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1
Table of contents

Part 1

The basics
5. What is CNC machining?

A brief history of CNC machining

6. Types of CNC machines

3-axis CNC machines

5-axis CNC machining

Summary

12. Benefits and limitations of CNC machining

Benefits of CNC machining

Limitations of CNC machining

14. Applications of CNC machining

CNC machining vs. 3D printing

Scaling up production

Part 2

Design for CNC

machining 19. CNC machining design restrictions

20. Design rules for CNC machining

22. Designing undercuts

2
Part 3

Materials for CNC

machining 24. Materials for CNC machining

Metals

Plastics

Surface finishes

Part 4

Cost reduction
tips 30. Tips to keep your CNC project on budget

Tip #1: Increase the size of all fillets or add

undercuts to sharp edges

Tip #2: Minimize the number of machine

orientations

Tip #3: Consider the cost of the material

Part 5

Start CNC
machining 35. Step 1:
Export your design to a CNC-compatible CAD
file format

36. Step 2:
Prepare a technical drawing

37. Step 3:
Get an instant quote and start manufacturing

Part 6

Useful resources
39. Knowledge base

Learn to machine

Other guides

3
Part 1

The basics
What is CNC machining? What are the different types of CNC
machines? How do they work? In this section, we answer all these
questions and compare CNC machining to other manufacturing
technologies to help you find the best solution for your application.

4
What is CNC machining?
CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining is a subtractive
manufacturing technology: parts are created by removing material
from a solid block (called the blank or the workpiece) using a
variety of cutting tools.

This is a fundamentally different way of man- Almost every material can be CNC machined.
ufacturing compared to additive (3D printing) The most common examples include metals
or formative (injection molding) technologies. (aluminum and steel alloys, brass etc.) and
The material removal mechanisms have signif- plastics (ABS, Delrin, Nylon etc.). Foam, com-
icant implications on the benefits, limitations posites and wood can also be machined.
and design restrictions of CNC. The basic CNC process can be broken
CNC machining is a digital manufacturing down into 3 steps. The engineer first designs
technology: it produces high-accuracy parts the CAD model of the part. The machinists
with excellent physical properties directly then turn the CAD file into a CNC program
from a CAD file. (G-code) and set up the machine.
Due to the high level of automation, CNC Finally, the CNC system executes all ma-
is price-competitive for both one-off cus- chining operations with little supervision, re-
tom parts and medium-volume productions. moving material and creating the part.

5
A brief history of CNC machining

> The earliest machined object ever discovered

was a bowl found in Italy and made in 700 B.C.
using a lathe.

> Attempts to automate machining started in

the 18th century. These machines were purely
mechanical and powered by steam.

> The first programmable machine was devel-

oped in the late 40s in MIT. It used punched
cards to encode each movement.

> The proliferation of computers in the 50s and

60s added the “C” in CNC and radically changed
the manufacturing industry.

> Today, CNC machines are advanced robotic

systems with multi-axis and multi-tooling capa-
bilities.

Types of CNC machines

In this guide, we will focus on CNC machines that remove material using
cutting tools. These are the most common and have the widest range of
applications. Other CNC machines include laser cutters, plasma cutters
and EDM machines.

6
3-axis CNC machines

CNC milling and CNC turning machines are examples of 3-axis CNC sys-
tems. These “basic” machines allow the movement of the cutting tool in 3
linear axes relative to the workpiece (left-right, back-forth and up-down).

CNC milling

> The workpiece is held stationary directly on the machine bed

or in a vice.
> Material is removed from the workpiece using cutting tools
or drills that rotate at high speed.
> The tools are attached to a spindle, which can move along 3
linear axes.

3-axis CNC milling machines are very common, as they can be used to
produce most common geometries. They are relatively easy to program
and operate, so start-up machining costs are relatively low.
Tool access can be a design restriction in CNC milling. As there are only
3 axes to work with, certain areas might be impossible to reach. This isn’t
a big issue if the workpiece needs to be rotated just once, but if multiple
rotations are needed the labor and machining costs increase fast.

Pros Cons

• Can produce most parts with simple • Tool access and workholding design restrictions
geometries apply
• High accuracy and tight tolerances • Manual repositioning of the workpiece lowers the
achievable accuracy

7
 CNC turning (lathes)

> The workpiece is held on the spindle while rotating at high

speed.
> A cutting tool or center drill traces the outer or inner perim-
eter of the part, forming the geometry.
> The tool does not rotate and moves along polar directions
(radially and lengthwise).

