ECE 2201

BASIC GEOLOGY AND SOIL

MECHANICS

TOPIC-2
SOIL CLASSIFICATION, PROPOERTIES
AND COMPACTION
 Soil Formation
The term soil conveys varying shaded of meaning when it is used in different contexts. To a geologist it describes
those layers of loose unconsolidated materials extending from the surface to solid rock, which have been formed
by the weathering and disintegration of the rock themselves. An engineer on the other hand thinks of soil in terms
of work he may have to do on it, in it and with it. In engineering context, soil can be defined as;
• Naturally occurring particulate material of variable composition having properties of compressibility, permeability and strength.
• Natural occurring material found on the surface directly or indirectly originated from solid rocks as a result of weathering.
These rocks may be classified as;
 Igneous rocks, formed by cooling of hot molten magma within or on the surface of the earth’s crust, e.g. basalt,
granite, dolerite, andesite, gabbro.
 Sedimentary rocks, formed in layers from sediments settlings in bodies of water such as seas and lakes e.g.
limestone, sandstone, mudstone, shale.
 Metamorphic rocks formed by alteration of the existing rock due to (a) extreme heat, e.g. marble, quartzite or (b)
extreme pressure, e.g. slates and schist.
The process that converts solid rocks into soils takes place at, or near the earth’s surface and, although they are
complex, the following controlling factors are apparent:
(a) Nature and composition of the parent rock
(b) Climatic conditions, particularly temperature
(c) Topography and general terrain conditions such as degree of shelter or exposure, density and type of
vegetation
(d) Length of time relating to particular prevailing conditions
(e) Interference by other agencies, e.g. earthquakes, actions of humans etc.
(f) Mode and condition of transport
 Soil Formation
The effect of some of these factors in as far as they produce particular characteristics and properties
in the ultimate soil deposit are;
 Effect of weathering
The term weathering embraces a number of natural surface processes which results from the
single or combined actions of such agencies as wind, rain, frost, temperature change and gravity.
The particular effect of a specific process on a specific type of rock is, to some degree unique,
but some general examples worth mentioning are;
• Frost action, in which water within the pore spaces of a rock expand upon freezing, causing
flakes of rocks to split away. The resultant weathered debris is sharp and angular.
• In contrast, the action of wind and flowing water, produces attrition which causes the particles to
become rounded.
• Where the main process is of chemical nature, certain minerals in the rock will disintegrate and
others will prove resistant. Take, for example igneous rock granite, which comprises essentially
the mineral quartz, feldspar orthoclase and plagioclase and the micas muscovite and biotite. Both
quartz and muscovite are very resistance to chemical decomposition and emerge from the
process unchanged whereas the others are broken down (refer to table 1 below).
 Effect of transport
Soil that have not been transported i.e. have remained at the parent site are termed as residual
soil. Such soils are found where chemical processes of weathering predominate over physical
process such as on flat terrain in tropical areas. The soil type will be highly variable with a wide
range of mineral type and particle size. In hot areas, weathering might remove some minerals
leaving others of a more resistance nature in a concentrated deposit
 Mineral Composition Of Soil
The large majority of soils consist of mixture inorganic minerals particles, together with some water
and air. Soil can therefore be thought of as a model consisting of three phases: solid, liquid and air
Inorganic mineral particles can consist of;
• Rock fragments: identifiable pieces of parent rock containing minerals. In general rock fragments
will be fairly larger than 2mm.
• Mineral grains: These are separate particles of a particular mineral and range in size from gravel (2
mm) down to clay (1 µm). For convenience it is useful to divided into two major groups: coarse
and fine
(a) Coarse soils will be classified as those having particle sizes >0.06 mm such as sand and gravel.
Their grains will be rounded and angular and usually consists of fragments of rocks or quartz.
(b) Fine soils are finer than 0.06 mm and typically flaky in shape such as silt and clays,
• Liquid: The common liquid found in most soil is water. Water is a fundamental part of natural
soil and in fact has a greater engineering property than any other constituent. The movement of
water through soil mass needs to studied with care in the problems of seepage and permeability,
and also in a slightly different way, when considering compressibility and therefore will transmit
direct pressure. For this reason, the drainage condition in a soil mass are of great importance
when considering its shear strength.
• Air: This together with water fills the spaces between the soil particles. Soil may be considered
perfectly dry or fully saturated or be in a condition somewhere between the two extremes. In the
so-called dry soil there will be water vapor present while a fully saturated soil may contain as
much 2% of air voids. Air of course is incompressible and water vapor can freeze, both of which
are significant in an engineering context.
 Engineering Properties of Soils
Soil index properties
 They serve as indices of engineering behavior
 They include grain size distribution, Atterberg limits phase relationship, relative density and

