SYLLABUS

ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI

OCE552 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM LTPC

3 0 0 3
OBJECTIVES:
• To introduce the fundamentals and components of Geographic Information System
• To provide details of spatial data structures and input, management and output
processes.

UNIT – I: FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS 9

Introduction to GIS - Basic spatial concepts - Coordinate Systems - GIS and Information
Systems – Definitions – History of GIS - Components of a GIS – Hardware, Software, Data,
People, Methods – Proprietary and open source Software - Types of data – Spatial, Attribute data-
types of attributes – scales/ levels of measurements.

UNIT – II : SPATIAL DATA MODELS 9

Database Structures – Relational, Object Oriented – ER diagram - spatial data models –
Raster Data Structures – Raster Data Compression - Vector Data Structures - Raster vs Vector
Models TIN and GRID data models - OGC standards - Data Quality.

UNIT – III: DATA INPUT AND TOPOLOGY 9

Scanner - Raster Data Input – Raster Data File Formats – Vector Data Input –Digitiser –
Topology - Adjacency, connectivity and containment – Topological Consistency rules – Attribute
Data linking – ODBC – GPS - Concept GPS based mapping.

UNIT – IV: DATA ANALYSIS 9

Vector Data Analysis tools - Data Analysis tools - Network Analysis - Digital Education
models - 3D data collection and utilisation.

UNIT – V: APPLICATIONS 9
GIS Applicant - Natural Resource Management - Engineering - Navigation - Vehicle
tracking and fleet management - Marketing and Business applications - Case studies.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT - I
UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS
1.1. GIS Overview 1.1
1.1.1. Introduction to GIS 1.1
1.2. Basic Spatial Concepts 1.2
1.2.1. Location 1.2
1.2.2. Distance 1.3
1.2.3. Network 1.3
1.2.4. Neighborhoods and regions 1.4
1.2.5. Scale 1.5
1.2.6. Spatial Heterogeneity 1.5
1.2.7. Spatial Dependence 1.6
1.2.8. Objects and Fields 1.7
1.3. Geographic Coordinate Systems 1.8
1.3.1. Sphere and Ellipsoid 1.9
1.3.2. Geoids 1.9
1.3.3. Datum 1.10
1.4. GIS as an Information System 1.11
1.5. Defining GIS 1.11
1.6. History of GIS 1.11
1.7. Components of a GIS 1.13
1.7.1. Software 1.13
1.7.2. Hardware 1.13
1.7.3. Data 1.14
1.7.4. Users 1.14
1.7.5. People 1.14
1.7.6. Methods 1.14
1.8. Proprietary and Open Source GIS Software 1.15
1.8.1. AGIS-Map 1.15
1.8.2. Autodesk 1.15
1.8.3. Bentley Systems, Inc. 1.15
1.8.4. Cartographica 1.15
 1.8.5. DeLorme 1.15
1.8.6. ESRI 1.15
1.8.7. Intergraph 1.16
1.8.8. Manifold 1.16
1.8.9. Ortelius 1.17
1.8.10. MapInfo – Pitney Bowes Business Insight (PBBI) 1.17
1.8.11. Maptitude 1.17
1.8.12. My World 1.17
1.8.13. Super-geo Technologies 1.18
1.8.14. Tatuk-GIS Editor 1.18
1.8.15. Terrain Tools 1.18
1.8.16. TerrSet Geospatial Monitoring and Modeling System 1.18
1.8.17. TNT Products 1.19
1.9. Open Source GIS Software 1.19
1.9.1. Quantum GIS (QGIS) 1.19
1.9.2. DIVA-GIS 1.19
1.9.3. Free QGIS Courses from Geo-Academy 1.19
1.9.4. Geo-Da 1.19
1.9.5. GVSIG 1.20
1.9.6. Map-Window GIS 1.20
1.9.7. SAGA (System for Automated Geo-scientific Analyses) 1.20
1.9.8. UDIG 1.20
1.9.9. Environmental Benefits Mapping & Analysis Program 1.20
1.10. Data Types 1.21
1.10.1. Spatial Data 1.21
1.10.2. Non-Spatial Data 1.22
1.10.3. Spatial Data Models 1.22
1.10.4. Attribute Data Models 1.23
1.11. Types of Attribute Data 1.24
1.11.1. Character Data 1.24
1.11.2. Numeric Data 1.25
1.11.3. Date/Time Data 1.25
1.11.4. BLOB Data 1.25
1.12. Scale of measurement/Level of measurements 1.25
 1.12.1. Nominal scaling 1.27
1.12.2. Ordinal scaling 1.28
1.12.3. Interval scaling 1.28
1.12.4. Ratio scaling 1.28
Two Marks Questions with Answers 1.29
Review Questions 1.33

UNIT-II
SPATIAL DATA MODELS
2.1. Introduction 2.1
2.2. Database Structures 2.1
2.3. Data Structure Models 2.2
2.3.1. Hierarchical Data Structure Model 2.2
2.3.2. Network Data Structure Model 2.3
2.3.3. Relational Data Structure Model 2.4
2.3.4. Object Oriented Database Structure 2.5
2.4. Definition - What does Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD) 2.6
2.4.1. Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD) 2.6
2.4.2. E-R Diagram 2.7
2.5. Spatial Data Models 2.8
2.5.1. Vector Data Formats 2.9
2.5.2. Raster Data Formats 2.10
2.5.3. Image Data 2.12
2.5.4. Vector and Raster – Advantages and Disadvantages 2.13
2.6. Raster Data Structure 2.14
2.6.1. Run length encoding 2.15
2.6.2. Block encoding 2.15
2.6.3. Chain encoding 2.16
2.6.4. Quadtree 2.16
2.6.5. A Single Layer Raster Data can be represented using 2.17
2.6.6. Comparison between Vector and Raster Data Models 2.17
2.7 Data Compression 2.18
2.7.1. Raster Data Compression 2.18
2.7.2. Run length Encoding 2.19
 2.7.3. Quadtree 2.20
2.8. Vector data structure 2.20
2.8.1. Connectivity 2.21
2.8.2. Contiguity 2.22
2.8.3. Containment 2.22
2.8.4. Simple Features 2.23
2.8.5. Topologic Features 2.23
2.8.6. Fully topological polygon network structure 2.24
2.8.7. Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) 2.24
2.9. Raster vs Vector Models 2.26
2.9.1. Vector Data 2.27
2.9.2. Raster Types: Discrete vs Continuous 2.29
2.9.3. Discrete Raster’s have Distinct Values 2.30
2.9.4. Continuous Rasters have Gradual Change 2.30
2.10. Vector vs Raster: Spatial Data Types 2.30
2.10.1. Vector and Raster – Advantages and Disadvantages 2.31
2.10.2. Vector Data 2.31
2.10.4. Raster Data 2.31
2.11. TIN and GRID data models 2.32
2.11.1. Different Types of TIN Methods and Processes 2.33
2.11.2. Components of TIN 2.33
2.11.3. TIN Data Model 2.34
2.12. Grid/Lunr/Magi 2.35
2.12.1. IMGRID GIS 2.35
2.13. Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) 2.36
2.13.1. Standards 2.36
2.14. Spatial Data Quality 2.38
2.14.1. Spatial Data Quality 2.38
2.14.2. Usage Components 2.40
2.14.3. Causes of Error 2.40
2.14.4. Map Generalization 2.41
2.14.5. Sources of Possible Errors 2.43
2.14.6. Controlling Errors 2.44
Two Marks Questions with Answers 2.46
Review Questions 2.51

UNIT-III

DATA INPUT AND TOPOLOGY

3.1. Introduction to Scanners for Raster Data Input 3.1
3.1.1. Scanned Data 3.2
3.1.2. Types of Scanner 3.3
3.2. Raster Data File Formats 3.3
3.2.1. Modes of Data Input 3.4
3.2.2. Data Input Techniques 3.4
3.2.3. Digitizing 3.4
3.2.4. Automatic Scanning 3.6
3.2.5. Coordinate Geometry 3.6
3.2.6. Conversion of Existing Digital Data 3.7
3.3. Raster Data File Formats 3.8
3.3.1. Grids 3.8
3.3.2. Images 3.9
3.4. Vector Data Input 3.10
3.4.1. Heads down digitization 3.10
3.4.2. Heads-up digitization 3.10
3.4.3. Digitizers for Vector Data Input 3.11
3.4.4. Major problems of Map Digitization 3.12
3.5. Digitizers 3.12
3.5.1. Hardware 3.12
3.5.2. Problems with Digitizing Maps 3.14
3.5.3. Digitizing Costs 3.14
3.6. Topology in GIS 3.15
3.6.1. Adjacency 3.15
3.6.2. Connectivity 3.15
3.6.3. Containment 3.15
3.6.4. Topological Consistency Rules 3.16
3.6.5. Non Topological File Formats 3.17
3.7. Linking the Attribute Data to the Spatial Data 3.18
3.7.1. Linking External Databases 3.19
 3.7.2. Note 3.20
3.8. Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) 3.20
3.8.1. History of Before ODBC 3.21
3.8.2. Early efforts 3.21
3.8.3. SAG and CLI 3.22
3.8.4. JET and ODBC 3.22
3.8.5. Release and continued development 3.23
3.8.6. ODBC today 3.24
3.9. GPS 3.25
3.9.1. Uses of GPS 3.25
3.9.2. Basic structure of GPS 3.26
3.9.3. GPS positioning 3.27
3.9.4. GPS signals 3.28
3.9.5. C/A code 3.28
3.9.6. Navigation message 3.29
3.9.7. DOP (Dilution of Precision) 3.30
3.9.8. Signal strength 3.30
3.9.9. Number of satellites tracked for positioning 3.31
3.10. Concept of GPS based mapping 3.31
3.10.1. GPS Elements 3.31
3.10.2. GPS Satellite Navigation System 3.32
3.10.3. GPS Positioning Techniques 3.32
3.10.4. Differential GPS (DGPS) 3.32
3.10.5. GPS applications in Transportation 3.33
Two Marks Questions with Answers 3.34
Review Questions 3.39
UNIT-IV

DATA QUALITY AND STANDARDS

4.1. Vector Data Analysis tools 4.1

4.1.1. Buffer Analysis 4.1
4.1.2. Overlay Analysis 4.3
4.1.3. Feature Manipulation 4.4
4.2. Data Analysis tools 4.5
4.3. Network Analysis 4.6
 4.3.1. Highway Alignment 4.6
4.3.2. Factor affecting Highway Alignment 4.6
4.3.3. Stages of New Highway Project 4.7
4.3.4. Steps Involved in a New Highway Project 4.7
4.3.5. Need of Study 4.7
4.3.6. Objectives of study 4.7
4.3.7. Methodology 4.7
4.3.8. Conclusion 4.9
4.4. Two Models of Digital Education 4.9
4.4.1. The Learning Environments 4.10
4.4.2. Digital Learning in the School 4.11
4.4.3. The Teaching Models 4.11
4.4.4. The Way Forward 4.13
4.5. 3D Data Collection and Utilization 4.13
4.5.1. City Planning 4.14
4.5.2. Building Information Modeling 4.14
4.5.3. Coastal Modeling and Analysis 4.15
4.5.4. Wind Farm Assessment 4.15
Two Marks Questions with Answers 4.17
Review Questions 4.21

UNIT - V

APPLICATIONS

5.1. GIS Applications 5.1

5.2. GIS Application in Natural Resource Management 5.2
5.2.1. Environmental Management 5.2
5.2.2. Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA) 5.3
5.2.3. Disaster Management 5.3
5.2.4. Zoning of Landslides Hazard 5.4
5.2.5. Estimation of Flood Damage 5.4
5.2.6. Management of Natural Resources 5.4
5.2.7. Soil Mapping 5.4
5.2.8. Wetland Mapping 5.4
5.2.9. Irrigation Management 5.5
 5.2.10. Identification of Volcanic Hazard 5.5
5.2.11. Mining and Geology 5.5
5.2.12. Oil and Gas 5.6
5.2.13. Forestry 5.6
5.2.14. Agriculture 5.7
5.3. GIS and Civil Engineering 5.8
5.3.1. Planning 5.8
5.3.2. Data Collection 5.8
5.3.3. Analysis 5.8
5.3.4. Construction 5.9
5.3.5. Operations 5.9
5.3.6. Soil and Foundation 5.9
5.3.7. Structural Engineering 5.9
5.3.8. Construction Management 5.10
5.3.9. Transportation Engineering 5.10
5.4. Navigation 5.10
5.4.1. Direction-Finding 5.10
5.5. Vehicle Tracking 5.11
5.5.1. Vehicle Tracking Systems - Overview 5.11
5.5.2. Markets for Vehicle Tracking Systems 5.14
5.5.3. Various Applications of GIS Based Tracking are 5.15
5.5.4. Vehicle Tracking and Recovery System 5.15
5.5.5. Features and Functions of GPS Vehicle Tracking System 5.16
5.5.6. GPS for better fleet management 5.17
5.6. Marketing 5.17
5.6.1. Applications of GIS in Business 5.18
5.7. Case Studies 5.20
5.7.1. Network Intelligence Portal 5.20
5.7.2. Key Service Features 5.21
5.7.3. Benefits to Utility Companies 5.22
5.7.4. Digiright 5.22
5.7.5. Cartosys 5.23
5.7.6. SLD Editor 5.23
5.7.7. Solution 5.24
 5.7.8. Natural Resources Wales Spatial Data Consultancy 5.25
5.7.9. Coal Authority 5.26
Two Marks Questions with Answers 5.28
Review Questions 5.31
Appendix-A Solved Anna University Model Questions Papers App-A.1
 CHAPTER- 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS

1.1. GIS OVERVIEW

GIS refers to three integrated parts.
a) Geographic: Of the real world; the spatial realities, the geography.
b) Information: Data and information; their meaning and use.
c) Systems: The computer technology and support infrastructure.

GIS therefore refers to a set of three aspects of our modern world, and offers new ways to
deal with them. The concept of information is indeed the heart of the rapidly growing field of
Geographic Information Systems or GIS. As the world moves into the Information Age,
meaningful data and information are becoming the major „currency‟. With the continuous
advances in computer technology, it is easy to concentrate on dazzling systems and software, but
the real value of any product is the data and the information such data provides. At the heart of
any GIS is information.

1.1.1. Introduction to GIS

(i) A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic data. GIS applications
are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user-created searches), analyze
spatial information, edit data in maps, and present the results of all these
operations. GIS (more commonly GIScience) sometimes refers to geographic
information science (GIScience), the science underlying geographic concepts,
applications, and systems.
(ii) GIS can refer to a number of different technologies, processes, techniques and
methods. It is attached to many operations and has many applications related to
engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance,
telecommunications, and business. For that reason, GIS and location intelligence
applications can be the foundation for many location-enabled services that rely on
analysis and visualization.
(iii) GIS can relate unrelated information by using location as the key index variable.
Locations or extents in the Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of
occurrence, and x, y, and z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, and elevation,
respectively. All Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should
1.2 Geographic Information System
be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical location or extent. This
key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry.

1.2. BASIC SPATIAL CONCEPTS

Spatial Concept seeks to position spatial concepts as the driving force for spatial thinking
and for the selection and use of spatial tools. Eight concepts are the focus of spatial reasoning in
the use of geographical information. These concepts are demonstrable at all levels of space and
time (from sub-atomic to galactic, passed through future, and microseconds to ions). They can be
rendered understandable through simple illustrations to young children but they are also
sufficiently engaging at advanced levels for thinking about scientific and social problems.
Location - Understanding formal and informal methods of specifying “where”
Distance - The ability to reason from knowledge of relative position
Network - Understanding the importance of connections
Neighborhood and Region - Drawing inferences from spatial context
Scale - Understanding spatial scale and its significance
Spatial Heterogeneity - The implications of spatial variability
Spatial Dependence - Understanding relationships across space
Objects and Fields - Viewing phenomena as continuous in space-time or as discrete

These concepts have been a foundation for researchers for centuries (see Classics in
Spatial Thinking). They have been augmented in recent decades with computational and
visualization tools and with vast and easily accessible information resources. These concepts and
tools must be as central to general education as reading, writing, and arithmetic. In conjunction
with the appropriate spatial tools, they provide a basic scaffold for designing research, solving
problems, and structuring education programs.

Spatial concepts invites contributions about other concepts for spatial thinking (e.g., in
design fields and in the humanities and arts). Examples may include the link between form and
function in architecture, the search for pattern in speech and text, the use of spatial notation in
music, the use of spatial metaphor in the sciences and humanities, the importance of place in
cultural and social studies, and the spatial elements of aesthetics in the visual arts. If you wish to
add concepts to the listing.

1.2.1. Location:
Every type of spatial data has two components: a location and some attribute(s). In this
way, location can be seen as a fundamental trait that both defines spatial data and separates it from
other types of information. Broadly speaking, there are two types of locations: absolute and
relative. Absolute location refers to an exact position on the Earth‟s surface defined by some
coordinate system. Street addresses and latitude/longitude coordinates are good examples of
absolute locations. Relative locations, on the other hand, are defined in reference to other objects.
For example, one could define UCSB‟s relative location as 10 miles west of downtown Santa
Barbara.
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.3
The method of determining or measuring location is called georeferencing. There are
many different ways of defining a georeference, but they all must meet a few requirements. First,
the georeference must be unique so that only one location is described. Second, georeferences
must have an accepted meaning that is shared so that most users understand its implication.
Finally, georeferences must be viable throughout time so that their meaning is not lost. Metric
georeferences are those which define location by measurement and are of particular importance in
analyzing spatial data. In order to properly define a metric georeference, consideration must be
given to the shape of the Earth, map projections and coordinate systems, and positional accuracy.

Representing location is also an important concept in the use of spatial data. Spot locations
are represented as zero-dimension points, lines as one-dimensional poly-lines, areas as two-
dimensional polygons, and volumes as three-dimensional polyhedra.