CNC lathes are extensively used, because they can produce parts at a
much higher rate and at a lower cost per unit than CNC mills. This is espe-
cially relevant for larger volumes.
The main design restriction of CNC lathes is that they can only produce
parts with a cylindrical profile (think screws or washers). To overcome this
limitation, features of the part are often CNC milled in a separate machin-
ing step. Alternatively, 5-axis mill-turning CNC centers can be used to
produce the same geometry in one step.

Pros Cons

• Lowest cost per part compared to all other • Can only produce parts with rotational symmetry
CNC machining operations and simple geometries
• Very high production capabilities

8
5-axis CNC machines

Multi-axis CNC machining centers come in 3 variations: 5-axis indexed

CNC milling, continuous 5-axis CNC milling and mill-turning centers with
live tooling.
These systems are essentially milling machines or lathes enhanced with
additional degrees of freedom. For example, 5-axis CNC milling centers
allow the rotation of the machine bed or the toolhead (or both) in addition
to the 3 linear axes of movement.
The advanced capabilities of these machines come at an increased cost.
They require both specialized machinery and operators with expert knowl-
edge. For highly complex or topology optimized metal parts, 3D printing is
usually a more suitable option.

Continuous 5-axis CNC milling

> The cutting tool can move along 3 linear and 2 rotation-
al axes relative to the workpiece.
> All 5 axes can move at the same during all machining
operations.

Continuous 5-axis CNC milling systems have a similar machine architec-

ture to indexed 5-axis CNC milling machines.
But they allow for the movement of all 5 axes at the same time during all
machining operations. This way, it’s possible to produce parts with com-
plex, ‘organic’ geometries that can’t be manufactured at the achieved level
of accuracy with any other technology.
These advanced capabilities come at a high cost, of course, as both
expensive machinery and highly-trained machinists are needed.

Pros Cons

• Manufactures complex parts at a level of accu- • Highest cost per part of all CNC machines
racy that’s impossible with any other process • Tool access restrictions still apply
• Produces very smooth ‘organic’ surfaces with
minimal machining marks

9
 Indexed 5-axis CNC milling

> During machining, the cutting tool can only move along 3
linear axes.
> Between operations, the bed and the toolhead can rotate,
giving access to the workpiece from a different angle.

Indexed 5-axis CNC milling systems are also known as 3+2 CNC milling
machines, since they are using the 2 additional degrees of freedom only
between machining operations to rotate the workpiece.
The key benefit of these systems is they eliminate the need to manually
reposition the workpiece. Meaning parts with more complex geometries
can be manufactured faster and at higher accuracy than in a 3-axis CNC
mill. But they lack the true freeform capabilities of continuous 5-axis CNC
machines.

Pros Cons

• Eliminates the need for manual repositioning • Higher cost than 3-axis CNC machining
• Produces parts with features that don’t align • Can’t produce very accurately contoured surfaces
with one of the main axes at a higher accuracy

Mill-turning CNC centers

> The workpiece is attached to a spindle that can either rotate

at high speed (like a lathe) or position it at a precise angle (like
a 5-axis CNC mill).
> Lathe and milling cutting tools are used to remove material
from the workpiece, forming the part.

Mill-turning CNC centers are essentially CNC lathe machines equipped

with CNC milling tools. A variation of the mill-turning centers are swiss-
style lathes, which have typically higher precision.
Mill-turning systems take advantage of both the high productivity of
CNC turning and the geometric flexibility of CNC milling. They are ideal
for manufacturing parts with ‘loose’ rotational symmetry (think camshafts
and centrifugal impellers) at a much lower cost than other 5-axis CNC
machining systems.

Pros Cons

• Lowest cost of all 5-axis CNC machining systems • Tool access restrictions still apply
• High production capabilities and design freedom • Most suitable for parts with a cylindrical outline

10
To summarize

> 3-axis CNC milling machines manufacture parts with relatively simple
geometries with excellent accuracy and at a low cost.

> CNC lathes have the lowest cost per unit, but are only suitable for part
geometries with rotational symmetry.

> Indexed 5-axis CNC milling machines manufacture parts with features
that don’t align with one of the main axes quickly and with very high accu-
racy.

> Continuous 5-axis CNC milling machines manufacture parts with highly
complex, ‘organic’ geometries and smooth contours, but at a high cost.