Soil identification
 Soil can be identified in a number of ways behavior
 Particle size. Identifying the main groups by visual examination and feel. Gravel particles (> 2 mm) are
clearly recognisable; sand (0.06 mm <d<2 mm) have a distinctive gritty feel between the fingers; silt
(0.002 mm <d<0.06 mm) feel slightly abrasive, but not gritty; clays ((0.002 mm) feel greasy.
 Grading: Grading of the soil refers to the distribution of the sizes;
• A well-graded soil has a wide distribution of particle sizes.
• Poorly graded soil contains only a narrow range of sizes range of sizes.
 Compactness: Compactness or field strength may be estimated using hand spade or by driving a wooden
peg; the soil is reported as being loose, dense, slightly cemented or as appropriate
 Structure. Observation of structural characteristic are most useful and convenient made in trial pits,
cutting and other excavations. The following descriptive terms are used;
• Homogeneous- consisting essentially of one type of soil
• Inter-stratified-alternating layers or bands of different materials
• Intact- a non fissured soil
• Fissured
 Cohesion, plasticity and consistency. If the particles stick together, a soil posseses cohesion and if can be easily molded
with cracks, it possesess plasticity. Both of these behaviors depend on the moisture content.
 Particle size distributions

 The particle size distribution sizes a soil is obtained

through a process called particle size analysis or
sometimes called the mechanical analysis or gradation
test.
 Two methods are generally used to find the particle Sieve analysis
size present in a soil expressed as a percentage of  Soil is shaken though a series of sieves
the total dry weight. stuck together
(a) Sieve analysis- for particles sizes larger than 63 µm (  Amount of soil retained in each sieve is
for US standards 75 µm). Soil shaken through a weighed
series of sieve Hydrometer analysis
(b) Hydrometer analysis-for particles sizes smaller than 63  For soils of size lessthan 63 µm (for US
µm (for US standards 75 µm) standards 75 µm)
 Uses Stroke’s law (settling velocity) to
determine the particle size.
 Sieve sizes used in the US and UK

Sieve opening
(mm or micron) Sieve #

Gravel

We do not need to use all sieves/

that many of sieves

Sand

Clay &
Silt
 EXAMPLE 1: Distribution of stress underneath structures
(1) Determine the mass of the soil Example: The results of a dry-sieving test are given below.
retained on each sieve (i.e. M1, The quantity of soil passing 63 µm sieve and collected in the
M2…… Mn)and in the pan (Mp) pan was 3.9 g. Plot the particle size distribution curve of the
(2) Determine the total mass of the soil and classify the soil.
soil: M1+ M2+…+ Mi +… Mn
=∑M
Sieve size mm or µm 2.00 1.18 600 425 300 212 150 63
(3) Determine the cumulative mass
of the soil retained above each Mass retained (g) 0 2.5 12.5 57.7 62.0 34.2 18.7 12.7 13.1

sieve. For the ith sieve for

example it is M1+ M2+…+ Mi Table 3 worked example
(4) The total mass passing the ith is Sieve size Mass retained (g) % retained % passing
∑M-M1+ M2+…+ Mi 3.35 0 0 100
(5) The percentage of soil passing ith mm 2.0 2.6 1.2 98.8
1.18 12.5 5.7 93.1
sieve or percentage finer is
600 57.7 26.6 66.5
F=
∑M − M + M 2 + ......M i
1
425 62.0 28.6 37.9
∑M 300 34.2 15.7 22.2
the calculations are plotted on semi µm
212 18.7 8.6 13.6
logarithm paper with the percentage 150 12.7 5.8 7.8
finer as the ordinate (arithmetic scale) 63 13.1 6.0 1.8
and the sieve opening as the x-axis
Pan 3.9 1.8
(logarithmic scale). This plot is
referred to as the particle size distribution Total 217.4 g 100 %
curve.
 Particle size distribution
Sieve size mm or µm 2.00 1.18 600 425 300 212 150 63

Mass retained (g) 0 2.5 12.5 57.7 62.0 34.2 18.7 12.7 13.1

Table 3 worked example

Sieve size Mass retained (g) % retained % passing 100
3.35 0 0 100

Percentage passing (%)