Fig. 1.1. Related Images Location Example (GPS image)

1.2.2. Distance
Distance describes the measurement or separation of two objects or places. At its most
basic, measured distance provides a mechanism for describing spatial extent. In spatial reasoning,
the classical case is that a positive relationship exists between distance and locational attribute
similarity. The relationship, as worded by the Swiss-American cartographer, Waldo Tobler, is,
“Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related to each other.”
Examining the strength, limitations, and exceptions of the distance-similarity correlation serves as
the foundation of much quantitative and qualitative spatial research. Measured distance also
provides a necessary dimension for describing position. All real points can be plotted with respect
to another by coupling measures of distance with heading and/or time. Common application of
distance include spatial analysis and modeling, physics and gravitation, distance decay, buffers,
geodesics, route description and optimization, and qualitative comparison of place.

1.2.3. Network
A network is a physical or conceptual system of linkages among entities. Networks offer
an infrastructure for representing the anisotropic relationships of various constituents and
constituent attributes. Typically, a network connection denotes increased accessibility or
relatedness along a link, and linkages may override the default notion that closer features are more
accessible and related. For instance, driving from one side of a river to the other often requires a
1.4 Geographic Information System
circuitous path many orders of magnitude greater than the direct distance from origin to
destination.

Networks commonly are represented by the elements: linkages, nodes, and

intersections. Carefully crafted associations among these elements facilitate analyses
regarding least-cost path optimization, measures of separation and similarity, and emergent
spatial structures. Additionally, attributes can be assigned to various network elements to
allow for directionality (e.g., a one-way street), intersection policy (e.g., a no U-turn rule),
cost (e.g., a speed limit), and system regulation (e.g., synchronized traffic signals to control
flow). Some applications of networks include traffic management, delivery systems, social
structures, river hydrology, and communication systems.

Fig.1.2. Network Example (Social Network Diagram)

1.2.4. Neighborhoods and regions
Neighborhoods and regions define areas surrounding and containing spatial data. They
may be formal in nature, such as state and country boundaries, and informal, such as the
colloquial use of terms like “downtown.” Regions may also be defined in terms of a particular
function. For example, the functional region for a pizza restaurant may be the area within a city to
which it delivers.

Utilizing neighborhoods and regions can allow one to make inferences about data from its
spatial context. Many fields use neighborhoods and regions in just this way. In remote sensing,
neighborhood statistics can be calculated using the values of adjacent pixels. In business, service
regions are defined to maximize the number and locations of stores or restaurant franchises. In
landscape ecology, metrics have been developed to measure the fragmentation of environmental
patches within an ecosystem.

There are problems with making inferences between data at different scales, however. The
modifiable area unit problem (MAUP), or ecological fallacy, involves two issues that underscore
the use of data aggregated to the neighborhood or region. First, there is a problem of scale. In this
way, results of analysis at one scale are not comparable to results at higher or lower levels of
aggregation. For example, it does not make sense to use population density calculated at the state
level to describe density at the county level. Second, there is a problem of aggregation. Changing
region boundaries can have immense effects on the neighborhood statistics. The gerrymandering
of voting districts is one example of an aggregation problem.
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.5

Fig. 1.3. Neighborhood/Region Example (Gerrymandering diagram)

1.2.5. Scale
In spatial reasoning, scale describes the dimensional relationship between a representation
and reality. Due to the large variation of all space, scale is used to project reality to more useful
and meaningful sizes. For large expanses, scale is reduced (e.g., fitting the entirety of earth‟s
surface on to a paper map), and for miniscule distances, scale is increased (e.g., enlarging and
schematizing chemical reactions). Often, scale is denoted as a fraction where a unit of measure in
reality is compared to the same unit on the projection. For instance, a paper map of a landscape
showing a scale of 1:10,000 would mean that a drawn unit on the map represents 10,000 of the
same unit in reality.

Offering spatial data at scales different from their original data collection granularity may
imply changes of meaning; thus, data product limitations should be carefully considered by both
creators and consumers of spatial information. As a fundamental spatial concept, applications of
scale permeate many human activities including data collection, cartography, art, architecture,
engineering, and nanotechnology.

1.2.6. Spatial heterogeneity

Spatial heterogeneity refers to the degree of variation in some attribute across places and
region. For example, a satellite image of the Pacific Ocean would show little variation and thus
would have a low level of spatial heterogeneity; whereas, an image of the patchwork of
agricultural fields in the Midwestern U.S. may be considered highly spatially heterogeneous. In
the same way that biodiversity defines species variation in biology, spatial heterogeneity defines
variation of an attribute in spatial studies.

There are many research implications caused by the fundamental heterogeneity of spatial
data. In most cases, spatial data can be said to have a non-constant mean and variance throughout
a study area. That is, local statistical parameters change with location and are thus not uniformly
distributed. This characteristic of spatial data is termed non-stationarity and directly impacts
research in areas such as sampling design. For example, it is very difficult to obtain a
representative sample of a region because of the heterogeneous nature of many spaces.
1.6 Geographic Information System
Another characteristic of spatial data that impacts research is the general rule that spatial
data tend to become more heterogeneous as the study area gets larger. This means the variance
observed in a small region is less than that in a larger region. That is, expected variation around
the mean in small regions underestimates and, thus, is not applicable in subsequently larger
regions. This uncontrolled variance in spatial data has impacts in the study design of projects
involving large areas and times, such as global warming.

Fig.1.4. Spatial Heterogeneity Example (Landscape Patch image)

1.2.7. Spatial dependence:
Spatial dependence is the manifestation of Tobler‟s first law of geography, which states,
“Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related to each other.” This
seemingly simple principle applies to many types of spatial attributes. For example, one would
expect the temperature of Santa Barbara to be more similar to the temperature in Los Angeles than
to the temperature in Seattle. This relatedness between data based on the distance is also termed
spatial autocorrelation. If spatial data were truly random, there would be zero spatial
autocorrelation. Applying this idea to the previous example would mean that no inference of
similarity could be made between the temperatures in Santa Barbara and Los Angeles.
Fortunately, most attributes in the world are not distributed in this manner and thus display a
certain degree of spatial dependence.

Researchers can quantify spatial correlation by using indices such as Moran‟s I and
Geary‟s C. Researchers can also model spatial dependence by using the methods developed in the
field of geostatistics. Techniques such as kriging allow researchers to quantify the changes in
attribute variance versus distance. This model of spatial dependence is called a semi-variogram, or
just variogram. Variograms offer a mechanism to predict attribute values in locations where data
are not present. These powerful interpolation tools have many real-world applications in fields
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.7
such as mining and petroleum discovery, epidemiology, atmospheric science, oceanography, and
soil science.

Fig. 1.5. Spatial Dependence Example (Temperature Map)

1.2.8. Objects and fields:
Objects and fields describe two fundamental, dichotomous, conceptualizations of space.
Objects are collections of discrete, bounded entities, usually composed of geometric primitives,
such as points, lines, curves, and polygons. Conceptually, object-based reality is considered empty
space populated by distinct entities. Attributes are associated with bounded features to define and
describe the objects. Conversely, field-based representation fills continuous space with attribute
measures at all locations. A field offers a conceptual model of spatial variation, and attributes
themselves, as opposed to workings of distinct boundaries, define the field.

The object-field dichotomy serves as the underpinning for all methods of spatial
representation and analysis, and each perspective offers a characteristic set of abilities and
limitations. For instance, objects offer logical concepts like “inside” and “outside,” and
comparisons such as intersections and buffers. Fields are particularly suited for spatial phenomena
considered less bounded, like air, water, temperature, and elevation. Not constrained by distinct
edges, fields lend themselves to analyses related to interpolation and global attribute comparison.
Analysis and representation of fields often yield areas of peaks, valleys, aspects, and slopes.

Fig. 1.6. Object Example (Cadastral Map)

The representational and analytical potential of both perspectives is mirrored in computer
software for modeling reality. Modeling software for analyzing property boundaries, road
1.8 Geographic Information System
networks, and individuals, tend to use object-based representation methods. Software for
analyzing less-bounded phenomena, like temperature variation, ocean circulation, and hydrologic
modeling, typically use field-based models for database storage and analysis.

Ongoing research on the object-field dichotomy has focused on repercussions of accuracy,

uncertainty, and usage, the philosophy of spatial reality within the context of such representations,
and defining and utilizing object-fields hybrids. Common domains using objects and fields are
Geographic Information Systems, spatial ontology, spatial analysis, and database design.

1.3. GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEMS

A geographic coordinate system is a reference system for identifying locations on the
curved surface of the earth. Locations on the earth‟s surface are measured in angular units from
the center of the earth relative to two planes: the plane defined by the equator and the plane
defined by the prime meridian (which crosses Greenwich England). A location is therefore
defined by two values: a latitudinal value and a longitudinal value.

Figure 1.7: Examples of latitudinal lines are shown on the left and examples of longitudinal
lines are shown on the right. The 0° degree reference lines for each are shown in red (equator
for latitudinal measurements and prime meridian for longitudinal measurements).
A latitude measures the angle from the equatorial plane to the location on the earth‟s
surface. A longitude measures the angle between the prime meridian plane and the north-south
plane that intersects the location of interest. For example Colby College is located at around
45.56° North and 69.66° West. In a GIS system, the North-South and East-West directions are
encoded as signs. North and East are assigned a positive (+) sign and South and West are assigned
a negative (-) sign. Colby College‟s location is therefore encoded as +45.56° and -69.66°.

Figure 1.8. A slice of earth showing the

latitude and longitude measurements.
A GCS is defined by an ellipsoid, geoid and datum. These elements are presented next.
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.9
1.3.1. Sphere and Ellipsoid
Assuming that the earth is a perfect sphere greatly simplifies mathematical calculations
and works well for small-scale maps (maps that show a large area of the earth). However, when
working at larger scales, an ellipsoid representation of earth may be desired if accurate
measurements are needed. An ellipsoid is defined by two radii: the semi-major axis (the equatorial
radius) and the semi-minor axis (the polar radius).

The reason the earth has a slightly ellipsoidal shape has to do with its rotation which
induces a centripetal force along the equator. This results in an equatorial axis that is roughly 21
km longer than the polar axis.

Our estimate of these radii is quite precise thanks to satellite and computational
capabilities. The semi-major axis is 6,378,137 meters and the semi-minor axis is 6,356,752
meters.

Differences in distance measurements along the surfaces of an ellipsoid vs. a sphere are
small but measurable (the difference can be as high as 20 km) as illustrated in the following lattice
plots.

1.9. Fig. Spheroids with vertical rotational axes

1.3.2. Geoid
Representing the earth‟s true shape, the geoid, as a mathematical model is crucial for a
GIS environment. However, the earth‟s shape is not a perfectly smooth surface. It has undulations
resulting from changes in gravitational pull across its surface. These undulations may not be
visible with the naked eye, but they are measurable and can influence locational measurements.

Figure 1.10. Earth’s geoid with gravitational field shown in rainbow colors. The
ondulations depicted in the graphics are exaggerated for visual effects. (source: NASA)
1.10 Geographic Information System
Note that we are not including mountains and ocean bottoms in our discussion, instead we
are focusing solely on the earth‟s gravitational potential which can be best visualized by
imagining the earth‟s surface completely immersed in water and measuring the sea surface level
over the entire earth surface.

The earth‟s gravitational field is dynamic and is tied to the flow of the earth‟s hot and fluid
core. Hence its geoid is constantly changing, albeit at a large temporal scale.The measurement and
representation of the earth‟s shape is at the heart of geodesy–a branch of applied mathematics.

1.3.3. Datum
So how are we to reconcile our need to work with a (simple) mathematical model of the
earth‟s shape with the on dulating nature of the earth‟s surface (i.e. its geoid). The solution is to
align the geoid with the ellipsoid (or sphere) representation of the earth and to map the earth‟s
surface features onto this ellipsoid/sphere. The alignment can be local where the ellipsoid surface
is closely fit to the geoid at a particular location on the earth‟s surface (such as the state of
Kansas) or geocentric where the ellipsoid is aligned with the center of the earth. How one chooses
to align the ellipsoid to the geoid defines a datum.

Local Datum
There are many local datums to choose from, some are old while others are more recently
defined. The choice of datum is largely driven by the location of interest. For example, when
working in the US, a popular local datum to choose from is the North American Datum of 1927
(or NAD27 for short). NAD27 works well for the US but it‟s not well suited for other parts of the
world. For example, a far better local datum for Europe is the European Datum of 1950 (ED50 for
short). Examples of common local datums are shown in the following table:

Local datum Acronym Best for Comment

North American NAD27 Continental This is an old datum but still prevalent
Datum of 1927 US because of the wide use of older maps.
European Datum of ED50 Western Developed after World War II and still
1950 Europe quite popular today. Not used in the UK.
World Geodetic WGS72 Global Developed by the Department of Defense.
System 1972

Geocentric Datum
Many of the modern datums use a geocentric alignment. These include the popular World
Geodetic Survey for 1984 (WGS84) and the North American Datums of 1983 (NAD83). Most of
the popular geocentric datums use the WGS84 ellipsoid or the GRS80 ellipsoid. These ellipsoids‟
semi-major and semi-minor axes are nearly identical: 6,378,137 meters and 6,356,752 meters
respectively. Examples of popular geocentric datums are shown in the following table:

Geocentric datum Acronym Best for Comment

North American Datum of NAD83 Continental This is one of the most popular
1983 US modern datums for the contiguous
US.
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.11
European Terrestrial ETRS89 Western This is the most popular modern
Reference System 1989 Europe datum for much of Europe.
World Geodetic System 1984 WGS84 Global Developed by the Department of
Defense.

1.4. GIS AS AN INFORMATION SYSTEM

As Definition of GIS indicates GIS as a specialized information system stresses "spatially
distributed features (points, lines, areas), activities (physical and human-invoked), and events
(time).

GIS as an approach to Geographic Information Science

1) research on GIS (algorithms, analytical methods, visualization tools, user interfaces,
human-computer-human interaction)
2) research with GIS: GIS as a tool used by many substantive disciplines in their own
ways (anthropology, archeology, forestry, geology, engineering, business and
management sciences)

1.5. DEFINING GIS

A GIS is a system of hardware, software, data, people, organizations, and institutional
arrangements for collecting, storing, analyzing and disseminating information about areas of the
earth. It is also defined as an information system designed to work with data referenced by spatial
/ geographical coordinates. In other words, GIS is both a database system with specific
capabilities for spatially referenced data as well as a set of operations for working with the data. A
Geographic Information System is a computer based system which is used to digitally reproduce
and analyze the feature present on earth surface and the events that take place on it. In the light of
the fact that almost 70% of the data has geographical reference as its denominator, it becomes
imperative to underline the importance of a system which can represent the given data
geographically.

1.6. HISTORY OF GIS

The idea of portraying different layers of data on a series of base maps, and relating things
geographically, has been around much older than computers invention. Thousands years ago, the
early man used to draw pictures of the animals they hunted on the walls of caves. These animal
drawings are track lines and tallies thought to depict migration routes. While simplistic in
comparison to modern technologies, these early records mimic the two-element structure of
modern geographic information systems, an image associated with attribute information.

Possibly the earliest use of the geographic method, in 1854 John Snow depicted a cholera
outbreak in London using points to represent the locations of some individual cases. His study of
the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a contaminated water pump within the
heart of the cholera outbreak. While the basic elements of topology and theme existed previously
in cartography, the John Snow map was unique, using cartographic methods, not only to depict
but also to analyze, clusters of geographically dependent phenomena for the first time.
1.12 Geographic Information System
The early 20th century saw the development of "photo lithography" where maps were
separated into layers. Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to
general-purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s. In the year 1962, the
world's first true operational GIS was developed by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural
Development in Ottawa, Canada by Dr. Roger Tomlinson. It was called the "Canada Geographic
Information System" (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the
Canada Land Inventory (CLI). It is an initiative to determine the land capability for rural Canada
by mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, forestry, and land use at a
scale of 1:50,000.

CGIS was the world's first "system" and was an improvement over "mapping" applications
as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, and digitizing or scanning. It supported a
national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as "arcs" having a true
embedded topology, and it stored the attribute and location specific information in a separate files.
Dr. Tomlinson is known as the "father of GIS," for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial
analysis of convergent geographic data.

In 1964, Howard T Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial
Analysis at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, where a number of important theoretical
concepts in spatial data handling were developed. This lab had major influence on the
development of GIS until early 1980s. Many pioneers of newer GIS "grew up" at the Harvard lab
and had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as 'SYMAP', 'GRID', and
'ODYSSEY'.

By the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph), Environmental Systems Research
Institute (ESRI) and CARIS emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully
incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining the first generation approach to separation of
spatial and attribute information with a second generation approach to organizing attribute data
into database structures. More functions for user interaction were developed mainly in a graphical
way by a user friendly interface (Graphical User Interface), which gave to the user the ability to
sort, select, extract, reclassify, reproject and display data on the basis of complex geographical,
topological and statistical criteria. During the same time, the development of a public domain GIS
begun by the U.S. Army Corp of Engineering Research Laboratory (USA-CERL) in Champaign,
Illinois, a branch of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to meet the need of the United States
military for software for land management and environmental planning.

In the years 1980s and 1990s industry growth were spurred on by the growing use of
GIS on Unix workstations and the personal computers. By the end of the 20th century, the
rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few
platforms and users were beginning to export the concept of viewing GIS4 data over the
Internet, requiring uniform data format and transfer standards. More recently, there is a
growing number of free, open source GIS packages, which run on a range of operating
systems and can be customized to perform specific tasks. As computing power increased and
hardware prices slashed down, the GIS became a viable technology for state development
planning. It has become a real Management Information System (MIS), and thus able to
support decision making processes.
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.13
1.7. COMPONENTS OF A GIS
A working GIS integrates five key components: -
i) Hardware ii) Software iii) Data iv) People v) Methods

GIS enables the user to input, manage, manipulate, analyze, and display geographically
referenced data using a computerized system. To perform various operations with GIS, the
components of GIS such as software, hardware, data, people and methods are essential.

1.7.1. Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display
geographic information. Key software components are (a) a database management system
(DBMS) (b) tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information (c) tools that support
geographic query, analysis, and visualization (d) a graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access
to tools. GIS software are either commercial software or software developed on Open Source
domain, which are available for free. However, the commercial software is copyright protected,
can be expensive and is available in terms number of licensees.

Currently available commercial GIS software includes Arc/Info, Intergraph, MapInfo,

Gram++ etc. Out of these Arc/Info is the most popular software package. And, the open source
software are AMS/MARS etc.