> Mill-turning CNC centers combine the benefits of CNC turning and
CNC milling into a single system to manufacture complex parts at a lower
cost than other 5-axis CNC systems.

Use the table below for a rough estimate of the cost per hour of the differ-
ent CNC machines. The cost is presented relative to that of a 3-axis CNC
milling machine, which is typically $75 per hour.

CNC machine type Machining cost

CNC milling (3-axis) $75 ( baseline for comparison )

CNC turning (lathe) $65 ( - 15% )

Indexed 5-axis CNC milling $120 ( + 60% )

Continuous 5-axis CNC milling $150 ( + 100% )

Mill-turning CNC centers $95 ( + 25% )

11
Benefits and limitations
of CNC machining

Here’s a list of the key strengths and limitations of CNC machining. You can
use it to help you decide whether CNC maching is the right technology for
your application.

Benefits of CNC machining

Small-to-medium production

CNC machining is a very price-competitive option for manufacturing

small-to-medium volumes (from 10-1000 parts). In fact, when ordering 10
identical parts, the unit price is cut by about 70% compared to a one-off
part.
This is because ‘economies of scale’ start to kick in: the relatively high
start-up costs of CNC are spread over multiple parts. In contrast, additive
technologies (3D printing) do not scale as well for higher volumes - the
unit price is relatively stable.
Formative technologies (injection molding or investment casting) only
make economic sense for production volumes in the 1000s as they have
very high start-up costs.

Excellent material properties

CNC machined parts have excellent physical properties, identical to the

bulk material. This makes CNC machining the ideal technology for appli-
cations where high-performance is essential.
Additionally, virtually every common material with enough hardness can
be CNC machined. This gives engineers the flexibility to select a material
with optimal properties for their application.

One-off custom parts and prototypes

In contrast to formative technologies (injection molding), CNC machining

doesn’t need any special tooling. So the on-demand production of cus-
tom one-off parts and prototypes is economically viable.
This is especially relevant for one-off custom metal parts and proto-
types, where CNC is the most cost-competitive solution.

Quick turnaround times

The advances of modern CNC systems, CAM software and digital supply
chains have greatly accelerated the production times.
Now CNC machined parts are typically ready for delivery within 5
days. This is comparable to the turnaround of industrial 3D printing pro-
cesses, such as SLS.
12
Highly accurate parts with tight tolerances

CNC machining can create parts with greater dimensional accuracy than
most other common manufacturing technologies. During the final finishing
machining steps, material can be removed from the workpiece very accu-
rately, achieving extremely tight tolerances.
The standard tolerance of any dimension in CNC machining is ± 0.125
mm. Features with tighter tolerances down to ± 0.050 mm can be manu-
factured and even tolerances of ± 0.025 mm are feasible. That’s about a
quarter the width of a human hair!

Limitations of CNC machining

Relatively high start-up costs

In CNC machining, start-up costs are mainly connected to process plan-

ning. This step requires manual input from an expert, so start-up costs are
usually relatively high when compared to, for example, 3D printing, where
process planning is highly automated.
However, these costs are still much lower than formative manufactur-
ing processes (injection molding or investment casting), which require the
preparation of custom tooling.
It’s important to keep in mind that the start-up costs are fixed. There’s
an opportunity to significantly reduce the unit price per part by taking ad-
vantage of ‘economies of scale’, as we saw above.

Geometric complexity has a high cost

Being a subtractive technology, machining complex geometries comes

at an increased cost. It’s also restricted by the mechanics of the cutting
process.
Parts with complex geometries either require the use of a multi-axis
CNC machining system or manual labor from the machinist (reposition-
ing, realigning etc.). To help you keep the price of CNC machined parts to
a minimum, we’ve compiled a list of design tips.

Tool access and workholding restrictions

Since a part is produced by removing material from a solid block, a cutting

tool with a suitable geometry has to exist. It should also be able to access
all necessary surfaces.
For this reason, parts with internal geometries or very steep undercuts,
for example, can’t be machined. Holding the workpiece securely in place
is essential for CNC machining and introduces a certain design limitation.
Improper workholding or a workpiece with low stiffness can lead to vibra-
tions during machining.
This results in parts with lower dimensional accuracy. Complex geome-
tries might require custom jigs or fixtures.
13
Applications of CNC machining
Here are some examples of how and why CNC machining is used for a
range of different applications.