80
mm 2.0 2.6 1.2 98.8
1.18 12.5 5.7 93.1
60
600 57.7 26.6 66.5
425 62.0 28.6 37.9 40
300 34.2 15.7 22.2
µm
212 18.7 8.6 13.6 20
150 12.7 5.8 7.8
63 13.1 6.0 1.8
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Pan 3.9 1.8 Particle size (mm)
fine medium Coarse fine medium Coarse fine medium fine
Clay
Total 217.4 g 100 % Silt Sand Gravel

Figure 4 Particle size distribution curve

The identified particle sizes are

Coarse sand-33%
Medium sand-54%
Fine sand-13%
The soil is classified as Medium
Coarse Sand
 Classification of coarse-grained soils
100
D10 is the grain size corresponding to 10% finer
Percentage passing (%)

80
D60 D30 is the grain size corresponding to 30% finer
60
D60 is the grain size corresponding to 60% finer.
40
D30 Uniformity coefficient (Cu):
20
D10 D60
Cu =
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 D10
Particle size (mm)
Clay
fine medium
Silt
Coarse fine medium Coarse
Sand
fine medium
Gravel
fine The smallest value of Cu is equal to 1 and
Figure 5 Particle size distribution curve
corresponds to a perfectly uniform assemblage of
identical sizes.
Classification of sand and gravel If Cu ≤3 uniform soil
Particle size distribution curves enable sands and If Cu≥3 well graded soil
gravel to be classified into three main types: uniform Coefficient (Cz):
graded well graded and poorly grades.
D302
(a) Uniform graded soil: In uniform graded soils, Cz =
D60 × D10
majority of the grains are nearly the same size
(b) Well graded soil: Well graded soil contains wide By definition,
and even distribution of particle sizes.  gravel are considered to be well graded when Cu
(c) Poorly graded soil: Poorly graded soil is any soil >4 and 1< Cz <3, s
that does not comply with the description of  and are considered to be well graded when Cu
well graded soil. Poorly graded soils are >3 and 1< Cz <3.
deficient in certain size. Gap graded soils are
example of poorly graded soil with missing
ranges of particles.
Hydrometer Analysis
• The hydrometer analysis is based on the
principle of sedimentation of soil grains in
water.
• When a soil specimen is dispersed in water,
the particles settle at different velocities,
depending on their shape, size and weight and
the viscosity of water.
• Dispersion agent is added to prevent the soils
particles from flocculating
Diameter of the particle
D (mm) 18η [g . sec/ cm 2 ] L(cm)
= ×
10 (Gs − 1) ρ w ( g / cm )
2
t (min) × 60

30η L
D= ×
(Gs − 1) ρ w t

η= viscosity of the fluid

Gs= specific gravity of soil particle
ρw= density of water
 Atterberg limits
• The mechanical properties of a clay are altered by changing the water content.
• A clay softens when water is added and with sufficient water, forms a slurry that behaves as a viscous liquid;
this is known as liquid state.
• If the water content is gradually reduced by drying it slowly, the clay eventually begin to hold together and
offer some resistance to deformation; this is called plastic state.
• With further loss of water, the clay shrinks and its stiffness increases until it becomes until it becomes brittle;
this is the semisolid state.

The smooth transitions are empirical defined by the introducing the liquid limit LL, plastic limit, PL and
shrinkage limit SL.
(a) Liquid Limit, LL: is the water content, when a rolled thread of soil just begins to harden and crack (water
content at which the soil stops acting as liquid).
(b) Plastic Limit, PL: is the water content at the point where soil is changing from a fluid to plastic state.
(c) Shrinkage Limit, SL: is the water content at the point where the volume of soil ceases to decrease on drying.
The moisture content between the PL and LL is the plasticity index, PI.

The moisture content

between the PL and LL is
the plasticity index, PI.

