ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

ENG 204
ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II

LECTURE NOTES
ON
ACADEMIC WRITING

PREPARED BY CAN GÜR

GAZİ UNIVERSITY
ANKARA, 2020

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

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CONTENTS
CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................... 3
I. WHAT IS AN ESSAY? ................................................................................................ 4
II. PARTS OF AN ESSAY .............................................................................................. 7
A. TITLE.......................................................................................................................... 7
B. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 8
1. Background information ................................................................................................. 8
2. Thesis Statement ............................................................................................................ 9
C. BODY ....................................................................................................................... 13
D. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................. 15
1. Brief Summary .............................................................................................................. 15
2. Comment ....................................................................................................................... 15
III. UNITY AND COHERENCE IN AN ESSAY .................................................................17
A. UNITY ....................................................................................................................... 17
B. COHERENCE .............................................................................................................. 18
IV. PROCESS OF WRITING A SHORT ESSAY ...............................................................20
V. OUTLINING AN ESSAY ............................................................................................21
VI. METHODS OF ORGANIZATION IN AN ESSAY .........................................................27
A. LOGICAL DIVISION OF IDEAS/ CLASSIFICATION ................................................................. 27
1 - Comparison Essay ....................................................................................................... 36
2 - Contrast Essay ........................................................................................................... 42
3 - Comparison-and-Contrast Essay ................................................................................. 50
C. CAUSE-EFFECT .......................................................................................................... 56
1- Focus on Cause Essay.................................................................................................. 56
2 - Focus on Effect Essay .................................................................................................. 58
D. PROCESS/ CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER .............................................................................. 67
Process Essay ................................................................................................................... 68
E. DESCRIPTION ............................................................................................................. 74
Description Essay ............................................................................................................. 74
F. ARGUMENTATIVE (PERSUASIVE) ESSAY............................................................................ 80
1. Parts of the Argumentative Essay ................................................................................ 80
2. Possible Overall Outlines for the Argumentative Essay ................................................ 83
Sample Argumentative Essay ........................................................................................... 84
G. OTHER USEFUL LANGUAGE STRUCTURES........................................................................ 92
VII. WRITING A DOCUMENTED ESSAY......................................................................100
A. WHAT IS A TERM PAPER (A DOCUMENTED ESSAY)?......................................................... 100
B. THE PROCEDURE OF WRITING A TERM PAPER (OR A DOCUMENTED ESSAY) .......................... 100
1. Understanding The Question ...................................................................................... 100
2. Organizing The Answer (Essay Structure) .................................................................. 100
3. Writing The Term Paper .............................................................................................. 101
C. DOCUMENTATION ..................................................................................................... 105
1. Borrowing Ideas.......................................................................................................... 106
2. Citation ....................................................................................................................... 111
3. In-text and End-text Referencing (Using Four Kinds of Sources) ............................... 112
APPENDIX SAMPLE TERM PAPER ................................................................................... 119
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................124

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I. What Is An Essay?
An essay is a group of paragraphs written about a single topic and a central main idea.
It must have at least three paragraphs, but a short (five-paragraph) essay is a common
assignment for academic writing.
Writing an essay is not more difficult than writing a paragraph since there are many
similar principles of organization between a paragraph and an essay. Therefore, if you are
able to write a well-organized paragraph, you are likely to expand it into a well-organized
essay. The following chart shows how this can be done:

Part PARAGRAPH SHORT ESSAY

*General statement and
background information
Introduction Topic sentence Introductory paragraph about the topic
*Thesis statement
Body paragraph 1 *Topic sentence 1
*Major support 1
Minor support 1
Major Support 1 Minor support 2
Minor Support 1 *Major support 2
Minor Support 2 Minor support 1
Minor support 2
*Concluding sentence
(not always necessary)
Body paragraph 2 *Topic sentence 2
*Major support 1
Minor support 1
Body Major Support 2 Minor support 2
Minor Support 1 *Major support 2
Minor Support 2 Minor support 1
Minor support 2
*Concluding sentence
(not always necessary)
Body paragraph 3 *Topic sentence 3
*Major support 1
Minor support 1
Major Support 3 Minor support 2
Minor Support 1 *Major support 2
Minor Support 2 Minor support 1
Minor support 2
*Concluding sentence
(not always necessary)
* Brief Summary/
Restatement of thesis
Conclusion Concluding Concluding paragraph * Comment (suggestion
Sentence prediction, solution etc.)

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Exercise 1
Read and make an outline of the following model paragraph and model essay. Then
compare your analyses to see how a paragraph can be expanded into a short essay by using
organizational similarities between them.

Sample Paragraph

Pollution which is one of the biggest problems facing the world today has many effects on
human life. First of all, pollution is bad for people's health. For example, smog, caused by car's
exhaust fumes and factory emissions, can lead to lung diseases in humans. Also, food and water
can be polluted by poisonous chemicals, and this can cause cancer in the people who consume
them. Another effect of pollution is the destruction of human habitat. Thus, an oil spill can make
an area where people previously lived uninhabitable. Another example is the nuclear disaster in
Fukushima, Japan, which made it impossible for people to live in a large area around the site of
the explosion. Finally, pollution can also have a negative effect on people's psychology. People
who live in a clean, unspoiled landscape like the Swiss Alps will tend to be more positively
affected by their environment than people who live in a polluted, rubbish-strewn city such as
London. To sum up, pollution has many negative effects on the lives of humans.

Analysis of the sample paragraph

Topic sentence:

Major idea 1:

Major idea 2:

Major idea 3:

Concluding sentence:

Sample Essay
Pollution is one of the biggest problems facing the world today. There are many different
types of pollution, such as air, water, and soil pollution, and these are caused by many different
factors, such as exhaust fumes, oil spills and radiation leaks. However, they all have one thing in
common: their effects on human beings. There are various effects of pollution on human life, but
the most important effects of pollution are on human's health, habitat and psychology.
The first and most important effect of pollution is on human health. There are many ways
in which pollution affects human health and the first of these is smog. Smog occurs in big cities
and industrial areas, and is caused by car exhaust fumes and/or factory emissions. People who
live and work in areas with a lot of smog have to breathe it in, and, over a longer period of time,
this can cause lung diseases such as asthma. Another example is the pollution of food and water
by poisonous chemicals, often as a result of overuse of fertilizers or waste spillages. People who
consume food or water that has been contaminated in this way can become seriously ill, either in
the short or in the longer term.

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Apart from negative effects on health, pollution can also lead to the destruction of human
habitats. Firstly, repeated oil spills in the Niger delta on the coast of Nigeria have made the
lives of the previous inhabitants of that area (mostly farmers and fishermen) almost impossible,
and forced many of them to move somewhere else in search of new livelihoods. Another example
is the recent nuclear disaster in Fukushima, which led the Japanese government to evacuate an
area in a 20 kilometer radius around the site of the original explosion. The flight of people from
areas that have been contaminated in this way can lead to increased demographic pressures and
competition for resources in the location where they eventually end up settling, and thus has a
wider impact on the society of the country where the disaster occurred.
Another negative effect of pollution is on people's psychology. Living in a clean, unspoilt
environment like the Swiss Alps or the Argentinian Pampa will tend to affect people more
positively than waking up every morning to a polluted, noisy, rubbish-strewn city such as London,
Buenos Aires or Istanbul. This impact on people's psychology can lead to serious mental
problems, such as depression. With a majority of the world's population living in big cities like
these, pollution ends up affecting the mental health of most of the people on this planet.
In conclusion, pollution affects human beings negatively in terms of health, habitat and
psychology. If people want to improve the lives of future generations, they need to work hard to
lower the overall amount of pollution in the world.

Analysis of the sample essay

Thesis statement:

Body 1 – Main Idea:

Major idea 1:

Major idea 2:

Body 2 – Main Idea:

Major idea 1:

Major idea 2:

Body 3 – Main Idea:

Major idea 1:

Major idea 2:

Concluding sentence:

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II. Parts of an Essay

A short essay has four main parts: title, introduction, body, and conclusion.

A. Title
A title summarizes the main idea of an essay. The writing of a title is an important
task in that it should both attract the reader's attention and reflect the controlling
ideas of the written piece.
Titles should be clear, concise, and precise. The title is a phrase, not a sentence, and
all extra words should be excluded. Center the title on top of the first page. Either capitalize
all letters in the title or capitalize the first letter of the words (small words such as “in”, “of”,
“a” need not be capitalized).
Example:
BLUE ROUTES OF TURKEY (all letters capitalized)
Blue Routes of Turkey (the first letter of the important words capitalized)
Exercise 2
Read the following essay carefully and write a suitable title for it.

…………………………………………………..

The heat engine is certainly one of the most important devices that man ever invented. In its
simplest meaning, the heat engine is a device that transforms heat energy into other forms of
energy, such as mechanical and electrical energy. A great majority of the engines used today lie
under this definition, and this gives us a quick glimpse of the importance of the heat engine. An
observation of the contributions that the heat engine made in the fields of industry,
transportation, and the production of electricity gives us a deeper and more detailed look at the
importance of the heat engine.
The heat engine had a great role in the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century.
Scientists developed machines, based on heat engines, that could increase the amount of goods
produced, and, at the same time, decrease the amount of time and money consumed. The
manufactured goods became affordable to almost anyone, and they were not a luxury anymore.
After the introduction of the heat engine in the industrial field, the concept of mass production
was first realized, and industry flourished as never before.
Through history man has always tried to invent efficient means of transportation. However,
it was not until the invention of the heat engine that this became possible. A new era replaced
the old era of animal-powered transportation, an era whose characteristics were speed and
comfort. The train was the first means of transportation that used the heat engine, and it
introduced new horizons of long-distance traveling. However, it was another machine that
replaced the horse as a personal means of transportation. It was called the car, and it also used
the heat engine. The achievements of the car in a few decades erased centuries of horse
transportation.
Scientists realized the importance of electricity since the day it was discovered.
Unfortunately, electricity was not available in nature for direct use. Scientists had to come up
with ways of producing it. Here again, the heat engine was used to produce mechanical energy,
which in turn can produce electricity. Today, many power-producing stations all over the world
still use heat engines. They use coal or fuel oil to evaporate water; then the steam is used to
turn a turbine which can produce electricity.

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In conclusion, heat engines proved to be one of the most important inventions. It is enough to
observe the importance of the industry, transportation, and electricity in our lives to know the
importance of heat engines. Although the engines used today are quite different from the early
ones, the same concept of changing heat into other kinds of energy is still used.

B. Introduction
The first paragraph of the essay is called “the introductory paragraph”, which
consists of two parts: background information and thesis statement.

Background information
Thesis statement

1. Background information

a) introduce the topic of the essay

b) background information about the topic

The first sentence in an introductory paragraph should attract the reader’s attention.
It can be a general statement, a question, a proverb, a quotation, an example, an experience,
an anecdote, and an opinion of an authority etc. as long as it is logically linked to the topic
and the rest of the introductory paragraph. The subsequent sentences provide background
information about the topic. Each subsequent sentence should become more specific than
the previous one and finally lead into the thesis statement.

Exercise 3
Read the following introductory paragraph and underline the coherence devices
(keywords, synonyms, pronouns, transition words) that connect the subsequent sentences
to each other.

In Xland*, getting accepted to the university someone wants requires a difficult and
serious preparation period because he has to take a long difficult exam in which he is competing
with more than two million people. Although such a huge number of people are taking the exam,
only four hundred thousand of them can be admitted to a university. It means that preparing for
this exam involves a number of important steps that he must be careful about.

* Xland is an imaginary country.

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Exercise 4
The sentences in the following introductory paragraphs are in scrambled order. Put
the sentences in the correct order: from general to specific.

Paragraph 1

(1) In some cultures people bow, and in others, they shake hands. (2) In English-speaking
countries, shaking hands is the custom. (3) A proper handshake has four ingredients:
pressure, pumps, eye contact, and verbal message. (4) The way people greet each other
when they meet for the first time varies from culture to culture.

Correct order is: _____________________

Paragraph 2

(1) However, in others, the nuclear family is the norm, with only the parents and young
children sharing the same house. (2) People in different cultures all over the world have
different systems for family life. (3) In most cultures, people live in extended families, in
which several generations share the same house. (4) If this new system becomes
widespread, it could have enormous effects on American society. (5) On the positive side,
living together might reduce the divorce rate in the United States; on the negative side, it
might lead to eventual disintegration of the traditional family unit altogether. (6) In the
United States, some couples are experimenting with still another system of family: living
together without marriage.

Correct order is: _____________________

2. Thesis Statement
Thesis statement is the most important and the strongest sentence in an essay. It
states the main idea of the whole essay, and it is usually placed at the end of the
introductory paragraph. Furthermore, the thesis statement:

a) often lists the controlling ideas of topic or subtopics,

Example
Prejudice arises from three basic causes: childhood conditioning, ignorance and fear.

b) may be a statement of intent indicating the method of organization of the whole essay,
Example
This essay will show how corn is planted and why this method of planting is successful.
In this essay, the writer is expected to explain the controlling ideas using a “process”
method in the first body paragraph, and “focus on cause” method in the second body
paragraph.

c) may be a statement of opinion that the writer will explain and prove in the body
paragraphs of the essay.
Example
Public transport should be free of charge in big cities.

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d) must not be a simple statement of fact that requires no elaboration since a simple
statement of fact has no possibilities for development.
Example
In the Northern Hemisphere, the summer months are warmer than the winter months.
(not acceptable)
This essay will explain why the summer months are warmer than the winter months in the
Northern Hemisphere. (acceptable)

e) will probably not be expressed as a question because a question contains no attitude or

opinion. The answer to the question can be the thesis statement.
Example
What are the main causes of traffic accidents? (not acceptable)
There are three main causes of traffic accidents: driver’s faults, mechanical failures of
cars, and road structure. (acceptable)

EXERCISES ON THESIS STATEMENT

Exercise 5
Read these thesis statements below. Put a tick () for the strong thesis statements
and a cross (X) for the weak thesis statements. Give your reasons.
1. _____ The top government official in my country is the Prime Minister.
Your reason: _________________________________________________________________________

2. _____ To be a successful student, good study habits are more important than intelligence.
Your reason: _________________________________________________________________________

3. _____ India became an independent country in 1947.

Your reason: _________________________________________________________________________

4. _____ Being the oldest son has more disadvantages than advantages.
Your reason: _________________________________________________________________________

5. _____ What are the major problems of the industrialized countries?

Your reason: _________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 6
Study these thesis statements below. Which method of organization [ comparison,
contrast, cause-effect, process/chronological, classification/logical division, description] does
each one indicate?

1. Beginning in World War II and continuing through the period of economic boom, the
status of women in *Xland has changed remarkably. (*Xland is an imaginary country)
Method of organization: ___________________________________________________________

2. Although the status of women in Xland has improved remarkably in recent years, it is
still very low when compared to the status of women in the industrial countries.
Method of organization: ___________________________________________________________

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3. Researchers have uncovered several causes of mental retardation, most of which are
preventable.
Method of organization: ___________________________________________________________

4. Although the view that the father should provide for the family and the mother take care
of children’s physical and emotional needs has not changed much, there are some
remarkable differences between traditional and modern family.
Method of organization: ___________________________________________________________

Exercise 7
In the following thesis statements both the method of organization [ comparison,
contrast, cause-effect, process/chronological, classification/logical division, description ] and
the controlling ideas of topic or subtopics are indicated. Each controlling idea will itself
become the topic of a body paragraph in the essay. Fill in the blanks answering these
questions. How many paragraphs will the body of each essay probably contain? What are
the topics of each body paragraphs? What are the methods of organization?

1. The status of women in Xland has changed remarkably in recent years due to increased
educational opportunities and changes in the country’s laws.

Minimum number of body paragraphs: ____________________________________________

Subtopics (controlling ideas): _____________________________________________________
Method of organization: ___________________________________________________________

2. The status of women in Xland has improved remarkably in recent years in the areas of
economic independence, political rights, educational opportunities, and social status.
Minimum number of body paragraphs: ____________________________________________
Subtopics (controlling ideas): _____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Method of organization: ___________________________________________________________

3. A helicopter and an airplane are very different from each other in terms of their shape
and design, their speed, and their direction of takeoff and flight.
Minimum number of body paragraphs: ____________________________________________
Subtopics (controlling ideas): _____________________________________________________
Method of organization: ___________________________________________________________

4. There are two main reasons why the students decide to attend Gazi University: financial
consideration and quality of education.
Minimum number of body paragraphs: ____________________________________________
Subtopics (controlling ideas): _____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Method of organization: ___________________________________________________________

5. The heat engine made great contributions in the fields of industry, transportation, and
the production of electricity.
Minimum number of body paragraphs: ____________________________________________
Subtopics (controlling ideas): _____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Method of organization: ___________________________________________________________

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Exercise 8
Analyze the following thesis statements. Underline the main topic, double underline
the subtopics, and circle around the words or punctuation marks that are used to
introduce the subtopics.
Example
Capital punishment should be abolished not only because it deprives another person of
life but also it does not stop crime.

1. Women generally live longer than men for two main reasons: they tend to take better
care of their health, and they have better resistance to stress.

2. Drug and alcohol abuse among teenagers can be traced to the following causes: lack of
parental supervision, lax (not strict) enforcement of drug laws, and the social and
psychological problems of teenagers themselves.

3. In choosing a major, a student has to consider various factors, such as personal interest,
job opportunities, and the availability of training institutions.

4. An architect should be both an artist and an engineer.

Exercise 9
Complete the following thesis statements by adding subtopics to them. If you use
correlative conjunctions (both … and / not only … but also / neither … nor) be sure your
structures are parallel.
1. A computer is necessary for college students for three reasons: ______________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
2. International students have a difficult time taking notes in class due to ______________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Successful students have the following qualities: ___________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________

4. My two sisters are as different as day and night not only ____________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________

5. To survive a major disaster such as an earthquake requires _________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________

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Sample introductory paragraph

The heat engine is certainly one of the most important devices that man ever invented. In its
simplest meaning, the heat engine is a device that transforms heat energy into other forms of
energy, such as mechanical and electrical energy. A great majority of the engines used today lie
under this definition, and this gives us a quick glimpse of the importance of the heat engine. An
observation of the contributions that the heat engine made in the fields of industry,
transportation, and the production of electricity gives us a deeper and more detailed look at the
importance of the heat engine.

