"Analysis of increasing the level of reliability and quality of electric power

supply by means of Smart grids and smart meters for households with AHP
Topsis model."
José Israel Villegas Serralta
Universidad Autónoma de ciudad Juárez.

Abstrac: Smart grids refer to smart electricity

distribution networks, These networks are
Smart grids A Smart Grid (SG) is an
defined as intelligent because compared to a
electrical network that integrates, through
normal network this has bidirectional
bidirectional communication, the actions
networks which are capable of transmitting
of service providers and users connected
electricity in both directions, this would make
to it. Currently, one of the challenges
homes or where the Smart grid is used to be
facing the Mexican Electricity Grid due
small producers of electricity and not only
to population and industrial growth is the
consumers as it is so far [1].
increase in energy demand, as well as the
introduction of distributed generation Currently, most of the processes used for
based on renewable resources. The energy generation, particularly electricity
objective of this paper is to present an generation, are not sustainable, since their
overview of the current state of smart carbon footprint lies in the constant emissions
grids in Mexico, as well as the feasibility of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere,
of building Micro Grids to provide producing undesirable effects on global
electricity to underserved sectors of warming. The traditional electricity grid faces
society or to make current services more great challenges, such as demand peaks, the
efficient. incorporation of renewable energies,
reduction of energy losses, improvement in
the quality of service and energy efficiency,
Keywords: smart grid, networks, among others[2].
optimization, smart city, smart grid,
Renewable energies play a relevant role in
smart meters.
energy generation and are incorporated as a
basic element of the Smart Grid, which can
integrate energy consumers and generators
Introduction:
with a bidirectional flow of energy and
In the world we cannot live without the information[2].
electricity grid, our world is advancing in
a way where we need more and more
electricity grids but having a higher In order to achieve an evolution towards
demand for these grids it is very common smart grids, we need to increase decentralized
to have failures these failures could be energy generation, which is mainly produced
minimized if we would use Smart grids, by renewable energies, but since they are
renewable energies, we must also be to manage your electricity to make better
aware that their behavior is decisions [4].
intermittent[3].
A basic component of Smart grids is the
smart or bidirectional meter, which is
capable of receiving real-time
information to the customer about their
consumption, as well as delivering
information about consumption and grid
conditions to the electricity service
provider, which would be facilitating us
if a problem were to occur[3].

What is a smart meter?

Normally all homes have a current meter
and this device is responsible for
accounting for electricity consumption, in Figure 1. Enel smart meter, currently used in
the case of smart meters in addition to Peru.
recording electricity consumption as they
do the current meters, they have the
ability to obtain information on What are the differences between a
consumption in real time.[4] In addition conventional meter and a smart meter?
to this type of meter, it is possible to
The main difference that is evident when
specify the hours in which electricity is
using a smart meter instead of the traditional
more expensive and which appliances are
ones, is that the former provides updated and
consuming more energy.
detailed information on the energy
Apart from the fact that in this type of consumption of your home or business,
meter it is possible to specify the hours in identifying the time and place of highest
which electricity is more expensive and consumption. By being able to regularly
which devices are consuming more monitor consumption, you can understand the
energy. In this way the people who dynamics of each space and benefit from all
consume energy in that house can make a the functionalities that technological
better energy saving, get to make a lower management entails, to optimize your
bill and above all help the environment consumption and your experience as a user to
by making less pollution. [4] the máximum [5].
They allow remotely detect energy theft
and provide information about the quality
of service, the smart meter will allow you
Figure 1.2 Conventional meter vs. smart contracted electrical power has been exceeded
meter. in the dwelling or premises).
7. The load reserve system supplies a
minimum of energy for 3 days before service
Benefits of digital meters
suspension in case you forget to pay your
When it comes to smart meters, we can energy bill.
find several benefits in their use,
The implementation of this technology
compared to traditional devices. These
represents a new era in the relationship
are some of their advantages:
between the customer and the utility
1. they allow quick and timely company, allowing people to become relevant
identification of problems and and active players in the management and
breakdowns in the electrical circuit, so efficient use of energy [5].
faults can be solved more quickly,
preventing potential accidents.
Smart light meter features
2. They provide a simple option to
modify the power contracted to the
service remotely, without the need for a
 Features 100% automated and remote
technician to attend.
metering, data encryption and data
3. Its administration is safer and more encryption technology
convenient, both for the user and for the  - Records all energy values
company, since the data is continuously  - Remotely managed and automated
and automatically monitored, without the  - Measures and manages energy flow
need for a technician to enter the site. bi-directionally
4. Customer service will be much  - Encrypts and transmits information
more efficient since it allows the electric continuously
company to detect faults and deploy
timely solutions.
5. It offers real and detailed readings
of the average energy consumption per
day of the week and for the billed period
the day of highest consumption will be
discriminated by hour.
6. Allows monitoring its operation
through a system of lights: off (no Figure 1.3 Characteristics of smart meters.
electricity consumption is occurring in
the dwelling), blinking slightly
(electricity consumption is occurring at
this moment), blinking rapidly (electricity How the AHP and grand prix method
has gone out) or on and fixed (the was introduced in smart meter analysis
 What is the AHP method? It is a multi-criteria decision method for
selecting alternatives that was proposed by
Saaty in 1980 (Saaty, 1980) and is
It is a multi-criteria decision method that