PI = LL − PL
 Determination of Limit
• Liquid limit test is generally determined by standard Casagrande
device.
• The device consists of brass cup and a hard rubber base. The
brass cap can be dropped onto the base by a cam operated by a
crank.
• To perform the liquid limit test, place a soil paste in the cup.
• A grove is then cut at the center of the soil pat with a standard
grooving tool. By using the crank operated cam, the cup is lifted
and dropped from a height of 10 mm.
• The moisture content in percentage required to close a distance of
12.7 mm along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows is defined
as the liquid limit.
• At least 3 tests for the same soil are conducted at varying moisture
content.
• With the number of blows, N required to achieve a closure
varying between 15 and 35. The relationship between moisture
content and Log N is approximated as a straight line. This line is
referred to as the flow curve. The moisture content corresponding
to N=25, determined from the flow curve gives the liquid limit of
the soil. The slope of the flow curve is defined as the flow index
where If = flow index and may be written as
w1 = moisture content of soil in
percentage, corresponding to N1 blows w1 − w2
If =
w1 =moisture content corresponding to N2 N 
log  2 
blows.  N1 
 Example 2: Determination of Limit
Example: Trial number
Given the liquid limit data below, 1 2 3 4
(a) Draw from the data in the table
No of blows, N 16 21 29 34
above, plot of flow curve and
determine the LL of the soil w (%) 23.3 22.5 21.8 21.5
(b) Determine the flow index

(b) To determine the flow index, find the

(a) Plot water content verses the slope of the flow curve. Extend the flow
log of number of blows as curve to the limits of the graph (shown by
shown in Figure below. From the the dotted lines and obtain the following
curve find the water content at points
25 blow to be 22.2 %
25
N= 50 w= 20.55%
water content , w (%)

24
N=10 w= 24.4%
23

22 ∆w 24.4 − 20.55 3.85

Slope = = = = 5.56
 N2   50  log 5
21 log  log 
N
 1  10 
20
10 20 30 40 50
Number of blows, N
Figure 17 Water content vs number of blows
 Determination of Plastic limits
• Plastic limit test is test is used to determine
the lowest moisture content at which the soil
behaves plastically.
• It is carried only on the soil fraction passing
though 425 µm sieve.
• It is usually performed in conjunction with the
liquid limit test.
• By convection, the plastic limit test of a soil is
defined as the water content at which the soil
begins to crumble when rolled into a thread of 3
mm in diameter.

The moisture content

between the PL and LL is
the plasticity index, PI.
PI = LL − PL
 Plasticity Charts
• Fine grain soils, silts and clay are those having 50% or more passing 63 µm sieve, and they are
classified according to their Atterberg limits and whether they contain significant amount of organic
matter.
• Based on the Casagrande plasticity chart a distinction is made between soils with LL less or greater
than 50 (symbol L for Low and H for High ), and between inorganic soil above the A-line.
• The A-line { PI=0.73 (LL-20)}generally separates clay from silt from clay (symbol C and M). The
U- line is the upper limit line { PI=0.9 (LL-8)}.
• Casagrande developed this chart by plotting the Atterberg limits of the various soils around the
word and he found that no soil plotted above the U-line.
• Silt and clay that contain sufficient organic matter to influence their properties are classified as
organic. It can be Organic high or Organic low (OH. OL)

Example 3
A soil has LL of 65 and PL of 22.
Classify the soil according to the
plasticity chart.
PI = LL − PL
PI=65-22=43
From the plasticity chat, LL=65 and
PI=43,
The soil is classified as CH (Clay of High
Plasticity
 Soil Classification Systems-(Unified Classification System)

(75 µm sieve) (4.76 mm sieve)

(4.76 mm sieve)

(75 µm sieve)
EXAMPLE 2: Soil Classification Systems-(Unified Classification System)
Soil Classification Systems-(AASHTO Classification System)
Example 3: Soil Classification Systems-(AASHTO Classification System)
 Weight Volume Relationship

Va Air Ma = 0
Air Water
Vv
Soil
Vw Water Mw
Vt
Mt
Vs Soil Ms

Figure 2 (a) Volume and mass relationship in a phase

diagram
Figure 1 Soil skeleton showing the solids, water and air

• In general, any soil mass consists of solid particles

with voids in between.
• The solids are small grains of different minerals, Va= e (1-Sr) Air Ma = 0