EXERCISES ON INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH

Exercise 10
Study each of the following introductory paragraphs and answer the following
questions. In the blank provided put a tick () if your answer is “yes” and put a cross (X) if
your answer is “no”, and give your reasons.
a. Does the paragraph introduce the topic?
b. Does it contain a thesis statement?
c. Does the paragraph have coherence?
d. Does the paragraph indicate the method of organization of the whole essay?

1. African survivals in American culture have diminished markedly over the past one
hundred years, but some are still existent and are interwoven into the cultural pattern
of America and the Western Hemisphere itself. These are reflected in the words we
speak, the songs we sing, and the foods we consume.
a. _____ b. _____ c. _____ d. _____

2. Turkey has long been very popular with tourists. In 2011, the country welcomed 31.4
million international tourists, making it the 6th most popular tourist destination in the
world, behind only France, the US, China, Spain and Italy. This year, these numbers
will probably increase further. There are a number of reasons to explain why Turkey is
such a popular destination.
a. _____ b. _____ c. _____ d. _____

C. Body

The main body consists of two or more paragraphs. Each body paragraph develops a
subdivision of the topic. Therefore, the first sentence of a body paragraph is always indented
so that the reader will know that a new subtopic – or a different aspect of the same subject-
is being dealt with.
A body paragraph is a group of related sentences about a particular topic or idea
directly relating to the thesis. Because essays are composed of multiple body paragraphs,
writing and organizing good paragraphs is one of the most important aspects of creating a

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well-organized and developed essay. The following are important aspects of all body
paragraphs:
* A clear topic sentence
* Major and minor ideas
* Unity
* Coherence
A topic sentence generally appears at the beginning of a body paragraph (often the
first or second sentence) and controls the paragraph. A topic sentence is like a mini thesis
sentence for each paragraph and serves to unify the contents of the paragraph. Everything
that follows in the paragraph needs to relate to the topic sentence, which is necessary for
the paragraph unity. Not all essays call for explicit topic sentences, but most beginning
writers should learn how to write effective topic sentences at the beginning in order to
achieve paragraph unity.
No matter what type of essay is being written, all body paragraphs need to be fully
developed and provide supporting (major and minor) ideas. This can come in the form of
examples, details, facts, statistics, and/or quotes from an expert. When writing an essay that
requires the use of research and outside sources, this information should be used to
support the topic sentence.
All body paragraphs should also provide smooth transitions. These transitions need to
occur within the individual sentences of a paragraph and from one paragraph to the next.
Transitions in English are sometimes called coherence devices. The list below indicates
how these devices are usually used:

1. Introductory (transition) words: (most common; notice comma) – they have

meaning by themselves.

E.g. John is a liberal. In contrast, Bill is a socialist.

The front of the house needs painting. Similarly, the back needs painting.

2. Subordinate Conjunctions: (note sentence structure)* - they do not have meaning

by themselves.

E.g. They have to wear warm clothes since it is winter now.

Although the pay is low, she will never change her job.

3. Coordinate Conjunctions: (note sentence structure)* - they have meaning by

themselves.

E.g. Maria likes pizza, and Jose does too.

They are going to the mountains, so they are taking warm clothing.

4. Listing signals: In academic writing, a list of supporting ideas is usually not

indicated with numerals, but the items are indicated by listing signals (e.g. First(ly),
Second(ly), Then, Finally, ...etc.). They may be used with an enumerator (e.g. first kind,
second reason, ...etc.) since it helps us show the reader exactly what we are listing or
enumerating.

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Model body paragraph

The heat engine had a great role in the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century.
Scientists developed machines, based on heat engines, that could increase the amount of goods
produced, and, at the same time, decrease the amount of time and money consumed. The
manufactured goods became affordable to almost anyone, and they were not a luxury anymore.
After the introduction of the heat engine in the industrial field, the concept of mass production
was first realized, and industry flourished as never before.

D. Conclusion
The final paragraph in an essay is the conclusion, which tells the reader that the essay is
completed. It consists of two parts: brief summary and comment.

Brief Summary
Comment

1. Brief Summary
This part begins with an expression signaling conclusion such as “In short”, “In
conclusion”, etc. Then the main points discussed in the body paragraphs of the essay are
briefly summarized (usually in one sentence), or the thesis statement is rewritten in different
words.
2. Comment

In this part, the final comment, such as suggestion, prediction, warning, solution,
calling to action, making an analogy, discussing the results is added. This is an opportunity
to make a strong, effective message that the reader will remember.

Problems in conclusions
1. Too much summary: If the essay is short (500 words), the reader will probably
remember most of the main points. It is necessary only to refer to these points briefly. Of
course, in a very long essay, or in a term paper, more summary will be necessary.
2. Any completely new idea: If a new idea occurs in the conclusion, the reader may expect
clarification and proof of the idea. Therefore, it is not wise to include a completely new idea
in the conclusion.

Sample concluding paragraph

In conclusion, heat engines proved to be one of the most important inventions. It is

enough to observe the importance of the industry, transportation, and electricity in our lives to
know the importance of heat engines. Although the engines used today are quite different from
the early ones, the same concept of changing heat into other kinds of energy is still used.
(making an analogy)

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Exercise 11 Match each of these thesis statements with its restated (rewritten) version for
a conclusion.
(Introduction) Thesis statement (Conclusion)Restatement of thesis

a) ____ Supermarkets are the best places to 1. People can learn many things by
buy food because of their convenience and traveling to other countries.
lower prices.

b) ____ Traveling abroad is valuable 2. Despite the challenges, being an

learning experience. entrepreneur can offer more benefits than
other types of employment.

c) ____ Learning to play a musical 3. The fact that larger grocery stores offer
instrument is very beneficial for children. cheap prices and a large selection of
products makes them the best place for
shoppers.

d) ____ Creating and owning a business 4. The World Wide Web gives access to a
offers more advantages than working as an huge amount of knowledge, but users
employee in a company. shouldn’t believe everything they read
there.

e) ____More houses should be adapted to 5. When children are exposed to music

use solar energy because it is clean and and are taught to play instruments such
renewable. as the piano and violin, there are many
positive effects.

f) ____ The World Wide Web can be very 6. The sun gives a constant, free supply of
useful for research, but it also contains a clean energy, which more homes should
lot of incorrect information. take advantage of.

Exercise 12
Study each of the following outlines and their concluding paragraphs then answer the
following questions. In the blank provided put a tick () if your answer is “yes” and put a
cross (X) if your answer is “no”, and give your reasons.
a. Is there a brief summary of the main topics in the body paragraphs of the essay?
b. Is there a final comment about the essay’s main idea?
Outline 1

Thesis statement: Communicating in a foreign language can create some embarrassing

misunderstandings.
Body #1 Misunderstanding words can lead to real embarrassment.
Body #2 Misunderstanding what someone says to you can create amusing problems.
Body #3 Misusing vocabulary items can really make you blush.
Conclusion: Everyone who speaks a foreign language is bound to have misunderstandings
from time to time. What you need is to go to the laboratory as often as you can to improve
your language skills. The people there are very nice and they will help you with your
grammar and pronunciation.
a. _____ b. _____

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Outline 2

Thesis statement: The reasons for coming to State University center around the services
it provides.
Body #1 State offers a superior program in my major.
Body #2 In addition, the university has high quality academic resources.
Body #3 State offers quality student services.
Body #4 Recreational activities make State even better.
Body #5 The reasonable tuition makes State a wise choice.
Conclusion: The challenge of a diversified and excellent program, the academic resource,
the student services, the recreational activities, and low tuition are the reasons most
students decided to come to State University. It sounds like a wise decision. The students
who are looking for a quality education at a reasonable price should consider state as the
place to enroll.
a. _____ b. _____
Sample Introduction and Conclusion

The heat engine is certainly one of the most important devices that man ever invented.
In its simplest meaning, the heat engine is a device that transforms heat energy into other
forms of energy, such as mechanical and electrical energy. A great majority of the engines used
today lie under this definition, and this gives us a quick glimpse of the importance of the heat
engine. An observation of the contributions that the heat engine made in the fields of industry,
transportation, and the production of electricity gives us a deeper and more detailed look at the
importance of the heat engine.
*****************
In conclusion, heat engines proved to be one of the most important inventions. It is enough
to observe the importance of the industry, transportation, and electricity in our lives to know
the importance of heat engines. Although the engines used today are quite different from the
early ones, the same concept of changing heat into other kinds of energy is still used.

III. Unity and Coherence in an Essay

A. Unity

In academic essays, the thesis statement is directly related to the topic sentences in the
body paragraphs. Each topic sentence relates to and deals with one or more of the
controlling ideas in the thesis. Each set of supporting sentences that follows a topic
sentence relates directly to that topic sentence. In this way, the essay will be unified and
complete. The following is a sample of paragraph relationships.

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B. Coherence
Transitions are important not only within paragraphs but also between paragraphs.
In an essay, it is necessary to show the relationship between the first and second
paragraph; between the second and third paragraph, and so on. The smooth flow of ideas
may be achieved by using one or more of the following:
1. transition words
2. transition phrases
3. transition sentences

These transition devices generally have very little specific meaning in English, but they
indicate the relationship of one idea to another. Sometimes transition sentences are used to
show the relationship between the paragraphs. Transitions (also called connectors/
connectives) in English, have different grammatical uses. Please refer to the useful language
structures to get comprehensive information on transitional words and phrases for linking
ideas.

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Example

Aggressive Drivers

Thesis Statement: Aggressive drivers react foolishly toward others in several

dangerous ways.

Body Paragraph 1
One way an angry driver may react is to cut off another motorist. (+ Major and minor
supporting sentences) _____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________.

Body Paragraph 2
Another way is to tailgate the other car. (+ Major and minor supporting sentences)
_____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________.

Body Paragraph 3
In addition to cutting off and tailgating other cars, aggressive drivers often use rude
language or gestures to show their anger. (+ Major and minor supporting sentences)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________.

To conclude, aggressive drivers are endangering everyone because they create

hazardous conditions by acting and driving foolishly. They should control their anger and learn to
drive safely. After all, the lives they save could be their own.

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IV. Process of Writing a Short Essay

Use of time

1. Think – 15 minutes (1/4)

2. Write – 30 minutes (2/4)
3. Edit – 15 minutes (1/4)

1-Think - 15’

-narrow your subject to the topic

-gather information (brainstorm)
* clustering, treeing, flow-chart, table, and listing
-choose the most important/interesting ideas
-organize the chosen ones
-make an outline (see outline format)
* write the thesis statement
* write the topic sentences of the body paragraphs
* write the major and minor supports
* write the concluding sentence
* write the title

2-Write – 30’
start to write – do not be afraid of making mistakes because you will have time to revise
your essay and correct your mistakes in the editing period.

3-Edit – 15’
-read your essay from the beginning to the end, then check:
*unity
the relationship between the thesis statement and the topic sentences,
the relationship between the topic sentences and supporting sentences
*coherence
connectives (listing signals, transition words/ phrases etc.)
pronouns, repetition or synonym of keywords
*grammar
adverbial clauses, adjective clauses, noun clauses, etc.
verb tenses
passive voice, causatives
*punctuation
*word choice
*spellings

-after checking the points above, correct your mistakes and rewrite your essay.

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V. Outlining an Essay
An outline is a list of the information that the writer will put in the essay. Writing an
outline before writing an essay can be a very useful way of organizing the ideas and seeing
how they will work together. The number/letter system for a formal outline is illustrated in
the sample outline format below:

Outline Format for A Short Essay

Title
I. Introduction
Thesis Statement:
II. Body
A. Topic sentence:
1.Major idea
a.minor idea
b.minor idea
2.Major idea
a.minor idea
b.minor idea

B. Topic sentence:
1.Major idea
a.minor idea
b.minor idea
2. Major idea
a.minor idea
b.minor idea

C. Topic sentence:
1.Major idea
a.minor idea
b.minor idea
2.Major idea
a.minor idea
b.minor idea

III. Conclusion
Concluding sentence:

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Sample Outline

EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON HUMAN LIFE

I. Introduction
Thesis statement: There are various effects of pollution on human life, but the most
important effects of pollution are on human's health, habitat and psychology.

II. Body
A: Topic Sentence: The first and most important effect of pollution is on human health.
1. smog
a. big cities: exhaust fumes air pollution lung diseases
b. industrial areas: factory emissions air pollution lung diseases
2. pollution of food and water
a. poisonous chemicals contaminate food and water serious illnesses

B: Topic Sentence: Apart from negative effects on health, pollution can also lead to the
destruction of human habitats.
1. repeated oil spills in Nigeria
a. Lives of inhabitants impossible move somewhere else

2. nuclear disaster in Fukushima

a. evacuation of the area increase demographic pressure
b. evacuation of the area competition for resources in the new location

C: Topic Sentence: Another negative effect of pollution is on people's psychology.

1. effects of clean, unspoiled environment
a. positively

2. effects of polluted and noisy cities

a. serious mental problems

III. Conclusion
In conclusion, if people want to improve the lives of future generations, they need to
work hard to lower the overall amount of pollution in the world

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Sample Short Essay

EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON HUMAN LIFE

Pollution is one of the biggest problems facing the world today. There are many
different types of pollution, such as air, water, and soil pollution, and these are caused by many
different factors, such as exhaust fumes, oil spills and radiation leaks. However, they all have
one thing in common: their effects on human beings. There are various effects of pollution on
human life, but the most important effects of pollution are on human's health, habitat and
psychology.
The first and most important effect of pollution is on human health. There are many
ways in which pollution affects human health and the first of these is smog. Smog occurs in big
cities and industrial areas, and is caused by car exhaust fumes and/or factory emissions. People
who live and work in areas with a lot of smog have to breathe it in, and, over a longer period of
time, this can cause lung diseases such as asthma. Another example is the pollution of food and
water by poisonous chemicals, often as a result of overuse of fertilizers or waste spillages.
People who consume food or water that has been contaminated in this way can become seriously
ill, either in the short or in the longer term.
Apart from negative effects on health, pollution can also lead to the destruction of
human habitats. Firstly, repeated oil spills in the Niger delta on the coast of Nigeria have made
the lives of the previous inhabitants of that area (mostly farmers and fishermen) almost
impossible, and forced many of them to move somewhere else in search of new livelihoods.
Another example is the recent nuclear disaster in Fukushima, which led the Japanese
government to evacuate an area in a 20 kilometer radius around the site of the original explosion.
The flight of people from areas that have been contaminated in this way can lead to increased
demographic pressures and competition for resources in the location where they eventually end
up settling, and thus has a wider impact on the society of the country where the disaster
occurred.
Another negative effect of pollution is on people's psychology. Living in a clean, unspoilt
environment like the Swiss Alps or the Argentinian Pampa will tend to affect people more
positively than waking up every morning to a polluted, noisy, rubbish-strewn city such as London,
Buenos Aires or Istanbul. This impact on people's psychology can lead to serious mental
problems, such as depression. With a majority of the world's population living in big cities like
these, pollution ends up affecting the mental health of most of the people on this planet.
In conclusion, pollution affects human beings negatively in terms of health, habitat and
psychology. If people want to improve the lives of future generations, they need to work hard to
lower the overall amount of pollution in the world.

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Exercise 13
Write a short essay of 350-500 words on nuclear energy using the following sample
outline. Remember to use the appropriate transitional words, phrases, and sentences.

Don’t Support Nuclear Energy!

I. Introduction
Thesis Statement: Nuclear power is not a good energy source for the world.
II. Body
A. Topic sentence: Nuclear power is very expensive
1. Nuclear fuel expensive
2. Nuclear power plants expensive to build and operate
a. Cost of construction
b. Cost of training workers
c. Cost of safety features
B. Topic sentence: Nuclear materials not safe
1. Nuclear fuels dangerous
a. Mining fuels producing radioactive gas
b. working with radioactive fuels harmful for workers
2. Nuclear waste products dangerous
a. Very radioactive
b. Difficult to dispose of or store safely
C. Topic sentence: There is a great possibility of accidents
1. Nuclear power plants’ failure
a. Three Mile Island, U.S.A. (1979)
b. Tarapur, India (1992)
c. Darlington, Canada (1992)
2. Workers’ mistakes
a. Chernobyl, U.S.S.R. (1986)
b. Kola, Russia (1991)
c. Tokaimura, Japan (1999)
3. Natural disasters
a. Earthquake: Kozloduy, Bulgaria (1977)
b. Tornado: Moruroa, the Pacific (1981)
III. Conclusion
Because of the cost and the danger, the world should develop different types of energy
to replace nuclear power.

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__________________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________.

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VI. Methods of Organization in an Essay

Essays are organized differently according to the layout of main ideas:

Method of Organization Layout of main ideas

Classification/ Logical Division of Ideas Group ideas and explain them in a logical
order

Comparison-Contrast Organize in point-by-point / block style

-Order by importance*

Cause-Effect Focus on cause / focus on effect

-Order by importance*

Process/Chronology Order by events or steps / order by time

Description Order by aspect, position, size, and shape

of things
Order Pro and Con paragraphs by
Argumentation/ Persuasion importance*

Important: Although an essay may be a classification type as far as the overall method of
organization is concerned, it may include other methods of organization, especially
comparison-contrast in the body paragraphs. In fact, many essays are characterized by a
combination of different methods of organization used in the body. However, the overall
organization of an essay should be made clear in the thesis statement. In other words, one
should understand the main organization method of an essay from the thesis statement.
*Order by importance:
Ascending order of importance: from the least to the most important ideas.
Descending order of importance: from the most to the least important ideas.
Equal order of importance: equally important ideas.