1.7.2. Hardware
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS runs on a wide range of
hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or
networked configurations. Minimum configuration required to Arc/Info Desktop 9.0 GIS
application is as follows:

Product: ArcInfo Desktop 9.0

Platform: PC-Intel
Operating System: Windows XP Professional Edition, Home Edition
Service Packs/Patches: SP 1
SP2 (refer to Limitations)
Shipping/Release Date: May 10, 2004

Hardware Requirements
CPU Speed: 800 MHz minimum, 1.0 GHz recommended or higher
Processor: Pentium or higher
Memory/RAM: 256 MB minumum, 512 MB recommended or higher
Display Properties: Greater than 256 color depth
Swap Space: 300 MB minimum
Disk Space: Typical 605 MB NTFS, Complete 695 MB FAT32 + 50 MB forinstallation
1.14 Geographic Information System
Browser: Internet Explorer 6.0 Requirement:
(Some features of ArcInfo Desktop 9.0 require a minimum installation of Microsoft
Internet Explorer Version 6.0.)

1.7.3. Data
The most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data or Spatial data and
related tabular data can be collected in-house or bought from a commercial data provider. Spatial
data can be in the form of a map/remotely-sensed data such as satellite imagery and aerial
photography. These data forms must be properly geo-referenced (latitude/longitude). Tabular data
can be in the form attribute data that is in some way related to spatial data. Most GIS software
comes with inbuilt Database Management Systems (DBMS) to create and maintain a database to
help organize and manage data.

1.7.4. Users
GIS technology is of limited value without the users who manage the system and to
develop plans for applying it. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain
the system to those who use it to help them do their everyday work.

These users are largely interested in the results of the analyses and may have no interest or
knowledge of the methods of analysis. The user-friendly interface of the GIS software allows the
nontechnical users to have easy access to GIS analytical capabilities without needing to know
detailed software commands. A simple User Interface (UI) can consist of menus and pull-down
graphic windows so that the user can perform required analysis with a few key presses without
needing to learn specific commands in detail.

1.7.5. People
GIS technology has limited value without the people who manage and develop plans for
applying it to real world problems. GIS user range from technical specialists who design and
maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The
identification of GIS specialist's vs. end users is often critical to the proper implementation of GIS
technology. This is what called 'brain ware' which is equally important as the Hardware and
software. Brain ware refers to the purpose and objectives, and provides the reason and
justification, for using GIS.

This component of GIS includes all those individuals (such as the programmer, database
manager, GIS researcher etc.) who are making the GIS work, and also the individuals who are at
the user end using the GIS services, applications and tools.

1.7.6. Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are
the models and operating practices unique to each organization.
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.15
1.8. PROPRIETARY AND OPEN SOURCE GIS SOFTWARE
1.8.1. AGISMap
AGIS for Windows is a mapping and simple GIS package specifically designed to be easy
to use, and distributed as shareware via the world wide web.

Platforms: Windows

1.8.2. Autodesk
Autodesk has a series of software applications designed to meet GIS needs in a variety of
areas that interfaces with their CAD software.

Platforms: Windows

1.8.3. Bentley Systems, Inc.

Bentley provides software for the “Design, construction, and operation of the world‟s
infrastructure”. The company‟s software serves the geospatial, building, plant, and civil vertical
markets in the areas of mapping, architecture, engineering, construction (AEC) and operations.
Bentley offers a wide range of products for surveying, GPS, photogrammetry, remote sensing,
imaging, conversion, mapping, cartography, and other geospatial applications built on
MicroStation Products: Bentley Map – Desktop GIS, Bentley Cadastre – Desktop land
management GIS, Bentley Descartes – Desktop image editing, analysis, and processing, Bentley
Geo Web Publisher – GIS web publishing and viewing, Bentley PowerMap Field – Field-enabled
GIS and redlining.

Platforms: Windows

1.8.4. Cartographica
Commercial software package for Mac OS featuring: Support for a huge number of import
formats, including popular Raster formats, manual editing and georeferencing, automatic
geocoding, integration with online mapping, output to large-format printers. Thirty-day demo
available for download.

Platforms: Macintosh

1.8.5. DeLorme
DeLorme is the producers of XMap, a GIS application “with 80% of the functionality
found in a traditional GIS at 15% of the cost”. Performs such functions as geocoding, image
rectification, 3D visualization and coordinate transformation.

Platforms: Windows

1.8.6. Esri
Environmental Systems Research Institue has been creating GIS software for over 30
years. Recognized as the leader in GIS software, it‟s been estimated that about seventy percent of
1.16 Geographic Information System
GIS users use Esri products. Esri overhauled their software packages into an interoperable model
called ArcGIS (the desktop GIS is referred to as ArcMap). In addition, Esri has developed plug-
ins called extensions which add to the functionality of ArcGIS. Demo and light versions of Esri
software are available for downloading. You can also find free data to use with Esri products.
Platforms: Windows
Further Resources: ArcGIS, ArcView 3.x (no longer in production)

1.8.7. Intergraph
Intergraph makes several GIS applications. Most of the GIS packages are designed with an
Open GIS in mind and therefore can work with a variety of other GIS software formats.
Intergraph has developed products that help merge GIS with information technology (IT) and
business process improvement tools. Intergraph offers the Geo-Media family of solutions and
Modular GIS Environment MGE Suite of mapping and GIS applications.

Using an open architecture, the Geo-Media product suite integrates geospatial information
throughout the enterprise and provides the tools needed to develop business-to-business and
custom client applications using industry standard development tools. Geo-Media offers
uninhibited access to all geospatial data formats without the need for data translations. Currently
in Version 4.0 the Geo-Media family is made up of Geo-Media, Geo-Media Professional, Geo
Media Web Map, and Geo Media Web Enterprise.
• GeoMedia is the universal information integrator, serving as a visualization and
analysis tool and as an open platform for custom GIS solution development.
• GeoMedia Professional is a product specifically designed to collect and manage
spatial data using standard databases.
• GeoMedia WebMap is a Web-based map visualization tool with real-time links to one
or more GIS data warehouses.
• GeoMedia WebEnterprise creates dynamic, custom web-mapping applications that can
analyze and manipulate geographic data.
• In addition to these products, Intergraph offers MFworks for GeoMedia which
provides users of grid-based software the power of visualization, mapping, and
analysis. Intergraph also offers SMMS for GeoMedia which is a desktop tool for
geographic metadata creation and geographic data management.
The Modular GIS Environment (MGE) product suite provides production-ready
capabilities for automating, managing, analyzing, and presenting GIS data, and is completely
interoperable with GeoMedia.

1.8.8. Manifold
Manifold System provides comprehensive, professional grade GIS software for $245 that
includes a very wide array of features. Manifold imports data from over 80 different GIS formats,
including all formats used by Federal government sites for free Internet downloads, and Manifold
allows seamless, simultaneous work with vector drawings, raster images, terrain elevations and
raster data sets either as 2D displays or 3D terrain visualizations. Manifold includes exceptional
DBMS capabilities, full development facilities and includes a built-in Internet Map Server for fast
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.17
and easy publication of GIS projects to the web without programming. Options include US Street
address geocoding and the Enterprise Edition, for centralized geospatial data storage on enterprise
servers that can be used by many GIS operators at once. Manifold was the first GIS to attain
“designed for XP” status with Microsoft and the Manifold Internet Map Server works perfectly
within ASP.NET servers. For info, see http://www.manifold.net/professional.

Platforms: Windows

1.8.9. Ortelius
Ortelius is a “map illustration” software package that adds one more selection to the very
limited mapping software options out there for Macintosh users. A free trial download is
available.

Platforms: Macintosh

1.8.10. MapInfo – Pitney Bowes Business Insight (PBBI)

PBBI‟s flagship software is MapInfo, a suite of GIS software. MapInfo Professional is
their leading GIS product containing the most advanced analytical tools. MapInfo also offers plug-
ins called add-ons to enhance the functionality of MapInfo Professional. For the development
side, MapInfo offers Map-X. Through an Active X component, developers can embed mapping
applications into other applications such as Excel. Although it can be used for a variety of
analysis, the makers of MapInfo market the software more towards the business sector. Demo
versions are available for downloading for some of MapInfo‟s products.
Platforms: Windows OS
Further Resources: MapInfo, MapBasic, MapInfo Tutorials

1.8.11 Maptitude
The Maptitude Mapping Software is a full-featured mapping package for Windows.
Designed for ease-of-use, data visualization and geographic analysis, Maptitude comes with
comprehensive nationwide and worldwide maps, including complete US street maps, and Census
tract and ZIP Code boundaries and demographics. Caliper also produces TransCAD for
transportation and logistics. TransCAD is used for solving key analytical problems in
transportation planning, management, and operations. TransCAD is used extensively for
transportation database development and maintenance, demand forecasting, operations
management, and vehicle routing and scheduling.

Platforms: Windows OS

1.8.12. MyWorld
My World GIS is a full-featured GIS designed for educational use. My World provides a
carefully selected subset of the features of a professional GIS environment. These features include
multiple geographic projections, table and map views of data, distance-measurement tools,
buffering and query operations, customizable map display. They have been selected to provide the
greatest value to students without overwhelming them with complexity The features are accessed
through a supportive interface designed with the needs of students and teachers in mind. My
1.18 Geographic Information System
World can import data from the industry-standard shapefile format, as well as from tab and
comma-delimited text files.

Platforms: Windows, Macintosh, Linux, Solaris

1.8.13 Supergeo Technologies

SuperGIS Desktop is a full-featured GIS platform for Windows OS. It allows users to edit,
visualize, manage and analyze geospatial data both in vector and raster, including OGC formats
and various geodatabases, such as MSSQL, Oracle spatial, and PostGIS. Capabilities can be
powered up via extensions such as Network Analyst, 3D Analyst, Spatial Analyst, Biodiversity
Analyst, etc., which enables users to conduct complicated analyses and make smarter decisions.
By combing Mobile GIS and Server GIS also from Supergeo, you can have a total geospatial
solution from data collection in field to data publishing online with reasonable price. The free trial
is available on Supergeo‟s website. Various product resources and friendly technical support are
also provided by Supergeo team.

Platforms: Windows OS

1.8.14. TatukGIS Editor

Professional, general-purpose desktop GIS mapping and data editing application with
built-in scripting environment for customization and feature extensions. Natively supports most
GIS/CAD raster/vector/SQL layer data formats, including enterprise spatial geodatabases (such as
Oracle Spatial, PostGIS …) State-of-the-art coordinate system support with nearly 5,000 pre-
defined coordinate systems and on-the-fly raster/vector layer reprojection, 3D mapping, raster &
vector layer rectification, and compatibility with leading database products. Data grid with
advanced query and selection tools.

Platforms: Windows OS

1.8.15. Terrain Tools

Terrain Tools, produced by Softree, is a software package for surveying and mapping. It is
ideal for the forester, geologist, surveyor or resource scientist who is not a GIS specialist, but who
needs to quickly produce working maps and site plans.

Platforms: Windows

1.8.16. TerrSet Geospatial Monitoring and Modeling System

Developed by Clark Labs, TerrSet is an integrated geospatial software for monitoring and
modeling the earth system. The TerrSet software incorporates the IDRISI GISt Analysis and
IDRISI Image Processing tools along with a constellation of modeling environments to analyze
land change, image time series, ecosystem services, habitat and biodiversity, climate impacts, and
REDD. Learn more at www.clarklabs.org.

Platforms: Windows
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.19
1.8.17. TNT Products
Created by Microimages, The TNT Products is a suite of GIS applications for fully
integrated GIS, image processing, CAD, TIN, desktop cartography, and geospatial database
management.

Platforms: Windows, UNIX, Macintosh

1.9. OPEN SOURCE GIS SOFTWARE

(i) From the UNH Cooperative Extension course "GIS on Pennies a Day," this is a
list of freely available, open source GIS software. You can download and use the
software.

(ii) QGIS and DIVA-GIS are more widely used than the others. Both have MAC
versions available for downloading.

1.9.1. Quantum GIS (QGIS)

Quantum GIS (QGIS) is a user friendly Open Source Geographic Information System
(GIS) licensed under the GNU General Public License. QGIS is an official project of the Open
Source Geospatial Foundation (OSGeo). It runs on Linux, Unix, Mac OSX, and Windows and
supports numerous vector, raster, and database formats and functionalities.

1.9.2. DIVA-GIS
DIVA-GIS are a free computer program for mapping and geographic data analysis (a
geographic information system (GIS).

1.9.3. Free QGIS Courses from Geo-Academy

Geo-Academy is an independent consortium promoting the use of open source geospatial
software. These free courses are based on years of development of their fee-based coursework.
These are other open source GIS software available via the web.

1.9.4. GeoDa
GeoDa is a free GIS software program primarily used to introduce new users into spatial
data analysis. It‟s main functionality is data exploration in statistics.

One of the nicest things about it is how it comes with sample data for you to give a test-
drive. From simple box-plots all the way to regression statistics, GeoDa has complete arsenal of
statistics to do nearly anything spatially.

It‟s user base is strong. For example, Harvard, MIT and Cornell universities have
embraced this free GIS software to serve as a gentle introduction to spatial analysis for non-GIS
users. From economic development to health and real estate, it‟s been used as an exciting
analytical in labs as well.
1.20 Geographic Information System
From the Center for Spatial Data Science at the University of Chicago, software for
geospatial analysis, geovisualization and other techniques.

1.9.5. gvSIG
In 2004, the gvSIG project emerged as a free, open source GIS software option in Spain.
We illustrate in this gvSIG guide and review why we like it SO much:

gvSIG really outperforms QGIS 2 for 3D. It really is the best 3D visualization available in
open source GIS.

The NavTable is agile in that it allows you to see records one-by-one vertically.

The CAD tools are impressive on gvSIG. Thanks to the OpenCAD Tools, you can trace
geometries, edit vertices, snap and split lines and polygons. If you need GIS on your mobile
phone, gvSIG Mobile is perfect for field work because of its interface and GPS tools.

1.9.6. MapWindow GIS

An open source GIS software that is being used in History. For more information on its
use in History, a manual and exercises.

1.9.7. SAGA (System for Automated Geoscientific Analyses)

SAGA is a free, open source GIS software used for raster-based analyses and the Earth
Sciences.

1.9.8. uDig
uDIG is an acronym to help get a better understanding what this Free GIS software is all
about.
• u stands for user-friendly interface
• D stands for desktop (Windows, Mac or Linux). You can run uDIG on a Mac.
• I stand for internet oriented consuming standard (WMS, WFS or WPS)
• G stands for GIS-ready for complex analytical capabilities.
When you start digging into uDig, it‟s a nice open source GIS software option for basic
mapping. uDig‟s Mapnik lets you import basemaps with the same tune as ArcGIS

Specifically, its easy-to-use, the catalog, symbology and Mac OS functionality are some of
the strong points. But it has limited tools and the bugs bog it down to really utilize it as a truly
complete free GIS software package.

1.9.9 Environmental Benefits Mapping & Analysis Program (BenMAP)

BenMAP-CE is a open-source software program that calculates the number and economic
value of air pollution-related deaths and illnesses. It incorporates a database that includes many of
the concentration-response relationships, population files, and health and economic data needed to
quantify these impacts. This is the Community Edition.
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.21
1.10. DATA TYPES
The basic data type in a GIS reflects traditional data found on a map. Accordingly, GIS
technology utilizes two basic types of data. These are:

Spatial data: describes the absolute and relative location of geographic features.

Attribute data: describes characteristics of the spatial features. These characteristics can
be quantitative and/or qualitative in nature. Attribute data is often referred to as tabular data.

Attribute Data:
The attributes refer to the properties of spatial entities. They are often referred to as non-
spatial data since they do not in themselves represent location information. This type of data
describes characteristics of the spatial features. These characteristics can be quantitative and/or
qualitative in nature. Attribute data is often referred to as tabular data.

Spatial Data:
Geographic position refers to the fact that each feature has a location that must be
specified in a unique way. To specify the position in an absolute way a coordinate system is used.
For small areas, the simplest coordinate system is the regular square grid. For larger areas, certain
approved cartographic projections are commonly used. Internationally there are many different
coordinate systems in use. This locational information is provided in maps by using Points, Lines
and Polygons. These geometric descriptions are the basic data elements of a map. Thus spatial
data describes the absolute and relative location of geographic features.

The coordinate location of a forest would be spatial data, while the characteristics of that
forest, e.g. cover group, dominant species, crown closure, height, etc., would be attribute data.
Other data types, in particular image and multimedia data, have become more prevalent with
changing technology. Depending on the specific content of the data, image data may be
considered either spatial, e.g. photographs, animation, movies, etc., or attribute, e.g. sound,
descriptions, narration‟s, etc.

1.10.1. Spatial Data

• Describes the absolute and relative location of geographic features.
• Represents spatial data, which has a physical dimension on earth.
• Spatial data consist of digital representations of discrete (spatial) objects. The features
are shown on a map, e.g. lakes, buildings and contours can be thought of as discrete
objects.
• Thus the contents of a map can be captured in a database by turning map features into
database objects (entities).
• Components of spatial data.
Location: The spatial mode of information is generally called location.

Spatial relationship: The connections between spatial objects are described as spatial
relationships (e.g. A contains B; A is adjacent to B, A is North of B, etc.).
1.22 Geographic Information System
Attributes: Attributes capture the thematic mode by defining different characteristics of
objects. Spatial features in the real world are reduced in the form of point, line, area and surface.
GIS will store the data either in tabular form, geographical map, digital map or remotely sensed
map.

1.10.2. Non-Spatial Data

The non-spatial data or the attribute data, on the other hand, describes the characteristics
of the spatial features. These characteristics can be quantitative or qualitative, also called attribute
data.
• Describes the characteristics of the spatial features.
• It holds the characteristics of the spatial features and the descriptive information about
the geographic features.
• Represented using colors, textures and symbols.
• Eg: Coordinate location of a sanctuary would be spatial data, while the characteristic‟s
like the cover group, dominant species, nature of vegetation would be attribute data.
• These attributes are given in an organized from in a single table or multiple tables.