Specific volume 1+e

whereas the voids can be filled with either water or e
other fluid (contaminant) or with air (or with other Vw= e Sr Water Mw =wGsγw
gas) or filled partly with or some of each The total
volume Vt of the soil mass consists of the volume
Vs= 1 Soil Mw =Gsγw
of soil solids Vs and the volume of voids, Vs. The
volume of voids is in general made up of the
volume of water Vw and the volume of air Va . Figure 2 (b) Volume and mass relationship in a phase
A phase diagram is an ideal diagram showing the three diagram in terms of soil constants
phases separately.
 Important volumetric Relationship
Air (6) Water content, w (1) Void ratio, e
Va Ma = 0
important to know the Ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of
Vv solids
Vw Water Mw amount of water present in Vv
e=
Vt the voids relative to the Vs
Mt amount of the solids in the
Vs Soil Ms soil; we define the ration as Void ratio varies between 0 and ∞
water content, w. (2) Porosity, n
Mw Ratio of volume of voids to total volume
Figure 2 (a) Volume and mass relationship in a phase w= ×100 (% ) Vv
diagram
Ms n= ×100 (% )
Vt

(3) Degree of saturation The maximum range of n is between 0 and

The ratio of volume of water to the volume of voids 100 %
Vw
Void ratio and porosity are related as
Sr = ×100 (% ) e
Vv n=
The degree of saturation tells us what percentage of the total void spaces 1+ e
n
contains water. Depending on the amount of water in the void spaces, soil can be e=
1− n
described as;
 Dry if the voids are full of air (degree of saturation is zero)
 Saturated if the voids are full of water (degree of saturation is 100%) (5) Specific gravity
 Partially saturated if the voids contains both air and water The ratio of mass of a given volume of solids
(4) Specific volume, v to the mass of the same volume of water is
termed as the specific gravity of the solids.
The total volume of the soil model in phase diagram is equal to 1+e. known as
the specific volume Ms
Gs =
v = 1+ e Vs γ w
 Laboratory determination of water content
 The water content is easily determined from the EXAMPLE:
laboratory.
 A representative sample is selected, and its A specimen of wet soil in a dry dish has a mass of 462 g.
total or wet mass is determined. After drying in an oven at 110°C overnight, the sample
 Then it is dried to a constant mass in a and the dish have a mass of 364 g. the mass of the dish
conventional oven at 110°C. alone is 39 g. Determine the water content of the soil.
 Normally a constant mass is obtained after the
sample is left in the oven overnight (24 hrs). Solution:
 The mass of drying dish must, of course be Set up calculation scheme as follow; fill the given
subtracted from both the wet and dry masses. quantities a, b and d
 The water content is calculated according to Mass of total (wet) sample + dish = 462 g
equation . Mass of dry sample + dish = 364 g
Mass of water (a - b)= 98 g
Mw Mass of dish= 39 g
w= ×100 (% )
Ms
Mass of the dry soil (b – d) = 325 g
Water content (c/e) ×100% = 30.2 %
 Laboratory determination of Specific Gravity
• For fine soil, density bottle of about 50 ml capacity is used. For coarse soil 500 ml or 1000 ml container is used, with either
ordinary gas jar or a special gas jar fitted with a conical screw top, which is called a pycnometer.
• An appropriate quantity of dry soil is placed in a jar and weighed.
• The jar is the filled with de-aired water and agitated to remove any air bubbles.
• After carefully topping up with water, the jar is weighed again. Finally, the jar is emptied and cleaned and then filled with de-
aired water and weighed again.
Now M1 = Mass of the empty jar
M2=Mass of the jar + dry soil
M3 = Mass of the jar + soil + water
M4=Mass of the jar + water only
Then the specific gravity of the soil sample is obtained thus;
Mass of soil
Gs =
Mass of equal volume of water
M 2 − M1
=
(M 4 − M 1 ) − (M 3 − M 2 )
Example
A pyconometer used in a specific gravity test was found to have a mass of 524 g when empty and 1557 g when full of clean
water. An air-dried sample of cohesionless soil having a mass of 512 g was placed in the jar and stirred to expel any entrapped
air. The pycnometer was then carefully filled with clean water, when it has a total mass of 1878 g. Determine the specific gravity
of the soil
Solution:
M1 =524 g Ms =512 g M3 =1878g and M4 =1557g

512
Gs = = 2.68
(1557 − 1878) + 512
 Relationship between e, S r, w and Gs
Vv
Void ratio, e e=
Vs

therefore Vv = eVs Air

Va Ma = 0

Vv
Degree of saturation Sr Vw Water Mw
Vw Vt
Sr = Mt
Vv
Vw Vs Soil Ms
Vv =
Sr
Vw Figure 2 (a) Volume and mass relationship in a phase
Sr =
eVs diagram
also
Ms
Vs =
ρs