helps us to select among different

alternatives based on a series of criteria based on the idea that a multi-criteria decision
or selection variables, usually making problem can be solved by
hierarchical, and that usually conflict hierarchizing the problem posed. The
with each other. The hierarchical TOPSIS method is due to Hwang and Yoon
structure from top to bottom would be: (1981) and tackles the problem of ranking the
final objective, criteria and sub-criteria alternatives using the idea of distance to the
and finally the alternatives to be ideal alternative and the anti-ideal
alternative.Let Ai, i=1, 2,..., m, Cj, j=1, 2, ...,
n, the criteria weights wj and a decision
matrix with xij=Uj(Ai), i,j be the alternatives.
Where U is the decision maker's utility
function, operating on the basis that all
criteria are to be maximized/minimized
depending on whether profit or cost is being
considered, respectively. We call the positive
ideal point in ℜ N the point A + , being the
best possible choice, and A -, the negative
ideal solution in ℜ n, being the worst possible
choice. A rational decision maker would
compared. One of the fundamental always choose A+, and if this value did not
aspects of the method is to choose the correspond to any of the alternatives, he
selection criteria and sub-criteria well, to would choose the one closest to it[6].
define them adequately and to ensure that
they are mutually exclusive[6].
In this method we could see that we can enter
the CFE rates and investigate how the
Figure 1.4 AHP structure. electricity consumption has increased and
how a smart meter can help us to reduce this
consumption.
How was the topsis method
implemented in smart meters?
 1.5 CFE domestic tariffs

In order to calculate the annual tariffs, we

also investigated the consumption in the
country, using the domestic consumption
method, since these services are only
supplied at low voltage [7].
Figure 1.6 Consumption In domestic Figure 1.7 Percentage of smart meters
locations installed in each of the provinces of Spain.

Smart Meter features

On average a Mexican home consumes Remote Reading
10,812 Kvalts per hour and this is a
problem not only in Mexico but in
several countries to have a high demand Smart meters remotely read and record
for energy consumption can get to have energy consumption and other electrical
more problems or generates greater parameters [8]:
defect in the wiring either by excess
consumption or because they are not
given proper maintenance [7]. - Active and reactive energy (kWh).
- Power in 4 quadrants (kW).
In countries such as Spain where these - Voltage between phases (Volts).
smart meters have already been
implemented, the average consumption is - Current per phase (Amps).
9,922 kvalt-hours and it seems little but it - Power factor.
is a great saving and this is happening
thanks to smart meters that can give us - Total harmonic distortion (THD).
greater efficiency in terms of energy
consumption[7].

Bidirectional Metering
 Bidirectional Communication
Smart meters can identify the direction of
the power and therefore know if the
Smart meters can receive commands from, or
distribution company delivers power to
send information to, the utility's computer
the user or the user injects power to the
systems. For example, if you want to receive
distribution network, being this the case
measurement reports every 15 minutes,
of customers with solar panels or
program the meter for that purpose and it
industries with own generation[8].
would send the information every 15 minutes
[8].
We speak of power measurement in
quadrants to refer to the direction of
Also, the meters can communicate with
active and reactive power, i.e. whether it
different devices through the ports that are
enters the user or the user injects it to the
equipped, The P0 port is an interface for field
network as shown in the graph of the
and maintenance operations [8].
header[8].