1.10.3. Spatial Data Models

Traditionally spatial data has been stored and presented in the form of a map. Three basic
types of spatial data models have evolved for storing geographic data digitally. These are referred
to as:
(i) Vector data
(ii) Raster data
(iii) Image data

The following diagram reflects the two primary spatial data encoding techniques. These
are vector and raster. Image data utilizes techniques very similar to raster data, however typically
lacks the internal formats required for analysis and modeling of the data. Images reflect pictures or
photographs of the landscape.
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.23
1.10.4. Attribute Data Models
A separate data model is used to store and maintain attribute data for GIS software. These
data models may exist internally within the GIS software, or may be reflected in external
commercial Database Management Software (DBMS). A variety of different data models exist for
the storage and management of attribute data. The most common are:
• Tabular
• Hierarchical
• Network
• Relational
• Object oriented

Tabular Model
The simple tabular model stores attribute data as sequential data files with fixed formats
(or comma delimited for ASCII data), for the location of attribute values in a predefined record
structure. This type of data model is outdated in the GIS arena. It lacks any method of checking
data integrity, as well as being inefficient with respect to data storage, e.g. limited indexing
capability for attributes or records, etc.

Hierarchical Model
The hierarchical database organizes data in a tree structure. Data is structured downward
in a hierarchy of tables. Any level in the hierarchy can have unlimited children, but any child can
have only one parent. Hierarchical DBMS have not gained any noticeable acceptance for use
within GIS.

They are oriented for data sets that are very stable, where primary relationships among the
data change infrequently or never at all. Also, the limitation on the number of parents that an
element may have is not always conducive to actual geographic phenomenon.

Network Model
The network database organizes data in a network or plex structure. Any column in a plex
structure can be linked to any other. Like a tree structure, a plex structure can be described in
terms of parents and children.

This model allows for children to have more than one parent. Network DBMS have not
found much more acceptance in GIS than the hierarchical DBMS. They have the same flexibility
limitations as hierarchical databases; however, the more powerful structure for representing data
relationships allows a more realistic modeling of geographic phenomenon. However, network
databases tend to become overly complex too easily. In this regard it is easy to lose control and
understanding of the relationships between elements.

Relational Model
The relational database organizes data in tables. Each table, is identified by a unique table
name, and is organized by rows and columns. Each column within a table also has a unique name.
1.24 Geographic Information System
Columns store the values for a specific attribute, e.g. cover group, tree height. Rows represent one
record in the table.

In a GIS each row is usually linked to a separate spatial feature, e.g. a forestry stand.
Accordingly, each row would be comprised of several columns, each column containing a specific
value for that geographic feature.

Object-Oriented Model
The object-oriented database model manages data through objects. An object is a
collection of data elements and operations that together are considered a single entity. The object-
oriented database is a relatively new model.

This approach has the attraction that querying is very natural, as features can be bundled
together with attributes at the database administrator's discretion. To date, only a few GIS
packages are promoting the use of this attribute data model.

However, initial impressions indicate that this approach may hold many operational
benefits with respect to geographic data processing. Fulfillment of this promise with a commercial
GIS product remains to be seen.

1.11. TYPES OF ATTRIBUTE DATA

Attribute data can be store as one of five different field types in a table or database:
character, integer, floating, date, and BLOB.

1.11.1. Character Data

The character property (or string) is for text based values such as the name of a street or
descriptive values such as the condition of a street. Character attribute data is stored as a series of
alphanumeric symbols.

Aside from descriptors, character fields can contain other attribute values such as
categories and ranks. For example, a character field may contain the categories for a street:
avenue, boulevard, lane, or highway. A character field could also contain the rank, which is a
relative ordering of features. For example, a ranking of the traffic load of the street with “1” being
the street with the highest traffic.

Character data can be sorted in ascending (A to Z) and descending (Z to A) order. Since

numbers are considered text in this field, those numbers will be sorted alphabetically which means
that a number sequence of 1, 2, 9, 11, 13, 22 would be sorted in ascending order as 1, 11, 13, 2,
22, 9.

Because character data is not numeric, calculations (sum, average, median, etc.) can‟t be
performed on this type of field, even if the value stored in the field are numbers (to do that, the
field type would need to be converted to a numeric field). Character fields can be summarized to
produced counts (e.g. the number of features that have been categorized as “avenue”).
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.25
1.11.2. Numeric Data
Integer and floating are numerical values (see: the difference between floating and integer
values). Within the integer type, the is a further division between short and long integer values.
As would be expected, short integers store numeric values without fractional values for a shorter
range than long integers. Floating point attribute values store numeric values with fractional
values. Therefore, floating point values are for numeric values with decimal points (i.e numbers to
the right of the decimal point as opposed to whole values).

Numeric values will be sorted in sequentially either in ascending (1 to 10) or descending

(10 to 1) order. Numerical value fields can have operations performed such as calculating the sum
or average value. Numerical field values can be a count (e.g. the total number of students at a
school) or be a ratio (e.g. the percentage of students that are girls at a school).

1.11.3. Date/Time Data

Date fields contains date and time values.

1.11.4. BLOB Data

Fig.1.11. Attribute data for a road in gis.

BLOB stands for binary large object and this attribute type is used for storing information
such images, multimedia, or bits of code in a field. This field stores object linking and embedding
(OLE) which are objects created in other applications such as images and multimedia and linked
from the BLOB field Attribute data for a road in gis.

1.12. SCALE OF MEASUREMENT/LEVEL OF MEASUREMENTS

Types of Attribute Data:
Types used in a GIS and in computer programming include character strings, integers,
floating points or real numbers, dates and time intervals. Each field in an attribute table is defined
with a data type, which applies to the domain of the field.
1.26 Geographic Information System
Another method is to define attribute data by measurement scale. The measurement scale
concept groups attribute data into nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio data.

Nominal Data:
Nominal data describe different kinds of different categories of data such as land use types
or soil types.

Ordinal Data:
Ordinal data differentiate data by ranking relationship. For example-cities may be grouped
into large, medium and small cities by population size.

Interval Data:
Interval data have known intervals between values such as temperature reading. For
example- a temperature reading of 700 F is warmer than 600 F by 100 F.

Ratio Data:
Ratio data are the same as interval data except that ratio data are based on a meaningful or
absolute zero value. Population densities are an example of ratio data, because a density of 0 is an
absolute zero.

Measurement scale (or level) of attribute can be broadly divided into two categories. Some
attribute are measured in a numerical scale (such as job accessibility) whereas others are not (such
as world language)

Distribution of Indian tribes & language:

Fig.1.12. National Atlas of United States

 Fundamentals of GIS 1.27
This map can be fallen into qualitative thematic map because the measurement level of
attribute portrayed (tribe/language) is nominal (not measured in number), and displays one or
more particular themes.

Distribution of urban and rural population

Fig.1.13. National Atlas of United States

This map can be fallen into quantitative thematic map because the measurement level of
attributed portrayed (population) is countable (measure in number), and displays one particular
theme.

More specifically, measurement of attributes is organized into four levels: nominal,

ordinal, interval, and ratio, listed in increasing order of sophistication of measurement

1.12.1. Nominal scaling

Only has a value either 0 or 1 (false or true)
Suppose we have two values say region A and region B; we can‟t determine if A > B or
A < B, but we can determine if A=\=B or A = B.
e.g. agricultural region (corn regions, wheat regions, soy-bean regions)
Political party affiliation (Democrat, Republican, Independent)
Sex (male, female)
Response (yes, no)
1.28 Geographic Information System
1.12.2. Ordinal scaling
Value is arranged in a hierarchy of rank
Can determine if A > B or A < B, but can‟t determine how much they are different
e.g. social power (more, less)
agreement (strongly agree, strongly disagree)
Order of arrival of contestants in footrace
Women's race Men‟s race
First Jane Tom
Second Melissa Dick
Third Leila Harry

1.12.3. Interval scaling

Ranked
Know the distance between ranks
But it is not measured in an absolute scale; they are relative (has no natural origin)
e.g. Fahrenheit

1.12.4. Ratio scaling

Ranked
Know the distance between ranks
It is measured in an absolute scale (has a natural origin)
e.g. weight, elevation
convey more information and permit more analytical treatment

Level of measurement prescribe the information required for an attribute reference system
Level of measurement Information required
Nominal Definitions of categories
Ordinal Definitions of categories plus ordering
Interval Unit of measure plus zero point
Ratio Unit of measure
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.29
TWO MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANWERS

1) What is GIS?
It‟s a computer based information system primarily aims in collecting, classifying,
crosschecking, manipulating, interpreting, retrieving and displaying data which are spatially
referred to the earth in an appealing way.

2) What are the basic concepts of GIS?

A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate,
analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical data. The key word to this technology
is Geography – this means that some portion of the data is spatial.

3) What are the importances’s of GIS?

GIS plays an important role providing planning, organizing and decision making. 15. Soil
Mapping: Soil mapping provides resource information about an area. It helps in
understanding soil suitability for various land use activities.

4) What is Geographical co-ordinate system? (May/June – 2013)

A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system that enables every location on Earth
to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are often chosen such
that one of the numbers represents a vertical position and two or three of the numbers
represent a horizontal position; alternatively, a geographic position may be expressed in a
combined three-dimensional Cartesian vector. A common choice of coordinates is latitude,
longitude and elevation. To specify a location on a plane requires a map projection.

5) What are the different types of coordinate systems?

Common coordinate systems
• Number line.
• Cartesian coordinate system.
• Polar coordinate system.
• Cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems.
• Homogeneous coordinate system.
• Other commonly used systems.
• Relativistic coordinate systems.
• Citations.

6) What is geographic coordinate system in GIS?

A geographic coordinate system (GCS) uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define
locations on the earth. A GCS is often incorrectly called a datum, but a datum is only one part
of a GCS. A GCS includes an angular unit of measure, a prime meridian, and a datum (based
on a spheroid).
1.30 Geographic Information System
7) What are the three components of a geographic coordinate system?
Components of a geographic coordinate system
• The details of a geographic coordinate system vary according to the earth model you're
using.
• A geographic coordinate system has three components:
• The prime meridian defines the zero value for longitude.
• The datum specifies the sphere or spheroid.
• A sphere is defined by the length of its radius.

8) What are the types of geographic coordinate system?

The following are two common types of coordinate systems used in a geographic information
system (GIS): A global or spherical coordinate system such as latitude-longitude. These are
often referred to as geographic coordinate systems.

9) What is Rectangular co-ordinate system?

Although the use of rectangular coordinates in such geometric applications as surveying and
planning has been practiced since ancient times, it was not until the 17th century that
geometry and algebra were joined to form the branch of mathematics called analytic
geometry. French mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650) devised a
simple plan whereby two number lines were intersected at right angles with the position of a
point in a plane determined by its distance from each of the lines. This system is called the
rectangular coordinate system (or Cartesian coordinate system).

10) What are ellipsoid GIS?

Geodesists have adopted an ellipsoid model to determine latitude and longitude coordinates.
The most common reference ellipsoid in cartography and surveying is the World Geodetic
System (WGS84). The Clarke Ellipsoid of 1866 and was recomputed for the North American
Datum of 1927 (NAD27).

11) What is the difference between datum and ellipsoid?

For a loose definition, think of the ellipsoid as defining size and shape. The datum then fixes
that ellipsoid to the earth. Think also about non-earth-center-earth-fixed datums. Many used
the same ellipsoid, but the ellipsoid was 'fixed' to the earth at different locations.

12) What is GIS datum?

A datum is a specific, known point on or in the Earth that is used for reference. A projection
uses the datum as a point of reference, it's location on Earth. In GIS, there are two types of
"coordinate systems": Geographic Coordinate System (latitude and longitude) and Projected
Coordinate System (X and Y).

13) What is the datum used by GPS?

In the Continental United States use NAD27 CONUS.) The Global Positioning System uses
an earth centred datum called the World Geodetic System 1984 or WGS 84. WGS 84 was
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.31
adopted as a world standard from a datum called the North American Datum of 1983 or NAD
83.

14) Defining GIS

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system build to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze, manage and display all kinds of spatial or geographical data. GIS
applications are tools that allow end users to perform spatial query, analysis, edit spatial data
and create hard copy maps. In simple way GIS can be define as an image that is referenced to
the earth or has x and y coordinate and its attribute values are stored in the table.

These x and y coordinates are based on different projection system and there are various
types of projection system. Most of the time GIS is used to create maps and to print. To
perform the basic task in GIS, layers are combined, edited and designed.

15) What are the components of GIS?

(i) The Computer System (Hardware and Operating System)
(ii) The Software
(iii) Spatial Data
(iv) Data Management and analysis procedures
(v) The People to operate the GIS

16) What are the hardware components of a GIS? (May/June – 2012)

Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide
range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in
stand-alone or networked configurations.

17) What are the software components of a GIS?

Standard GIS Software’s
• ARCGIS
• ARCVIEW
• ARCINFO
• MAPINFO
• ERDAS
• ENVI
• AUTOCADMAP
• IDRISI

18) What is open source GIS Software?

An open source application by definition is software that you can freely access and modify
the source code for. Popular “C” based open source GIS software applications include
1.32 Geographic Information System
GRASS, a project started in 1982 by the US Army but is now open source, and QGIS
(otherwise known as Quantum GIS).

19) What is quantum GIS software?

QGIS functions as geographic information system (GIS) software, allowing users to analyze
and edit spatial information, in addition to composing and exporting graphical maps. QGIS
supports both raster and vector layers; vector data is stored as either point, line, or polygon
features. Multiple formats of raster images are supported and the software can geo-reference
images.

QGIS supports shape files, coverage‟s, personal geo-databases, dxf, MapInfo, Post-GIS, and
other formats. Web services, including Web Map Service and Web Feature Service, are also
supported to allow use of data from external sources.

QGIS integrates with other open-source GIS packages, including Post-GIS, GRASS GIS, and
Map-Server. Plug-ins written in Python or C++ extends QGIS's capabilities. Plug-ins can
geo-code using the Google Geo-coding API, perform geo-processing functions similar to
those of the standard tools found in Arc-GIS, and interface with PostgreSQL / Post-GIS,
SpatiaLite and MySQL databases.

20) What is data model? (May/June- 14)

Data Models:
Vector and Raster Spatial data in GIS has two primary data formats: raster and vector. Raster
uses a grid cell structure, whereas vector is more like a drawn map. Raster and Vector Data
Vector format has points, lines, polygons that appear normal, much like a map. Raster format
generalizes the scene into a grid of cells, each with a code to indicate the feature being
depicted. The cell is the minimum mapping unit. Raster has generalized reality: all of the
features in the cell area are reduced to a single cell identity.

21) What is vector data? (M/J- 13)

Vector data uses two dimensional Cartesian coordinates to store the shape of spatial entity.
Vector based features are treated as discrete geometric objects over the space. In the vector
data base point is the basic building block from which all the spatial entities are constructed.
The vector spatial entity, the point is represented by a single x, y coordinate pair. Line and
area entities are constructed by a series of points into chains.
 Fundamentals of GIS 1.33
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) Describe in detail, the Basic spatial concepts. Add a note on introduction to GIS.
2) Write an essay on Geographic Coordinate Systems.
3) Discuss the software and hardware components of GIS (May/June - 2012)
4) Write detailed notes on proprietary and open source GIS Software
5) Explain in detail about Open Source GIS Software.
6) What is data model? Add notes on different types of data.
7) Write an essay on attribute data model. (May/June - 2014)
8) Write an essay on scale of measurement/Level of measurements
 CHAPTER- 2

SPATIAL DATA MODELS

2.1. INTRODUCTION
Spatial data are what drive a GIS. Every functionality that makes a GIS separate from
another analytical environment is rooted in the spatially explicit nature of the data.

Spatial data are often referred to as layers, coverage’s, or layers. We will use the term
layers from this point on, since this is the recognized term used in Arc-GIS. Layers represent, in a
special digital storage format, features on, above, or below the surface of the earth. Depending on
the type of features they represent, and the purpose to which the data will be applied, layers will
be one of two major types.
a) Vector data represent features as discrete points, lines, and polygons.
b) Raster data represent the landscape as a rectangular matrix of square cells.

Depending on the type of problem that needs to be solved, the type of maps that need to be
made, and the data source, either raster or vector, or a combination of the two can be used. Each
data model has strengths and weaknesses in terms of functionality and representation. As you get
more experience with GIS, you will be able to determine which data type to use for a particular
application.

2.2. DATABASE STRUCTURES

The two basic data structures in any fully-functional GIS are:

Vector, e.g,
• ArcInfo Coverages
• ArcGIS Shape Files
• CAD (AutoCAD DXF & DWG, or Micro Station DGN files)
• ASCII coordinate data

Raster, e.g,
• ArcInfo Grids
• Images
2.2 Geographic Information System
• Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)
• generic raster datasets

2.3. DATA STRUCTURE MODELS

Data models are the conceptual models that describe the structures of databases. The
structure of a database is defined by the data types, the constraints and the relationships for the
description or storage of data. Following are the most often used data models:
1) Hierarchical Data Structure Model
2) Network Data Structure Model
3) Relational Data Structure Model
4) Object Oriented Data Structure Model

2.3.1. Hierarchical Data Structure Model

It is the earliest database model that is evolved from file system where records are
arranged in a hierarchy or as a tree structure shown in the figure.2.1. Records are connected
through pointers that store the address of the related record.

Each pointer establishes a parent-child relationship where a parent can have more than one
child but a child can only have one parent. There is no connection between the elements at the
same level. To locate a particular record, you have to start at the top of the tree with a parent
record and trace down the tree to the child.

Fig.2.1 Hierarchical Database Structure Based on a Simple Map

Advantages
• Easy to understand: The organization of database parallels a family tree understanding
which is quite easy.
 Spatial Data Models 2.3
• Accessing records or updating records are very fast since the relationships have been
predefined.

Disadvantages
• Large index files are to be maintained and certain attribute values are repeated many
times which lead to data redundancy and increased storage.
• The rigid structure of this model doesn’t allow alteration of tables, therefore to add a
new relationship entire database is to be redefined.

2.3.2. Network Data Structure Model

A network is a generalized graph that captures relationships between objects using
connectivity shown figure.2.2. A network database consists of a collection of records that are
connected to each other through links. A link is an association between two records. It allows each
record to have many parents and many children thus allowing a natural model of relationships
between entities.