Space

CNC machining is one of the very few manufacturing processes that’s

suitable for creating parts for space applications. Not only because CNC
parts have excellent accuracy and material properties, but also because of
the wide range of surface treatments that can be applied to the parts after
machining.
For example, KEPLER used CNC machining and space grade materials
to go from a sketch on a napkin to a satellite in space in 12 months.

Aerospace

Aerospace was one of the first industries to use CNC machining. This is
because CNC machining can manufacture lightweight parts with excellent
physical properties and very tight tolerances. CNC machining is used both
for aircraft parts and during the development stages.
For example, Tomas Sinnige is a PhD researcher at the Delft University
of Technology. With his team of researchers, Tomas used CNC machining
to manufacture scaled-down versions of their prototype engine, with the
goal of increasing the efficiency of modern propeller engines.

Automotive

CNC machining is most used in the automotive industry when manufac-

turing high-performance custom parts is required.
For example, the Dutch company PAL-V designs Personal Air and Land
Vehicles. These are essentially the world’s first flying cars. During the de-
velopment stages, they chose CNC machining to prototype and manufac-
ture key components.

Product design and development

The ability to quickly manufacture custom metal parts with great dimen-
sional accuracy, makes CNC machining an attractive option for producing
functional prototypes. This is essential during later stages of design and
development.
The design team of DAQRI, for instance, used CNC machining to pro-
totype their professional Augmented Reality (AR) hardware. They select-
ed this process as it was the most cost-competitive solution capable of
producing custom metal parts with the required level of detail and at the
small-scale needed for their designs.
14
Electrical and electronic

CNC machining has many applications in the electrical and electronic

manufacturing industry: from the prototyping of PCBs to the manufactur-
ing of enclosures.
TPAC, for example, used CNC machining to manufacture an enclosure
for their high-power electronic sensing systems. Heat dissipation and
electrical insulation were the main design requirements in this case. So,
CNC machined, anodized aluminum was ideal for their one-off custom
enclosure.

Tooling and industrial manufacturing

A very common industrial application of CNC machining is the fabrication

of tooling for other processes. For example, the molds in injection mold-
ing are commonly CNC machined from aluminum or tool steel. Precious
Plastic, for instance, developed a system for the developing a world that
turns waste plastic into iPhone cases! For this purpose, they used a low-
cost manual injection molder and custom CNC machined molds.

Sports and motorsports equipment

High-performance sports and motorsports manufacturers always try to

increase the performance of their products by reducing their weight.
CAKE is a Swedish company that designed and developed the first off-
road electric motorbike. Since it’s the first of its kind, every single compo-
nent of the motorbike was custom-made with CNC machining to achieve
the intended level of quality and durability.

15
CNC machining vs. 3D printing

Both CNC machining and 3D printing are exceptional tools. However, each
technology has unique benefits, and is more suitable for different situa-
tions. When choosing between CNC machining and 3D printing, there are
a few simple guidelines you can apply to the decision making process.
As a general rule of thumb, parts with relatively simple geometries, that
can be manufactured with limited effort through a subtractive process,
should generally be CNC machined. Especially when it comes to produc-
ing metal parts.

Choosing 3D printing over CNC machining makes sense when you need:

> A low-cost plastic prototype

> Parts with very complex geometry

> A turnaround time of 2-5 days

> Speciality materials

To summarize:

CNC offers greater dimensional accuracy and produces parts

with better mechanical properties than 3D printing. But
this usually comes at a higher cost for low volumes and
with more design restrictions.

Read the full comparison →

16
Scaling up production
If high volumes are needed (1000s or more) neither CNC machining nor
3D printing are likely to be suitable options.
In these cases, forming technologies, such as investment casting or
injection molding, are more economically viable due to the mechanisms of
economies of scale. For quick reference, use the table below.
In this simplification, it’s assumed that all technologies are able to pro-
duce the geometry of the part in question. When this is not the case, 3D
printing is generally the preferred method of manufacturing.

No. of Parts Plastic Metal

1 - 10 3D printing 3D printing (consider CNC machining)

10 - 100 3D printing and CNC machining CNC machining

100 - 1000 CNC machining (consider injection CNC machining (consider investment
molding) casting)

1000+ Injection molding Investment or die casting

17
Part 2

Design for CNC machining

In less than 15 minutes, you’ll learn all you need to know to

design parts optimized for CNC machining. Get familiar
with Design for Machinability (DfM) rules, cost reduction
tips, material selection guidelines, and surface finishing
recommendations.