The P1 port, also called consumer port, is a

In the first quadrant (I) the active power
unidirectional communication interface that
is positive which means that it is supplied
serves to provide measurement information to
by the distribution company and the
devices such as home displays known as In
reactive power is inductive.
Home Displays (IHD) [8].

In the second quadrant (II) the active

The P2 port allows communication with
power is negative which means that it is
secondary measuring instruments and other
injected to the network by the user but
devices in the distribution network. For
the reactive power is inductive.
example, it can be connected to a smart gas
meter which would send the measurement to
the electricity meter which stores it and sends
In the third quadrant (III) the active
it to the utility [8].
power is injected to the network by the
user and is plotted with negative sign and
the reactive power is capacitive.
The P3 port is for receiving and sending
signals to the concentrators through PLC or
RF or also directly to the Head-end or MDC
In quadrant four (IV) the active power is
through cellular or RF [8].
positive and therefore is supplied by the
distribution company and the reactive
power is capacitive.
 Detection and Notification of Supply
Interruptions
Remote Power Limitation

Smart meters register occurrences such as

Smart meters allow limiting the power to a
power supply failure and constitute the
value lower than the contracted power and for
first warning of power failure to the
a predetermined period of time. This function
control center of the distribution
allows reducing the power to customers who
company, contributing to reduce attention
are in arrears and who will only be able to
times for this reason [8].
turn on part of their appliances or use basic
appliances until they pay their debts [8].
They also register events of low or high
voltage, which also allows companies to
Ability to Configure Rates Remotely
take actions to correct these deviations
from the nominal voltage that are outside
the +/- 5% of the same, which are the
permissible limits by the Technical Smart meters can change the tariff option at
Standard for Quality of Electrical Service the customer's request remotely. In Peru,
(NTCSE) that applies in Peru [8]. customers with power greater than 10 kW can
opt for the so-called No-BT5 tariffs, which
are all tariffs that measure energy and power
in on-peak or off-peak time blocks. Normally
Smart meters can also detect, record and
the customers on these tariffs are businesses
warn of unauthorized opening of the
and therefore they can manage their work
terminal cover to prevent energy theft [8].
shifts in order to consume less at peak hours
when energy is more expensive and thus
reduce their electricity payment. Evidently
Remote Shut-Off and Reconnection
one of the great benefits of the massification
of smart meters is that all customers can do
the above and move from one tariff to another
Smart meters have an internal switch that according to their interest [9].
can be remotely controlled to cut off and
reconnect service due to delinquency[8].
Remote firmware update

Due to the characteristics of its design,

this switch does not replace the
Meters have software for their operations, just
thermomagnetic switches that are
like our computers or cell phones. This
installed in the meter boxes, being the
requires updating when an improved version
function of the latter to disconnect the
is released and therefore smart meters allow
particular electrical system in case of
remote software or firmware upgrades
short circuit [8].
without altering the recorded and stored
information or the meter's for the growth of devices and sensors for the
configuration[9]. collection and transmission of information in
all areas, and also in the field of "smart
cities", generating the need for new ICT
Self-Check infrastructure to ensure the collection,
transmission and processing of data and its
availability for both public authorities and
The meters have a self-check function potential users, which in turn is causing a
that allows to identify from the constant increase in electricity consumption
operations center the correct installation and CO2 emissions [10].
and correct operation. That is, when the
meter is installed or changed, it sends a
communication to the company's servers The main problem of the devices required for
indicating all its data and operation [9]. the operation of Smart Cities is that they need
to be permanently connected to the network
and ready to transmit data and interact with
How can we reduce the carbon other devices, networks or people. This
footprint of smart cities? permanent availability, in different latency
states, can account for up to 80% of their
The speed at which technological energy consumption [10]
innovations and the development of big
data are happening has caused a "smart"
fever that many cities are joining, causing
the proliferation of devices and the
transmission and processing of data,
which is increasing electricity
consumption and CO2 emissions. The
development of smart cities, their data
networks and the ICT infrastructure that
this requires, must be done with careful
planning, taking into account the
minimization of the associated ICT
energy consumption. The LIFE Green
ICT project, funded by the EU LIFE
program, wants to contribute to this
vision, to achieve a carbon neutral or
even better, a positive balance in the use
of ICT in the development of smart cities, The contribution of the LIFE GREN ICT
by developing and making available to project to the carbon footprint of ICTs
the cities different instruments & The
speed at which technological innovations what is Green Ict?
and the development of big data are
taking place has triggered expectations deals with people, processes and technologies
relating to the environment, is the study and
practice of using computing (ICT) 1.-Total energy consumption of ICT
resources efficiently. equipment (kWh/year).
The use of technologies and techniques to
2.-Total CO2 emissions from ICT equipment
lower (or reduce the rate of increase of)
(t/year)
the power consumption or carbon
footprint of the ICT function. In its 3.-Consumption of smart devices
broader sense, it also addresses the use
of ICT as an enabling technology to help 4.-DPC energy consumption (equipment)
reduce power consumption or the carbon (kWh/year)
footprint outside of the ICT function 5.-DPC energy consumption (cooling)
[12]. (kWh/year)
Green Information and Communications 6.-Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE=DC
Technology stands for a set of initiatives consumption / total ICT equipment
organisations undertake in order to consumption)
reduce carbon emissions and their carbon
footprint produced by their information 7.-DCiE (Data center infrastructure efficiency
and communication systems, - Data center efficiency)
Is defined as ICTs with low GHGs
emission and using ICTs as an enabler to
reduce GHGs emission in other industries Depending on the possibilities and cost of the
[13]. monitoring system design, a methodology for
estimating energy consumption can be used
based on an inventory of equipment with its
technical characteristics and an average
number of hours and workload in different
modes (functional use, stand-by, etc.), or else
using real-time measurement by means of
some of the different energy monitoring
How was the smart city implemented software and devices available on the market
[10].
The LIFE GREEN TIC project has
developed this monitoring using both
systems, showing that the estimated
consumptions can be very different from the
real ones if a correct estimation of the
number of working hours and stand-by
consumptions is not made [10].