Fig.2.2. Network Data Structure Model

Advantages
• The many too many relationships are easily implemented in a network data model.
• Data access and flexibility in network model is better than that in hierarchical model.
An application can access an owner record and the member records within a set.
• It enforces data integrity as a user must first define owner record and then the member
records.
• The model eliminated redundancy but at the expense of more complicated
relationships.
2.4 Geographic Information System
2.3.3. Relational Data Structure Model
• The relational data model was introduced by Codd in 1970. The relational database
relates or connects data in different files through the use of a common field.
• A flat file structure is used with a relational database model. In this arrangement, data
is stored in different tables made up of rows and columns as shown in figure.2.3.
• The columns of a table are named by attributes. Each row in the table is called a tuple
and represents a basic fact.
• No two rows of the same table may have identical values in all columns.

Advantages
• The manager or administrator does not have to be aware of any data structure or data
pointer. One can easily add, update, delete or create records using simple logic.

Disadvantages
• A few search commands in a relational database require more time to process
compared with other database models.

Fig.2.3. Relational Data Structure Model

 Spatial Data Models 2.5
2.3.4. Object Oriented Database Structure
• An Object Oriented model uses functions to model spatial and non-spatial
relationships of geographic objects and the attributes.
• An object is an encapsulated unit which is characterized by attributes, a set of
orientations and rules.

An object-oriented model has the following characteristics.

Generic Properties: there should be an inheritance relationship.

Abtraction: objects, classes and super classes are to be generated by
classification, generalisation, association and aggregation.
Adhoc Queries: users can order spatial operations to obtain spatial relationships
of geographic objects using a special language.

• For example, let us try to represent a thought: “Hawaii is an island that is a state of
USA” in GIS. In this case, we don’t mind the geographic location with latitude and
longitude in the conventional GIS model. This is not appropriate to use the layers. In
an object-oriented model, we are more careful with spatial relationships for example,
“is a” (the island is a land) and “part of” (the state is a part of the country).

• In addition, Hawaii (state) has Honolulu City and also is in Pacific Region. Figure 2.4
(a) shows “is an” inheritance for the super class of land, while Figure 2.4 (b) shows
the spatial relationships for the object of the state.

Fig.2.4. Object Oriented Database Structure

An object-oriented database is based on a semantic model as shown in Figure 2.5. Which
is usually managed by a spatial language although the language has not yet been fully completed.
2.6 Geographic Information System

Fig.2.5. Object-Oriented Database is based on a Semantic Model

2.4. DEFINITION - WHAT DOES ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM

(ERD)
An entity-relationship diagram (ERD) is a data modeling technique that graphically
illustrates an information system’s entities and the relationships between those entities. An ERD is
a conceptual and representational model of data used to represent the entity framework
infrastructure.

The elements of an ERD are:

• Entities
• Relationships
• Attributes

Steps involved in creating an ERD include:

1) Identifying and defining the entities
2) Determining all interactions between the entities
3) Analyzing the nature of interactions/determining the cardinality of the relationships
4) Creating the ERD

2.4.1. Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD)

An entity-relationship diagram (ERD) is crucial to creating a good database design. It is
used as a high-level logical data model, which is useful in developing a conceptual design for
databases.

An entity is a real-world item or concept that exists on its own. Entities are equivalent to
database tables in a relational database, with each row of the table representing an instance of that
entity.
 Spatial Data Models 2.7
An attribute of an entity is a particular property that describes the entity. A relationship is
the association that describes the interaction between entities. Cardinality, in the context of ERD,
is the number of instances of one entity that can, or must, be associated with each instance of
another entity. In general, there may be one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many relationships.

For example, let us consider two real-world entities, an employee and his department. An
employee has attributes such as an employee number, name, department number, etc. Similarly,
department number and name can be defined as attributes of a department. A department can
interact with many employees, but an employee can belong to only one department, hence there
can be a one-to-many relationship, defined between department and employee.

In the actual database, the employee table will have department number as a foreign key,
referencing from department table, to enforce the relationship.

2.4.2. E-R DIAGRAM

E-R Diagram example from Database Management course
As mentioned before, the entity-relationship (E-R) diagram is one of the most commonly
implemented conceptual data models used with GIS. Entities, attributes, and relationships are
used to represent real-world features, what their properties are, and what the relationships are
between these entities. Hardware and software issues are not explored in the E-R Diagram. These
are addressed later in logical and physical data models. This first level of data abstraction is used
by geospatial analysts as a starting point when analyzing and assessing the data available to them
and how it fits together. The example below illustrates an E-R Diagram built during one of my
Geospatial Data Structures course assignments.

Fig.2.6. E-R Diagram

2.8 Geographic Information System

You could use this database to query how many of a particular species of game fish were
examined at a specific park during a data range of interest. This would be non-spatial query
because we are just counting an occurrence at one particular location. We are not using the
coordinates to perform some type of buffer analysis or other spatial analysis to query the data.

2.5. SPATIAL DATA MODELS

Computers and GIS cannot directly be applied to the real world: a data gathering step
comes first. Digital computers operate in numbers and characters held internally as binary digits.
The real-world phenomenon of interest must be represented in symbolic form. The abstraction
process of representing any property of the earth’s surface in a computer accessible form involves
the use of symbolic models.

Models are simplification of reality. A map is a symbolic model, because it is a simplified

representation of part of the real world. The components of the model are spatial objects,
approximating spatial entities of the real world; they are represented on the map by graphical
symbols.
• The process of defining and organizing data about the real world into a consistent
digital dataset that is useful and reveals information is called data modeling.
• The logical organization of data according to a scheme is known as data models
• Data can be defined as verifiable facts.
• Information is data organized to reveal patterns, and to facilitate search.
• Spatial information is difficult to extract from spatial data, unless the data are
organized primarily by spatial attributes.
• Spatial objects are characterized by attributes that are both spatial and non-spatial,
and the digital description of objects and their attributes comprise spatial datasets.
• Spatial data can be organized in different ways, depending on the way they are
collected, how they are stored, and the purpose they are put.
• A database is a collection of inter-related data and everything that is needed to
maintain and use it.
 Spatial Data Models 2.9
• A Database Management System is a collection of software for storing, editing and
retrieving data in a database.
Traditionally spatial data has been stored and presented in the form of a map. Three basic
types of spatial data models have evolved for storing geographic data digitally. These are referred
to as:
• Vector;
• Raster;
• Image.

The following diagram reflects the two primary spatial data encoding techniques. These
are vector and raster. Image data utilizes techniques very similar to raster data, however typically
lacks the internal formats required for analysis and modeling of the data. Images reflect pictures or
photographs of the landscape.

Fig.2.7. Two primary spatial data encoding techniques

2.5.1. Vector Data Formats

All spatial data models are approaches for storing the spatial location of geographic
features in a database. Vector storage implies the use of vectors (directional lines) to represent a
geographic feature. Vector data is characterized by the use of sequential points or vertices to
define a linear segment. Each vertex consists of an X coordinate and a Y coordinate.

Vector lines are often referred to as arcs and consist of a string of vertices terminated by a
node. A node is defined as a vertex that starts or ends an arc segment. Point features are defined
by one coordinate pair, a vertex. Polygonal features are defined by a set of closed coordinate pairs.
In vector representation, the storage of the vertices for each feature is important, as well as the
connectivity between features, e.g. the sharing of common vertices where features connect.

Several different vector data models exist, however only two are commonly used in GIS
data storage.
2.10 Geographic Information System
The most popular method of retaining spatial relationships among features is to explicitly
record adjacency information in what is known as the topologic data model. Topology is a
mathematical concept that has its basis in the principles of feature adjacency and connectivity.

The topologic data structure is often referred to as an intelligent data structure because
spatial relationships between geographic features are easily derived when using them. Primarily
for this reason the topologic model is the dominant vector data structure currently used in GIS
technology. Many of the complex data analysis functions cannot effectively be undertaken
without a topologic vector data structure. Topology is reviewed in greater detail later on in the
book.

The secondary vector data structure that is common among GIS software is the computer-
aided drafting (CAD) data structure. This structure consists of listing elements, not features,
defined by strings of vertices, to define geographic features, e.g. points, lines, or areas. There is
considerable redundancy with this data model since the boundary segment between two polygons
can be stored twice, once for each feature. The CAD structure emerged from the development of
computer graphics systems without specific considerations of processing geographic features.
Accordingly, since features, e.g. polygons, are self-contained and independent, questions about
the adjacency of features can be difficult to answer. The CAD vector model lacks the definition of
spatial relationships between features that is defined by the topologic data model.

Fig.2.8. GIS MAP Structure - VECTOR systems (Adapted from Berry)

2.5.2. Raster Data Formats
Raster data models incorporate the use of a grid-cell data structure where the geographic
area is divided into cells identified by row and column. This data structure is commonly called
raster. While the term raster implies a regularly spaced grid other tessellated data structures do
exist in grid based GIS systems. In particular, the quadtree data structure has found some
acceptance as an alternative raster data model.

The size of cells in a tessellated data structure is selected on the basis of the data accuracy
and the resolution needed by the user. There is no explicit coding of geographic coordinates
required since that is implicit in the layout of the cells. A raster data structure is in fact a matrix
where any coordinate can be quickly calculated if the origin point is known, and the size of the
grid cells is known. Since grid-cells can be handled as two-dimensional arrays in computer
encoding many analytical operations are easy to program. This makes tessellated data structures a
popular choice for many GIS software. Topology is not a relevant concept with tessellated
 Spatial Data Models 2.11
structures since adjacency and connectivity are implicit in the location of a particular cell in the
data matrix.

Several tessellated data structures exist, however only two are commonly used in GIS's.
The most popular cell structure is the regularly spaced matrix or raster structure. This data
structure involves a division of spatial data into regularly spaced cells. Each cell is of the same
shape and size. Squares are most commonly utilized.

Since geographic data is rarely distinguished by regularly spaced shapes, cells must be
classified as to the most common attribute for the cell. The problem of determining the proper
resolution for a particular data layer can be a concern. If one selects too coarse a cell size then data
may be overly generalized. If one selects too fine a cell size then too many cells may be created
resulting in a large data volume, slower processing times, and a more cumbersome data set. As
well, one can imply accuracy greater than that of the original data capture process and this may
result in some erroneous results during analysis.

As well, since most data is captured in a vector format, e.g. digitizing, data must be
converted to the raster data structure. This is called vector-raster conversion. Most GIS software
allows the user to define the raster grid (cell) size for vector-raster conversion. It is imperative that
the original scale, e.g. accuracy, of the data be known prior to conversion. The accuracy of the
data, often referred to as the resolution, should determine the cell size of the output raster map
during conversion.

Most raster based GIS software requires that the raster cell contain only a single discrete
value. Accordingly, a data layer, e.g. forest inventory stands, may be broken down into a series of
raster maps, each representing an attribute type, e.g. a species map, a height map, a density map,
etc. These are often referred to as one attribute maps. This is in contrast to most conventional
vector data models that maintain data as multiple attribute maps, e.g. forest inventory polygons
linked to a database table containing all attributes as columns. This basic distinction of raster data
storage provides the foundation for quantitative analysis techniques. This is often referred to as
raster or map algebra. The use of raster data structures allow for sophisticated mathematical
modelling processes while vector based systems are often constrained by the capabilities and
language of a relational DBMS.

Fig.2.9. GIS MAP Structure - RASTER systems (Adapted from Berry)

2.12 Geographic Information System
This difference is the major distinguishing factor between vector and raster based GIS
software. It is also important to understand that the selection of a particular data structure can
provide advantages during the analysis stage. For example, the vector data model does not handle
continuous data, e.g. elevation, very well while the raster data model is more ideally suited for this
type of analysis. Accordingly, the raster structure does not handle linear data analysis, e.g. shortest
path, very well while vector systems do. It is important for the user to understand that there are
certain advantages and disadvantages to each data model.

The selection of a particular data model, vector or raster, is dependent on the source and
type of data, as well as the intended use of the data. Certain analytical procedures require raster
data while others are better suited to vector data.

2.5.3. Image Data

Image data is most often used to represent graphic or pictorial data. The term image
inherently reflects a graphic representation, and in the GIS world, differs significantly from raster
data. Most often, image data is used to store remotely sensed imagery, e.g. satellite scenes or
orthophotos, or ancillary graphics such as photographs, scanned plan documents, etc. Image data
is typically used in GIS systems as background display data (if the image has been rectified and
georeferenced); or as a graphic attribute. Remote sensing software makes use of image data for
image classification and processing. Typically, this data must be converted into a raster format
(and perhaps vector) to be used analytically with the GIS.

Image data is typically stored in a variety of de facto industry standard proprietary

formats. These often reflect the most popular image processing systems. Other graphic image
formats, such as TIFF, GIF, PCX, etc., are used to store ancillary image data. Most GIS software
will read such formats and allow you to display this data.

Fig.2.10. Image data is most often used for remotely sensed imagery
such as satellite imagery or digital orthophotos.
 Spatial Data Models 2.13
2.5.4. Vector and Raster – Advantages and Disadvantages
There are several advantages and disadvantages for using either the vector or raster data
model to store spatial data. These are summarized below.

Vector Data:
Advantages:
• Data can be represented at its original resolution and form without generalization.
• Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional cartographic
representation);
• Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in vector form no data conversion is required.
• Accurate geographic location of data is maintained.
• Allows for efficient encoding of topology, and as a result more efficient operations
that require topological information, e.g. proximity, network analysis.

Disadvantages:
• The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly. For effective analysis, vector
data must be converted into a topological structure. This is often processing intensive
and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well, topology is static, and any
updating or editing of the vector data requires re-building of the topology. Algorithms
for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be processing intensive.
Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets, e.g. a large number of
features.
• Continuous data, such as elevation data, is not effectively represented in vector form.
Usually substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data
layers.
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible

Raster Data
Advantages:
• The geographic location of each cell is implied by its position in the cell matrix.
Accordingly, other than an origin point, e.g. bottom left corner, no geographic
coordinates are stored.
• Due to the nature of the data storage technique data analysis is usually easy to program
and quick to perform.
• The inherent nature of raster maps, e.g. one attribute maps, is ideally suited for
mathematical modeling and quantitative analysis.
• Discrete data, e.g. forestry stands, is accommodated equally well as continuous data,
e.g. elevation data, and facilitates the integrating of the two data types.
• Grid-cell systems are very compatible with raster-based output devices, e.g.
electrostatic plotters, graphic terminals.
2.14 Geographic Information System
Disadvantages:
• The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly. For effective analysis, vector
data must be converted into a topological structure. This is often processing intensive
and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well, topology is static, and any
updating or editing of the vector data requires re-building of the topology.
• Algorithms for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be
processing intensive. Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets,
e.g. a large number of features.
• Continuous data; such as elevation data, is not effectively represented in vector form.
• Usually substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data
layers.
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible.

2.6. RASTER DATA STRUCTURE

In a simple raster data structure the geographical entities are stored in a matrix of
rectangular cells. A code is given to each cell which informs users which entity is present in which
cell. The simplest way of encoding a raster data into computers can be understood as follows:

(a) Entity model:

It represents the whole raster data. Let us assume that the raster data belongs to an area
where land is surrounded by water. Here a particular entity (land) is shown in green color and the
area where land is not present is shown by white.

(b) Pixel values:

The pixel value for the full image is shown. Cells having a part of the land are encoded as
1 and others where land is not present are encoded as 0.

(c) File structure:

It demonstrates the method of coding raster data. The first row of the file structure data
tells that there are 5 rows and 5 columns in the image, and 1 is the maximum pixel value. The
subsequent rows have cells with value as either 0 or 1 (similar to pixel values).
 Spatial Data Models 2.15

The huge size of the data is a major problem with raster data. An image consisting of
twenty different land-use classes takes the same storage space as a similar raster map showing the
location of a single forest. To address this problem many data compaction methods have been
developed which are discussed below:

2.6.1. Run length encoding

• Reduction of data on a row by row basis
• Stores a single value for a group of cells rather than storing values for individual cells
• First line represents the dimension of the matrix (5×5) and the number of entities (1)
present. In second and subsequent lines, the first number in the pair represents absence
(0) or presence (1) of the entity and the second number indicates the number of cells
referenced.

2.6.2. Block encoding

• Data is stored in blocks in the raster matrix.
• The entity is subdivided into hierarchical blocks and the blocks are located using
coordinates.
• The first cell at top left hand is used as the origin for locating the blocks
2.16 Geographic Information System
2.6.3. Chain encoding
• Works by defining boundary of the entity i.e. sequence of cells starting from and
returning to the given origin
• Direction of travel is specified using numbers. (0 = North, 1 = East, 2 = South, 3 =
West)
• The first line tells that the coding started at cell (4, 2) and there is only one chain. In
the second line the first number in the pair tells the direction and the second number
represents the number of cells lying in this direction.

2.6.4. Quadtree
• A raster is divided into a hierarchy of quadrants that are subdivided based on similar
value pixels.
• The division of the raster stops when a quadrant is made entirely from cells of the
same value.
• A quadrant that cannot be subdivided is called a leaf node.

A satellite or remote sensing image is a raster data where each cell has some value and
together these values create a layer. A raster may have a single layer or multiple layers. In a multi-
layer/ multi-band raster each layer is congruent with all other layers, have identical numbers of
rows and columns, and have same locations in the plane. Digital elevation model (DEM) is an
example of a single-band raster dataset each cell of which contains only one value representing
surface elevation.
 Spatial Data Models 2.17
2.6.5. A single layer raster data can be represented using
(a) Two colors (binary):
The raster is represented as binary image with cell values as either 0 or 1 appearing black
and white respectively.

Gray-scale:
Typical remote sensing images are recorded in an 8 bit digital system. A grayscale image
is thus represented in 256 shades of gray which range from 0 (black) to 255 (white). However a
human eye can’t make distinction between the 255 different shades. It can only interpret 8 to 16
shades of gray.

A satellite image can have multiple bands, i.e. the scene/details are captured at different
wavelengths (Ultraviolet- visible- infrared portions) of the electromagnetic spectrum. While
creating a map we can choose to display a single band of data or form a color composite using
multiple bands. A combination of any three of the available bands can be used to create RGB
composites. These composites present a greater amount of information as compared to that
provided by a single band raster.