18
CNC machining design restrictions
The design restrictions in CNC machining are a natural result of the me-
chanics of the cutting process and in particular:

Tool access

Surfaces that can’t be reached by the cutting tool, can’t be

CNC machined. This prohibits the fabrication of parts with
internal ‘hidden’ geometries, for example, and puts a limit
on the maximum depth of an undercut.

Tool geometry

Most CNC machining cutting tools have a cylindrical shape

with a flat or spherical end, restricting the part geometries
that can be produced.
For instance, the internal vertical corners of a CNC part
will always have a radius, no matter how small a cutting tool
is used.

Workholding

The geometry of a part determines the way it will be held

on the CNC machine and the number of setups required.
This has an impact on the cost, but also the accuracy of a
part. For example, manual repositioning introduces a small,
but significant, positional error. This a key benefit of 5-axis
versus 3-axis CNC machining.

Workpiece stiffness

Due to the cutting forces and the temperatures developed

during machining, it’s possible for the workpiece to deform
or vibrate.
This limits, for example, the minimum wall thickness that
a CNC machined part can have and the maximum aspect
ratio of tall features.

Tool stiffness

Most CNC machining cutting tools have a cylindrical shape

with a flat or spherical end, restricting the part geometries
that can be produced.
For instance, the internal vertical corners of a CNC part
will always have a radius, no matter how small a cutting tool
is used.
19
Design rules for CNC machining
In the table below, we summarize how these restrictions translate into ac-
tionable design rules.

Read the detailed guidelines →

Tall features

Recommended max. ratio: height / width < 4

Tall features are difficult to machine accurately, as they are prone to vi-
brations. Consider the overall geometry of the part: rotating the part by
90° degrees during machining changes the aspect ratio.

Cavities and pockets

Recommended depth: 4 x cavity width

Feasible depth: 10 x tool diameter or 25 cm (10’’)

Deeper cavities need to be machined with cutting tools with larger diam-
eter affecting the fillets of the internal edges.

Internal edges

Recommended: larger than 1/3 x cavity depth

For internal vertical edges, the larger the fillet the better. Edges on the
floor of a cavity should be either sharp or have a 0.1 mm or 1 mm radius.

Minimum wall thickness

Recommended: 0.8 mm (for metals)

Feasible: 0.5 mm
Recommended: 1.5 mm (for plastics)
Feasible: 1.0 mm

Decreasing the wall thickness reduces the stiffness of the workpiece,

increasing vibrations and lowering the achievable tolerances.
Plastics are especially prone to warping and thermal softening, so a
larger minimum wall thickness is necessary.
20
Holes

Recommended diameter: standard drill bit sizes

Recommended depth: 4 x nominal diameter
Max. depth: 10 x nominal diameter

Holes with standard diameter are preferred, as they can be machined

with a standard drill bit. Blind holes machined with a drill will have a con-
ical floor. Holes with non-standard diameter will be machined with an
end mill tool and should be treated as cavities (see previous rule).
Blind holes machined with an end mill tool will be flat.

Threads

Recommended length: 3 x nominal diameter

Recommended size: M6 or larger
Feasible size: M2

Choose the largest threads possible, as they are easier to machine.

Threads longer than 3 times the nominal diameter are unnecessary.
Always design threads as cosmetic in your CAD package and include a
technical drawing with your order.

Small features

Recommended: 2.5 mm (0.100’’)

Feasible: 0.100 mm (.010’’)

Cavities and holes down to 2.5 mm (0.1’’) can be CNC machined with
standard cutting tools. Anything below this limit is considered micro-ma-
chining and must be avoided unless necessary.

Maximum part size

CNC milling: 400 x 250 x 150 mm (typically)

CNC turning: Ø 500 mm x 1000 mm (typically)

Very large CNC machines can produce parts with dimensions up to 2000
x 800 x 1000 mm ( 78’’ x 32’’ x 40’’). 5-axis CNC machining systems typi-
cally have a smaller build volume.

Tolerances

Standard: ± 0.125 mm (.005’’)

Feasible: ± 0.025 mm (.001’’)

Tolerances (unilateral, bilateral, interference or geometric) should be de-

fined on all critical features, but do not over-tolerance.
If no tolerance is specified in the technical drawing, then the standard
± 0.125 mm will be held.