A. Logical Division of Ideas/ Classification

Logical division of ideas is a form of essay organization that is used to group related
items according to some quality they have in common. In other words, it is the organization
or sorting things into categories. In a classification essay, a large topic is divided up into
smaller subtopics so that each of them can be discussed in a separate paragraph.
The introductory paragraph introduces the main topic, and the thesis statement may
give the number of subtopics, or it may name them. Each body paragraph discusses one
subtopic. The concluding paragraph brings the essay to a close by reminding the reader of
the essay’s main points.
There are three steps to effective classification:
1. Determine the categories. Be thorough; don't leave out a critical category.
2. Classify by a single principle. Once you have categories, make sure that they fit into the

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same organizing principle. The organizing principle is how you sort the groups. Do not allow
a different principle to pop up unexpectedly.
3. Support each category equally. In general, you should write the same quantity, i.e., give
the same number of examples, for each category. The most important category, usually
reserved for last, might require more elaboration.
A suitable overall structure would be:
Introduction
Body 1: Category 1
Body 2: Category 2
Body 3: Category 3
Conclusion

Classification Essay
A PLACE FOR EVERYONE
Anyone who has ever traveled or been a tourist in a new city has encountered hotels. If one is not
camping out or staying with relatives, a hotel is the only place to end up at night. There is obviously a range
to be found among the different hotels around the world, but looking at their amenities and service, one
sees that they fall into four categories.
The most ostentatious of the hotels are the luxury giants. These elegant edifices seem more like
millionaires' playrooms than sleeping accommodations. When travelers walk into the lobby, they wonder if
they are on a movie set. Expensive furniture, rugs, plants of all varieties can be seen everywhere. The
employees are dressed in formal clothing, and they are attentive to one's every concern. Usually these
hotels have a variety of services to offer- cocktail bars, lounges, pools, and first-class restaurants with
international chefs. The people who stay in these hotels are often film stars, politicians, businessmen from
large corporations, or wealthy individuals on holiday. Not for the ordinary travelers, these hotels are
tourist attractions in their own right.
The international chains are the next kind of hotels one sees around the world. Despite being very
nice and quite expensive, they lack the class, and the reputation of the luxury hotels. The decors of these
first-class chains are quite attractive- the furniture is lovely, the lobbies and the restaurants are
luxurious. Nevertheless, although the travelers know they are in good hotels, they also know there is a
higher level. The employees are courteous and offer good service, but they do not cater to the guests'
every whim. Usually these hotels are filled with upper-class tourists and well-to-do business people.
A third type of hotel one can find while traveling is the standard family-lodging place. These are
often listed as budget hotels. The lobby is comfortable, but it lacks the space and the extra touches of the
fancy hotels. There will be couches, chairs, perhaps a television, but the area is not meant for many people.
Sometimes there is a coffee shop or snack bar connected to the lobby, but it will not offer anything
extraordinary-just regular food and service. Employees of these hotels are often friendly, but they do not
treat people as lords or masters, just as ordinary people who are temporary guests of the hotel.
The final class of hotels one can stay at is the "hole-in-the-wall." Most of these hotels are quite small
and situated in a narrow street in an obscure part of the town. Often there is no lobby to speak of- just a
walkway to the front desk where the traveler pays for a room before getting a key. The only employee is
the desk clerk, and he or she is probably not very friendly. If hungry, the traveler has to find a shop down
the street. Not meant for the ordinary middle-class traveler, these hotels are for people with little money
or for people who do not much care where they sleep.
An interesting observation about these four types of hotels is that they always seem to do good
business. Either certain travelers choose specific types of hotels or the hotels were built to attract
different kinds of travelers. In any event, whatever one's style of living or financial condition, one can
probably find a satisfying hotel.

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A Place for Everyone

I. Introduction
Thesis Statement:
II. Body
A. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
2.
a.
b.
3.
a.
4.
a.
B. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.
3.
a.
4.
a.
C. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.
3.
a.
b.
4.
a.
D. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.
3.
a.
b.
4.
a.
b.

III. Conclusion

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Exercise 14
Analyze the essay through the following questions:

1. Read the introductory paragraph and underline the coherence devices (keywords,
synonyms, pronouns, transition words) that connect the subsequent sentences to each
other.

2. Underline the thesis statement. Identify

a) the thing classified _____________________________________________________________
b) the number of categories _______________________________________________________
c) the basis of classification _______________________________________________________

3. Underline the topic sentences of the body paragraphs, and circle the words indicating
categories and the signaling words indicating transition from one type to another.

4. Do you think the writer follows a certain order of importance in the body? If so, what kind
of order is it?
_______________________________________________________________________________________

5. In a classification essay, each body paragraph deals with a certain category and usually
gives a definition and description of it. Scan the second paragraph and tell what points
(major ideas) are taken as basis for the description of the first category?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

6. Can you say the other body paragraphs are organized around the same aspects?
_______________________________________________________________________________________

7. Do you see any sentences that include a comparison of one category with another?
Underline them.

8. Underline all the other useful language structures in the essay and tell their functions.
(e.g. then has a function of showing sequence)

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USEFUL LANGUAGE STRUCTURES FOR CLASSIFICATION

PREDICATE & NOUN STRUCTURES

1.
types engineering.
two kinds schools.
There are three sorts of bridges.
several classes metals.
many varieties etc.

two sorts.
2. Bridges are of three types.
several kinds.

3.
are classified depending on
Bridges can be categorized according to the technique they are made with.
grouped on the basis of

4.
Engineers divide bridges three classes depending on
into several categories according to the technique they are made with.
Bridges can be divided many groups on the basis of

5.
Planes can be classified as fighter and passenger planes.
categorized

6.
categories:
consist of classes:
Planes comprise two kinds: fighter and passenger planes.
can be divided into types:
fall into varieties:

Exercise 15 Write the sentences using “depending on, according to or on the basis of”.

1. Movies: length, content.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

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2. Teachers: experience, attitude towards students.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Jobs: type of work, salary, benefits.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Flowers: color, need for sunlight.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 16 Write two sentences for the given clues as shown in the example.

Example

Ship: cargo & passenger ships

Ships are of two types: cargo and passenger ships.
Ships can be classified (categorized) as cargo and passenger ships.

1. chemical substances: compounds and mixtures

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

2. books: hardback and paperback books

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

3. sounds; voiced and voiceless sounds

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

4. transportation: air, land and water

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

5. pollution: water, air, environment and noise

_________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 17
Write an essay of 350-500 words on “the kinds of cellular phones”.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________.

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B. Comparison and/or Contrast

In a comparison-contrast essay students have to compare two terms, instruments,

concepts or procedures that are closely connected, and sometimes confused. This can be
done in three ways:
1. Discuss the similarities between them (Comparison)
2. Discuss the differences between them (Contrast)
3. Discuss the similarities and differences between them (Comparison-and-Contrast)
Comparison or contrast essays are grouped in two ways:

Block Approach: In a block approach the body paragraphs are organized according
to the objects. The block approach discusses one of the objects in the first body paragraph
and the other object in the second. All the major ideas provided in the first paragraph are
also provided in the second paragraph in the same order.

Point Approach: In a point approach the body paragraphs are organized according to
the main ideas. The point approach discusses a particular point about the first object and
then immediately discusses the same point about the second object.
As it is seen in the following example, the objects of the essay are the same (PC and
Mac) and the supporting main ideas are the same (software and ease of use). The essays are
different in the way they are organized.
A suitable overall structure for Comparison or Contrast essay would be:

Point Approach Block Approach

Introduction Introduction
Body 1: Software (Main idea) Body 1: PC (Main idea)
a) PC (Major idea) a) Software (Major idea)
b) MAC (Major idea) b) Ease of use (Major idea)
Body 2: Ease of use (Main idea) Body 2: MAC (Main idea)
a) PC (Major idea) a) Software (Major idea)
b) MAC (Major idea) b) Ease of use (Major idea)
Conclusion Conclusion

In a comparison-and-contrast essay students have to compare and contrast two

objects, problems or events and evaluate their similarities and differences. If the thesis
statement mentions similarities first, then the first body paragraph must explain the
similarities. Likewise, if the thesis statement mentions the differences first, then the first
body paragraph must explain the differences.
A suitable overall structure for Comparison-and-Contrast essay would be:

Comparison-and-Contrast Contrast-and-Comparison
Introduction Introduction
Body 1: Similarities Body 1: Differences
a) PC a) PC
b) MAC b) MAC
Body 2: Differences Body 2: Similarities
a) PC a) PC
b) MAC b) MAC
Conclusion Conclusion

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1 - Comparison Essay

FETHIYE AND ANTALYA

Turkey has many different tourist destinations. These destinations are known for
different things, but there are also a lot of similarities between many of them. Two of
the most famous locations, Fethiye and Antalya, are also among the most similar ones.
They are very similar tourist destinations considering location, activities and
accommodation.
The first similarity between Fethiye and Antalya is location. Both of these towns
are located on the South coast of Turkey. Fethiye is situated at the western end of the
Lycian peninsula, while Antalya, two hundred kilometers away, is located at the
peninsula’s eastern end. They share the same hot, dry climate, and are both backed by
high mountains while facing beautiful sandy beaches.
These similarities in location, climate and setting mean that both towns can
offer very similar activities to tourists. The main draws are, of course, their beaches.
These are perfect for sunbathing and swimming. However, for those who prefer a more
active holiday, there are also many other activities. The two towns are, respectively,
the starting and the end point of the Lycian way, a long distance walking trail, which
means that they offer great hiking. There are also many other outdoor activities on
offer, such as paragliding, diving and sailing to name but a few.
The last similarity between Fethiye and Antalya is the range of accommodation.
At one end of the spectrum, there are modest, simple pensions where it is possible to
stay for very little money. At the other end, there are opulent, luxurious hotels with
swimming pools, bars and 5-star restaurants. Thus, whatever people’s budget, they will
be able to find a type of accommodation that suits them.
To sum up, while Antalya and Fethiye are different places, they have a lot of
similarities which make both of them great tourist destinations. They both have a great
climate, beautiful beaches and many different things to do. Whichever town people
choose to visit, they are sure to have a great holiday.

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Fethiye and Antalya

I. Introduction
Thesis Statement:

II. Body
A. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.
3.
a.
b.

B. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.
3.
a.
b.

C. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.

III. Conclusion

Exercise 18
Analyze the essay through the following questions:

1. Read the introductory paragraph and underline the coherence devices (keywords,
synonyms, pronouns, transition words) that connect the subsequent sentences to each
other.

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2. Underline the thesis statement. Identify

a) the things to be compared _____________________________________________________
b) the number and the names of points to be compared ____________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Underline the topic sentences of the body paragraphs, and circle the words indicating the
points of comparison and the signaling words indicating transition from one point to
another.

4. Do you think the writer follows a certain order of importance in the body? If so, what kind
of order is it?
_______________________________________________________________________________________

5. Which method of comparison is used in the body of the essay? Block or point approach?
_______________________________________________________________________________________

6. Underline all the other useful language structures in the essay and tell their functions.
(e.g. then has a function of showing sequence)

USEFUL LANGUAGE STRUCTURES FOR SIMILARITY

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Just as Bob wrote a letter to the Dean, so did Bill.

Bill wrote a letter to the Dean, too

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Like Bob, Bill wrote a letter to the Dean.

TRANSITION WORDS

Similarly,
Likewise,
Equally,
Cars must stop at red traffic lights. Correspondingly, bicycles should stop, too.
In the same way,
In a similar manner,
By the same token,

Alternative Punctuation for Transition words

Cars must stop at red traffic lights; similarly, bicycles should stop, too.
Cars must stop at red traffic lights. Bicycles, similarly, should stop, too.
Cars must stop at red traffic lights. Bicycles should stop, similarly.

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PREDICATE & ADJECTIVE & NOUN STRUCTURES

There are many similarities between the Casper and the HP.

The Casper and the HP have several things in common.

considering price.
The Casper is like the HP with respect to price.
The Casper and the HP are similar as regards price.
The Casper and the HP are alike regarding price.
The Casper is similar to the HP in terms of price.
The Casper is the same as the HP in price.
The Casper resembles the HP ----------------------------------
as far as price is concerned.
in that the price is the same.

CORRELATIVE STRUCTURES

Both the Casper and the HP are equally expensive.

Both the Casper and the HP cost £1,174.
Neither the Casper nor the HP is cheap.
The Casper is as expensive as the HP.
The Casper costs the same as the HP.
The Casper is the same price as the HP.
Not only the Casper but also the HP is not cheap.

Exercise 19

a) Combine the following with both…and / not only… but also / neither…nor.

1. Jack doesn’t have a pen. He doesn’t have a paper.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

2. He frequently broadcasts in English and in Turkish.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Coal is an irreplaceable resource. So is oil.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

4. The leopard faces extinction. So does the tiger.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

5. He has always been an amusing speaker at home and also in public.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

6. I haven’t got the time to go on holiday and I haven’t got the money.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

7. The front of the house needs painting. The back needs painting, too.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

b) Using the given information, make sentences using the linking words in
parentheses. (There may be more than one answer)

8. Soccer teams have eleven players. American football teams have eleven players.

_____________________________________________________________________________________ (like)

_________________________________________________________________________________ (similar)

_______________________________________________________________________________ (similar to)

_____________________________________________________________________________ (the same as)

_________________________________________________________________________ (the same ….. as)

________________________________________________________________________________ (resemble)

_________________________________________________________________________________ (likewise)

_____________________________________________________________________________________ (too)

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

Exercise 20
Write an essay of 350-500 words on “the similarities between tennis and table-tennis”.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________.

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

2 - Contrast Essay

BACKPACKING OR STAYING IN HOTELS

Traveling is a hobby which many people now enjoy. It is a hobby which is

becoming more and more popular as opportunities for travel become greater.
These days there are several ways to travel around the world; two of the most
common are backpacking and staying in hotels. There are two main differences
between backpacking and staying in hotels: cost and safety.
Backpacking is quite different from staying in hotels regarding cost and
safety. To begin with, backpacking has been popular for many years with young
people who do not have a lot of money to spend on traveling. By backpacking
people can save a lot of money and see many more places than if they spent the
same money staying in a hotel. Furthermore, as backpackers will need to sleep in
a hostel or outside in a tent while backpacking, there will always be an issue of
safety and security because backpackers sleep in the same area as other people,
many of whom they do not know.
Unlike backpacking, staying in hotels requires a lot more money. Hotels
are one of the most comfortable ways of traveling, but only if you have enough
money. By staying at a hotel people will spend much more money than they would
spend in a hostel. In addition, a hotel provides a higher level of security to the
traveler. Hotels require specific security details such as flight, credit cards or
passport numbers to ensure the correct identification of their customers.
In brief, there are differences in cost and safety between backpacking
and staying in hotels. The world is a much smaller place than it used to be, many
people have the opportunity to travel and they have many ways in which to
travel. People should consider their budget and take responsibility for their own
safety and go out and see the world.

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

Backpacking or Staying in Hotels

I. Introduction
Thesis Statement:

II. Body
A. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.

B. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.

III. Conclusion

Exercise 21 Analyze the essay through the following questions:

1. Read the introductory paragraph and underline the coherence devices (keywords,
synonyms, pronouns, transition words) that connect the subsequent sentences to each
other.
2. Underline the thesis statement. Identify
a) the things to be compared _____________________________________________________
b) the number and the names of points to be compared ____________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. Underline the topic sentences of the body paragraphs, and circle the words indicating the
points of contrast and the signaling words indicating transition from one point to another.

4. Do you think the writer follows a certain order of importance in the body? If so, what kind
of order is it?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
5. Which method of contrast is used in the body of the essay? Block or point approach?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Underline all the other useful language structures in the essay and tell their functions.
(e.g. then has a function of showing sequence)

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

USEFUL LANGUAGE STRUCTURES FOR

OPPOSITION/ CONCESSIVE CONTRAST (UNEXPECTED RESULT)

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Although
Though
Even though he made a great effort, he wasn’t able to finish his project.
Much as
In spite of the fact that
Despite the fact that

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

In spite of his great effort,

Despite making a great effort, he wasn’t able to finish his project.
Regardless of (Noun Phrase)

TRANSITION WORDS

However,
Yet,
Still,
Nevertheless,
He made a great effort. Nonetheless, he wasn’t able to finish his project.
In spite of this,
All the same,
Even so,
By way of contrast,

Alternative Punctuation for Transition words

He made a great effort; however, he wasn’t able to finish his project.
He made a great effort. He, however, wasn’t able to finish his project.
He made a great effort. He wasn’t able to finish his project, however.

COORDINATORS

He made a great effort, but he wasn’t able to finish his project.

yet

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

CONJUNCTIONS

However
No matter how hard he worked, he wasn’t able to finish his project.
(Adverb)
While
Although she is a likable girl, she can be difficult to work with.

Exercise 22 Using the given information, make sentences using the linking words in
parentheses.

1. Roberto repaired his car last week. It is still not running smoothly.

________________________________________________________________________________ (although)

_________________________________________________________________________________ (despite)

____________________________________________________________________________ (nevertheless)

__________________________________________________________________________________ (but)

2. Miguel ran very fast. He was not able to catch the bus.

____________________________________________________________________________ (however fast)

_____________________________________________________________________ (despite the fact that)

__________________________________________________________________________________ (still)

__________________________________________________________________________________ (yet)

Exercise 23 Change the sentences by using the given words.

1. He wasn’t hungry, but he ate two sandwiches anyway. (although)

__________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Sandy was very sad, but she smiled and pretended to be having a good time. (despite)
_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. The crime rate has continued to rise even though the local police department has started
several new crime prevention programs. (nevertheless)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Even though Harry Blatter is an honest politician, I would never vote for him because I
do not agree with his views on foreign policy. (regardless of)

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

5. George did not panic, even though he was alone and lost in the woods. (yet)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

Exercise 24 Rewrite the following sentences, using the words in parentheses instead of the
underlined conjunctions, and making any necessary changes.

1. Although he had planned it carefully, there were still some transportation problems. (in
spite of/however)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Although the pay is low, I would never change my job. (despite / nevertheless)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Although medication is ineffective for some migraines, patients can learn how to deal
with them. (despite/yet)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Even though he has a busy schedule, the President goes jogging virtually every day. (in
spite of/still)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Despite the fact that it rained, we went to game. (despite)

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 25 Join these sentences using the conjunctions in parentheses, making any
necessary changes.
1. She feels sorry. The damage has been done. (no matter...)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

2. It’s expensive. He’s determined to buy it. (however...)

__________________________________________________________________________________________

3. How much will they pay us? It will never compensate us. (no matter ...)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

4. The weather may be good or bad. I’ll go for a walk anyway. (regardless of)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 26 Complete the following.

1. Although I didn’t study, ________________________________________________________________

2. Despite his lack of education, he _______________________________________________________
3. He hasn’t got a driver’s license, but ____________________________________________________
4. The police arrested the thief. Nonetheless, _____________________________________________

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

Exercise 27 Restate the following sentence using the given transition word. Use three
alternative punctuation positions.

Even though her grades were low, she was admitted to the university. (Use however)

__________________________________________________________________________________________.

__________________________________________________________________________________________.

__________________________________________________________________________________________.

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

Exercise 28
Write an essay of 350-500 words on “the differences between an airplane and a
helicopter”.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________.

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

3 - Comparison-and-Contrast Essay

THE SENATE AND THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

The government of the United States is made up of three independent branches: the
legislative branch, the executive branch and the judicial branch. The legislative branch, called
Congress, is responsible for making laws. Congress is made up of two houses: the Senate and the
House of Representatives. Although they are different from each other, there are striking
similarities between these two houses of Congress.