2.6.6. Comparison between Vector and Raster Data Models

Data Model Advantages Disadvantages
Simple data structure Cell size determines the resolution at
which the data is represented
Compatible with remote sensing or Requires a lot of storage space
scanned data
Raster
Spatial analysis is easier Projection transformations are time
consuming
Simulation is easy because each unit Network linkages are difficult to establish
has the same size and shape
2.18 Geographic Information System

Data is represented at its original The location of each vertex is to be stored

resolution and form without explicitly
generalization
Require less storage space Overlay based on criteria is difficult
Vector
Editing is faster and convenient Spatial analysis is cumbersome
Network analysis is fast Simulation is difficult because each unit
has a different topological form
Projection transformations are easier

2.7. DATA COMPRESSION

[Computing] The process of reducing the size of a file or database. Compression improves
data handling, storage, and database performance. Examples of compression methods include
quadtrees, run-length encoding, and wavelets.

Compression ratio:
• The compression ratio (that is , the size of the compressed file compared to that of the
uncompressed file) of lossy video codec’s is nearly always far superior to that of the
audio and still-image equivalents Wavelet compression, used by raster formats such as
MrSID,JPEG2000,andER Map per’s ECW, takes time to decompress before drawing.
• Compression a series of techniques used for the reduction of space, bandwidth, cost,
transmission, generating time, and the storage of data.
• It’s a computer process using algorithms that reduces the size of electronic documents
so they occupy less digital storage space.

2.7.1. Raster Data Compression

Fig.2.11. Raster Data Compression

 Spatial Data Models 2.19
Raster Data Compression
• Huge raster data has be to stored, retrieved, manipulated and analyzed.
• Large no. of thematic map layer is involved.
• Many repetitive characters are involved.
• Therefore, for better storage and to preserve highest possible degree of accuracy, we
need to go for compact methods of storing.
• Common method is elimination of repetitive characters.
Original Data Compacted Data
Northing Easting 10,000 70,000
10,234 70,565 234 565
10,245 70,599 245 599
10,167 70,423 167 423

Fig.2.12. Raster Data Compression

2.7.2. Run length Encoding
• Value often occur in runs across several cells, i.e., cells of the same value are often
neighbours, like same soil type, or similar parameters.
• spatial auto-correlation exists –a tendency for nearby things to be more similar than
distant things
• In run length encoding, the cells of the same value in arrow may be compacted by
stating the value and their total.
• Thematic maps storage sizes get reduced using runlength encoding.
• Some raster GIS packages have the capability to handle run length encoded files.
2.20 Geographic Information System
Value point encoding
• Cells are assigned position numbers starting in the upper left corner proceeding from
left to right and from top to bottom.
• The position no. for end of each run is stored in the point columns. The value for each
cell in the run is in the value column.

2.7.3. Quadtree
• Typical type of raster model is dividing area into equal-sized rectangular cells .
• However, many cases, variable sized grid cell size used for more compact raster
representation as shown figure.2.13.
• Larger cells used to represent large homogenous areas and smaller cells for finely
details.
• Process involves regularly subdividing a map into four equal sized quadrants.
Quadrant that has more than one class is again subdivided. Then; it is further
subdivided within each quadrant until a square is found to be so homogenous that it is
no longer needed to be divided.
• Then a Quadtree is prepared, resembling an inverted tree with “Root”, i.e., a point
from which all branches expand; Leaf is a lower most point and all other points in the
tree are nodes.

Fig.2.13. The Quadtree Representation

2.8. VECTOR DATA STRUCTURE

Geographic entities encoded using the vector data model, are often called features. The
features can be divided into two classes:
 Spatial Data Models 2.21
a) Simple features
These are easy to create, store and are rendered on screen very quickly. They lack
connectivity relationships and so are inefficient for modeling phenomena conceptualized as fields.

b) Topological features
A topology is a mathematical procedure that describes how features are spatially related
and ensures data quality of the spatial relationships. Topological relationships include following
three basic elements:

1) Connectivity: Information about linkages among spatial objects

2) Contiguity: Information about neighbouring spatial object
3) Containment: Information about inclusion of one spatial object within another spatial
object

2.8.1. Connectivity
Arc node topology defines connectivity - arcs are connected to each other if they share a
common node. This is the basis for many network tracing and path finding operations.

Arcs represent linear features and the borders of area features. Every arc has a from-node
which is the first vertex in the arc and a to-node which is the last vertex. These two nodes define
the direction of the arc. Nodes indicate the endpoints and intersections of arcs. They do not exist
independently and therefore cannot be added or deleted except by adding and deleting arcs.

Fig.2.14. Arc-node Topology

Nodes can, however, be used to represent point features which connect segments of a
linear feature (e.g., intersections connecting street segments, valves connecting pipe segments).

Fig.2.15. Node showing intersection

Arc-node topology is supported through an arc-node list. For each arc in the list there is a
from node and a to node. Connected arcs are determined by common node numbers.
2.22 Geographic Information System

Fig.2.16. Arc-Node Topology with list

2.8.2. Contiguity
Polygon topology defines contiguity. The polygons are said to be contiguous if they share
a common arc. Contiguity allows the vector data model to determine adjacency.

Fig2.17. Polygon Topology

The from node and to node of an arc indicate its direction, and it helps determining the
polygons on its left and right side. Left-right topology refers to the polygons on the left and right
sides of an arc. In the illustration above, polygon B is on the left and polygon C is on the right of
the arc 4.

Polygon A is outside the boundary of the area covered by polygons B, C and D. It is called
the external or universe polygon, and represents the world outside the study area. The universe
polygon ensures that each arc always has a left and right side defined.

2.8.3. Containment
Geographic features cover distinguishable area on the surface of the earth. An area is
represented by one or more boundaries defining a polygon.

Fig2.18. Polygon arc topology

 Spatial Data Models 2.23
The polygons can be simple or they can be complex with a hole or island in the middle. In
the illustration given below assume a lake with an island in the middle.

The lake actually has two boundaries, one which defines its outer edge and the other
(island) which defines its inner edge. An island defines the inner boundary of a polygon. The
polygon D is made up of arc 5, 6 and 7. The 0 before the 7 indicates that the arc 7 creates an
island in the polygon.

Polygons are represented as an ordered list of arcs and not in terms of X, Y coordinates.
This is called Polygon-Arc topology. Since arcs define the boundary of polygon, arc coordinates
are stored only once, thereby reducing the amount of data and ensuring no overlap of boundaries
of the adjacent polygons.

2.8.4. Simple Features

Point entities:
These represent all geographical entities that are positioned by a single XY coordinate
pair. Along with the XY coordinates the point must store other information such as what does the
point represent etc.

Line entities:
Linear features made by tracing two or more XY coordinate pair.
• Simple line: It requires a start and an end point.
• Arc: A set of XY coordinate pairs describing a continuous complex line. The shorter
the line segment and the higher the number of coordinate pairs, the closer the chain
approximates a complex curve.

Simple Polygons:
Enclosed structures formed by joining set of XY coordinate pairs. The structure is simple
but it carries few disadvantages which are mentioned below:
• Lines between adjacent polygons must be digitized and stored twice, improper
digitization give rise to slivers and gaps
• Convey no information about neighbour
• Creating islands is not possible

2.8.5. Topologic Features

Networks:
A network is a topologic feature model which is defined as a line graph composed of links
representing linear channels of flow and nodes representing their connections. The topologic
relationship between the features is maintained in a connectivity table. By consulting connectivity
table, it is possible to trace the information flowing in the network
2.24 Geographic Information System
Polygons with explicit topological structures:
Introducing explicit topological relationships takes care of islands as well as neighbours.
The topological structures are built either by creating topological links during data input or using
software. Dual Independent Map Encoding (DIME) system of US Bureau of the Census is one of
the first attempts to create topology in geographic data.

Fig.2.19. Polygon as a topological feature

• Polygons are formed using the lines and their nodes.
• Once formed, polygons are individually identified by a unique identification number.
• The topological information among the polygons is computed and stored using the
adjacency information (the nodes of a line, and identifiers of the polygons to the left
and right of the line) stored with the lines.

2.8.6. Fully topological polygon network structure

A fully topological polygon network structure is built using boundary chains that are
digitized in any direction. It takes care of islands and lakes and allows automatic checks for
improper polygons. Neighborhood searches are fully supported. These structures are edited by
moving the coordinates of individual points and nodes, by changing polygon attributes and by
cutting out or adding sections of lines or whole polygons. Changing coordinates require no
modification to the topology but cutting out or adding lines and polygons requires recalculation of
topology and rebuilding the database.

2.8.7. Triangular Irregular Network (TIN)

TIN represents surface as contiguous non-overlapping triangles created by performing
Delaunay triangulation. These triangles have a unique property that the circum circle that passes
through the vertices of a triangle contains no other point inside it. TIN is created from a set of
mass points with x, y and z coordinate values. This topologic data structure manages information
about the nodes that form each triangle and the neighbors of each triangle.
 Spatial Data Models 2.25

Fig.2.20. Delaunay Triangulation

Advantages of Delaunay triangulation

• The triangles are as equiangular as possible, thus reducing potential numerical
precision problems created by long skinny triangles
• The triangulation is independent of the order the points are processed
• Ensures that any point on the surface is as close as possible to a node

Because points can be placed irregularly over a surface a TIN can have higher resolution
in areas where surface is highly variable. The model incorporates original sample points providing
a check on the accuracy of the model. The information related to TIN is stored in a file or a
database table. Calculation of elevation, slope, and aspect is easy with TIN but these are less
widely available than raster surface models and more time consuming in term of construction and
processing.
2.26 Geographic Information System

The TIN model is a vector data model which is stored using the relational attribute tables.
A TIN dataset contains three basic attribute tables: Arc attribute table that contains length, from
node and to node of all the edges of all the triangles.

• Node attribute table that contains x, y coordinates and z (elevation) of the vertices
• Polygon attribute table that contains the areas of the triangles, the identification
number of the edges and the identifier of the adjacent polygons.
Storing data in this manner eliminated redundancy as all the vertices and edges are stored
only once even if they are used for more than one triangle. As TIN stores topological
relationships, the datasets can be applied to vector based geo-processing such as automatic
contouring, 3D landscape visualization, volumetric design, surface characterization etc.

2.9. RASTER VS VECTOR MODELS

The two primary types of spatial data are vector and raster data in GIS.

Data Model
The data model represents a set of guidelines to convert the real world (called entity) to
the digitally and logically represented spatial objects consisting of the attributes and geometry.
The attributes are managed by thematic or semantic structure while the geometry is represented by
geometric-topological structure.

There are two major types of geometric data model;

1) Vector Data Model
2) Raster Data Model

Vector Data Model: [data models] A representation of the world using points, lines, and
polygons (show in the figure 2.21). Vector models are useful for storing data that has discrete
boundaries, such as country borders, land parcels, and streets.

Raster Data Model: [data models] A representation of the world as a surface divided into
a regular grid of cells. Raster models are useful for storing data that varies continuously, as in an
aerial photograph, a satellite image, a surface of chemical concentrations, or an elevation surface.
 Spatial Data Models 2.27

Fig.2.21. Example – Raster Data and Vector Data

Fig .2.22. Example – Raster Data and Vector Data

Figure.2.23. Example – Vector Data and Vector Data

2.9.1. Vector Data

Vector data (Show in Fig.2.22) is not made up of a grid of pixels. Instead, vector graphics
are comprised of vertices and paths.

The three basic symbol types for vector data are

1) Points
2) Lines And
3) Polygons (areas).

Since the dawn of time, maps have been using symbols to represent real-world features. In
GIS terminology, real-world features are called spatial entities.

The cartographer decides how much data needs to be generalized in a map. This depends
on scale and how much detail will be displayed in the map. The decision to choose vector points,
lines or polygons is governed by the cartographer and scale of the map.
2.28 Geographic Information System
(1) Points

Fig.2.24. Point Vector Data Type

Point Vector Data Type: Simple XY Coordinates

Vector points are simply XY coordinates. When features are too small to be represented as
polygons, points are used indicate (fig.2.24.)

For Example: At a regional scale, city extents can be displayed as polygons because this
amount of detail can be seen when zoomed in. But at a global scale, cities can be represented
as points because the detail of city boundaries cannot be seen.

Vector data are stored as pairs of XY coordinates (latitude and longitude) represented as a
point. Complementary information like street name or date of construction could accompany it
in a table for its current use.

(2) Lines

Fig.2.25. Vector Data Type Line

Vector Data Type Line:
Connect the dots and it becomes a line feature. Vector lines connect vertices with paths
show in the fig (2.25). If you were to connect the dots in a particular order, you would end up
with a vector line feature.

Lines usually represent features that are linear in nature. Cartographers can use a different
thickness of line to show size of the feature. For Example, 500 meter Wide River may be
thicker than a 50 meter wide river. They can exist in the real-world such as roads or rivers. Or
they can also be artificial divisions such as regional borders or administrative boundaries.

Points are simply pairs of XY coordinates (latitude and longitude). When you connect
each point or vertex with a line in a particular order, they become a vector line feature.
Networks are line data sets but they are often considered to be different. This is because linear
networks are topologically connected elements. They consist of junctions and turns with
 Spatial Data Models 2.29
connectivity. If you were to find an optimal route using a traffic line network, it would follow
one-way streets and turn restrictions to solve an analysis. Networks are just that smart.

(3) Polygons

Fig.2.26. Vector Data Type Polygon

Vector Data Type Polygon: Connect the dots and enclose. It becomes a polygon feature
when a set of vertices are joined in a particular order and closed; they become a vector Polygon
feature shown the (fig.2.26). In order to create a polygon, the first and last coordinate pair is the
same and all other pairs must be unique. Polygons represent features that have a two-dimensional
area.

Examples of polygons are buildings, agricultural fields and discrete administrative areas.
Cartographers use polygons when the map scale is large enough to be represented as polygons.

2.9.2. Raster Types: Discrete vs Continuous

Raster data is made up of pixels (also referred to as grid cells). They are usually regularly-
spaced and square but they don’t have to be. Rasters often look pixelated because each pixel has
its own value or class.

For example:
Each pixel value in a satellite image has a red, green and blue value. Alternatively, each
value in an elevation map represents a specific height. It could represent anything from
rainfall to land cover.

Raster models are useful for storing data that varies continuously. For example, elevation
surfaces, temperature and lead contamination.

Raster data models consist of 2 categories – discrete and continuous.

2.30 Geographic Information System
2.9.3. Discrete Raster’s have Distinct Values
Discrete raster’s have distinct themes or categories. For example, one grid cell represents a
land cover class or a soil type.

In a discrete raster land cover/use map, you can distinguish each thematic class. Each class
can be discretely defined where it begins and ends. In other words, each land cover cell is
definable and it fills the entire area of the cell.

Discrete data usually consists of integers to represent classes. For example, the value 1
might represent urban areas; the value 2 represents forest and so on.

2.9.4. Continuous Rasters have Gradual Change

Continuous rasters (non-discrete) are grid cells with gradual changing data such as
elevation, temperature or an aerial photograph.

A continuous raster surface can be derived from a fixed registration point. For example,
digital elevation models use sea level as a registration point. Each cell represents a value above or
below sea level. As another example, aspect cell values have fixed directions such as north, east,
south or west.

Phenomena can gradually vary along a continuous raster from a specific source. In a raster
depicting an oil spill, it can show how the fluid moves from high concentration to low
concentration. At the source of the oil spill, concentration is higher and diffuses outwards with
diminishing values as a function of distance.

2.10. VECTOR VS RASTER: SPATIAL DATA TYPES

It’s not always straight-forward which spatial data type you should use for your maps.

In the end, it really comes down to the way in which the cartographer conceptualizes the
feature in their map.
 Spatial Data Models 2.31
• Do you want to work with pixels or coordinates? Raster data works with pixels.
Vector data consists of coordinates.
• What is your map scale? Vectors can scale objects up to the size of a billboard. But
you don’t get that type of flexibility with raster data
• Do you have restrictions for file size? Raster file size can result larger in comparison
with vector data sets with the same phenomenon and area.

2.10.1. Vector and Raster – Advantages and Disadvantages

There are several advantages and disadvantages for using either the vector or raster data
model to store spatial data. These are summarized below.

2.10.2. Vector Data:

Advantages:
• Data can be represented at its original resolution and form without generalization.
• Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional cartographic
representation);
• Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in vector form no data conversion is required.
• Accurate geographic location of data is maintained.
• Allows for efficient encoding of topology, and as a result more efficient operations
that require topological information, e.g. proximity, network analysis.
Disadvantages:
• The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly. For effective analysis, vector
data must be converted into a topological structure. This is often processing intensive
and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well, topology is static, and any
updating or editing of the vector data requires re-building of the topology. Algorithms
for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be processing intensive.
Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets, e.g. a large number of
features.
• Continuous data, such as elevation data, is not effectively represented in vector form.
Usually substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data
layers.
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible

2.10.3. Raster Data

Advantages :
• The geographic location of each cell is implied by its position in the cell matrix.
Accordingly, other than an origin point, e.g. bottom left corner, no geographic
coordinates are stored.
• Due to the nature of the data storage technique data analysis is usually easy to program
and quick to perform.
2.32 Geographic Information System
• The inherent nature of raster maps, e.g. one attribute maps, is ideally suited for
mathematical modeling and quantitative analysis.
• Discrete data, e.g. forestry stands, is accommodated equally well as continuous data,
e.g. elevation data, and facilitates the integrating of the two data types.
• Grid-cell systems are very compatible with raster-based output devices, e.g.
electrostatic plotters, graphic terminals.

Disadvantages:
• The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly. For effective analysis, vector
data must be converted into a topological structure. This is often processing intensive
and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well, topology is static, and any
updating or editing of the vector data requires re-building of the topology.
• Algorithms for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be
processing intensive. Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets,
e.g. a large number of features.
• Continuous data; such as elevation data, is not effectively represented in vector form.
• Usually substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data
layers.
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible.