Mw
Vw =
γw
1 M ρ
Sr = × w × s
e Ms γw
Substitute
Mw 𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠
w= ×100 (% ) 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 =
Ms 𝛾𝛾𝜔𝜔
Therefore
wG s
Sr =
e
 Soil Densities
(a) Bulk density/ Unit weight
Air Ma = 0
Va= e (1-Sr) For Partially saturated soils
Specific volume 1+e

e
Total mass M + Mw
V w = e Sr Water Mw =wGsγw Bulk density = = s
Total volume Vs + Vv

M s + M w Gs γ w + wG s γ s
Vs= 1 Soil Ms =Gsγw γb = =
v 1+ e

Figure 2 (b) Volume and mass relationship in a phase Also Sr =

wG s
diagram in terms of soil constants
e

(b) Saturated density Gs γ w (1 + w)

For a saturated soil, the degree of saturated soil is 100%, therefore Sr =1 γb =
1+ e
Substituting the value of Sr =1 for the bulk density equation
γ w (Gs + eS r ) γ w (Gs + eS r )
γb = γb =
1+ e 1+ e

γ sat =
γ w (Gs + e) (c) Dry density
1+ e For a soil the water content is w=0%
soil, the degree of Substituting the value
(a) Submerged density, buoyant density or effective density
of w =0 for the bulk density equation
The submerged density of a soil is the notational effective mass per γ w Gs
unit volume, when submerged. γ = γ − γ γd =
sub sat w
1+ e
γ w Gs 𝛾𝛾𝑏𝑏
γd =
1+ e 𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑 =
1 + 𝑤𝑤
γ w (Gs − 1)
γ sub =
1+ e
Relationship for densities
 Example
A saturated sample was found to have a bulk density of 19.33 kN/m3 and water content of 27%. Determine the dry density,
void ratio, porosity and specific gravity of the soil particles.
If the bulk density of the soil is known, it is convenient to consider 1 m3 of the soil and draw appropriate soil-phase diagram

V v= Vw Water Mw

V = 1 m3
Vs Soil Ms

Figure 3 Phase diagram

SOLUTION Porosity
M
w = w × 100 = 27 M w = 0.27 M s
Ms e
n=
1+ e
M = M w + M s = 19.33 kN / m 3
0.724
n= = 0.419
1.27 M s = 19.33 kN / m 3
1 + 0.724
Ms=15.23 kN/m3 Specific gravity
Ms
Mw=0.27×15.23=4.11 kN/m3 Gs =
Vs γ w
Mw 4.11
Vw = = = 0.42
γw 9.81 15.23
Gs = = 2.68
0.58 × 9.81
Vs = 1 − Vs = 1 − 0.42 = 0.58
Void ratio e = Vv
Vs
0.42
e= = 0.724
0.58
 In class example
In its natural state, a soil moisture has a volume of 9.34x10-3 m3 and weights 177.6x10-3kN. The oven dried
weight is 153.6x10-3kN.If Gs =2.67 calculate
(a) Moisture content (%)
(b) Bulk density (kN/m3)
(c) Dry unit weight(kN/m3)
(d) Void ratio
(e) Porosity
(f) Degree of saturation
 In class example
The mass of moist soil sample from the field is 465 rams and its over dried mass is 405.76 grams. The
specific gravity of the soil solids was determined in the laboratory to be 2.68. If the void ration of the soil
sample is 0.83, find
(a) Bulk density in the field (kg/m3)
(b) Dry density of the soil in field (kg/m3)
(c) Mass of water in kilograms to be added per cubic meter of the soil in the field for saturation(kN/m3)
 SOIL COMPACTION
 Compaction :Densification of soil by reducing air voids by application of mechanical energy
 Compaction is used in construction of highways, embankments, earth dams and many engineering
structures
 Loose soils must be compacted to improve their strength and increase the unit weight
 The degree of compaction is measured in terms of its dry unit weight
 represents full saturation conditions

Purpose of compaction Main variables that affect compaction

(i) Increase shear strength of the soil of soils are
(ii) Increase bearing capacity of the soil (i) Type of soil being compacted
(iii) Decrease the undesirable settlement of (ii) Method of compaction
structures (iii) Compactive effort
(iv) Reduce hydraulic conductivity (iv) Moisture content of the soil being
(v) Increase stability of slopes on embankment compacted
STANDARD AND MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST

Modified proctor have high

compaction effort. Mostly
recommended for airport runways
and levees embankments
 LABORATORY SOIL COMPACTION`