There are many differences between the Senate and the House of Representatives. The
Vice President of the United States is the head of the Senate. He must vote in the Senate if
there is a tie. On the other hand, the House of Representatives’ leader is called the Speaker of
the House. The representatives elect him or her. Another difference is that the Senate is made
up of 100 senators, two from each state. The House of Representatives, however, is made up of
435 representatives. The number of representatives from each state is determined by that
state’s population. The greater the population in a state, the more representatives that state
will have in the House. A third difference is that senators are elected to six year terms, while
representatives are elected to serve two-year terms. Every two years, the nation holds an
election for members of Congress. At that time, all members of the House of Representatives
and one third of the Senate are up for re-election.

There are also similarities between the Senate and the House of Representatives. For
example, both houses of Congress are made up of men and women. Both senators and
representatives are members of Congress who must work together toward the same goal: to
create, discuss, debate and vote on bills, some of which eventually become laws. In the U.S.
Capitol Building in Washington D.C., senators and representatives often meet with each other
and in smaller groups to discuss laws. Before the President can sign a bill into law, it must first
be approved by a majority of members in both the House and Senate.

Briefly, although Congress is made up of two different types of lawmakers, they work
together for the benefit of all Americans. If some countries intend to change their government
system from parliamentary system to presidential system without compromising from
democracy, they had better take the American presidential system into consideration.

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

The Senate and The House of Representatives

I. Introduction
Thesis Statement:

II. Body
A. Topic sentence:
1. l
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.
3.
a.
b.

B. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.
3.
a.
b.
4.
a.
b.

III. Conclusion

Exercise 29
Analyze the essay through the following questions:

1. Read the introductory paragraph and underline the coherence devices (keywords,
synonyms, pronouns, transition words) that connect the subsequent sentences to each
other.
2. Underline the thesis statement. Identify
a) the things to be compared _____________________________________________________
b) the number and the names of points to be compared ____________________________
i. Differences: __________________________________________________________________
ii. Similarities: __________________________________________________________________

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

3. Underline the topic sentences of the body paragraphs, and circle the words indicating the
points of comparison & contrast and the signaling words indicating transition from one
point to another.

4. Do you think the writer follows a certain order of importance in the body? If so, what kind
of order is it?
_______________________________________________________________________________________

5. Which method of comparison is used in the body paragraphs of the essay? Block or point
approach?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Underline all the other useful language structures in the essay and tell their functions.
(e.g. then has a function of showing sequence)

USEFUL LANGUAGE STRUCTURES FOR

DIFFERENCE AND DIRECT CONTRAST

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Whereas
While Jordan is a kingdom, Egypt is a republic.
Whilst

while
Jordan is a kingdom, whereas Egypt is a republic.
whilst

Although the HP is expensive to buy, it is very fast.

The HP is very fast although it is expensive to buy.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Different from
Unlike Jordan, which is a kingdom, Egypt is a republic.
In contrast to (Noun Phrase)

Despite the high price of the HP, it is very fast.

In spite of (Noun Phrase)

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

TRANSITION WORDS

However,
In contrast,
Jordan is a kingdom. On the other hand, Egypt is a republic.
Conversely,
On the contrary,

Alternative Punctuation for Transition words

Jordan is a kingdom; however, Egypt is a republic.
Jordan is a kingdom. Egypt, however, is a republic.
Jordan is a kingdom. Egypt is a republic, however.

COORDINATORS

Jordan is a kingdom, but Egypt is a republic.

yet

PREDICATE & ADJECTIVE& PREPOSITIONAL STRUCTURES

The prices of Casper and the HP vary according to their speed and screen.

There are many differences between The Casper and the HP.

considering price.
The Casper differs from the HP with respect to price.
The Casper is unlike the HP as regards price.
The Casper and the HP differ regarding price.
The Casper is different from the HP in terms of price.
The Casper contrasts with the HP in price.
The Casper can be distinguished from the HP in many ways.
The Casper and the HP are different -----------------------------
The Casper and the HP are dissimilar in that the Casper is not expensive.
as far as price is concerned.

CORRELATIVE STRUCTURES

The HP is more expensive than the Casper.

The Casper is not as expensive as the HP.
The HP costs more than the Casper.

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

Exercise 30 Rewrite the following sentences, using the words in parentheses instead of the
underlined conjunctions, and making any necessary changes. The first one is done for you:

Whereas John is a liberal, Bill is a socialist. (unlike/in contrast)

Unlike John, who is a liberal, Bill is a socialist.
John is a liberal. In contrast, Bill is a socialist.

1. While Ankara is located in Central Anatolia, Antalya is located on the Mediterranean

coast. (in contrast to)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

2. While the medium of instruction is English at METU, it is French at Galatasaray

University. (on the other hand)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

3. John is a Christian, whereas Ali is a Moslem.

__________________________________________________________________________________ (unlike)

________________________________________________________________________________ (however)

4. Florida has a warm climate, whereas Alaska has a cold climate. (different from)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Old people in my country usually live with their children, whereas the old in the United
States often live by themselves. (however)
__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 31 Complete the following. Discuss other ways of expressing the same idea by
moving the position of whereas or while.

1. Some people are fat, whereas others are thin. (Whereas some people are fat, others are
thin.) (Some people are thin, whereas others are fat.)

2. Some people are tall, whereas ________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Some people prefer to live in the country, while _______________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

4. While some people know only their native language, __________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

5. A mouse is small, whereas ___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Some people are optimistic, while ____________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Some countries are extremely poor, whereas ____________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

Exercise 32
Write an essay of 350-500 words on “the similarities and differences between Antalya
and Istanbul”.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________.

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

C. Cause-Effect

When we are asked to describe or explain causes, factors, functions or results, the
examiner wants us to group our facts. Similar causes are put together, for instance the
economic causes of a situation. The typical question is "Describe the causes/ effects of X.
Illustrate your answer by specific examples."
There are basically two main ways to organize this type of essay.
A suitable overall structure would be:

Focus On Cause Focus On Effect

Introduction Introduction
Body 1: Cause 1 Body 1: Effect 1
Body 2: Cause 2 Body 2: Effect 2
Body 3: Cause 3 Body 3: Effect 3
Conclusion Conclusion

1- Focus on Cause Essay

THE CAUSES OF POVERTY IN MEXICO

Are you aware that 20 million people in Mexico live on less than two dollars a day? Sixty
million people, half the Mexican population, live in poverty, and 20 million of them live in extreme
poverty. Most of the time, garbage is their food, and some days, they don’t even eat anything.
This critical situation in Mexico is caused by individual, geographic and political factors. The
purpose of this essay is to analyze these three main causes of poverty in Mexico.
The first and immediate cause of poverty in Mexico is the individual condition. This cause
refers to circumstances and characteristics of poor people. For example, the amount of
education, skill, intelligence, health, and prejudice all have an influence on poverty. The lack of
education is one of the most significant factors that contributes to poverty. There is no access
to jobs for non-educated people.
The second cause of poverty has to do with geography. For example, statistics show that
people who live in rural areas far away from the cities are poorer. This is caused by the lack of
communication and transportation in remote rural areas. Because of this, governments can’t
provide essential services such as potable water, affordable food, primary health care, and
education. People who live there are totally isolated from the rest of the society.
The third and most significant cause of poverty in Mexico is the political economy of the
country. The International Monetary Fund and World Bank-prescribed structural adjustment
policies have been applied in Mexico because the government doesn’t carry out enough policies to
encourage successful development. They cannot, for these international institutions lend money
to Mexico on the condition that the nation open up its economy and cut social expenditures to
repay the loans. The IMF and World Bank programs are supposed to reduce poverty, but actually
they are increasing it.
Unless the Mexican government works on the causes of the poverty which are the
individual condition, the geographic factor, and the political economy of the country, the problem
is going to get worse. Nobody likes to see poor children eating out of garbage cans. Mexico needs
a new political economy designed by Mexican economists and politicians, people who are
committed to Mexico and to the future of its society.

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

The Causes of Poverty in Mexico

I. Introduction
Thesis Statement:
II. Body
A. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
2.
a.
B. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
i.
C. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
2.
a.
b.
3.

III. Conclusion

Exercise 33 Analyze the essay through the following questions:

1. Read the introductory paragraph and underline the coherence devices (keywords,
synonyms, pronouns, transition words) that connect the subsequent sentences to each
other.
2. Underline the thesis statement. Identify
a) the effect ______________________________________________________________________
b) the number and the names of causes to be explained ___________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Underline the topic sentences of the body paragraphs, and circle the words indicating the
causes and the signaling words indicating transition from one cause to another.
4. Do you think the writer follows a certain order of importance in the body? If so, what kind
of order is it? __________________________________________________________________________
5. Which method of organization is used in the body of the essay? Focus on effect or focus
on cause? _____________________________________________________________________________

6. Underline all the other useful language structures in the essay and tell their functions.
(e.g. then has a function of showing sequence)

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

2 - Focus on Effect Essay

THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF MUSIC

Music is a form of art which has accompanied humankind since the origins of our species.
Starting from the early primitive instruments used by our cave-dwelling ancestors, and ending up
with modern synthesizers and computer programs that create new musical sounds, human beings
have constantly tried to surround themselves with music. It gradually became more complex, as
well as the instruments on which it was performed. Research has shown that music can positively
impact plants and animals, and scientists discovered that it can also provide beneficial effects to
human health, brain functions, and socialization.

Music can decrease the risks of heart attack and stroke. Music has been found to lower
blood pressure; changes in the “autonomic” nervous system, such as breathing and heart rate can
also be altered by music. This helps to create a so-called “relaxation response,” which
counteracts the damaging effects of chronic stress. Music contributes to the release of
endorphins, which are protein molecules produced by the nervous system that works with
sedative receptors in the brain. They improve mood, boost the immune system, reduce eating
disorder symptoms, and help fight cancer. In this respect, music has powerful positive effects
on the functioning of the human body.

Music also affects the way our brain functions. It is reported that easy-listening and
classical music improves the duration and intensity of concentration in all age groups and ability
levels. At the same time, another research study has shown that music with a strong beat
stimulates brain waves to resonate with them. In other words, the faster the beat is, the
sharper concentration becomes, and thinking becomes more alert. Listening to music also helps
people recall information; certain types of music can serve as strong “keys,” supposedly forming
a strong connection between emotions they evoke and the information, which can be recalled
much easier during playing back the song which was being played during the process of learning.

Music also performs several social functions, which are usually omitted when talking about
its effects. Music today is an extremely popular and available form of entertainment; people of
all ages attend concerts of their favorite bands and singers, and share the same positive
emotions there. However, they can share the same emotions in everyday life; simply talking
about music, even if the interlocutors have just met and have different preferences, can help
them establish communication faster and easier. Youth are often grouped in fan-clubs and
subcultures, which also helps young people to socialize.

In short, music is one of the most ancient forms of art, and one of the most beneficial for
human beings as well. Music deals powerful, positive effects on the human body, reducing risks
of heart diseases, cancers, enhancing the immune system, and reducing chronic stress. It also
helps our brain function better by increasing its cognitive abilities, attention, memory, and
concentration. In addition, music is a factor of socialization and facilitates establishing
communication with unfamiliar people and socialization. Therefore, in order to be a healthy and
happy community, people should make the music be a part of their life.

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

The Beneficial Effects of Music

I. Introduction
Thesis Statement:
II. Body
A. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
B. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
2.
a.
b.
3.
a.
b.
c.
C. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.

III. Conclusion

Exercise 34
Analyze the essay through the following questions:

1. Read the introductory paragraph and underline the coherence devices (keywords,
synonyms, pronouns, transition words) that connect the subsequent sentences to each
other.

2. Underline the thesis statement. Identify

a) the cause ______________________________________________________________________
b) the number and the names of effects to be explained ___________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

3. Underline the topic sentences of the body paragraphs, and circle the words indicating the
effects and the signaling words indicating transition from one cause to another.

4. Do you think the writer follows a certain order of importance in the body? If so, what kind
of order is it? ____________________________________________________________________________

5. Which method of organization is used in the body of the essay? Focus on effect or focus
on cause? _______________________________________________________________________________

6. Underline all the other useful language structures in the essay and tell their functions.
(e.g. then has a function of showing sequence)

USEFUL LANGUAGE STRUCTURES FOR

CAUSE-EFFECT

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Because
Since
As
In view of the fact that the population is increasing there is a housing shortage in the city.
On account of the fact rapidly, (effect)
that (cause)
Owing to the fact that
Seeing that

because
as
since
There is a housing shortage in the city in view of the fact that the population is increasing rapidly.
(effect) on account of the fact that (cause)
owing to the fact that
seeing that
inasmuch as

TRANSITION WORDS

Therefore,
Thus,
Hence,
As a result,
The population is increasing rapidly. Consequently, there is a housing shortage in the city.
(cause) As a consequence, (effect)
Thereby,
For this reason,
Accordingly,

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

Alternative Punctuation for Transition words

The population is increasing rapidly; therefore, there is a housing shortage in the city.
The population is increasing rapidly. There is, therefore, a housing shortage in the city.
The population is increasing rapidly. There is a housing shortage in the city, therefore.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Because of
On account of
Owing to
Due to a rapid increase in the population, there is a housing shortage in the city.
In consequence of (cause) – (Noun Phrase) (effect)
As a result of
In view of

There is a housing shortage in the city because of a rapid increase in the population.
(effect) due to (cause) – (Noun Phrase)
She succeeded thanks to her great persistence and determination.
(effect) (cause) – (Noun Phrase)

COORDINATORS
There is a severe housing shortage in the city , for the population is increasing rapidly.
(effect) (cause)
The population is increasing rapidly , so there is a severe housing shortage in the city.
(cause) (effect)

OTHER STRUCTURES

1. The population is increasing rapidly. That’s why there is a severe housing shortage in the city.
(cause) (effect)
2. Bob and Bill are alike in that both of them study law.
(effect) (cause)
3. Jordan and Egypt differ in that the former is a kingdom whereas the latter is a republic.
(effect) (cause)
4. They need more money. That’s the reason for the increase in the taxes.
(cause) (effect) – (Noun Phrase)
5. By virtue of its simplicity of construction, the material is preferred.
(cause) – (Noun Phrase) (effect)
6. He was tired. This explains why he went to bed early.
(cause) (effect)
7. The reason why he went to bed early was that he was tired.
(effect) (cause)
8. He was tired. This accounts for his going to bed early.
(cause) (effect) – (Noun Phrase)

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PREDICATE & ADJECTIVE STRUCTURES

results in
leads to
A rise in the temperature causes the expansion of the gas.
(cause) contributes to (effect)
(Noun Phrase) is the reason for (Noun Phrase)
is responsible for

results from
follows from
The expansion of the gas is due to a rise in the temperature.
(effect) is a result of (cause)
(Noun Phrase) is a consequence of (Noun Phrase)

CORRELATIVE STRUCTURES

1. The increase in population is so rapid that there is a food shortage.

(cause) – (Noun Phrase) (adj.) (effect)

2. The population is increasing so rapidly that there is a food shortage.

(cause) (adv.) (effect)

3. The country has so many natural resources that it can support itself.
(cause) (Noun Phrase) (effect)

4. The country has so much coal that it can export large quantities.
(cause) (Noun Phrase) (effect)

5. There is such a rapid increase in population as to cause a food shortage.

(cause) (Noun Phrase) (effect)

6. There are such rapid increases in population as to cause food shortage.

(cause) (Noun Phrase) (effect)

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Exercise 35 Using the given information, make sentences using the linking words in
parentheses.

1. We have to wear warm clothes. It is winter now.

__________________________________________________________________________________ (since)

________________________________________________________________________________ (therefore)

__________________________________________________________________________________ (due to)

__________________________________________________________________________________ (for)

__________________________________________________________________________________ (so)

__________________________________________________________________________________ (in that)

2. The civil war has ended. A new government is being formed.

__________________________________________________________________________________ (as)

__________________________________________________________________________________ (thus)

______________________________________________________________________________ (seeing that)

______________________________________________________________________________ (that’s why)

__________________________________________________________________________________ (so)

_______________________________________________________________________________ (thanks to)

3. The population is increasing rapidly. There is a food shortage.

_____________________________________________________________________________ (so adj. that)

_____________________________________________________________________________ (so adv. that)

______________________________________________________________________________ (result from)

__________________________________________________________________________________ (lead to)

_____________________________________________________________________________ (account for)

_______________________________________________________________________________ (in view of)

Exercise 36 Complete the following.

1. Since we don’t have class tomorrow, ____________________________________________________

2. Oil is irreplaceable natural source; therefore, ___________________________________________

3. Because of terrorism, __________________________________________________________________

4. A rise in the inflation will result in ______________________________________________________

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Exercise 37 Using the ideas given in parentheses, complete the sentences.

1. (My parents are generous.)

Because of _____________________________________, all of the children in our family have
received the best of everything.

2. (The traffic was heavy.)

We were late to the meeting owing to _____________________________________________________.

3. (Dr. Jones has done excellent research on wolves.)

Thanks to ____________________________________________, we know much more today about
that endangered species than we did even five years ago.

Exercise 38 Restate the following sentence using the given transition word. Use three
alternative punctuation positions.

The children stayed home because a storm was approaching. (Use therefore)

__________________________________________________________________________________________.

__________________________________________________________________________________________.

__________________________________________________________________________________________.

Exercise 39 Punctuate the following sentences. Add capital letters where necessary.

1. due to recent improvements in the economy fewer people are unemployed

2. Sue always enjoyed studying sciences in high school therefore she decided to major in
biology in college

3. monday is a national holiday that’s why all government offices will be closed

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Exercise 40
Write an essay of 350-500 words on “why learning a foreign language is important”.

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__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________.

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Exercise 41
Write an essay of 350-500 words on “the effects of speaking foreign language(s)”.

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__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________.

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D. Process/ Chronological Order

A process is a continuous series of steps that produces a result. It is used in almost

all academic fields. One of its primary uses is to explain processes such as how to perform an
experiment, how to play a game. Chronological order is the other use of it. Chronological
order is used to describe events over a period of time, such as biography, autobiography,
history, and narrative writing. In both cases, process analysis explains the process by
breaking it down into several steps or stages.
There are two actual processes according to the language structure used: directional
process and informational process. Directional process analysis explains how to do
something by instructing the reader in imperative sentences (e.g. “Break three eggs into a
bowl”). Informational process analysis, on the other hand, explains how something works
or how something is done by observing the process and describing it in impersonal subjects
(e.g. “Then, the nurse gives an injection to the patient.” and/or passive voice (e.g. “Following
this step, the tips of a person’s fingers are attached to the electrodes”).