2.11. TIN AND GRID DATA MODELS

TIN models
TIN stands for Triangular Irregular Network, which is a vector approach to handling a
digital elevation model. TIN’s are used to interpolate surfaces using multiple triangles. TIN’s are
able to interpolate surfaces by selecting representative points that are usually data points. TIN’s
connect these points to form a set of continuous and connected triangles. The data points consist
of X, Y and Z values. The final result gives users a TIN surface.

Advantages of TIN models

TIN’s give researchers the ability to view 2.5D and 3D at an area that was interpolated
from minimal data collection.
• Users can describe a surface at different levels of resolution based on the points that
were collected.
• TIN interpolation gives GIS users greater analytical capabilities. TIN models are easy
to create and use.
• They provide users a simplified model that represents collected data points.
• Using a TIN surface in conjunction with Arc-Map extensions such as Spatial Analysis
and 3D Analyst, TIN users can also derive slope, aspect, elevation, contour lines, hill
shades, etc.
 Spatial Data Models 2.33
2.11.1. Different Types of TIN Methods and Processes
There are many different types of TIN interpolation methods. Some of the most popular
TIN methods include:
• Natural Neighbour,
• Krigging,
• Spline,
• Nearest Neighbour and
• Inversed Distance Weighting.
These TIN interpolation methods use mathematical algorithms in order to generate
interpolated surfaces. Each of these methods will produce different types of surfaces.

The TIN model (Triangulated Irregular Network):

A triangulated irregular network (TIN) is a digital data structure used in a geographic
information system (GIS) for the representation of a surface.

A TIN is a vector based representation of the physical land surface or sea bottom, made up
of irregularly distributed nodes and lines with three dimensional coordinates (x,y, and z) that are
arranged in a network of non-overlapping triangles. TINs are often derived from the elevation data
of a rasterized digital elevation model (DEM).

Structure of TIN Data Model

The TIN model represents a surface as a series of linked triangles, hence the adjective
triangulated. Triangles are made from three points, which can occur at any location, giving the
adjective, irregular. For each triangle, TIN records:
• The triangle number
• The numbers of each adjacent triangle
• The three nodes defining the triangle
• The x, y coordinates of each node
• The surface z value of each node
• The edge type of each triangle edge (hard or soft)

2.11.2. Components of TIN:

Nodes:
Nodes are the fundamental building blocks of the TIN. The nodes originate from the
points and arc vertices contained in the input data sources. Every node is incorporated in the TIN
triangulation. Every node in the TIN surface model must have a z value.

Edges:
Every node is joined with its nearest neighbors by edges to form triangles, which satisfy
the Delaunay criterion. Each edge has two nodes, but a node may have two or more edges.
2.34 Geographic Information System
Because edges have a node with a z value at each end, it is possible to calculate a slope along the
edge from one node to the other.

TIN:
Advantages - ability to describe the surface at different level of resolution, efficiency in
storing data.

Disadvantages - in many cases require visual inspection and manual control of the
network.

Automated hill shading:

The TIN model of terrain representation lends itself to development of an automated
method of hill shading. Slope mapping is possible in TIN.

2.11.3. TIN Data Model

The Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) data model is an alternative to the raster and
vector data models for representing continuous surfaces. It allows surface models to be generated
efficiently to analyze and display terrain and other types of surfaces. The TIN model creates a
network of triangles by storing the topological relationships of the triangles. The fundamental
building block of the TIN data is the node. Nodes are connected to their nearest neighbors by
edges, according to a set of rules. Left-right topology is associated with the edges to identify
adjacent triangles.

The TIN creates triangles from a set of points called mass points, which always become
nodes. The user is not responsible for selecting; all the nodes are added according to a set of rules.
Mass points can be located anywhere, the more carefully selected, the more accurate the model of
the surface will be. Well-placed mass points occur when there is a major change in the shape of
the surface, for example, at the peak of a mountain, the floor of a valley, or at the edge (top and
bottom) of cliffs. By connecting points on a valley floor or along the edge of a cliff, a linear break
in the surface can be defined. These are called break lines. Break lines can control the shape of the
surface model.

They always form edges of triangles and, generally, cannot be moved. A triangle always
has three and only three straight sides, making their representation rather simple. A triangle is
assigned a unique identifier that defines by its three nodes and its two or three neighboring
triangles.

TIN is a vector-based topological data model that is used to represent terrain data. A TIN
represents the terrain surface as a set of interconnected triangular facets. For each of the three
vertices, the XY (geographic location) and the (elevation) Z values are encoded.

Four Tables for TIN Model

• Node Table it lists each triangle and the nodes which define it.
• Edge Table it lists three triangles adjacent to each facets. The triangles that border the
boundary of the TIN show only two adjacent facets.
 Spatial Data Models 2.35
• XY Co-ordinate Table it lists the co-ordinate values of each node.
• Z Table it is the altitude value of each node.

2.12. GRID/LUNR/MAGI
In this model each grid cell is referenced or addressed individually and is associated with
identically positioned grid cells in all other coverage’s, rather than like a vertical column of grid
cells, each dealing with a separate theme. Comparisons between coverage’s are therefore
performed on a single column at a time. Soil attributes in one coverage can be compared with
vegetation attributes in a second coverage. Each soil grid cell in one coverage can be compared
with a vegetation grid cell in the second coverage. The advantage of this data structure is that it
facilitates the multiple coverage analysis for single cells. However, this limits the examination of
spatial relationships between entire groups or themes in different coverage’s.

2.12.1. Imgrid GIS

To represent a thematic map of land use that contains four categories: recreation,
agriculture, industry and residence, each of these features have to be separated out as an individual
layer. In the layer that represents agriculture 1 or 0 will represent the presence or absence of crops
respectively. The rest of layer will be represented in the same way, with each variable referenced
directly. The major advantage of IMGRID is its two-dimensional array of numbers resembling a
map-like structure. The binary character of the information in each coverage simplifies long
computations and eliminates the need for complex map legends. Since each coverage feature is
uniquely identified, there is no limitation of assigning a single attribute value to a single grid cell.
On the other side, the main problem related to information storage in an IMGRID structure is the
excessive volume of data stored. Each grid cell will contain more than 1 or 0 values from more
than one coverage and a large number of coverages are needed to store different types of
information.
2.36 Geographic Information System
2.13. OPEN GEOSPATIAL CONSORTIUM (OGC)
The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), an international voluntary consensus standards
organization, originated in 1994. In the OGC, more than 500 commercial, governmental, nonprofit
and research organizations worldwide collaborate in a consensus process encouraging
development and implementation of open standards for geospatial content and services, sensor
web and Internet of Things, GIS data processing and data sharing.

2.13.1. Standards
Most of the OGC standards depend on a generalized architecture captured in a set of
documents collectively called the Abstract Specification, which describes a basic data model for
representing geographic features. Atop the Abstract Specification members have developed and
continue to develop a growing number of specifications, or standards to serve specific needs for
interoperable location and geospatial technology, including GIS.

The OGC standards baseline comprises more than thirty standards, including:

• CSW – Catalog Service for the Web: access to catalog information

• GML – Geography Mark-up Language: XML-format for geographical information
• Geo-XACML – Geospatial eXtensible Access Control Mark-up Language
• KML – Keyhole Mark-up Language: XML-based language schema for expressing
geographic annotation and visualization on existing (or future) Web-based, two-
dimensional maps and three-dimensional Earth browsers
• Observations and Measurements
• OGC Reference Model – a complete set of reference models
• OLS – Open Location Service (Open-LS)
• OGC Web Services Context Document defines the application state of an OGC
Integrated Client
• OWS – OGC Web Service Common
• SOS – Sensor Observation Service
• SPS – Sensor Planning Service
• Sensor-ML – Sensor Model Language
• Sensor Things API - an open and unified framework to interconnect IoT devices, data,
and applications over the Web. Currently a candidate standard waiting for votes.
• SFS – Simple Features – SQL
 Spatial Data Models 2.37

Fig.2.27. Relationship between clients/servers and OGC protocols

• SLD - Styled Layer Descriptor
• SRID, an identification for spatial coordinate systems
• Water-ML – Information model for the representation of hydrological observation
data
• WCS – Web Coverage Service: provides access, sub setting, and processing
on coverage objects
• WCPS – Web Coverage Processing Service: provides a raster query language for ad-
hoc processing and filtering on raster coverage’s
• WFS – Web Feature Service: for retrieving or altering feature descriptions
• WMS – Web Map Service: provides map images
• WMTS – Web Map Tile Service: provides map image tiles
• WPS – Web Processing Service: remote processing service
• Geo-SPARQL – Geographic SPARQL Protocol and RDF Query
Language: representation and querying of geospatial data for the Semantic Web
2.38 Geographic Information System
• WTS – Web Terrain Service (WTS)
The design of standards were originally built on the HTTP web services paradigm for
message-based interactions in web-based systems, but meanwhile has been extended with a
common approach for SOAP protocol and WSDL bindings. Considerable progress has been made
in defining Representational State Transfer (REST) web services, e.g., OGC Sensor Things API.

2.14. SPATIAL DATA QUALITY

Introduction
GIS developers and users have paid little attention to the problems caused by error,
inaccuracy and imprecision in spatial data sets. There was awareness that all data suffers from
inaccuracy and imprecision, but effects on GIS problems and solutions were not considered. It is
now generally recognized that error, inaccuracy and imprecision can “make or break” GIS
projects-making the results of a GIS analysis worthless. Spatial analyses done manually can easily
align map boundaries to overlap and be registered. An automated GIS cannot do this, unless it is
programmed to recognize the “undershoots, overshoots, and slivers” to connect lines. The level of
the data quality must be made clear for the GIS to operate correctly. Assessing the quality of the
data, however, may be costly. Data quality generally refers to the relative accuracy and precision
of a particular GIS database. Error encompasses both the imprecision of data and its inaccuracies.

Although the term "garbage in, garbage out" certainly applies to GIS data, there are other
important data quality issues besides the input data that need to be considered.

2.14.1. Components of Data Quality

There are three main components of data quality.
(i) Micro level components
(ii) Macro level components
(iii) Usage components.

Micro Level Components

Micro level components are data quality factors that pertain to the individual data
elements. These components are usually evaluated by statistical testing of the data product against
an independent source of higher quality information. They include positional accuracy, attribute
accuracy and logical consistency given as follows:
a) Position Accuracy
b) Attribute Accuracy
c) Logical Consistency

Position Accuracy
Position accuracy is the expected deviance in the geographical location of an object in the
data set (e.g. on a map) from its true ground position. Selecting a specified sample of points in a
prescribed manner and comparing the position coordinates with an independent and more accurate
 Spatial Data Models 2.39
source of information usually test it. There are two components to position accuracy: the bias and
the precision.

Attribute Accuracy
Attributes may be discrete or continuous variables. A discrete variable can take on only a
finite number of values whereas a continuous variable can take on any number of values.
Categories like land use class, vegetation type, or administrative area are discrete variables. They
are, in effect, ordered categories where the order indicates the hierarchy of the attribute.

Logical Consistency
Logical consistency refers to how well logical relations among data elements are
maintained. It also refers to the fidelity of relationships encoded in the database, they may refer to
the geometric structure of the data model (e.g. topologic consistency) or to the encoded attribute
information e.g. semantic consistency).

Macro Level Components

Macro level components of data quality pertain to the data set as a whole. They are not
generally amenable to testing but instead are evaluated by judgment (in the case of completeness)
or by reporting information about the data, such as the acquisition date. Three major macro level
components are:
a) Completeness
b) Time
c) Lineage

(a) Completeness
Completeness refers to the exhaustiveness of the information in terms of spatial and
attribute properties encoded in the database. It may include information regarding feature
selection criteria, definition and mapping rules and the deviations from them. The tests on
spatial completeness may be obtained from topological test used for logical consistency
whereas the test for attribute completeness is done by comparison of a master list of geo-codes
to the codes actually appearing in the database.

There are several aspects to completeness as it pertains to data quality. They are grouped
here into three categories: completeness of coverage, classification and verification.

The completeness of coverage is the proportion of data available for the area of interest.

Completeness of classification is an assessment of how well the chosen classification is

able to represent the data. For a classification to be complete it should be exhaustive, that is it
should be possible to encode all data at the selected level of detail.

Completeness of verification refers to the amount and distribution of field measurements

or other independent sources of information that were used to develop the data.
2.40 Geographic Information System
(b) Time
Time is a critical factor in case of any type of data. Some data will be significantly biased
depending on the time period over which they are collected.

Example:
Demographic information is usually very time sensitive. It can change significantly
over a year. Land cover will change quickly in an area of rapid urbanization.

(c) Lineage
The lineage of a data set is its history, the source data and processing steps used to
produce it. The source data may include transaction records, field notes etc. Ideally, some
indication of lineage should be included with the data set since the internal documents are
rarely available and usually require considerable expertise to evaluate. Unfortunately, lineage
information most often exists as the personal experience of a few staff members and is not
readily available to most users.

2.14.2. Usage Components

The usage components of data quality are specific to the resources of the organization.
The effect of data cost, for example, depends on the financial resources of the organization. A
given data set may be too expensive for one organization and be considered inexpensive by
another.

Accessibility refers to the ease of obtaining and using the data. The accessibility of a data
set may be restricted because the data are privately held. Access to government-held information
may be restricted for reasons of national security or to protect citizen rights. Census data are
usually restricted in this way. Even when the right to use restricted data can be obtained, the time
and effort needed to actually receive the information may reduce its overall suitability.

The direct cost of a data set purchased from another organization is usually well known: it
is the price paid for the data. However, when the data are generated within the organization, the
true cost may be unknown. Assessing the true cost of these data is usually difficult because the
services and equipment used in their production support other activities as well.

The indirect costs include all the time and materials used to make use of the data. When
data are purchased from another organization, the indirect costs may actually be more significant
than the direct ones.

It may take longer for staff to handle data with which they are unfamiliar, or the data
may not be compatible with the other data sets to be used.

2.14.3. Causes of Error

In this section, it is examined when and how errors creep into GIS data. The three major
causes of GIS data error are problems found in (i) source data, (ii) data entry and (iii) data
analysis.
 Spatial Data Models 2.41
Errors in Source Data
It has become common now to collect GIS data directly in the field. Data collection can be
done using field survey instruments that download data directly into GIS or via GPS receivers that
directly interface with GIS software on portable PCs. These techniques can eliminate the need for
GIS source data.

But during the last many years, GIS data most often have been digitized from several
sources, including hard copy maps, rectified aerial photography and satellite imagery. Hard-copy
maps (e.g. paper, vellum and plastic film) may contain unintended production errors as well as
unavoidable or even intended errors in presentation. The following are "errors" commonly found
in maps.

2.14.4. Map Generalization

Cartographers often deliberately misrepresent map features due to limitations encountered
when working at given map scales. Complex area features such as industrial buildings may have
to be represented as simple shapes. Linear features such as roads may have to be represented by
parallel lines that appear wider on a map. Curvilinear features such as streams may have to be
represented without their smaller twists and bends.

Indistinct Boundaries
Indistinct boundaries typically include the borders of vegetated areas, soil types, wetlands
and land use areas. In the real world, such features are characterized by gradual change, but
cartographers represent these boundaries with a distinct line. Some compromise is inevitable.

Map Scale
Cartographers and photogrammetrists work to accepted levels of accuracy for a given map
scale as per National Map Accuracy Standards. Locations of map features may disagree with
actual ground locations, although the error likely will fall within specified tolerances. Of course,
the problem is compounded by limitations in linear map measurements-typically about 1/100th of
an inch on a map scale.

Map Symbology
It is impossible to perfectly depict the real world using lines, colors, symbols and patterns.
Cartographers work with certain accepted conventions. As a result, facts and features represented
on maps often must be interpreted or interpolated, which can produce errors. For example, terrain
elevations typically are depicted using topographic contour lines and spot elevations. Elevations
of the ground between the lines and spots must be interpolated. Also, areas symbolized as "forest"
may not depict all open areas among the trees.

Errors during Data Entry

GIS data typically are created from hard copy source data. The process often is called
"digitization", because the source data are converted to a computerized (digital) format. Human
digitization can compound errors in source data as well as introduce new errors. The following are
the primary methods of digitizing hard copy source data:
2.42 Geographic Information System
Manual Digitizing
Although manual digitizing is used less often today, it was the predominant digitizing
method in the 1980s. Maps are affixed to digitizing tables, registered to a GIS coordinate system
and "traced" into a GIS. A digitizing table has embedded in its surface a fine grid of wires that
sense the position of a cross hair on a hand held cursor. When a cursor button is pressed, the
system records a point at that location in the GIS database. The operator also identifies the type of
feature being digitized as well as its attributes.

Photogrammetric mapping also is a manual digitizing process. Through an exacting and

rigorous technical process of aerotriangulation, overlapping pairs of aerial photographs are
registered to one another and viewed as a 3-D image in a stereoplotter or via special 3-D viewers.
In a process called "stereocompilation," a photogrammetrist traces map features that are encoded
directly into a database.

Scanning and Keyed Data Entry

In scanning, source data are mechanically read by a device that resembles a large format
copy machine. Sensors encode the image as a large array of dots, much like a fax machine scans a
letter. High resolution scanners can capture data at 2,000 dots per inch (dpi), but maps and
drawings typically are scanned at 100 dpi to 400 dpi. The resulting raster image then is processed
and displayed on a computer screen. Further onscreen manual digitizing (i.e. "heads-up
digitizing") usually is needed to complete the data entry process. If the source data contain
coordinate values for points or the bearings and distances of lines (e.g. parcel lines), then map
features can be keyed into a GIS with great precision.

General Data Entry

Accurate digitizing is not easy. It requires certain basic physical and visual skills as well
as training, patience and concentration. There also are many opportunities for error, because the
process is subject to visual and mental mistakes, fatigue, distraction and involuntary muscle
movements. In addition, the "set up" of a map on a digitizing table or a scanned raster image can
produce errors. Cell size of a scanned raster image also can affect the accuracy of heads- up
digitizing.