21
Designing undercuts
Undercuts are features that can’t be machined with standard tools, no
matter how the part is rotated, because the cutting tools can’t access all
the surfaces.
If square aluminum extrusions were manufactured with CNC machining,
their grooves would be considered undercuts. Undercuts can be machined
using special T-shaped, V-shaped or lollipop-shaped cutting tools, if de-
signed correctly.
Here are some practical guidelines to help you get started with design-
ing undercuts.

Learn more about undercuts →

Undercut dimensions

Recommended width: 3 mm (1/8’’) to 40 mm (1 ½’’)

Max. Depth: 2x width

Design undercuts with a width of whole millimeter increments or a stan-

dard inch fraction. For undercuts with non-standard dimensions, a custom
cutting tool must be created.
The standard tools have a cutting depth of approximately 2 times their
width. This limits the achievable depth.

Undercut clearance

Recommended min. clearance: 4x depth

For undercuts on internal faces, add enough clearance between the op-
posing walls to ensure tool access.

22
Part 3

Materials for CNC

machining
CNC machining can be used with a very wide range of engineering
metals and plastics.
In this section, you’ll learn more about the key characteristics of the
most popular materials. We’ll also examine the most common finishes
that are applied to CNC machined parts.

23 23
Materials for CNC machining

Selecting the right material is a crucial step in the design process. The
optimal material option is highly dependent on your specific use case and
requirements.
Since almost every material with sufficient hardness can be machined,
CNC offers a very large range of material options to choose from. For
engineering applications, metals and plastics are most relevant and will be
the focus of this section. Surface finishes can also alter the properties of
CNC machined parts which we’ll examine them below.
To get started, take a look at this decision tree. It contains high lev-
el material recommendations that cover the most common design
requirements.

Material Property

High volumes Chemical Temperature

Tensile strength Hardness
Easy to machine resistance resistance

Aluminium Stainless Steel

Brass PEEK

< 90 HRB > 50 R C POM Teflon

Stainless Steel Tool Steel

Alloy Steel

Low Medium High

< 250º C < 400º C > 500º C

Low Medium High Brass Aluminium Stainless Steel

< 100 MP a < 500 MP a > 500 MP a
PEEK Tool Steel
Teflon Alloy Steel

PEEK Aluminium Stainless Steel

Nylon Tool Steel
PC Alloy Steel

24
Metals

CNC machining is primarily used with metals and metal alloys. Metal
can be used for both the manufacturing of custom one-off parts and
prototypes and for low-to-medium batch production. Aluminum 6061 is by
far the most used material in CNC machining.

Learn more about the most common CNC metals →

Aluminum

> Excellent strength-to-weight ratio

> High thermal and electrical conductivity
> Natural protection against corrosion

Stainless steel

> High strength and ductility

> Excellent wear and corrosion resistance
> Can be welded, machined and polished

Alloy steel

> General use alloys

> Improved hardness, toughness, fatigue and wear resistance over mild steels
> Low chemical resistance

Mild steel

> General use alloys

> Low-cost
> Good mechanical properties, machinability and weldability

Tool steel

> High hardness

> Stiffness, abrasion and thermal resistance
> Used for dies, stamps, molds and other industrial tooling

Brass

> Excellent machinability

> Frictional characteristics
> Aesthetically pleasing golden appearance
25
Plastics

Plastics are lightweight materials with a wide range of physical

properties. They’re often used for their chemical resistance and electrical
insulation properties. Plastics are commonly CNC machined for
prototyping purposes prior to injection molding.

Learn more about the most common CNC plastics →

ABS

Common, lightweight thermoplastic materials

with good mechanical properties and excellent
impact strength.

Polycarbonate (PC)

Excellent impact strength, thermal resistance

and toughness. Can be colored or transparent.
Suitable for outdoor applications.

Nylon

General purpose engineering thermoplastic with

all-around good mechanical properties and ex-
cellent chemical resistance.

POM (Delrin)

Easiest-to-machine engineering thermoplastic

with high stiffness, excellent frictional charac-
teristics and good thermal stability.

PEEK

High-performance engineering thermoplastic

used in the most demanding applications.
26
Surface finishes

Surface finishes are applied after machining and can change the
appearance, surface roughness, hardness and chemical resistance of the
produced parts. Below is a quick summary of the most common finishes
for CNC.

Find out more about surface finishes →

Powder coating

Powder coating adds a thin layer of strong, wear and corrosion resistant,
protective polymer paint on the surface of a part. It can be applied to
parts of any material and is available in many colors.