A suitable overall structure would be:

Introduction
Body 1: Step One
Body 2: Step Two
Body 3: Step Three
Conclusion*

*Note: the process analysis theme can be concluded without a concluding paragraph
since the last thing you discuss is a final touch or a conclusion in itself.

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Process Essay

THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS

The digestive process is important in maintaining the lives of living

organisms and in providing them with needed energy. Groups of organs, such as
the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines, work together to perform this
complex task. Digestion is the process of breaking down food from large
molecules into small ones to make it easier for absorption. The three major
steps involved in the digestive process are ingestion, digestion, and absorption.
Ingestion, which occurs in the mouth, is the first step of the digestive
process. After food enters the mouth, the teeth chew it. Saliva, which is
produced by the salivary glands, plays a major role in breaking down the food
into smaller pieces. These small pieces travel to the stomach through the
esophagus.
In the stomach, the second step of the digestive process begins. When
the chewed food reaches the bottom of the esophagus, a valve lets the food
enter the stomach. Contraction of the stomach wall mixes the food. Acidic
gastric juices, which are secreted by the gastric glands in the stomach, help in
mixing the food and in turning it into a partial liquid so it will have the ability to
move into the small intestine. In the small intestine, enzymes are secreted, and
digestion is completed.
The last step in the digestive process is absorption. Absorption takes
place in the small intestine. The wall of the small intestine is lined with small,
finger like projections called villi. Small molecules of food are absorbed by the
huge number of villi. Some of these absorbed molecules enter the bloodstream
to be distributed throughout the whole body.

In conclusion, the digestive process involves three major steps: ingestion,

digestion, and absorption. Ingestion, which occurs in the mouth, helps to
increase the surface are of the food particles and prepares them for digestion.
In the stomach, digestion begins, and it continues until it reaches the small
intestine, where absorption takes place. The digestive process maintains
organisms' lives by providing them with energy needed for different functions.

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The Digestive Process

I. Introduction
Thesis Statement:

II. Body
A. Topic sentence:
1.
2.
3.
4.

B. Topic sentence:
1.
2.
3.
a.
b.
c.
4.

C. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.

III. Conclusion

Exercise 42 Analyze the essay through the following questions:

1. Read the introductory paragraph and underline the coherence devices (keywords,
synonyms, pronouns, transition words) that connect the subsequent sentences to each
other.
2. Underline the thesis statement. Identify
a) what is to be done_____________________________________________________________
b) the number and the names of steps to be explained ___________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Underline the topic sentences of the body paragraphs, and circle the words indicating the
steps and the signaling words indicating transition from one step to another.

4. Do you think the writer follows a certain order of importance in the body? If so, what kind
of order is it? _____________________________________________________________________________

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5. What kind of process analysis is used in the essay, directional or informational? How do
you understand? _________________________________________________________________________

6. Underline all the other useful language structures in the essay and tell their functions.
(e.g. then has a function of showing sequence)

USEFUL LANGUAGE STRUCTURES FOR TIME

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Simultaneous Actions

While the butter is melting, break three eggs into the bowl.
As
As soon as the eggs thicken, serve them with toast.

Sequential Actions

When the eggs thicken,

After the eggs have thickened, serve them with toast.

before
The eggs must thicken by the time you serve them.
they thicken.
Do not serve the eggs until they have thickened.
Once/ As soon as the eggs thicken, serve them with toast.
By the time the guests arrived, the children had already
Before eaten all the toasts.

PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
Simultaneous Actions

While melting the butter, break three eggs into the bowl.

Sequential Actions
Having beaten the eggs, pour them into the pan.

After having beaten the eggs, pour them into the pan.

You must beat the eggs before pouring them into the pan.

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TRANSITION WORDS

Simultaneous Actions

Melt the butter in the pan; during this period, beat the eggs.
at the same time,
meanwhile,

Sequential Actions
subsequently,
afterwards,
Beat the eggs well; after that, pour them into the pan.
then,
following that,
at that point,

Exercise 43 Make sentences with until from the given situations.

1. I can’t pay my bills. I haven’t gotten my paycheck yet.

I can't pay my bills until my paycheck comes.

2. We can't leave yet. We have to wait for Robin.

___________________________________until___________________________________________________

3. Tell me the truth, or I am not going to leave this room.

______________________________________ until ______________________________________________

Exercise 44 Make sentences with as soon as / once from the given situations.

1. The taxi will get here in five minutes or so. Then we can leave for the airport.
As soon as the taxi gets here, we can leave for the airport.

2. The rice will be done in about ten minutes. Immediately after that, we can eat.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

3. First, I have to graduate. Then, I can return home.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Immediately after the singer finished her song, the audience burst into applause.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 45 Using the given information, make sentences using the linking words in
parentheses.

1. She graduated from the university. She found a job in a bank.

_____________________________________________________________________________ (after)

_____________________________________________________________________________ (as soon as)

___________________________________________________________________________ (subsequently)

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2. Tom was in Berlin. He visited all the museums there.

_____________________________________________________________________________ (when)

________________________________________________________________________ (during that time)

3. Billy was taking a shower. Somebody knocked at the door.

_____________________________________________________________________________ (while)

___________________________________________________________________________ (meanwhile)

4. You shouldn’t eat a heavy meal and then go jogging immediately after that.
_____________________________________________________________________________ (before)

_____________________________________________________________________________ (by the time)

Exercise 46 Complete the following.

1. I’ll help you with your homework as soon as I ___________________________________________

2. I was late. By the time I got to the school, ______________________________________________

3. My father gets angry whenever he _____________________________________________________

4. Once summer comes, _________________________________________________________________

5. She will never tell you what happened until ____________________________________________

Exercise 47 Punctuate the following sentences. Add capital letters where necessary.

1. when he became President he made drastic changes in the country’s foreign policy

2. we stayed there until we finished our work

3. by the time he arrived she had already left

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Exercise 48
Write an essay of 350-500 words on “the process of education in your motherland”.
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E. Description

Descriptive writing portrays people, places, things, moments and theories with enough
vivid detail to help the reader create a mental picture of what is being written about. You are
not asked to comment on the topic or to give your personal opinion of it.
A suitable overall structure would be:

Introduction
Body 1: description of aspect A
Body 2: description of aspect B
Body 3: description of aspect C
Conclusion

Description Essay
RASTAFARIANS
It is possible to learn about Rastafarians through research. Rastafarians are members of
a Jamaican religious movement that started in the 1930s. According to their belief, the only
true God is the late Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie who was originally known as Ras Tafari.
Rastafarians also believe that white Christian preachers and missionaries have distorted the
Bible to hide the fact that Adam and Jesus were black. The Rastafarians can be described as a
religious group popularly characterized by their special hairstyle, music, and ganja.
Rastafarians have a special way of wearing their hair in the form of dreadlocks.
According to Rastafarian belief no comb or razor must touch their hair or beards. Following this
rule, Rastafarians let their hair grow long and only wash it, leaving it to dry naturally. This
results in a mass of long, knotted hair that looks like a lion’s mane. These dreadlocks are
protected by wearing a hand knitted hat with the Rastafarian colors of red, green, and gold. The
red color represents the blood lost in the fight for black freedom; the green stands for life and
ganja, the holy herb; and yellow stands for the wisdom of their God, Jah.
Rastafarians have become known in the western world not because of their religion but
because of their reggae music. Reggae is a style of Jamaican music similar to American soul
music but with a special rhythm. Reggae songs express one or two ideas of Rastafarianism, which
are repeated over and over again. A reggae concert is like a religious ceremony where the
musicians are like priests repeating the message of their God, Jah, in the reggae rhythm. Bob
Marley and his group popularized reggae music internationally. Bob Marley died in 1982, but his
music still keeps the spirit of Rastafarians alive.
Rastafarians are characterized by the smoking of the holy herb, ganja. Rastafarians get
together and smoke puffs of the herb, ganja, which is rolled into a large cigar. This herb
originally came from India, and means marijuana in Indian. According to Rastafarians ganja is a
holy herb whose use was authorized in the Bible. For Rastafarians smoking ganja is the way to
understand themselves and God.
In conclusion, Rastafarians are commonly characterized in terms of the way they wear
their hair, reggae music, and the smoking of ganja. However, this doesn’t mean to say that this
religious and political movement doesn’t have any other characteristics or rules and regulations.
Rastafarianism is a whole way of life.

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Rastafarians
I. Introduction
Thesis Statement:

II. Body
A. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.
c.

B. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
c.
2.
a.
3.
a.
b.
C. Topic sentence:
1.
a.
b.
2.
a.
b.

III. Conclusion

Exercise 49
Analyze the essay through the following questions:

1. Read the introductory paragraph and underline the coherence devices (keywords,
synonyms, pronouns, transition words) that connect the subsequent sentences to each
other.

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2. Underline the thesis statement. Identify

a) what is to be described _________________________________________________________
b) the number and the names of aspects to be described ___________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Underline the topic sentences of the body paragraphs, and circle the words indicating the
aspects and the signaling words indicating transition from one aspect to another.

4. Do you think the writer follows a certain order of importance in the body? If so, what kind
of order is it?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
5. Underline all the other useful language structures in the essay and tell their functions.
(e.g. then has a function of showing sequence)

USEFUL LANGUAGE STRUCTURES FOR DESCRIPTION (OF AN OBJECT)

A- COMPOSITION

PREDICATE & ADJECTIVE STRUCTURES

is made up of
is composed of
is comprised of
A guitar contains a head, a neck, and a body.
(whole) consists of (parts)
comprises
includes

B- CHARACTERISTICS

A guitar is made of wood.

Glass is made from sand.

A guitar pick is shaped like a triangle.

(Noun)
A guitar pick is triangular in shape.
(Adjective) (Noun)

This tower is 115 meters high.

(Adjective)
This tower has a height of 115 meters.
(Noun)
This tower is 115 meters in height.
(Noun)

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Adjectives
a) Shape and size: large X small, wide X narrow, round, rectangular etc.
b) atmosphere: cozy, comfortable, warm X cool, cold X hot etc.
c) how you feel: amazed, surprised, happy, angry etc.
d) appearance: colorful, beautiful, attractive, unforgettable etc.
e) describing people: (personality) happy, satisfied, relaxed, nervous, outgoing etc.
(physical characteristics) big, large, tall, tiny, short, strong, brown, black,
Light/dark-skinned etc.
C- STRUCTURE

PREDICATE & ADJECTIVE STRUCTURES

is attached to
The neck is connected to the body of the guitar.
is fixed to
is joined to

The core of seeds is surrounded by the fruit of the apple.

is enclosed in (by)

The fruit of the apple surrounds/ encloses the core of seeds.

The seeds rest in a protective case.

are held in

A protective case holds the seeds.

The fruit of the apple is covered by a thin outer skin.

is protected by

A thin outer skin covers/ protects the fruit of the apple.

Prepositions of Place
In, on, at, over, above, below, under, around, among, behind, between, in front of, in back of, on
top of, on the bottom of, next to, to the right of, in the middle of, etc.

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D- FUNCTION

PREDICATE & NOUN & ADJECTIVE STRUCTURES

The purpose of
The aim of the thermometer is to measure the temperature.
The function of (Verb)
The objective of

The thermometer is used to measure the temperature.

serves to (Verb)

is responsible for
The thermometer performs the function of measuring the temperature.
is used for (V-ing)

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Exercise 50
Write an essay of 350-500 words on “gypsies”.
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__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________.

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F. Argumentative (Persuasive) Essay
An argumentative essay is built around a specific statement (or main premise) that is debatable
within the field in which you are studying. In other words, at the center of an argumentative essay
there is a statement with which your readers may disagree. Your essay will need to support that
statement in a manner that convinces your readers of its truth.

1. Parts of the Argumentative Essay

Introduction
A simple introduction to an argumentative assignment has four parts, each of which:

1. introduces the topic

2. states why the topic is important
3. states that there is a difference of opinion about this topic
4. clearly states the writer's main premise.

Language Patterns for Introduction

Introducing the topic:

The issue of whether __(main premise) has been widely debated in our community recently.

The reason why the topic is important:

It is an important issue because/in that ___(reason) .

The presence of different views:

A variety of different arguments have been put forward about this issue.
Some people believe __(main premise) , while others disagree with this opinion.

Thesis statement:
The purpose of this essay is to _________
This essay will _________
There are a lot of reasons why _____________

Sample Introductory Paragraph

Marine Parks
The issue of whether we should allow marine parks to stay open has been widely debated in our
community recently. It is an important issue because it concerns fundamental moral and economic
questions about the way we use our native wildlife. A variety of different arguments have been put
forward about this issue. There are a number of reasons why these unnecessary and cruel institutions
should be closed.

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Body

Body of an argumentative essay is made up of Pro and Con paragraphs.

1. Writing Pro paragraphs (Providing Support For Writer’s Main Premise)

Debatable statements are not statements of fact but are statements or premises (an idea that
you use to support another theory) with which other people may or may not agree. When you are
writing an argumentative essay your aim is to make your readers agree with your debatable
statements or premises. You need to convince your readers of the value or truth of your premises. But
by themselves, they are not convincing, so they need support.

Exercise 51
The following premises (P) have one supporting statement (SS1). Rewrite them adding a second
supporting statement (SS2). Also remember to use connectives (e.g. in addition, moreover, etc.) for the
first and second supporting statements

Smoking
(P) Smoking should be banned in restaurants and pubs.
(SS1) It will help people to give up this unhealthy habit.
(SS2 ________________________________________________________________________________

Public Transport
(P) The government should build more public transport instead of freeways.
(SS1) It provides cheap transport to people who can't afford cars.
(SS2) ________________________________________________________________________________

Sample Pro Paragraph

Dolphin parks are unnecessary and cruel. The dolphins and whales in these parks are kept in very
small, cramped ponds, whereas in the wild they are used to roaming long distances across the seas.
Furthermore, the concrete walls of the pools interfere with the animals' sonar systems of communication.
In addition, keeping them in pools is a terrible restriction of the freedom of fellow creatures who may
have very high levels of intelligence and a sophisticated language ability. Moreover, there are many
documented cases of marine mammals helping humans who are in danger at sea or helping fisherman with
their work.

2. Writing Con paragraphs (Refuting counterarguments)

It is important that the reader know that when you write opposing arguments you do not agree
with them. You have to make it very clear that you are presenting these arguments only to show that
you understand the issue from both sides, that you have anticipated the opposing arguments and
wish to criticize them.
In order to signal this you need to use special phrases to refute the opposing statements. (To
refute something means to make it seem like a problem, to make it seem untrue). You can
problematize (refute) arguments by making them appear to be debatable opinions and not facts. In
other words, you can refute arguments:
1) by making them appear to be untrue,
2) by making them appear to be insufficient,
3) by making them appear to be irrelevant.

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You can also signal the difference between opposing and supporting arguments by clearly
marking the point in each paragraph where you shift from one to the other. You can use contrasting
connectives to mark this point. The most common of these contrasting connectives is "However".
For example:
However, this is not true because __________(your reason)____________________
However, this is not sufficient since __________(your reason)__________________
However, this is irrelevant as __________(your reason)_______________________

Note: In trying to refute the counter arguments, you may use supporting techniques: facts, examples,
statistics, explanations and testimony (support from authority).

There are two main ways of organizing a Con Paragraph depending on the number of counter
arguments and their refutations.

Model 1: (Con 1 – Refutation1), (Con 2 – Refutation2)

Model 2: (Con – Refutation1, Refutation 2, Refutation 3)

Sample Con Paragraph (Model 1)

(Con 1)
Many people think that if a person knows many facts, (s)he becomes very knowledgeable, and
(Ref 1)
therefore, successful in the business world. However, this view is highly debatable since in the
modern world skills are more important than knowledge. It is of much greater importance to be able to find
information quickly, organize that information, analyze and understand the main ideas, put different pieces
of information together, and create new information. These skills make what we call information
(Con 2)
management and innovation, which are most desired the skills in the business world. Opponents of
skill also claim that if students remember things it is the same as understanding those things.
(Ref 2)
However, this idea no longer matches the reality of the modern world in which knowledge is less
important than creativity and deep understanding. To be successful in the age of technology, education
must focus on helping students gain information management and innovation skills.

Sample Con Paragraph (Model 2)

(Con 1)
It has been argued that dolphin parks provide the only opportunity for much of the public to
see marine mammals. Most Australians, so this argument goes, live in cities and never get to see these
animals. It is claimed that marine parks allow the average Australian to appreciate our marine wildlife.
(Ref 1)
However, dolphins, whales and seals can be viewed in the wild at a number of places on the Australian
(Ref 2)
coast. In fact, there are more places where they can be seen in the wild than places where they can
(Ref 3)
be seen in captivity. Moreover, most Australians would have to travel less to get to these locations
(Ref 4)
than they would to get to the marine parks on the Gold Coast. In addition, places where there are
wild marine mammals do not charge an exorbitant entry fee - they are free.

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Exercise 52
There are two issues listed below. Your task is to write a pair of sentences similar to the sentence in
the model about each of the issues. The first sentence should present and refute the opposing opinion
on this issue. The second sentence should present your opinion (or premise) on this issue, don’t forget
to link the two sentences with the contrasting connective, However. Use the language patterns (on pp.
88-90) to help you and try different ways of showing you are aware of the opposing opinion.

1. Banning smoking in restaurants

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Banning all guns

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion
A simple conclusion to an argumentative assignment has three parts, each of which:
1. restates the main premise
2. presents one or two general sentences which accurately summarize your arguments which support
the main premise
3. provides a general warning of the consequences of not following the premise that you put forward
and/or a general statement of how the community will benefit from following that premise

In conclusion, these parks should be closed, or at the very least, no new animals should be captured
for marine parks in the future. Our society is no longer prepared to tolerate unnecessary cruelty to animals
for science and entertainment. If we continue with our past crimes against these creatures we will be
remembered as cruel and inhuman by the generations of the future.

2. Possible Overall Outlines for the Argumentative Essay

Below are three basic plans for argumentative essays. For your argumentative essay, the
assignment (350-500 words) determines that your essay will have two to four body paragraphs. Longer
assignments, of course, would require more body paragraphs.