Procedure
(a) The weight of the mold without collar is taken. Collar is then attached to the mold ( W1)
(b) Soil is compacted into three layers (standard) or five layers (modified) to the top of collar
(c) Each layer is compacted by 25 hammer blows
(d) The collar is removed and the soil in the soil is the mold leveled.
(e) The weigh of the soil and the mold is recorded ( W2)
(f) Part of the soil is taken, and moisture content determine using the oven technique in
(g) Procedure (a) to (f) is repeated by adding water to the soil. About 5 or 6 tests at varying
amount of water is sufficient.
DRY DENSITY OF THE SOIL
Zero Air Void
Example : Laboratory Compaction Test
Volume of Weight of compacted Moist
water Dry density,
Test mould moist soil in the mold density, γb 3
3 content (%) γd (kN/m )
(cm ) (kg) (kN/m ) 3

1 1000 1.71 10 16.8 15.3

2 1000 1.82 12 17.8 15.9
3 1000 1.88 14 18.4 16.1
4 1000 1.87 16 18.3 15.8
5 1000 1.82 18 17.8 15.1
6 1000 1.77 20 17.4 14.5

16.5
γd(max) =16.1 kN /m 3
16
Dry density , γ ( kN/m )
3

15.5 Target 95% of γd(ma x)

d

15
Dry side Wet side
14.5

14
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water content, w (%)
Field Compaction and specification
 Field Compaction and specification

A number of variables may affect

field quality of the compacted
materials
Density requirements
(i) Moisture content during compaction
(i) Field compaction requirement is specified in term of the
(ii) Size or weight and the number of
relative density (RC)
passes with the equipment γ𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
(iii) Type of the compactor and 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = ,
γ𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
compaction method ,
(ii) Field specification for RC is usually 90-95% of the Maximum
(iv) Lift (layer) thickness
dry density.
(v) Uniformity of the borrow material
(iii) Field density can be determined using Rubber Balloon method,
Sand Cone Method and Nuclear Density Method
 Field Compaction
Compaction method has been used Its effective in improving properties
to improve soil properties near of cohesionless soils
surface through densification

Application:
Conventional compaction has been used for earthworks such as
roads, embankment, dams, slopes wall, parking lots and sports
fields.
Advantages:
(i) Construction equipment readily available
(ii) Well established ground improvement method that has long
history
Conventional compaction is to use Disadvantage
rollers or plate compactors to repeatedly (i) Depth of improvement is limited
apply static pressure, kneading action (ii) Soil should be within moisture content close to the optimum
or vibration ion ground surface to (iii) Its challenging to achieve uniform compaction for large area
densify soil material
 Compaction Test and its application
16.5
γd(max) =16.1 kN /m 3
16

Dry density , γ ( kN/m )

3
15.5 Target 95% of γd(ma x)

d
15

Dry side Wet side

14.5

14
Lab compaction 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water content, w (%)

Sand Cone Method Field compaction

Nuclear Density
Field density is specified at 90-95% of
Method
Compaction specification in the field is verified the maximum dry density. Compaction
from Sand Cone Method or Nuclear is the field is done using rollers
Density Method Field compaction done on the dry side
of the compaction curve
 Field Density Determination

EXAMPLE:
Afield sand cone test is performed on a layer of
compacted fill. The results of the cone test are shown
below. A laboratory proctor test determine that the fill
has a maximum dry density of 18.9 kN/m3.
Determine the relative compaction of the fill. Calculate the volume of the soil excavated from the hole
Unit weight of sand γsand=14.9k kN/m3 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜−𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 −𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 0.074−0.047 −0.005 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Wt of sand to fill cone, Wcone=0.5kg=0.005kN Vhole = = =
γ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 14.9𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
Wt of jar+cone+sand (before test), 0.00148 𝑚𝑚3
Wo=7.5kg=0.074kN Calculate the dry unit weight of the soil excavated from the hole
Wt of jar+cone+sand (after test), 𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 0.029 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Wf=4.8kg=0.047kN γd= = (0.00148)(1+0.1) = 17.8𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/ 𝑚𝑚3
𝑉𝑉ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (1+𝑤𝑤)
Wt of moist soil excavated from hole,
W hole=3.0kg=0.029kN Calculate the relative density
Moisture content of the soil from hole (γ𝑑𝑑)𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 17.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
, w=10% RC = =
18.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 94%
(γ𝑑𝑑)𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