Extra cost: $$

Pros Cons
• Strong, wear and corrosion coating for functional applications • Can’t be applied to internal surfaces
• Higher impact resistance than anodizing • Less dimensional control compared to anodizing
• Compatible with all metal materials • Not suitable for small components

As-machined

As-machined parts have the tightest tolerances, as no extra operations are

performed on them. But marks following the path of the cutting tool are
still visible.
The standard surface roughness of as-machined parts is 3.2 μm (125 μin)
and can be reduced to down to 0.4 μm (16 μin) with further operations.

Extra cost: None

Pros Cons
• Tightest dimensional tolerances • Visible tool marks
• No added cost (standard finish)

Bead blasting

Bead blasting adds a uniform matt or satin surface finish on a machined

part, removing all tool marks.
Bead blasting is mainly used for aesthetic purposes, as the resulting sur-
face roughness is not guaranteed. Critical surfaces or features (like holes)
can be masked to avoid any dimensional change.

Extra cost: $

Pros Cons
• Visually pleasing matte or satin finish • Visible tool marks
• Low-cost surface finish
• Available in different levels of coarseness

27
 Anodizing (clear or colored)

Anodizing adds a thin, hard, non-conductive ceramic coating on the sur-

face of aluminum parts, increasing their corrosion and wear resistance.
Critical areas can be masked to retain their tight tolerances. Anodized
parts can be dyed producing a smooth aesthetically pleasing surface.

Extra cost: $$

Pros Cons
• Durable, visually pleasing coating • More brittle than powder coating
• Can be applied to internal cavities • Only compatible with aluminum and titanium
• Can be colored to any Pantone tone

Hardcoat anodizing

Hardcoat anodizing produces a thicker, high-density ceramic coating that

provides excellent corrosion and wear resistance.
Hardcoat anodizing is suitable for functional applications. The typical
coating thickness is 50 μm and, usually, no color is applied. Critical areas
can be masked to retain their tight tolerances.

Extra cost: $$$

Pros Cons
• High wear resistance coating for top-end engineering applications • More brittle than powder coating
• Can be applied to internal cavities • Only compatible with aluminum and titanium
• Good dimensional control

Silk screening

Silk screening is an inexpensive way to print text or logos on the surface of

CNC machined parts for aesthetic purposes.
It can be used in addition to other finishes (for example, anodizing). The
print can be applied only to the external surfaces of a part.

Extra cost: $

Pros Cons
• Low-cost printing of custom text or logos • Can be only applied to external flat surfaces of a part
• Available in many colors

28
Part 4

Cost reduction tips

Learn more about what affects the costs in CNC machining. Use these
3 actionable design tips to cut the price in half and you keep your
project on budget.

29 29
Tips to keep your CNC project
on budget

The cost of CNC machined parts depends on the following:

> Machining time and model complexity: The more complex the geome-
try of a part is, the longer it takes to machine and the more expensive it will
be.

> Start-up costs: These are related to the preparation of a CAD file and the
process. They are significant for smaller volumes, but are fixed. There is an
opportunity to reduce the unit price by taking advantage of economies of
scale.

> Material cost and finishes: The cost of the bulk material and how easily
that material can be machined greatly affects the overall cost.

As a rule of thumb:

To minimize the cost of CNC machined parts, stick to de-

signs with simple geometries and standardized features.

In the next sections, we re-examine some of the design rules we visited

previously with cost-reduction in mind. With these 3 design tips, you can
drastically reduce the cost of your CNC machined parts.

Learn 11 more tips to further reduce the cost of your CNC parts →

30
Tip #1: Increase the size of all fillets
or add undercuts to sharp edges

To reduce machining times, add a fillet that is as large as

possible to all internal (and external) vertical edges. This way a
larger tool can be used, removing more material with each cut,
and a circular toolpath can be followed, cutting each corner at
a higher speed.
When a 90° internal edge is needed, reducing the radius will
not do the job. In these cases, use an undercut instead (see
above).

To minimize cost:

> Add a radius that is slightly larger than 1/3 of the depth of the
cavity

> Add a small fillet also to external edges

> Use undercuts when a 90° internal corner is required

> Use the same radius for all edges to save time on tool
changes

31
Tip #2: Minimize the number of
machine orientations

The part above requires at least two machine setups in a 3-axis

CNC mill. After the features on one side are machined, the
workpiece is rotated manually.
This requires manual labor increasing costs. Alternatively, a
multi-axis CNC machines can be used. This also increases the
machining costs though by about 60% to 100%.