Plan A
I. Introduction (+ thesis statement of intent)
II. Pro argument(s) (the argument that supports your opinion)
III. Con (Counterargument + your refutation)
IV. Conclusion (summary + solution, prediction, warning or recommendation)

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Plan B
I. Introduction (+ thesis statement of intent)
II. Con (Counterargument + your refutation)
III. Pro argument(s) (the argument that supports your opinion)
IV. Conclusion (summary + solution, prediction, warning or recommendation)

Plan C
I. Introduction (+ thesis statement of intent)
II. Con #1 (Counterargument + your refutation)
III. Con #2 (Counterargument + your refutation)
IV. Conclusion (summary + solution, prediction, warning or recommendation)

Note: Your decision on which plan to use for your argumentative essay will depend on the material.
For example, if you have parallel and equal numbers of pro and con arguments, you might choose
Plan C. If, however, you have only one or two counterarguments, you will choose Plan A or Plan B.
In addition, you must consider the audience. If you think that putting the counterarguments first
and then building the pro arguments will result in a stronger positive reaction from the audience,
then you should choose Plan B. If, instead, you believe that putting your counterarguments near
the end of the paper would be more successful, then you should choose Plan A.

Sample Argumentative Essay

The issue covered by the essay is “We should allow marine parks to stay open”. This essay can be a
model for your own argumentative essay that you need to complete for the course that you are
studying. But before you can use it as a model you will need to study it carefully.

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MARINE PARKS
The issue of whether we should allow marine parks to stay open has been widely debated in our
community recently. It is an important issue because it concerns fundamental moral and economic questions
about the way we use our native wildlife. A variety of different arguments have been put forward about
this issue. There are a number of reasons why these unnecessary and cruel institutions should be closed.
(2) It has been argued that dolphin parks provide the only opportunity for much of the public to see
marine mammals. Most Australians, so this argument goes, live in cities and never get to see these animals.
It is claimed that marine parks allow the average Australian to appreciate our marine wildlife. However,
dolphins, whales and seals can be viewed in the wild at a number of places on the Australian coast. In fact,
there are more places where they can be seen in the wild than places where they can be seen in captivity.
Moreover, most Australians would have to travel less to get to these locations than they would to get to
the marine parks on the Gold Coast. In addition, places where there are wild marine mammals do not charge
an exorbitant entry fee - they are free.
(3) Dr. Alison Lane, the director of the Cairns Marine Science Institute, contends that we need
marine parks for scientific research. She argues that much of our knowledge of marine mammals comes
from studies which were undertaken at marine parks. The knowledge which is obtained at marine parks, so
this argument goes, can be useful for planning for the conservation of marine mammal species. However,
park research is only useful for understanding captive animals and is not useful for learning about animals
in the wild. Dolphin and whale biology changes in marine park conditions. Their diets are different, they
have significantly lower life spans and they are more prone to disease. In addition, marine mammals in
dolphin parks are trained and this means that their patterns of social behavior are changed. Therefore,
research undertaken at marine parks is generally not reliable.
(4) Dolphin parks are unnecessary and cruel. The dolphins and whales in these parks are kept in very
small, cramped ponds, whereas in the wild they are used to roaming long distances across the seas.
Furthermore, the concrete walls of the pools interfere with the animals' sonar systems of communication.
In addition, keeping them in pools is a terrible restriction of the freedom of fellow creatures who may
have very high levels of intelligence and a sophisticated language ability. Moreover, there are many
documented cases of marine mammals helping humans who are in danger at sea or helping fisherman with
their work.
In conclusion, these parks should be closed, or at the very least, no new animals should be captured
for marine parks in the future. Our society is no longer prepared to tolerate unnecessary cruelty to animals
for science and entertainment. If we continue with our past crimes against these creatures, we will be
remembered as cruel and inhuman by the generations of the future.

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Exercise 53
A- Answer the following questions about the introductory paragraph.

1. Does it introduce the topic? If so, what is the topic?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Does it state why the topic is important? If so, tell the reason(s).
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Does it state that there is a difference of opinion about this topic?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Does it describe how the essay will be structured and clearly state the writer's main premise? If so,
what is the writer's main premise?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

B- Answer the following questions about paragraph 2:

1. What kind of body paragraph is this, Pro or Con?

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the opposing arguments does the writer present in this paragraph?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What connective does the writer use to tell the reader that s/he is shifting from opposing
arguments to supporting arguments?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What refuting phrases does the writer use to make these opposing statements appear debatable
and possibly untrue?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. What are the arguments does the writer present in this paragraph that support his/her main
premise?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. What connectives does the writer use to list the supporting arguments in this paragraph?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

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C- Answer the following questions about paragraph 3:

1. What kind of body paragraph is this, Pro or Con?

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the opposing arguments does the writer present in this paragraph?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What connective does the writer use to tell the reader that s/he is shifting from opposing
arguments to supporting arguments?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What refuting phrases does the writer use to make these opposing statements appear debatable
and possibly untrue?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. What are the arguments does the writer present in this paragraph that support his/her main
premise?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. What connectives does the writer use to list the supporting arguments in this paragraph?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

D- Answer the following questions about paragraph 4:

1. What kind of body paragraph is this, Pro or Con?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the opposing arguments does the writer present in this paragraph?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What connective does the writer use to tell the reader that s/he is shifting from opposing
arguments to supporting arguments?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What refuting phrases does the writer use to make these opposing statements appear debatable
and possibly untrue?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

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5. What are the arguments does the writer present in this paragraph that support his/her main
premise?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. What connectives does the writer use to list the supporting arguments in this paragraph?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

E- Answer the following questions about concluding paragraph:

1. Does it restate the main premise?

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Does it present one or two general sentences which accurately summarize the arguments which
support the main premise?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Does it provide a general warning of the consequences of not following the premise that the writer
puts forward and/or a general statement of how the community will benefit from following that
premise? If so, what is it?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

LANGUAGE PATTERNS FOR ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS

INTRODUCTION

Introducing the topic:

The issue of __(main premise)____ has been widely debated in our community recently.

The reason why the topic is important:

It is an important issue because/in that __(reason)____.

The presence of different views:

A variety of different arguments have been put forward about this issue.
Some people believe __(main premise)__, while others disagree with this opinion.

Thesis statement:
The purpose of this essay is to _________
This essay will consider arguments _________

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BODY
Presenting Another Point of View

maintain
say
argue
Some people assert
Opponents of whales believe that dolphins are very clever animals.
Those who criticize whales claim
point out
are of the opinion
seem to believe
It can be argued
It has been suggested that dolphins are very clever animals.
It might be said
According to the opponents of whales dolphins are very clever animals.

Commenting Negatively On Another Point of View (Refuting)

They
This is / are mistaken.
approach may be somewhat wrong.
Their beliefs seem(s) to be rather rigid.
methods would seem to be inadequate.
position

open to doubt.
not always the case.
not necessarily true.
This is unlikely to be true.
These views are highly debatable.
incorrect.
highly speculative.

Serious doubts can be raised against this.

reservations may

However, it is clear that dolphins are not very clever animals.

One of the main arguments

Another point against dolphins is that they are not very clever animals.
A further argument

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*Additional negative words: wrong, mistaken, false, erroneous, misplaced, inaccurate, incorrect,
debatable, untrue, not the case.

Presenting Own Point of View (Supporting Own Premise)

One advantage of
Another point in favor of
A further argument supporting dolphins is that they are very clever animals.
One other advantage of
One of the main arguments in favor of

There are many reasons why dolphins are very clever animals.

important remember
It is true to bear in mind that dolphins are very clever animals.
necessary point out
essential

The first thing to be considered is that dolphins are very clever animals.

It is a fact
There is no doubt that dolphins are very clever animals.

The first reason why dolphins are very clever is _________.

First of all, __________ .
The second reason why dolphins are very clever is _________.
Secondly, _________ .
Another reason is _________ .
In addition/ Furthermore/ Besides/ What is more, _________ .

CONCLUSION
In short, In brief, In summary, In conclusion, To summarize, To sum up, To conclude, Consequently,
Briefly, All in all, (To put in a nutshell)   

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Exercise 54
Write an argumentative essay on the premise “Children should begin learning a foreign language
as soon as they start school”. Do you agree or disagree? Use specific reasons and examples to support
your position.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

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G. Other Useful Language Structures

PURPOSE

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

is
The steam is superheated so that it may be fairly dry.
in order that can be
should be

INFINITIVE PHRASES

to
A safety valve is provided in order (not) to allow excess pressure to escape.
so as (not) to (Verb)

NOUN STRUCTURES

The purpose of
The aim of the safety valve is to allow excess pressure to escape.
The object of (Infinitive)

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

for (the purpose of)

A safety valve is provided with the object of allowing excess pressure to escape.
with the aim of (V-ing)
with a view of

Exercise 55 Rewrite each sentence using either in order (not) to or so as (not) to.

1. He took off his shoes because he didn’t want to wake his wife.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Since they wanted to explain their position to the shareholders, the board of directors
published an announcement in the newspaper.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

3. He booked a ticket for the performance to avoid having to stand in a queue.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

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4. If you wish to make sure of a seat at the performance, you are advised to book in advance.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

5. I’ll get to the point straightaway because I don’t want to waste your time.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Since I wish to protect my interests, I have asked my solicitor to attend the meeting.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

7. To avoid boring you, I’ll cut a long story short.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 56 Combine the sentences by using so that. Note the present and past forms.

1. I’m going to leave the party early. I want to be able to get a good night’s sleep tonight.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

2. It’s a good idea for you to learn how to type. You’ll be able to type your own papers when you go to
university.
______________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Tony took some change from his pocket. He wanted to buy a newspaper.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

4. The little boy pretended to be sick. He wanted to stay home from school.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

5. A lot of people were standing in front of me. I stood on my tiptoes. I wanted to see the parade better.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

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EXCEPTIONS
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Everyone in the room comes from France the teacher.

None of the planets is inhabited, but the earth.
except (for)
All solids expand when they liquefy, apart from ice and a few others.

An engine cannot run without fuel.

*for is obligatory with ‘except’ at the beginning of a sentence.

Exercise 57 Rewrite the following sentences using an exception- word.

1. They’ve all gone home but the cook hasn’t left yet.
____________________________________________________________________________(apart from)

2. Everyone has agreed to contribute. Only Tim has refused to do so.

_______________________________________________________________________________ (except)

3. The only person who seems to be interested in it is you.

Except ________________________________________________________________________________

No one ___________________________________________________________________________ (but)

4. The only thing I won’t do to help is the washing-up.

I’ll do ____________________________________________________________________________ (but)

5. There’s nothing interesting there, only the ruins of the castle.

___________________________________________________________________________ (apart from)

ADDITIONS

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Besides
In addition to coal, the most important natural fuels are gas and oil.
As well as (Noun Phrase)

TRANSITION WORDS

Moreover,
Furthermore,
In addition,
Paris has excellent art museums. Besides, it provides many other cultural events.
What’s more,

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COORDINATORS

Paris has excellent art museums , and it provides many other cultural events.

OTHER STRUCTURES

Paris has excellent art museums, it also provides many other cultural events.
Paris has excellent art museums, and it provides many other cultural events as well.

Exercise 58 Using the given information, make sentences using the linking words in
parentheses.

1. Along with the increase in population in the city, there has been an increase in the
rate of crime. A housing shortage has developed.
_______________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________ (moreover)

_______________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________ (in addition to)

2. To maintain good health, it is important to eat a balanced diet. The body needs regular
physical exercise.
_______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________ (besides)

Exercise 59 Complete the following.

1. There are lots of historical places in Turkey. Furthermore, ___________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Joe plays the jazz guitar very well. In addition to ____________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

EXPANDING
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

i.e.
The hotel is closed during low season, that is from October to March.
namely

TRANSITION WORDS

The hotel is closed during In other words, it doesn’t serve from October to March.
low season. In fact,

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SEQUENCING (Listing Signals)

TRANSITION WORDS

To begin with,
First(ly), there are books on all subjects in many languages.
First of all,
Initially,
The first kind is books on all subjects in many languages.
*(kind is enumerator) includes books on all subjects in many languages.
consists books on all subjects in many languages.
Second(ly),
Next,
Then, there are reference works, which include encyclopedias, atlases,
After that, dictionaries.
Afterwards,
Subsequently,
Later,
The second kind
The next kind
The other kind is reference works, which include encyclopedias, atlases,
Another kind dictionaries.
Still another kind
Yet another kind

*(kind is enumerator)
Finally, there are periodicals, which are filed alphabetically in racks.
Last(ly),
The last kind
The final kind is periodicals, which are filed alphabetically in racks.

*(kind is enumerator)

*Note:
Sample Enumerators for Classification: kinds, types, sorts, etc.
Sample Enumerators for Process: steps, stages, etc.
Sample Enumerators for Comparison - Contrast: similarities, differences, etc.
Sample Enumerators for Cause - Effect: causes, reasons, effects, results, etc.

SUMMARIZING
TRANSITION WORDS

To summarize,
To sum up,
To conclude,
Briefly, Paris has many cultural events besides excellent art museums.
In summary,
In conclusion,
In short,
In brief,
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GIVING EXAMPLES

TRANSITION WORDS

For example,
There are many interesting For instance, the art museum has an excellent collection of
places to see in the city. To illustrate, modern paintings.
To demonstrate,

Projects, such as this one, require a great deal of planning.

*Note the pattern and punctuation:

Some countries, such as Brazil and Canada, are big.
Countries such as Brazil and Canada are big.
Such countries as Brazil and Canada are big.

PREDICATE & NOUN STRUCTURES

Periodicals, which include magazines, newspapers, etc., are filed alphabetically in racks.

Exercise 60 Complete the following using such as.

1. There are certain products that almost everyone buys regularly, _____________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Medical science has made remarkable advances, yet there are still serious diseases
that have not been conquered, _________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Such inventions as _____________________________________________________________,

have threatened human existence.

4. In certain situations, ____________________________, when ________________________ or

when _________________________________, my English still gives me a little trouble.

5. Some languages, ____________________ and ____________________, are closely related to

English, while others, _______________________ and ________________________, are not.

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CONDITION

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

If the temperature goes below 0 °C, water freezes (will freeze).

Unless it is cold, they will go swimming tomorrow.

Even if
Providing that
Provided that
On condition that they obey the regulations, they can stay in the dormitory.
In the event that
In case (that)
As long as
* Only if it rains heavily, will the game be cancelled.*
* requires inverted sentence

Water freezes (will freeze) if the temperature goes below 0 °C.

unless it is cold.
They will go swimming tomorrow even if it is cold.
whether or not it is cold.
whether it is cold or not.
providing that
provided that
only if
They can stay in the dormitory on condition that they obey the regulations.
in the event that
in case (that)
as long as

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

In case of trouble, she will call the police.

In the event of (Noun Phrase)
She will call the police in case of trouble.
in the event of (Noun Phrase)

TRANSITION WORDS

They had better hurry. Otherwise, they will miss the train.
They had better hurry; otherwise,

COORDINATORS

They had better hurry, or (else) they will miss the train.

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Exercise 61 Rewrite the following sentences, using the words in parentheses instead of
the underlined conjunctions, and making any necessary changes. The first one is done
for you:
1. He cannot travel abroad if he does not have a passport. (unless)
* He cannot travel abroad unless he has a passport.

2. He cannot get a driver’s license if he is not at least 18 years old.

______________________________________________________________________________ (unless)

____________________________________________________________________________ (otherwise)

_______________________________________________________________________________(or else)

_______________________________________________________________________________ (only if)

__________________________________________________________________________ (in case that)

____________________________________________________________________________ (in case of)

Exercise 62 Make sentences from the given possibilities. Use if. The first one is done for
you:

1. It may be cold tomorrow.

* If it is cold tomorrow, she is going to stay home.
* He cannot go on a picnic if it’s cold tomorrow.

2. The teacher may be absent tomorrow.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Maybe they will have some free time tomorrow.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 63 Use the given information to complete the sentences.

1. Sam’s uncle tells a lot of jokes. Sometimes they’re funny, and sometimes they’re not. It
doesn’t matter.
a. Sam laughs at the jokes whether _______________________________________ or not.
b. Sam laughs at the jokes even if _________________________________________________.

2. His mother’s approval does not matter to him.

a. He is going to marry Elizabeth whether __________________________________ or not.
b. He is going to marry Elizabeth even if ____________________________________________ .

Exercise 64 Complete the following sentences.

1. He is exhausted. Please do not wake him up even if _________________________________.

2. She’s not going to __________________________ unless _________________________________.

3. They must ______________________________, or (else) __________________________________.

4. On condition that there’s a fire, _____________________________________________________.

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VII. Writing A Documented Essay

A. What Is a Term Paper (a Documented Essay)?
Term paper, which is essential for a college student to write, is very similar to a
short essay in that they both have the same structure. However, term paper is different
from a short essay in that it is longer and documented piece of academic writing on a
topic. The student is either assigned a topic or choose one himself/ herself.
B. The Procedure of Writing a Term Paper (or a Documented Essay)
The following procedure is useful when writing an extended essay or assignment.

Task

1. Read the question and understand what you are required to do.

2. Go to the library and find relevant books or articles.

3. Find the books on your reading list and study them.

4. Make notes on these books and articles. Record full details of the
materials you use.

5. Organize your essay/assignment.

6. Type your first draft.

7. Discuss your first draft informally with friends, other members of your
class and your lecturer if possible.

8. Revise your first draft, bearing in mind any comments that were made in
your discussions. Go back to 2 if necessary. Produce your second draft.

9. Proofread your draft.

Produce a final typed version.

10. Check everything.

1. Understanding The Question

Students often do worse than they should not because their writing skills are weak
or because their knowledge of the subject matter is insufficient, but because they have
not fully understood what they have been asked to do. Therefore, it is important to fully
understand what a question means and how it should be answered. In order to
understand the question it is useful to analyze the questions.

2. Organizing The Answer (Essay Structure)

The aim of the essay should be deduced strictly from the wording of the title or
question, and needs to be defined at the beginning. The idea of an essay is for you to say
something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to present ideas you have
learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other people’s ideas,
rather than reproducing their words. The ideas and people that you refer to need to made
explicit by a system of referencing. Your essay should have the following sections:

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Preliminaries Title page

Introduction

Main text Main body

Conclusion

End matter References

3. Writing The Term Paper

a. Writing Title Page
In academic writing it is necessary to write a title page for long academic works,
such as term papers, reports, thesis, dissertations.

b. Writing Introductions
The purpose of the introduction is to show the reader what you are doing in your
writing. It is also helpful to explain why you are doing it and how you are doing it. For
that reason, there are usually two main parts in the introduction similar to that in the
short essay: (1) showing that the topic of the term paper is important, central,
interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way; and indicating an obvious gap, (2)
outlining purposes or stating the nature of the paper and by indicating the structure of
the paper.

