y(1) = 1 (8.70)
0
q-Difference equations and variational calculus 123

3. Find the extremals of the isoperimetric problems

Z x2 Z x2
J(y) = (Dq y)2 dq x; J(y) = y 2 dq x = 0 (8.71)
x1 x1
124 Exercises
Chapter 9

q-Difference optimal control

In chapter 7, we were dealing with controllability problems, that is the prob-

lem of determining either exists a control that could transfers the trajectories
from a given sate to another predetermined one. We were fully indifferent
toward the quality of the control function. However, in many practical prob-
lems, one is interested not only by the existence of a control function but in
an optimal control function, that is that control which among others consti-
tutes the extremum element for a given functional.

9.1 The q-optimal control problem

Suppose that it is given a k-dimensional q-controlled system
Dq z(x) = f˜0 (x, z(x), u(x))
z(q α ) = z(q β ) = C (9.1)
and the q-functional of the form
P β
˜
J(z(x), u(x)) = (1 − q) qqα xf˜(x, z(x), u(x)) (9.2)
The optimal control problem consists in that among all admissible con-
trol functions u(x), find that for which the corresponding solution of the
q-boundary problem (9.1) is an extremum for the functional in (9.2). Thus
following the q-Lagrange problem, our extremum problem consists in finding
the extremum of the functional under the constraints below (remark that as
there is no any derivative of u(x), no boundary constraints for it are needed):
P β
ˆ
J(y(x), u(x)) = (1 − q) qqα x{f˜(x, z, u) − λ(x)[f˜0 (x, z, u) − Dq z]},

125
126 The q-optimal control problem

z(q α ) = z(q β ) = C (9.3)

According to (8.30), the corresponding q-Euler-Lagrange system reads

(f˜z − λ(x)f˜z0 ) − Dq [λ(q −1 x)] = 0

f˜u − λ(x)f˜0 = 0
u (9.4)

Combining (9.4) with the first eq. in (9.1), we conclude that the solution of
the problem satisfies the system:

Dq z = +Hλ
Dq [λ(q −1 x)] = −Hz
0 = Hu (9.5)

where

H(x, z, λ, u) = −f˜(x, z, u) + λ(x)f˜0 (x, z, u) (9.6)

Seen the similarities of the problem posed and the formula obtained (eqs.(9.5)-
(9.6)), with their analogs in the continuous optimal control, one can say that
we were dealing with a q-version of one of the version of the ”maximum prin-
ciple” [50]. Hence we can refer to H in (9.6) as the q-Hamilton-Pontriaguine
function, (9.5) as the q-Hamilton-Pontriaguine system. Recall that the ref-
erence to L S Pontriaguine is linked to the ”maximum principle” in [50], the
one to Hamilton is linked to the fact that in the case of pure calculus of
variation (the control function and system are not present explicitly), the
Hamilton and Hamilton-Pontriaguine systems are equivalent (see the follow-
ing subsection for the q-situation).

Example. (q − Linear − quadraticproblem) Suppose that the problem is

that of finding a control function u(x) such that the corresponding solution
of the controlled system

Dq y = −ay(x) + u(x), a > 0 (9.7)

satisfying the boundary conditions y(q α ) = y(q β+1 ) = c, is an extremum

element for the q-integral functional (q-quadratic cost functional)
Pqβ
J(y(x), u(x) = 21 (1 − q) qα x(y 2 (x) + u2 (x)). (9.8)
q-Difference optimal control 127

According to (9.5) and (9.6), the solution of the problem satisfies

D q y = Hλ
Dq [λ(q −1 x)] = −Hy
Hu = 0, (9.9)
where
1
H(y, λ, u) = − (y 2 + u2 ) + (−ay + u)λ(x). (9.10)
2
(9.9) and (9.10) give
Dq y = −ay + u
Dq λ(x) = qy(qx) + aqλ(qx)
λ = u. (9.11)
In term of y(x), this system can be simplified in the following
Dq2 y(x) + aDq y(x) = (a2 + 1)qy(qx) + aqDq y(qx). (9.12)
Searching the solution of (9.12) under the form of an integer power series
P∞
y(x) = 0 cn xn (9.13)
one is led to a variable coefficient linear homogenous second-order difference
equation for cn :
(1−q) 2
cn = a(q − 1)cn−1 + q(a2 + 1) (1−qn−1 c
)(1−q n ) n−2
. (9.14)
This difference equation can naturally be solved recursively starting from
the initial data c0 and c1 .
However, even without solving it, we can search for what give the corre-
sponding function in (9.13), in the the limiting case when q ; 1. In (9.14),
a2 +1
for q ; 1, the factor of cn−1 give zero, while that of cn−2 give n(n−1) . Hence
for q ; 1, (9.14) give
a2 +1
cn = n(n−1) cn−2 ; n = 2, . . . . (9.15)
α β+1
Choosing c0 and c1 (this
√ equivalent to that
√ choosing y(q ) and y(q ) )
2 2
as c0 = 1 and c1 = a + 1 or c1 = − a + 1, (9.15) give as solutions
n n
2 2
cn = (a +1) n (a +1)
2 2
n! √or cn = (−1) n! and the corresponding power series give
√
y(x) = exp( a + 1x) or y(x) = exp(− a2 + 1x) respectively. As it can be
2

verified, the latter are the solutions for y(x) in the corresponding continuous
problem.
128Interconnection between the variational q-calculus, the q-optimal control and the q-Hamilton system

9.2 Interconnection between the variational q-calculus,

the q-optimal control and the q-Hamilton sys-
tem
Here, we have the following

Theorem 9.2.1 For the simplest functional

Pqβ
J(y(x)) = (1 − q) q α xF (y(x), Dq y(x)),
y(q α ) = y(q β+1 ) = c0 (9.16)

the q-Euler-Lagrange equation, the q-Hamilton-Pontriaguine and the q-Hamilton

systems are equivalent.