To minimize cost:

> Design parts that can be machined in one or two setups in a

3-axis CNC mill

> If this is not possible, consider splitting the part into multiple
geometries that can be machined in one setup and assembled
later.

32
Tip #3: Consider the cost of
the material

Cost Metals Cost Plastics

$ Aluminum 6061 $ POM (Delrin)

$$ Alloy steel 4140 $$$ ABS

$$ Aluminum 7075 $$$ Nylon (PA 6)

$$$ Brass C360 $$$ Polycarbonate (PC)

$$$$ Stainless steel 304 $$$$ PEEK

It’s obvious that selecting a material with physical properties

that surpass the requirements of your application can quickly
and unnecessarily increase the cost of your CNC machined
parts.

To minimize cost:

> Select the material with the lowest cost with the properties
that fulfill your design requirements

> Use online instant quoting to get quick feedback on the price
of each material

The essential CNC cost reduction checklist

Get a free PDF checklist to show you how to

optimize your design and cut CNC machining
costs in half.
Download now →

33
Part 5

Start CNC machining

With your parts designed and optimized for CNC machining, it’s time
to start thinking about manufacturing. In this section, we walk you
through the 3 simple steps needed to manufacture custom parts with
CNC machining.

34
Step 1: Export your design to a
CNC-compatible CAD file format

The file formats predominantly used in CNC machining are STEP and
IGES. These formats are open source, standardized and can be used
across platforms.

For best results:

Export your designs directly from your native CAD software

into the STEP file format.

On 3D Hubs, you can also upload files and get an instant quote for file
formats used in your the native CAD software, including SLDPRT, 3DM,
IPT, SAT and X_T.

35
Step 2: Prepare a technical drawing

A technical drawing isn’t always required for machining parts

with CNC. Yet it’s recommended to include one in your order
as it has information that is not presented in a STEP file.

A technical drawing is required in the following situations:

> When your design contain threads

> When any tolerances are specified

> When certain surfaces need a different finish

Learn how to correctly prepare a technical drawing for CNC →

36
Step 3: Get an instant quote and
start manufacturing

With 3D Hubs, outsourcing parts for CNC machining is easy, fast and
highly price-competitive.
By combining a network of manufacturing services with our smart
sourcing engine, you can instantly access readily available production
capacity for the best possible quotes and lead times.
When you upload your parts to 3D Hubs, our automated Design for
Machinability analysis will detect any potential design issues before pro-
duction begins and will give you an instant quote, based on our machine
learning algorithm.
This way you can be sure that you always receive the best price in the
market at the fastest turnaround times for your CNC machining parts!

Upload your parts

Curious about the cost of CNC machining?

Receive an instant quote for your CNC machined
parts now.
Get an instant quote →

37
Part 6

Useful resources

In this guide we discussed everything you need to get started with

CNC machining. But there’s plenty more to learn.
On the next page, we list the best and most useful resources on
CNC machining and other digital manufacturing technologies if you
want to delve deeper.

38
Knowledge base

There’s a lot more to learn about CNC machining in our Knowledge Base
- a collection of technical articles on all manufacturing technologies, writ-
ten by manufacturing experts and curated by 3D Hubs.

Here’s a selection of our most popular articles on CNC machining:

> Reducing the cost of CNC machined parts →

> 3D Printing vs. CNC machining →

> 25 CNC machining materials compared →

> How to design parts for CNC machining →

Learn to machine
Are you looking to get your hands dirty with CNC machining? There are
several ways you can learn how to operate a CNC mill or CNC lathe.

> Visit your local Fab Lab: Many Fablabs and Makerspaces have CNC
milling capabilities and they will run courses on how to opperate them.
Visit the official list of Fab Labs to find one near your area.

> Find resources online: There are a lot of useful resources online to help
you hone your CNC machining skills. The Titans of CNC Academy and
NYCCNC are probably 2 of the best sites to get you started.

> Apply for an apprenticeship: Apprenticeships are probably the best

way to kickstart your career as a CNC machinist. They are offered by
established machine shops and many universities.

Other guides
Want to learn more about the world of digital manufacturing as a whole?
There are more technologies to explore:

Injection molding:
The complete engineering guide

After reading this article, you’ll know the fundamental

mechanics of the injection molding process and how
these relate to its key benefits and limitations.

What is 3D printing?

Find everything you need to know about 3D printing.

Whether you are getting started or you’re an experi-
enced user, you’ll find this guide packed with useful
tips.

39