Part 1
i. Opening statements (General Statements)

Examples

* The increasing interest in __(topic)_______has heightened the need for _________.

* Recently, there has been growing interest in __(topic)_______.
* The __(topic)_______has been extensively studied in recent years.
* Many recent studies have focused on __(topic)_______.

ii. Showing the reason why the topic is important/ interesting/ relevant:

Examples
* This is an important topic because ________________________________________.
* This is important since _________________________________________________.
* The reason why this is an interesting issue is that _____________________________.

Part 2
Indicating the purpose and organization
Examples for showing purpose
The purpose of this paper is to _________
This paper was designed to _________
This paper seeks to _________

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Examples for showing organization
The rest of this paper have been organized in the following way: _________
This paper is structured as follows: _________
The remainder of this paper is divided into two sections: _________

Sample Introduction

Introduction
Many recent studies have showed that seventy percent of people in the developing
world still have no access to electricity in their homes, health clinics, or schools, and are
completely isolated from the modern world's wealth of resources. This is an important topic
because kerosene lamps, candles, and dry cell batteries are used for home lighting and radios.
In addition, health clinics have no means to power refrigerators necessary for vaccine and
other drug preservation, and health care workers have limited access to modern medical
knowledge and research. Furthermore, children in village schools spend hours hand-copying
notes off of chalk boards because their schools have no photocopiers; and without computers,
these kids are trapped in the digital divide of information haves and have-nots.
This paper seeks to explore the potential successfulness of renewable energy
electrification in the developing world. The remainder of this paper is divided into three
sections. It begins by describing the current energy needs in rural areas of the world, and
the consequences of continued increases in fossil fuel consumption that may occur if
renewable energies are not used. The second section of the paper briefly explains the
processes, the advantages, and the disadvantages of three available forms of energy: hydro,
solar, and wind power. Finally, in the conclusion, it makes a proposal to help resolve some of
the problems presented at the beginning of the paper.

c. Writing the Body

The main body may include several sections consisting of several paragraphs, and
each section should be given a suitable subtitle. Sections can be further divided into
subsections with headings. However, in some cases the main body may only be composed
of body paragraphs. Each section or paragraph develops a subdivision of the topic. The
paragraphs of the paper contain the main ideas and arguments of the paper together
with illustrations or examples. The paragraphs are linked in order to connect the ideas.
The purpose of the essay must be made clear and the reader must be able to follow its
development. The goal of each body paragraph is to state a topic sentence that is directly
related to the thesis, and to support that topic sentence.

Unlike in earlier editions of the APA manual, the sixth edition tells you to bold headings
(but not the title above or anything on the title page). Below are examples.

Heading Level 1
Heading Level 2
Heading Level 3. (Note the Indent, Bold and Period)
Heading Level 4. (Note the Indent, Italic, Bold and Period)
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Sample Main Body

Electricity Demand and the Developing World

A Growing Necessity

Hundreds of millions of people live in remote areas of the world where local
governments cannot provide electricity. “On islands, in mountains, or separated by miles of
undeveloped land, these communities cannot access the electricity they need for water
purification, irrigation, health services, education, food preservation and other public
utilities” (“Guided Tour,” n.d.). The problem is rooted in both the location and population of
these communities, because governments cannot afford to build power lines to connect
smaller, distant populations to the public electricity grid. In some areas, diesel-powered
electric generators, oil-burning lamps, batteries, and other substitutes can meet some of the
energy demands. More remote communities have no electricity at all.
When determining the best way to address the electricity needs of the developing
world, attention should be given to renewable energies. As explained earlier, renewable
energies are natural, non-depleting sources of power, and this report focuses on only three of
the various types: solar, wind, and hydropower. According to Harrison and Whittington
(2001), “Renewable energy technologies have made substantial advancements in efficiency and
price reduction, and in many cases they are cost-effective alternatives to fossil fuel-based
power plants” (pp.78-79). Renewable energies are also important because they have unique
environmental advantages over conventional energy sources.
Renewable Energy Technologies
Solar energy. Solar energy can be harnessed in a number of different ways—by
capturing solar radiation, with concentrated solar power, with passive solar heating, and with
photovoltaic cells. Because of the complexity of each of these technologies, this paper will
report only on the most common one used to generate electricity, photovoltaic cells (also
called PV cells or solar cells). This will describe how the PV cells convert sunlight into
electricity and will discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of the technology.
Wind energy. Wind energy is perhaps the oldest form of natural power harnessed by
humans, used 7,000 years ago to propel boats down the Nile. “Most people probably associate
wind energy with either windmills used for pumping water or with modern wind turbines used
to produce electricity” (“Guided Tour,” n.d.).
Hydropower. Hydropower is the most commonly utilized renewable resource. Energy
can be harnessed from river flow, tidal changes, wave motion, and in the thermal ocean
currents. This paper will review the most popular of the technologies based on river flow—
large-scale hydroelectric dams, micro-hydro facilities, run-of-river projects, and diversion
hydropower. Hydropower only supplies 8% of the U.S. electricity, but provides 20% of the
world’s supply; its popularity is due in large part to its affordability. As Hayes observes
(2001), “Hydropower is the cheapest of all renewable electricity options, comparable in cost
to conventional fossil fuel source” (p.48).
Benefits of hydropower. Because of the difficulty in obtaining consistent electricity
generation from renewable energies, hybrid systems are very common solutions to rural
electrification needs. Hybrid systems consist of two or more technologies that operate
together to provide electrical power. “If a drought limits river flow, if winds are not strong
or if rainstorms prevent sunlight for an extended period of time, the technologies can share
resources to maintain electrical power output” (Endersbee, 1996). Often, diesel-generators
may be coupled together as a last resource.

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d. Writing Conclusions
The final part of a term paper is the conclusion, which tells the reader that the
paper is completed. It consists of two parts: summary and comment.
i. Summary
This part generally begins with an expression signaling conclusion such as “In
short”, “In conclusion”, etc. Then the main points discussed in the body of the term paper
are summarized (usually in one paragraph).
ii. Comment
In this part, the final comment such as suggestion, prediction, warning, solution,
calling to action, making an analogy or discussing the results is added. This is an
opportunity to make a strong, effective message that the reader will remember.
Note: Avoid any completely new idea. If a new idea occurs in the conclusion, the
reader may expect clarification and proof of the idea. Therefore, it is not wise to include a
completely new idea in the conclusion.
Sample Conclusion

Conclusion
To sum up, this paper has described the current energy needs in rural areas of the
world and has explained the processes, the advantages, and the disadvantages of three
available forms of energy: hydro-, solar, and wind power. National renewable energy initiatives
are largely responsible for the historical development of solar wind and hydropower
technologies, but governmental subsidies may not be essential to the renewable market in the
coming decades. With wind power already near conventional energy prices, with hydro-
electric projects continued success and environmental advantages, and with the unique
benefits of modularity and reliability associated with solar cells, these renewable energies
are nearly capable of sustaining themselves. If current trends continue, the world can look
forward to a very bright future.

e. Writing A List of References

At the end of all pieces of academic writing, you need a list of materials that you
have used or referred to. This usually has a heading: references but may be works cited
depending on the conventions of the system you use. The ideas and people that you refer
to need to be made explicit by a system of referencing.
This consists of a list of materials that you have used at the end of the piece of
writing and references to this list at various points throughout the essay. The purpose of
this is to supply the information needed to allow a user to find a source. Therefore, at the
end of your assignment you need a list of the materials you have used - a bibliography or
a reference list.

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Sample Reference Page

References

Endersbee, L.A. (1996) The engines of the world = global changes in electrification. Retrieved from

http://www.atse.org.au/publications/symposia/proc-1996p14.htm

Guided tour on wind energy. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.windpower.org/tour/index.htm

Harrison, G.P. & Whittington, H.W. (2001). Climate change – a storm brewing for hydro. Edinburgh:

University of Edinburgh.

Hayes, S. (2001). Hydropower: renewed U.S. interest in an improved renewable. Global energy

business, 3, 4, 48.

C. Documentation
In academic work, researchers and students constantly read material on their
subjects before writing papers and essays, and they must give credit to the writers whose
work they are using. This is called giving references, or referring. When a writer uses
such ideas and statements, he or she must inform the reader where they originate;
otherwise, the writer will be guilty of stealing, or plagiarizing. Plagiarism is severely
punished in university. A student who plagiarizes may fail the assignment, be removed
from the course, or even be expelled from the university.
However, this does not mean that you have to reference everything in your essay
that you have read in source text. Any information that an educated reader would
consider true without investigating its reliability can be considered ‘common
knowledge’. In this case, you do not have to give reference.

Common knowledge includes:

* general information that most people know (e.g. Istanbul was conquered in 1453.)
* information shared by a cultural group (e.g. Atatürk was born in Salonika in 1881.)

Common knowledge does not include:

* all statistics, data, figures
* references to studies by others
* references to specific facts the average reader would not know without referring to a
source.
Common knowledge or not?
Sometimes it can be difficult to distinguish between common knowledge and
information that is the intellectual property of the author of the original text. In this case,
treat is as source material and give reference.
There are three components of giving references:
(1) borrowing ideas
(2) citation
(3) in-text & end-text referencing

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1. Borrowing Ideas

In academic writing, you are expected to support your ideas accurately to make
them convincing to the reader. Writing about your own experiences will not convince the
reader all the time, but referring to a source text will make your ideas more valid.
When borrowing ideas, you will need to use reporting verbs to integrate these
ideas into your own paper. When citing sources, using the suitable reporting verbs is an
important skill because this helps you discuss your subject more knowledgeably. Since
these verbs are not synonyms, pay close attention to choose the right one to give your
intended meaning. Commonly used reporting verbs are:

Add, admit, agree, argue, assert, believe, claim, comment, confirm, contend,
criticize, declare, demonstrate, deny, emphasize, endorse, highlight, illustrate,
imply, indicate, insist, note, observe, point out, reason, reject, remark, respond,
show, state, suggest, support, think, underline

There are three methods of borrowing ideas:

(a) direct quoting
(b) paraphrasing
(c) summarizing

a. Direct Quoting
When you use someone's words, you are quoting the person, and you must show
the reader you are doing so. Quotations must always be exact. You cannot change any
words, even if they are ungrammatical or misspelled.
Direct quoting is used when the original text has a memorable, clear or economical
language; otherwise, the information that we cite from other materials should be mostly
used as paraphrases or summaries.

* Limiting the Use of Direct Quotations

Overuse of quotations will lead you to lose the originality of your work; therefore,
it is very important to limit the use of quotations. In other words, you should quote only
when it is necessary and when you believe that it will make your essay more effective.
Important note: Do not forget that a successful essay should be built on your
own opinions, observations and conclusions. That is, it is not a mere compilation of what
other people say about the topic.

* Inserting Quotations into a Text

Quotations should be used so that they become part of a context. The following
techniques can be used accomplish this.
1. If a quotation is shorter than forty words, enclose it in quotation marks. Study the
following examples.
Original Text
Name of the book: Winter Days
Author: Mark Egan
Year of Publication: 2015
Page: 23

People in the North are prepared for subzero temperatures.

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Quotation 1
Northern people “are prepared for subzero temperatures.” (Egan, 2015, p.23).
Quotation 2
According to Egan (2015), “People in the North are prepared for subzero temperatures.”
(p.23).
Quotation 3
Egan (2015, p.23) remarks, “People in the North are prepared for subzero temperatures.”.

2. If a quotation is forty words or longer, increase the left margin by ten spaces and do
not use quotation marks. Such quotations are double-spaced. Example:

Original Text
Name of the book: Writing Principles
Author: Ted Rodgers
Year of Publication: 1977
Page: 24

In speech, pauses mark rates of respiration, set off certain words for rhetorical emphasis,
facilitate phonological maneuvers, regulate the rhythms of thought and articulation and
suggest grammatical structure. Modern punctuation, however, does not provide a score for
such a complex orchestration.

Quotation 4
This is further explained by Rodgers (1977) in the following statements:

In speech, pauses mark rates of respiration, set off certain words for rhetorical

emphasis, facilitate phonological maneuvers, regulate the rhythms of thought and

articulation and suggest grammatical structure. Modern punctuation, however, does not

provide a score for such a complex orchestration (p. 24).

b. Paraphrasing
Another way to give information from a source is to paraphrase, i.e., to state the
information carefully and accurately, using your own words and changing the
grammatical structures. Paraphrases, like quotations, require references in the text. You
may paraphrase whenever it is not necessary to give the exact words of the author.
* Paraphrasing is used when borrowing maximum two or three sentence-long
information.
* A paraphrase is usually close to the original material in terms of length without
leaving any detail.
* It is very important to begin your paraphrase by referring to the author and/or
title of the article or the book.
Show the “title of the article” in double quotation.
Show the title of the book underlined.

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Inserting Paraphrases into a Text

Paraphrases should be used so that they become part of a context. The following
techniques can be used to accomplish this. Example:

Original Text
Title of the book: Introduction to Physics
Author: Bill Jones
Year of Publication: 2013
Page: 16

The wine barometer built by Pascal is a variation on the more common mercury barometer,
except that water or wine is used instead of the much denser mercury, and, as a consequence,
the tube must be more than ten meters long.

Paraphrase 1
Pascal's wine barometer, which uses fluid much lighter than mercury, requires,
therefore, a tube longer than ten meters (Jones, 2013).
Paraphrase 2
According to Jones (2013), Pascal's wine barometer, which uses fluid much lighter than
mercury, requires, therefore, a tube longer than ten meters.
Paraphrase 3 (showing title of the book underlined)
In his book Introduction to Physics Jones (2013) states that Pascal's wine barometer,
which uses fluid much lighter than mercury, requires, therefore, a tube longer than ten
meters.

c. Summarizing
Although we usually write at full length, it is often necessary to restate lengthy
compositions in a condensed form. This brief summary must be in your own words and it
must accurately state the main idea and the major supporting ideas of the original text.
Generally, a summary is about one fourth to one third of the length of the original
piece. A long selection is often summarized paragraph by paragraph, but sometimes
several paragraphs or even the entire selection may be condensed into one paragraph.

Guidelines to Follow in Summary Writing

Summarizing requires two important reading skills:

1. finding the main idea
2. determining major supporting points.

Below are some suggestions for reading a selection that you plan to summarize.

1. Read through the entire selection before you start to summarize. Do not begin
summarizing while you are reading.
2. Identify the author’s main idea. In order to do this, it is of utmost importance to
determine the topic sentence of the paragraph because this sentence introduces the
topic and states an idea or attitude about the topic. It is generally placed at the
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beginning of the paragraph, but it may also be at the end. In some paragraphs it is
not explicitly stated in one sentence. In order to determine the implied main idea of a
piece of writing, you should ask yourself what idea is common to most of the text.
What is the idea that relates the parts to the whole? What opinion do all the parts
support? What idea do they all explain or describe?
3. Determine the major supporting details and their relationship to the main idea.
4. Underline the main idea and major points so that you save time while writing your
summary.

Inserting Summaries into a Text

Summaries should be used so that they become part of a context. The following
techniques can be used to accomplish this.
* It is very important to begin your summary by referring to the author and/or title
of the article or the book.
* Show “the title of the article” in double quotation.
* Show the title of the book underlined.

Example:
Let’s look at the example of summarized material. In the summary, you’ll notice that
we’ve documented by including the author/year at the end of the passage. Other
documentation styles may employ a different technique. Additionally, you’ll probably
want to vary how you incorporate source material into your paper.

Original Text
Title of the article: The Dynamics of Business
Author: K.O. Locker
Year of Publication: 2014
Page: 301

Height connotes status in many parts of the world. Executive offices are
usually on the top floors; the underlings work below. Even being tall can help a
person succeed. Studies have shown that employers are more willing to hire
men over 6 feet tall than shorter men with the same credentials. Studies of
real-world executives and graduates have shown that taller men make more
money. In one study, every extra inch of height brought in an extra $1,300 a
year. But being too big can be a disadvantage. A tall, brawny football player
complained that people found him intimidating off the field and assumed he
"had the brains of a Twinkie.

Let’s first identify the main points in the original passage.

Topic sentence: “Height connotes status in many parts of the world.”
Main point: “Even being tall can help a person succeed.”
Main point: “Executive offices are usually on the top”
Main point: “being too big can be a disadvantage”

Summary 1
Though height may connote slowness to some people, in the business world, it is almost
universally associated with success. For example, taller men are more likely to be hired and to
have greater salaries. Further, those in top positions within a company are more likely to work
on the top floors of office buildings (Locker, 2014).

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Summary 2
According to Locker (2014), though height may connote slowness to some people, in the
business world, it is almost universally associated with success. For example, taller men are
more likely to be hired and to have greater salaries. Further, those in top positions within a
company are more likely to work on the top floors of office buildings.

Summary 3 (showing title of the article in “double quotation")

Locker (2014) argues in “The Dynamics of Business” that though height may connote
slowness to some people, in the business world, it is almost universally associated with
success. For example, taller men are more likely to be hired and to have greater salaries.
Further, those in top positions within a company are more likely to work on the top floors
of office buildings.

Exercise 65
Read the passage below, and do the quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing exercises
that follow.

Title of the book: Psychological Effects of Vacation

Author: R. Weinstock
Year of Publication: 2015
Page: 36
Vacation Stress
One of the greatest benefits of a vacation should be release from the pressures and
stresses of daily life. Unfortunately, many people unwittingly forego this benefit by taking
their holidays under circumstances that continue these pressures instead of relieving them.
Because we are often unaware of the forms that stress can take, we don't know how to avoid
it. Most people recognize the stressful nature of their jobs and of family or community
responsibilities. But how many of us realize that our social relationships with friends and
acquaintances-even though we normally enjoy the company of others-impose on us certain
codes of behavior and responsibilities?
Another source of stress is time. In our daily lives we are subject to schedules, whether
formal or informal. We are also bombarded by the sounds of traffic, machinery, conversation,
and yet many of us perpetuate these stresses when we go on vacation. We travel to resorts
where we must obey social rules and where we must arrange our activities around a schedule
imposed by others. We visit faraway cities where we are assaulted by the same kinds of noise
that cause us stress at home. When we return, we are often secretly puzzled that we are not
as rested as we hoped to be. Analyzing the pressures of one's life before planning a vacation
could result in a reduction of stress, and therefore in a more relaxing holiday.