for the carbon footprint calculator?

The first basic indicators that could be
Figure 2.-Monitoring system for ICT
used for monitoring had to be drawn first:
infrastructure energy consumption.
 International energy
In Smart Cities, it is necessary to take consumption
into account, before the deployment of
the infrastructure and devices required for
their operation, how the energy
In 2019, global electricity consumption grew
consumption associated with them will be
at a much slower rate than in recent years
monitored, ensuring that this can be done
(+0.7% as opposed to an average of 3% per
individually. If this task is not carried out
year over the period 2000 to 2018) due to a
prior to deployment, it is likely that it will
slowdown in economic growth and milder
be difficult or impossible to obtain this
temperatures in several large countries.
information and that such consumption
will be hidden in other areas, such as Electricity demand in China, which accounts
public lighting or electricity in buildings for 28 % of global electricity consumption,
[10]. grew by 4.5 % in 2019 (versus the 10 % per
year observed during the period from 2000 to
2018), as a slowdown in electricity demand
In any case, much of the consumption from industry (slower economic growth in
associated with the Smart infrastructure 2019) was partially offset by strong demand
will correspond to those linked to data from the residential and services sectors. It
transmission and storage, usually in the remained stable in India (decline in industrial
DPCs of the municipalities themselves, consumption) and Russia (mild temperatures).
so it is considered that the general
In the US, declining demand from the
monitoring of the ICT infrastructure is a
industrial and residential sectors contributed
preliminary step for the monitoring of the
to a 2.2 % reduction in electricity
Smart sub-infrastructure [11].
consumption. Electricity consumption also
declined in the EU (-1.4%, in line with the
economic slowdown), Japan, South Korea
In cases where the municipality has
and South Africa.
resorted to cloud systems, this monitoring
is more complex and should ask its cloud
service provider for an estimate of
energy consumption, since it is
basically a transfer of CO2 emissions
from our own facilities to those of a
third party,although surely much more
energy efficient [10].

Figure 2.1- Prototype of a smart city in

3d by unity, example of a smart city.
 1.4 World energy consumption 2000- The population that uses Smart meters is
20019 over 40%, but we must remember that this
is also because the other party doesn't
The analysis of the relationship between
energy consumption, output and prices is know about them yet or doesn't know how
one of the fundamental issues in to use them, so we have taken 40% as
determining the conditions for an
sustainable economic development. In acceptance limit. We see that there is
economic analysis, the relationships no binary comparison that results in a
between energy consumption, output and consistency ratio greater than that
prices have been studied from different value, then we will consider the
points of view. In this sense, at least two results as valid. Once λ max and the
approaches stand out that imply different
associated f we have calculated our
analysis options. Thus, on the one hand,
own vectors, we can obtain the
we have one known as bottom up,
resulting vector, thus having the
oriented more to the use of models based
on engineering studies where the energy preference between the different
requirements of the available equipment criteria.
associated with specific technologies are
used directly (Böhringer, 1998; Graham
and Williams, 2003).