Proof. We show this in three steps:

a)We first show how to obtain the q-Hamilton system from the q-Euler-
Lagrange equation. For the functional in (9.16), the q-Euler-Lagrange equa-
tion reads

F0 (y(x), Dq y(x)) − Dq [F1 (y(q −1 x), Dq y(q −1 x))] = 0. (9.17)

Letting

λ(x) = F1 (y(x), Dq y(x)), (9.18)

and

H = −F + λ(x)Dq y, (9.19)

then we get from (9.17),(9.18) and (9.19) the q-Hamilton system

Dq y = +Hλ (y(x), λ, Dq y)
Dq [λ(q −1 x)] = −Hy (y(x), λ, Dq y) (9.20)

b) To get the q-Hamilton-Pontriaguine system from q-Hamilton system (9.20),

it suffices to suppose u(x) = Dq y(x) to be the control q-equation for the given
initial non controlled extremum problem. In that case, (9.20) gives

Dq y = +Hλ (y(x), λ, u(x))

Dq [λ(q −1 x)] = −Hy (y(x), λ, u(x)) (9.21)
q-Difference optimal control 129

with

H(y(x), λ(x), u(x)) = −F (y(x), u(x)) + λ(x)u(x), (9.22)

the q-Hamilton-Pontriaguine function, and from (9.18) we get the third equa-
tion in (9.5):

Hu = 0. (9.23)

c) We finally show how to obtain the q-Euler-Lagrange equation (9.17) from

the q-Hamilton-Pontriaguine system (9.21), (9.22) and (9.23). From (9.22)
and (9.23), we have

λ(x) = F1 (y(x), u(x)) = F1 (y(x), Dq y(x)), (9.24)

while from (9.21) we get

Dq [λ(q −1 x)] = F0 (y(x), u(x)) = F0 (y(x), Dq y(x)). (9.25)

Finally, (9.24) and (9.25) give the q-Euler-Lagrange equation (9.17), which
proves the theorem.

9.3 Energy q-optimal control

Consider again the linear control system (7.5). In theorem 7.2.2 it was shown
that under the condition of the theorem, the control function (7.26) transfers
y =0 to y =f in time x0 ≤ x ≤ x1 . It is interesting to note that in fact that
control is optimal in the sense that it minimizes the integral
R x1 R x1
x0 k u(t) k2 dq t = x0 (u21 + . . . + u2m )dq t, (9.26)

seen as a measure of ”control” energy involved.

Theorem 9.3.1 If ũ(x) is another control transferring y = y0 = y(x0 ) to

y = yf = y(x1 ) then
R x1 R x1
x0 k ũ k2 > x0 k u k2 dq t, (9.27)

provided ũ 6= u
130 Exercises

Proof. We have
R x1
y(x1 ) = Φ(x, x0 )[y0 + x Φ(x0 , x)B(t)u(t)] (9.28)
R x01
y(x1 ) = Φ(x, x0 )[y0 + x0 Φ(x0 , x)B(t)ũ(t)] (9.29)

Subtracting members by members:

R x1
0= x0 Φ(x0 , t)B(t)[ũ(t) − u(t)] (9.30)

Multiplying on the left by [y0 − Φ(x0 , x1 )yf ]T [U −1 (x0 , x1 )]T and use the
transpose of (7.26):
R x1
0= x0 y0 − Φ(x0 , x1 )yf ]T [U −1 (x0 , x1 )]T Φ(x0 , t)B(t)[ũ(t) − u(t)]dq t
R x1
⇔0= x0 uT [ũ(t) − u(t)]dq t (9.31)

We have next xx01 k ũ(t) − u(t) k2 dq t = xx01 (ũ(t) − u(t))T (ũ(t) − u(t))dq t
R R

= − x1 ũT (ũ(t) −Ru(t))dq t = xx01 kR ũ k2 dq t − xx01 k u k2 dq t. Hence

R R R
R x1 x0 2 x1 2 x1 2
x0 k ũ k dq t = x0 k u k dq t + x0 k ũ − u k dq t, which proves the
theorem.

9.4 Exercises
1. Given the example in section 8.2.1, write down and solve the equivalent
Hamilton and Hamilton-Pontriaguine systems.

2. Given the example in section 9.1, write down and solve the equivalent
q-Euler-Lagrange equation and Hamilton system.

3. Given the system

Dq x = v
Dq v = u (9.32)

describing the moving of a point in the plan x, v. Determine the control

function u(t) such that a point A(x0 , v0 ) reaches the position B(0, 0) in the
smallest time under the condition |u| ≤ 1.
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