1. Quote the author's observation on one other type of stress. Quote a complete
sentence and give a reference.
_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

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2. Paraphrase the author's opinion on why people often do not avoid stress on a
vacation. Give a reference.
_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Summarize the passage. Give a reference.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Citation
In academic works, it is very important for you to be credible in giving information
in order to support your ideas. Therefore, you need to borrow others’ ideas by indicating
the source, which is called citation. Books, journals, encyclopedias and documents from
the internet are the main sources for borrowing. When you quote, paraphrase or
summarize from a source text, you must give a reference.
However, this does not mean that you have to give reference everything in your
essay that you have read in source text. If the information in the source text is common
knowledge, it is not necessary to give reference. When it is difficult to distinguish between
common knowledge and information that is the intellectual property of the author of the
original text, you can treat it as source material and give reference.
There are various styles of citation which are used by different disciplines. Three
most widely used ones in academic papers are:
APA: American Psychological Association
MLA: Modern Language Association
CMS: The Chicago Manual of Style

In this book, we will use APA Style which is composed of two components:
(a) In-text Citation (in the text)
(b) End-text Reference (at the end of the text).

a. In-Text Citations in APA Style

APA Style uses a kind of parenthetical referencing called the author–date system.
As the name author–date system implies, APA Style in-text citations include the author’s
surname, publication year and the page numbers (if available) or paragraph number.

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Because material within a book or on a web page is often difficult to locate, you
should, whenever possible, give page numbers (for books) or paragraph numbers for (web
pages) in body to assist readers. Page numbers are preceded by p. (page) or pp. (pages).
Paragraph numbers are preceded by ¶ or para. However, it should be noted that page/
paragraph number is included only in direct quotations. Therefore, there is no need to use
page/ paragraph number in paraphrases and summaries. For websites with neither page
numbers nor paragraph numbers, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph
following it.

Basic In-Text Citation Style

Here are various ways of citing in-text:

i. Direct quotations (with page/ paragraph numbers)

* “___Direct Quotation___” (Author, 2010, pp.42-43).

* Author (2010) reports, “___Direct Quotation___” (para.4).
* Author (2010, p.19) reports, “___Direct Quotation___”.

ii. Paraphrases and summaries (no page/ paragraph numbers)

* ___Paraphrase/ Summary (Author, 2010).
* Author (2010) reports that ___Paraphrase/ Summary__.

b. End-Text Reference
When compared to an in-text citation, an end-text reference provides a more
detailed account of the sources used in the essay. The purpose of end-text reference is to
provide the reader with all the necessary information in case s/he wants to make use of
the same source. Basic guidelines to give an end-text reference:

* Reference list should begin on new page.

* All the sources cited in the text should be given on the reference list.
* Use heading: References (centered on the page).
* The entries should be double-spaced.
* Indent second, third, etc. lines of each entry.
* The list of works should be in alphabetical order by authors’ surnames. Alphabetize
works with no author by the first significant word in the title.
* Page numbers should be included for all articles in journals and in collections.
* Use italics for titles of books, periodicals, newspapers, encyclopedias, etc.
* Use (n.d.) if no date is given.
* If the author of a document is not given, begin the reference with the title of the
document.

3. In-text and End-text Referencing

(Using Four Kinds of Sources)

DQ stands for Direct Quotation

P/S stands for Paraphrase/ Summary

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1. BOOK
Formula for the reference page:
Author(s), A.A. (year). Title of the Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

a. One author:
Reference page:

Smith, F. (1978). Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

In-text:

Cite in text the surname(s) of the author(s), the year (and the page number).

E.g. #1: “________DQ______________” (Smith, 1978, p.36).

E.g. #2: Smith (1978) reports, “________DQ______________” (p.36).
E.g. #3: Smith (1978, p.36) reports, “________DQ______________”.
E.g. #4: ________P/S______________ (Smith, 1978).
E.g. #5: Smith (1978) reports ________P/S______________.

b. Two authors:
Reference page:

Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1983). An introduction to language. London: Holt-

Saunders.

In-text: Cite in text the surname(s) of the author(s), the year (and the page number).

E.g. #1: “________DQ______________” (Fromkin & Rodman, 1983, p.27).

E.g. #2: Fromkin and Rodman (1983) report, “________DQ______________” (p.27).
E.g. #3: Fromkin and Rodman (1983, p.27) report, “________DQ______________”.
E.g. #4: ________P/S______________ (Fromkin & Rodman, 1983).
E.g. #5: Fromkin and Rodman (1983) report ________P/S______________.

Note the "and" in Fromkin and Rodman is written as an ampersand (&) inside
parentheses and as the word and outside of parentheses, as shown in the examples
above.
c. More than two authors:
Reference page:

Barr, P., Clegg, J. & Wallace, C. (1981). Advanced reading skills. London:
Longman.

In-text:

Cite in text the surname(s) of the author(s), the year (and the page number).
First time it is mentioned
E.g. #1: “________DQ______________” (Barr, Clegg & Wallace, 1981, p.36).
E.g. #2: Barr, Clegg and Wallace (1981) report, “________DQ______________” (p.36).
E.g. #3: Barr, Clegg and Wallace (1981, p.36) report, “________DQ______________”.
E.g. #4: ________P/S______________ (Barr, Clegg & Wallace, 1981).
E.g. #5: Barr, Clegg and Wallace (1981) report ________P/S______________.

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From the second time onwards
E.g. #1: “________DQ______________” (Barr et al., 1981, p.36).
E.g. #2: Barr et al. (1981) report, “________DQ______________” (p.36).
E.g. #3: Barr et al. (1981, p.36) report, “________DQ______________”.
E.g. #4: ________P/S______________ (Barr et al., 1981).
E.g. #5: Barr et al. (1981) report ________P/S______________.

d. Book with editor(s):

Reference page:

Burke, R. & Cooper, J. (Eds.) (1983). Inspiring commanders. London: Holt-

Saunders.

In-text: Cite in text the surname(s) of the author(s), the year (and the page number).

E.g. #1: “________DQ______________” (Burke & Cooper, 1983, p.27).

E.g. #2: Burke and Cooper (1983) report, “________DQ______________” (p.27).
E.g. #3: Burke and Cooper (1983, p.27) report, “________DQ______________”.
E.g. #4: ________P/S______________ (Burke & Cooper, 1983).
E.g. #5: Burke and Cooper (1983) report ________P/S______________.

e. Non-English book:
Reference page:

Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1951). La genèse de l’idée de hazard chez l’enfant [The
origin of the idea of danger in the child]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.

In-text: Because the original language is not English, paraphrasing or summarizing is

preferred instead of direct quotation. In some special cases where it is necessary to use
original language, the rules for in-text citation from internet sources are applied.

E.g. #1: _______P/S_______________ (Piaget & Inhelder, 1951).

E.g. #2: Piaget and Inhelder (1951) reported _______P/S_______________.

2. JOURNALS

Formula for the reference page:

Author(s), A. (year). Title of the Article. Journal Title, Vol. no, page numbers.
Reference page:

Bedford, P. (2002). Behaviors of frustrated children. Journal of Research in

Personality, 22, 236-252.

In-text:
Cite in text the surname(s) of the author(s) and the year.

E.g. #1: “________DQ______________” (Bedford, 2002).

E.g. #2: Bedford (2002) reports, “________DQ______________”.
E.g. #3: ________P/S______________ (Bedford, 2002).
E.g. #4: Bedford (2002) reports ________P/S______________.

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3. REFERENCE BOOK (e.g. ENCYCLOPEDIA)

Formula for the reference page:

Title of the Entry. (year). In The title of encyclopedia (vol. no., page numbers). Place
of publication: Publisher.

Reference page:
Words. (1993). In The new encyclopedia Britannica (vol. 38, pp. 745-758). Chicago: Forty-
One Publishing.

In-text:
Cite in text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title) and the year.
E.g.: “__________DQ____________” (Words, 1993).
__________P/S____________ (Words, 1993).

4. DOCUMENTS OBTAINED FROM THE INTERNET

All references begin with the same information that would be provided for a printed
source (or as much of that information as possible). The WWW information is then placed
at the end of the reference in the same way as publishing information is given for books.
The object of this is the same as all referencing - to supply the information needed to
allow a user to find a source. If you do not know the author or the date and it does not
have a clear title, think carefully before using it.

Content in that egg white area (various formats) may seem confusing to cite, but the
template for references from this area is actually very simple, with only four pieces
(author, date, title, and source):

Note that [format] description in brackets is used only when the format is something out
of the ordinary, such as a blog post or movie; otherwise, it's not necessary.

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1. All pieces are available
Reference page:

Formula: Author, A. A. (date). Title of document. Retrieved from http://xxxxx

Example:
Li, X. & Crane, N. (1996). Bibliographic formats for citing electronic information.
Retrieved from http://xxxxx
In-text:

Cite in text the surname(s) of the author(s), the year (and the paragraph number).

E.g. #1: “________DQ______________” (Li & Crane, 1996, para.3).

E.g. #2: Li and Crane (1996) report, “________DQ______________” (para.3).
E.g. #3: Li and Crane (1996, para.3) report, “________DQ______________”.
E.g. #4: ________P/S______________ (Li and Crane, 1996).
E.g. #5: Li and Crane (1996) report ________P/S______________.

2. Author is missing

Solution: Substitute title for author; then provide date and source.
Reference page:
Formula: Title of document. (date). Retrieved from http://xxxxx

Example:
A field guide to sources on, about and on the Internet: Citation formats. (1995).
Retrieved from http://xxxxx

In-text:

Cite in text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title), the year and
the paragraph number. Use double quotation marks around the title or abbreviated title.
E.g.: “_______DQ_______________” ("A field guide," 1995, para.3).
_______P/S_______________ ("A field guide," 1995).

3. Date is missing

Solution: Provide author, substitute (n.d.) for no date, and then give title and source.

Reference page:
Formula: Author, A. A. (n.d.). Title of document. Retrieved from http://xxxxxxx

Example:
Smith, J. (n.d.). The Art of Using Plectrum. Retrieved from http://xxxxx

In-text:
Cite in text the surname(s) of the author(s), the year (and the paragraph number).

E.g. #1: “________DQ______________” (Smith, n.d., para.3).

E.g. #2: Smith (n.d.) reports, “________DQ______________” (para.3).
E.g. #3: Smith (n.d., para.3) reports, “________DQ______________”.
E.g. #4: ________P/S______________ (Smith, n.d.).
E.g. #5: Smith (n.d.) reports ________P/S______________.

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4. Date and title are both missing

Solution: Provide author, substitute (n.d.) for no date, describe document inside square
brackets, and then give source.

Reference page:
Formula: Author, A. A. (n.d.). [Description of document]. Retrieved from http://xxxxx
Example:
Smith, J. (n.d.). [Technical report on jazz guitar]. Retrieved from http://xxxxx

In-text:
Cite in text the surname(s) of the author(s), the year (and the paragraph number).

E.g. #1: “________DQ______________” (Smith, n.d., para.3).

E.g. #2: Smith (n.d.) reports, “________DQ______________” (para.3).
E.g. #3: Smith (n.d., para.3) reports, “________DQ______________”.
E.g. #4: ________P/S______________ (Smith, n.d.).
E.g. #5: Smith (n.d.) reports ________P/S______________.

5. Encyclopedias online

Formula: Title of the Entry. (date). In The title of encyclopedia. Retrieved from
http://xxxxx
Reference page:
Psychology. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from http://xxxxx

In-text:
Cite in text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title of entry) and
the year. Use double quotation marks around the title or abbreviated title.
E.g.: “_________DQ_____________” (“Psychology,” n.d.).
__________P/S____________ (“Psychology,” n.d.).

6. Blog post

Formula: Title of the page. (date). The title of document [Format]. Retrieved from
http://xxxx

Reference page:

Freakonomics. (2010, October 29). E-Z Pass is a life-saver (literally) [Blog post].
Retrieved from http://xxxxx

In-text:

Cite in text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title) and the year.
Use double quotation marks around the title or abbreviated title.
E.g.: “__________DQ___________” ("E-Z Pass," 2010)
___________P/S__________ ("E-Z Pass," 2010)

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7. Corporate authors:

Formula: Title of the page. (date). The title of document. Retrieved from http://xxxxx

Reference page:
American Psychological Association (1996). How to cite information from the world wide
web. Retrieved from http://xxxxx
In-text:
Cite in text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title), the year (and
the paragraph number). Use double quotation marks around the title or abbreviated title.
E.g.: “_________DQ_____________” ("How to cite," 1996, para.3).
________P/S______________ ("How to cite," 1996).

8. Non-English internet sources

Formula: The rules above are applied by writing the original title of the document
followed by the English translation in brackets [____].
Reference page:
Güçlü, A. (2017). Sınavlar adil mi? [Are the exams fair?] Retrieved from http://xxxx
Güçlü, A. (n.d.). Sınavlar adil mi? [Are the exams fair?] Retrieved from http://xxxxx
Sınavlar adil mi? [Are the exams fair?]. (2017). Retrieved from http://xxxxx
Sınavlar adil mi? [Are the exams fair?]. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://xxxxx

In-text:
Formula: Because the original language is not English, paraphrasing or summarizing is
preferred instead of direct quotation. In some special cases where it is necessary to use
original language, the rules for in-text citation from internet sources are applied.

For further information on referencing please visit

http://www.loc.gov/teachers/usingprimarysources/apa.html

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APPENDIX Sample Term Paper

Opportunities for Renewable Energy Electrification

In Rural, Developing Communities

0011223344 Buğra Özdemir

Gazi University

ENG 204 Academic English II

Submitted to Can Gür, M.A.

May, 2020

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Opportunities for Renewable Energy Electrification in Rural, Developing Communities

Introduction

Many recent studies have showed that seventy percent of people in the developing world

still have no access to electricity in their homes, health clinics, or schools, and are completely

isolated from the modern world's wealth of resources. This is an important topic because

kerosene lamps, candles, and dry cell batteries are used for home lighting and radios. In

addition, health clinics have no means to power refrigerators necessary for vaccine and other

drug preservation, and health care workers have limited access to modern medical knowledge

and research. Furthermore, children in village schools spend hours hand-copying notes off of

chalk boards because their schools have no photocopiers; and without computers, these kids

are trapped in the digital divide of information haves and have-nots.

This paper seeks to explore the potential successfulness of renewable energy

electrification in the developing world. The remainder of this paper is divided into three

sections. It begins by describing the current energy needs in rural areas of the world, and the

consequences of continued increases in fossil fuel consumption that may occur if renewable

energies are not used. The second section of the paper briefly explains the processes, the

advantages, and the disadvantages of three available forms of energy: hydro, solar, and wind

power. Finally, in the conclusion, it makes a proposal to help resolve some of the problems

presented at the beginning of the paper.

Electricity Demand and the Developing World: A Growing Necessity

Hundreds of millions of people live in remote areas of the world where local

governments cannot provide electricity. “On islands, in mountains, or separated by miles of

undeveloped land, these communities cannot access the electricity they need for water

purification, irrigation, health services, education, food preservation and other public utilities”

(“Guided Tour,” n.d.). The problem is rooted in both the location and population of these

communities, because governments cannot afford to build power lines to connect smaller,

distant populations to the public electricity grid. In some areas, diesel-powered electric

generators, oil-burning lamps, batteries, and other substitutes can meet some of the energy

demands. More remote areas have no electricity at all.

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When determining the best way to address the electricity needs of the developing world,

attention should be given to renewable energies. As explained earlier, renewable energies are

natural, non-depleting sources of power, and this paper focuses on only three of the various

types: solar, wind, and hydropower. According to Harrison and Whittington (2001) “Renewable

energy technologies have made substantial advancements in efficiency and price reduction,

and in many cases they are cost-effective alternatives to fossil fuel-based power plants” (pp.78-

79). Renewable energies are also important because they have unique environmental

advantages over conventional energy sources.

Renewable Energy Technologies

Solar energy can be harnessed in a number of different ways—by capturing solar

radiation, with concentrated solar power, with passive solar heating, and with photovoltaic

cells. Because of the complexity of each of these technologies, this paper will report only on

the most common one used to generate electricity, photovoltaic cells (also called PV cells or

solar cells). This will describe how the PV cells convert sunlight into electricity and will discuss

some of the advantages and disadvantages of the technology.

Wind energy is perhaps the oldest form of natural power harnessed by humans, used

7,000 years ago to propel boats down the Nile. “Most people probably associate wind energy

with either windmills used for pumping water or with modern wind turbines used to produce

electricity” (“Guided Tour,” n.d.).

Hydropower is the most commonly utilized renewable resource. In his essay

“Hydropower: Renewed U.S. Interest in an Improved Renewable” Hayes (2001) states,

The energy needed can be harnessed from river flow, tidal changes, wave motion,

and in the thermal ocean currents. This paper will review the most popular of

the technologies based on river flow—large-scale hydroelectric dams, micro-

hydro facilities, run-of-river projects, and diversion hydropower. The popularity

of hydropower is due in large part to its affordability. “Hydropower is the

cheapest of all renewable electricity options, comparable in cost to conventional

fossil fuel source (p.48).

Because of the difficulty in obtaining consistent electricity generation from renewable

energies, hybrid systems are very common solutions to rural electrification needs. Hybrid

systems consist of two or more technologies that operate together to provide electrical power.
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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR
“If a drought limits river flow, if winds are not strong or if rainstorms prevent sunlight for an

extended period of time, the technologies can share resources to maintain electrical power

output” (Endersbee, 1996). Often, diesel-generators may be coupled together as a last

resource.

Conclusion

To sum up, this paper has described the current energy needs in rural areas of the

world and has explained the processes, the advantages, and the disadvantages of three

available forms of energy: hydro-, solar, and wind power. National renewable energy

initiatives are largely responsible for the historical development of solar, wind and hydropower

technologies, but governmental subsidies may not be essential to the renewable market in the

coming decades. With wind power already near conventional energy prices, with hydro-electric

projects continued success and environmental advantages, and with the unique benefits of

modularity and reliability associated with solar cells, these renewable energies are nearly

capable of sustaining themselves. If current trends continue, the world can look forward to a

very bright future.

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ENG 204 ACADEMIC ENGLISH-II CAN GÜR

References

Endersbee, L.A. (1996) The engines of the world: global changes in electrification.

Retrieved from http://www.atse.org.au/publications/symposia/proc-1996p14.htm

Guided tour on wind energy. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.windpower.org/tour/

index.htm

Harrison, G.P. & Whittington, H.W. (2001). Climate change – a storm brewing for

hydro. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh.

Hayes, S. (2001). Hydropower: renewed U.S. interest in an improved renewable.

Global energy business, 3, 4, 48.

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