1.4.1 Energy consumption in mexico

2000- 2019

The Box-Cox transformation is used

for response variable in order to
ensure compliance with all
assumptions of a linear model And ∼
N(Xβ, σ2I). These transformations
combine the objective of finding a
simple relationship with
1.4.2Electricity production in mexico
homogeneity of variances, improving
2000 – 2019
normality
The transformed observations be estimated by the maximum
Y(λ) ∼ N(Xβ, σ2I). We we likelihood method. If the three
observe the X matrix, the Y scoring equations, we usually solve
response vector, so the the search for the estimators of (β,
parameters of the model are (λ, σ2) for each fixed λ and then choose
β, σ2). They showed that λ can the most suitable λ. In this case that
the density of Y(λ) is
possible exact normality, the usual
estimators from λ lead to distributions
Ec (1) whose first four moments would
correspond to symmetry.

f (y) = 1 (√2πσ2)n e− (y(λ)−Xβ)0(y(λ)

−Xβ) 2σ2 J(λ, y) J(λ, y)

Ec (2)

How to reduce carbon footprint?

We can prove that

Lım λ→0 and λ - 1 λ = log y

* Replace conventional light bulbs with
y (λ) = (y+λ2)λ1-1 λ1 if λ1 6= 0 log energy- The population that uses VAVA
(y + λ2) if λ1 = 0 to contemplate the is over 40%, but we must remember that
case of values of and negatives. In this is also because the other party doesn't
practice you choose λ2 for that and know about them yet or doesn't know how
i + λ2 > 0 for all i. So we'll only see to use them, so we have taken 40% as
λ1 as a parameter for these an
transformations. acceptance limit. We see that there is
no binary comparison that results in a
This family is continuous in λ and consistency ratio greater than that
monotonous increasing for each λ, value, then we will consider the
that is to say that the original order results as valid. Once λ max and the
between the y ' s is preserved: if y1 associated f we have calculated our
> y2, then y (λ) 1 ) > y (λ) 2 . It is own vectors, we can obtain the
clear that not every distribution can resulting vector, thus having the
be transformed into a normal one. preference between the different
Those distributions for which criteria.
transforming by power is not
FIGURE 16 [23] β, σ2). They showed that λ can be
estimated by the maximum

The Box-Cox transformation is

used for response variable in
order to ensure compliance with
all assumptions of a linear model
And ∼ N(Xβ, σ2I). These
transformations combine the
objective of finding a simple
relationship with homogeneity of
variances, improving normality
likelihood method. If the three
The transformed observations
scoring equations, we usually solve
Y(λ) ∼ N(Xβ, σ2I). We we
the search for the estimators of (β,
observe the X matrix, the Y
σ2) for each fixed λ and then choose
response vector, so the
the most suitable λ. In this case that
parameters of the model are (λ,
the density of Y(λ) is
as a parameter for these
transformations.

This family is continuous in λ and

monotonous increasing for each λ, that is
to say that the original order between the
y ' s is preserved: if y1 > y2, then y (λ) 1
) > y (λ) 2 . It is clear that not every
distribution can be transformed into a
normal one. Those distributions for
which transforming by power is not
possible exact normality, the usual
We can prove that estimators from λ lead to distributions
whose first four moments would
Lım λ→0 and λ - 1 λ = log y
correspond to symmetry.
y (λ) = (y+λ2)λ1-1 λ1 if λ1 6= 0 log (y
f (y) = 1 (√2πσ2)n e− (y(λ)−Xβ)0(y(λ)
+ λ2) if λ1 = 0 to contemplate the
−Xβ) 2σ2 J(λ, y) J(λ, y)
case of values of and negatives. In * Turn off lights I don't need [14].
practice you choose λ2 for that and i
+ λ2 > 0 for all i. So we'll only see λ1 * Unplug the television if I am not watching it
[14].
* Turn off the computer if I am not using it organizational environment in the
[14]. workplace.
* Shower for a maximum of 5 minutes. In accordance with its scope, NOM
Short showers not only save water, but 035 is valid throughout the country
also save the energy needed to heat it [14]. and applies to all workplaces.
* Use more public transportation or However, the provisions of this
carpool with those on my route [14]. standard apply according to the
number of workers working in the
* Walking or cycling short distances [14].
work center. Derived from the above,
* Taking my car to the garage regularly. there are three levels:
This is to make sure that fuel, air and oil
filters are replaced in a timely manner. Work centers with up to 15 workers;
When your car runs well it generates fewer
Workplaces with between 16 and 50
emissions [14].
workers, and
* Reduce the number of airplane flights.
The airplane is one of the transports that Work centres with more than 50 workers.
generates more emissions, try to find a
Therefore, the work center must
direct flight instead of one with stopovers
[14]. determine at what level it is, so that it
complies with the provisions that
correspond to it according to the
NOM 035 number of workers it employs.

The Mexican Official Standards NOM 035 comes into force in two
issued by the Ministry of Labor and stages, which delimit the
Social Welfare determine the requirements with which work
minimum conditions centers will have to comply:

required in terms of safety, health 1ª. Stage - October 23, 2019

and work environment, in order to
prevent accidents and occupational Policy; prevention
diseases. measures;
identification of workers exposed to
NOM 035 aims to establish the severe traumatic events; and
elements to identify, analyze and dissemination of information.
prevent psychosocial risk factors,
as well as to promote a favorable 2ª. Stage - 23 October 2020
Identification and analysis of records. [15]
psychosocial risk factors; assessment
of the organizational environment;
control measures and actions;
medical examination practice; and
Ecological Footprint to the area of ecologically
productive territory (crops,
has been consolidated as an indicator pastures, forests or aquatic
of sustainability at the international ecosystem) necessary to produce
level. the resources used and to
In the economic context, there has assimilate the waste produced by
long been a globally accepted and a defined population with a
used indicator: the Gross Domestic specific standard of living
Product (GDP). indefinitely, wherever this area is
located.
However, in view of the new
challenges we are facing, we need to It is easy to see our responsibility
complete the information provided in the pollution of the Planet and
by the GDP in order to design in the constant and progressive
balanced policies that reflect our depletion of natural resources.
commitment to the environment and This indicator aims, therefore, to
social welfare. evaluate the impact on the Earth
of a certain model or form of life
This biophysical indicator of and, consequently, its degree of
sustainability integrates the set of sustainability.
impacts that a human community
exerts on its environment,
considering both the necessary The philosophy behind the
resources and the waste generated for calculation of the ecological
the maintenance of the community's footprint is based on the
consumption model.[16] following aspects:
The ecological footprint is
defined as the total ecologically In order to produce any good or
productive surface area required service, regardless of the type of
to produce the resources technology used, a flow of
consumed by an average citizen materials and energy is required,
of a given human community, as ultimately coming from
well as that required to absorb ecological systems or the direct
the waste it generates, regardless energy flow from the Sun in its
of the location of these surfaces. different manifestations.[18]
[17]
Ecological systems are needed to
In the words of the creators of the absorb the waste generated
concept, William Rees and during the production process
Mathis Wackernagel, the and the use of the final products.
ecological footprint corresponds The space is also occupied with
infrastructure, housing, equipment ... As a guideline, we can indicate that the
thus reducing the surface areas of 20% of the population living in rich
productive ecosystems. cities[19]
consume more than 60% of the
Although this indicator integrates
world's GDP.
multiple impacts, the following aspects,
among others, must be taken into This makes it clear that the
account, which underestimate the real unsustainable lifestyle of
environmental impact: developed countries cannot be
extended to the rest of the planet,
Some impacts, especially those of a
as there would not be resources
qualitative nature, such as soil, water
for everyone. The way to develop
and atmospheric pollution (with the
a sustainable world economy is
exception of CO2), erosion, loss of
to reduce consumption and
biodiversity and landscape degradation,
exercise responsible consumption
are not taken into account.
in many countries.[20]
It is assumed that practices in the
agricultural, livestock and forestry
sectors are sustainable, i.e. soil
productivity does not decrease over
time.

The impact associated with water use is

not considered, except for the direct
occupation of land by reservoirs and
hydraulic infrastructures and the energy
associated with the management of the 1.8 ecological footprint image
water cycle.

As a general criterion, care is taken not

to include those aspects for which there
are doubts about the quality of the
calculation. In this respect, there is also
a tendency to always choose the most
prudent option when it comes to
obtaining results.

The ecological footprint is more evident

in large western cities
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