A digitizer must accurately discern the centre of a line or point as well as accurately trace
it with a cursor. This task is especially prone to error if the map scale is small and the lines or
symbols are relatively thick or large. The method of digitizing curvilinear lines also affects
accuracy. "Point-mode" digitizing, for example, places sample points at selected locations along a
line to best represent it in a GIS. The process is subject to judgment of the digitizer who selects
the number and placement of data points. "Stream-mode" digitizing collects data points at a pre-
set frequency, usually specified as the distance or time between data points. Every time an
operator strays from an intended line, a point digitized at that moment would be inaccurate. This
method also collects more data points than may be needed to faithfully represent a map feature.
Therefore, post-processing techniques often are used to "weed out" unneeded data points.

Heads-up digitizing often is preferred over table digitizing, because it typically yields
better results more efficiently. Keyed data entry of land parcel data is the most precise method.
Moreover, most errors are fairly obvious, because the source data usually are carefully computed
 Spatial Data Models 2.43
and thoroughly checked. Most keyed data entry errors show as obvious mismatches in the parcel
"fabric."

GIS software usually includes functions that detect several types of database errors. These
error-checking routines can find mistakes in data topology, including gaps, overshoots, dangling
lines and unclosed polygons. An operator sets tolerances that the routine uses to search for errors,
and system effectiveness depends on setting correct tolerances. For example, tolerances too small
may pass over unintentional gaps, and tolerances too large may improperly remove short dangling
lines or small polygons that were intentionally digitized.

Errors during Data Analysis

Even if "accurate," the manipulation and analysis of GIS data can create errors introduced
within the data or produced when the data are displayed on screen or plotted in hard copy format.

2.14.5. Sources of Possible Errors

Obvious Sources of Error
1) Age of data. With the exception of geological data the reliability decreases with age.
2) Areal coverage: partial or complete. Many countries still have fragmentary coverage
of maps at scales of 1:25000 to 1:50000. Moreover, during the last 30 to 40 years,
concepts and definitions of map units, the way they should be mapped have changed.
3) Map scale.
4) Density of observation. How dense should observations be "to support a map".
5) Relevance. Not all data used are directly relevant for the purpose for which they are
used. Prime example: remotely sensed data.
6) Accessibility. Not all data are equally accessible (e.g. military secrecy). Sometimes
data is not available because of inter-department secrecy.
7) Cost.

Errors Resulting from Natural Variations or from Original Measurement

a) Positional accuracy. Topographical data often available with a high degree of
positional accuracy. But position of vegetation boundaries etc. often influenced by the
subjective judgment of surveyor or by interpretation of remotely sensed data.
b) Accuracy of content: qualitative and quantitative. The problem of whether the
attributes attached to points, lines or polygons are correct and free from bias.
Sometimes systematic errors occur because of instrument. If pixel is too large then it is
not clear that it should be classified as forest, road or camp.
c) Sources of variations in data: data entry, observer bias, natural variation. Data entry
error. Field data very much influenced by surveyor (elevations or census takers).
d) Errors arising through processing. Numerical errors in the computer (e.g. joining,
matching of a field in GIS software), rounding off errors, truncation etc.
2.44 Geographic Information System
Numerical Errors in Computers
1) Faults arising through topological analyses. Problems associated with map overlay.
Digitizing considered infallible. Boundary data is assumed to be sharply defined. All
algorithms are assumed to operate in a fully deterministic way.
2) Classification and generalization problems: class intervals, interpolation.
The concepts of complete, compatible, consistent and applicable GIS data previously
defined particularly apply to data analysis. Users must consider whether a selected GIS dataset is
complete, consistent and applicable for an intended use, and whether it is compatible with other
datasets used in the analysis.

The phrasing of spatial and attribute queries also may lead to errors. In addition, the use of
Boolean operators can be complicated, and results can be decidedly different, depending on how a
data query is structured or a series of queries are executed. For example, the query, "Find all
structures within the 100 year flood zone," yields a different result than, "Find all structures
touching the 100 year flood zone." The former question will find only those structures entirely
within the flood zone, whereas the latter also will include structures that are partially within the
zone.

Dataset overlay is a powerful and commonly used GIS tool, but it can yield inaccurate
results. To determine areas suitable for a specific type of land development project, one may
overlay several data layers, including natural resources, wetlands, flood zones, land uses, land
ownership and zoning. The result usually will narrow the possible choices down to a few parcels
that would be investigated more carefully to make a final choice. The final result of the analysis
will reflect any errors in the original GIS data. Its accuracy only will be as good as the least
accurate GIS dataset used in the analysis.

It is also common to overlay and merge GIS data to form new layers. In certain
circumstances, this process introduces a new type of error: the polygon "sliver." Slivers often
appear when two GIS datasets with common boundary lines are merged. If the common elements
have been digitized separately, the usual result will be sliver polygons. Most GIS software
products offer routines that can find and fix such errors, but users must be careful in setting search
and correction tolerances.

2.14.6. Controlling Errors

GIS data errors are almost inevitable, but their negative effects can be kept to a minimum.
Knowing the types and causes of GIS data errors is half the battle; the other half is employing
proven techniques for quality control at key stages in the GIS "work flow."

Many errors can be avoided through proper selection and "scrubbing" of source data
before they are digitized. Data scrubbing includes organizing, reviewing and preparing the source
materials to be digitized. The data should be clean, legible and free of ambiguity. "Owners" of
source data should be consulted as needed to clear up questions that arise.

Data entry procedures should be thoroughly planned, organized and managed to produce
consistent, repeatable results. Nonetheless, a thorough, disciplined quality review and revision
process also is needed to catch and eliminate data entry errors. All production and quality control
 Spatial Data Models 2.45
procedures should be documented, and all personnel should be trained in these procedures.
Moreover, the work itself should be documented, including a record of what was done, who did it,
when was it done, who checked it, what errors were found and how they were corrected.

To avoid misusing GIS data and the misapplication of analytical software, GIS analysts
including casual users need proper training. Moreover, GIS data should not be provided without
metadata indicating the source, accuracy and specifics of how the data were entered.
2.46 Geographic Information System
TWO MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANWERS

1) Distinguish between spatial & non spatial data. (May/June - 2012)

Spatial data is some things map able. The spatial data or geo referenced data are commonly
characterized by having two fundamental components.
1) The physical dimension: height of the forest canopy, demographic class: rock type,
vegetation type details of a city etc.
2) The spatial location of the phenomena. For example, location, specified with
reference to common coordinate system (Latitude and longitude etc)
The Non-Spatial data are characters of features that are not map able. Non-spatial or
attributes data: it is of more conventional type it contains data describing characteristics or
qualities of the spatial features. i.e. descriptive information. For Example, Number of beds in
the hospital, Type of road etc.

2) What are the four commonly referred levels of measurements?

• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Ratio
• Interval

3) Define attribute values.

An attribute-value system is a basic knowledge representation framework comprising a table
with columns designating "attributes" (also known as "properties", "predicates," "features,"
"dimensions," "characteristics" or "independent variables" depending on the context) and
rows designating "objects" (also known as "entities," "instances," "exemplars," "elements" or
"dependent variables"). Each table cell therefore designates the value (also known as "state")
of a particular attribute of a particular object.

4) Define Database Structures types.

The two basic data structures in any fully-functional GIS are:

Vector, e.g,
• ArcInfo Coverage’s
• ArcGIS Shape Files
• CAD (AutoCAD DXF & DWG, or Micro Station DGN files)
• ASCII coordinate data
Raster, e.g,
• ArcInfo Grids
• Images
 Spatial Data Models 2.47
• Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)
• generic raster datasets

5) What is vector data? (May/June - 2013)

Vector data uses two dimensional Cartesian coordinates to store the shape of spatial entity.
Vector based features are treated as discrete geometric objects over the space. In the vector
data base point is the basic building block from which all the spatial entities are constructed.
The vector spatial entity, the point is represented by a single x, y coordinate pair. Line and
area entities are constructed by a series of points into chains.

6) Define Raster data

Raster is a method for the storage, processing and display of spatial data. Each area is divided
into rows and columns, which form a regular grid structure. Each cell must be rectangular in
shape, but not necessarily square. Each cell within this matrix contains location co-ordinates
as well as an attribute value. The origin of rows and column is at the upper left corner of the
grid. Rows function as the “y” coordinate and column as “x” coordinate in a two dimensional
system. A cell is defined by its location in terms of rows and columns.

7) What is raster coding? (May/June - 2012)

In the data entry process, maps can be digitized or scanned at a selected cell size and each cell
assigned a code or value. The cell size can be adjusted according to the grid structure or by
ground units, also termed resolution. There are three basic and one advanced scheme for
assigning cell codes. Presence/Absence: is the most basic method and to record a feature if
some of it occurs in the cell space.

8) What is Vectorization? (May/June - 2011)

Vectors are data elements describing position and direction. In GIS, vector is the map like
drawing of features, without the generalizing effect of a raster grid. Therefore, shape is better
retained. Vector is much more spatially accurate than the raster format.

9) Compare vector & raster data structure

Vectors are data elements describing position and direction. In GIS, vector is the map like
drawing of features, without the generalizing effect of a raster grid. Therefore, shape is better
retained. Vector is much more spatially accurate than the raster format. In the data entry
process, maps can be digitized or scanned at a selected cell size and each cell assigned a code
or value. The cell size can be adjusted according to the grid structure or by ground units, also
termed resolution. There are three basic and one advanced scheme for assigning cell codes.
Presence/Absence: is the most basic method and to record a feature if some of it occurs in the
cell space.

10) List the advantages of vector data

• Data can be represented at its original resolution and form without generalization.
• Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional cartographic
representation);
2.48 Geographic Information System
• Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in vector form no data conversion is required.
• Accurate geographic location of data is maintained.
• Allows for efficient encoding of topology, and as a result more efficient operations
that require topological information, e.g. proximity, network analysis.

11) List the advantages of raster data

• The geographic location of each cell is implied by its position in the cell matrix.
Accordingly, other than an origin point, e.g. bottom left corner, no geographic
coordinates are stored.
• Due to the nature of the data storage technique data analysis is usually easy to program
and quick to perform.
• The inherent nature of raster maps, e.g. one attribute maps, is ideally suited for
mathematical modeling and quantitative analysis.
• Discrete data, e.g. forestry stands, is accommodated equally well as continuous data,
e.g. elevation data, and facilitates the integrating of the two data types.
• Grid-cell systems are very compatible with raster-based output devices, e.g.
electrostatic plotters, graphic terminals.

12) List the disadvantages of raster data

• The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly. For effective analysis, vector
data must be converted into a topological structure. This is often processing intensive
and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well, topology is static, and any
updating or editing of the vector data requires re-building of the topology.
• Algorithms for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be
processing intensive. Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets,
e.g. a large number of features.
• Continuous data; such as elevation data, is not effectively represented in vector form.
• Usually substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data
layers.
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible.

13) List the disadvantages of vector data

• The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly. For effective analysis, vector
data must be converted into a topological structure. This is often processing intensive
and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well, topology is static, and any
updating or editing of the vector data requires re-building of the topology. Algorithms
for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be processing intensive.
Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets, e.g. a large number of
features.
 Spatial Data Models 2.49
• Continuous data, such as elevation data, is not effectively represented in vector form.
Usually substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data
layers.
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible

14) Define Run length encoding

• Reduction of data on a row by row basis
• Stores a single value for a group of cells rather than storing values for individual cells
• First line represents the dimension of the matrix (5×5) and the number of entities (1)
present. In second and subsequent lines, the first number in the pair represents absence
(0) or presence (1) of the entity and the second number indicates the number of cells
referenced.

15) What you mean by data compression?

Reducing the 'electronic space' (data bits) used in representing a piece of information, by
eliminating the repetition of identical sets of data bits (redundancy) in an audio/video,
graphic, or text data file. White spaces in text and graphics, large blocks of the same color in
pictures, or other continuously recurring data, is reduced or eliminated by coding (encryption)
with a program that uses a particular type of compression algorithm. The same program is
used to decompress (decrypt) the data so that it can be heard, read, or seen as the original
data.

16) Write short notes on topographical overlay

Map overlay is the process by which it is possible to take two or more different topographical
layers of the same area and overlay them on top of the other and form a composite new layer
this technique is used to overlay vector data on a raster image. In Vector base systems map
overlay is time consuming, complex and computationally expensive. In raster based systems
it is quick, straightforward and efficient.

17) Explain TIN.

TIN or triangulated Irregular network stored GUS data for 3D surface. The basic unit is
triangle. Triangle consists of three lines connecting three nodes; each triangle will have three
neighbors.
2.50 Geographic Information System
18) What you mean by Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC)
The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), an international voluntary consensus standards
organization, originated in 1994. In the OGC, more than 500 commercial, governmental,
nonprofit and research organizations worldwide collaborate in a consensus process
encouraging development and implementation of open standards for geospatial content and
services, sensor web and Internet of Things, GIS data processing and data sharing.

19) Explains Components of Data Quality

There are three main components of data quality.
(i) Micro level components
(ii) Macro level components
(iii) Usage components.

20) Define Map Scale

Cartographers and photogrammetrists work to accepted levels of accuracy for a given map
scale as per National Map Accuracy Standards. Locations of map features may disagree with
actual ground locations, although the error likely will fall within specified tolerances. Of
course, the problem is compounded by limitations in linear map measurements-typically
about 1/100th of an inch on a map scale.
 Spatial Data Models 2.51
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) What is data model? Add notes on different types of data.

2) What are the four basics procedures for inputting spatial data into a GIS? (May/June - 2013)
3) Compare and contrast raster and vector data representation with suitable examples.
(May/June - 2014) (May/June - 2012)
4) Explain the components of GIS with neat diagram and discuss about the database structures
that are employed in GIS data management. (May/June - 2012)
5) Write an essay on E-R Diagram example from Database Management course.
6) Write detailed notes on Vector Data Formats.
7) Write detailed notes on Raster Data Formats.
8) Explain the Vector and Raster – Advantages and Disadvantages
9) Explain Raster Data Structure.
10) Write detailed notes on Raster Data Compression.
11) Write an essay on Vector data structure.
12) Explain Triangular Irregular Network (TIN).
13) Discuss the Raster Types: Discrete vs Continuous.
14) Discuss the Vector vs Raster: Spatial Data Types.
15) Write an essay on TIN and GRID data models
16) Discuss the Grid/Lunr/Magi.
17) Explain Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC).
18) What is Spatial Data Quality? Add notes on Components of Data Quality.
19) Write an essay on Map Scale and Errors during Data Entry.
 CHAPTER- 3

DATA INPUT AND TOPOLOGY

3.1. INTRODUCTION TO SCANNERS FOR RASTER DATA INPUT

Scanners are used to convert from analog maps or photographs to digital image data in
raster format. Digital image data are usually integer-based with one byte gray scale (256 gray
tones from 0 to 255) for black and white image and a set of three gray scales of red (R), green (G)
and blue(B) for color image. The following four types of scanner are commonly used in GIS and
remote sensing.

(a) Mechanical Scanner

It is called drum scanner since a map or an image placed on a drum is digitized
mechanically with rotation of the drum and shift of the sensor as shown in Figure 3.1 (a). It is
accurate but slow.

(b) Video Camera

Video camera with CRT (cathode ray tube) is often used to digitize a small part of map of
firm. This is not very accurate but cheap. (See Figure 3.1 (b).

(c) CCD Camera

Area CCD camera (called digital still camera) instead of video camera will be also
convenient to acquire digital image data (see Figure 3.1 (c). It is more stable and accurate than
video camera.

(d) CCD Scanner

Flat bed type or roll feed type scanner with linear CCD (charge coupled device) is now
commonly used to digitize analog maps in raster format; either in mono-tone or color mode (see
Figure 3.1 (d). It is accurate but expensive.
3.2 Geographic Information System

Table.3.1. Shows Comparison of scanners

Fig.3.1. Scanners for Raster Data Input

3.1.1. Scanned data
• A scanner is used to convert analog source map or document into digital images by
scanning successive lines across a map or document and recording the amount of light
reflected from the data source.
• Documents such as building plans, CAD drawings, images and maps are scanned prior
to vectorization.
• Scanning helps in reducing wear and tear; improves access and provides integrated
storage.
• There are three different types of scanner that are widely used as shown in Figure 3.2.
 Data Input and Topology 3.3
3.1.2. Types of Scanner
1) Flat bed scanner
2) Rotating drum scanner
3) Large format feed scanner

Fig.3.2. Types of Scanner

Flat bed scanner is a PC peripheral which is small and comparatively inaccurate. The
rotating drum scanners are accurate but they tend to be slow and expensive. Large format feed
scanner are the most suitable type for inputting GIS data as they are cheap, quick and accurate.

3.2. RASTER DATA INPUT

(A) Introduction
• Need to have tools to transform spatial data of various types into digital format
• data input is a major bottleneck in application of GIS technology
◦ costs of input often consume 80% or more of project costs
◦ data input is labor intensive, tedious, error-prone
◦ there is a danger that construction of the database may become an end in itself and
the project may not move on to analysis of the data collected
◦ essential to find ways to reduce costs, maximize accuracy
• need to automate the input process as much as possible, but:
◦ automated input often creates bigger editing problems later
◦ source documents (maps) may often have to be redrafted to meet rigid quality
requirements of automated input
• because of the costs involved, much research has gone into devising better input
methods - however, few reductions in cost have been realized
• sharing of digital data is one way around the input bottleneck
◦ more and more spatial data is becoming available in digital form
• data input to a GIS involves encoding both the locational and attribute data
• the locational data is encoded as coordinates on a particular Cartesian coordinate
system
3.4 Geographic Information System
◦ source maps may have different projections, scales
◦ several stages of data transformation may be needed to bring all data to a common
coordinate system
• attribute data is often obtained and stored in tables

3.2.1. Modes of data input

• Keyboard entry for non-spatial attributes and occasionally locational data
• Manual locating devices
◦ user directly manipulates a device whose location is recognized by the computer
◦ e.g. digitizing
• Automated devices
◦ automatically extract spatial data from maps and photography
◦ e.g. scanning
• Conversion directly from other digital sources
• Voice input has been tried, particularly for controlling digitizer operations
◦ Not very successful - machine needs to be recalibrated for each operator, after
coffee breaks, etc.

3.2.2. Data Input Techniques

Since the input of attribute data is usually quite simple, the discussion of data input
techniques will be limited to spatial data only. There is no single method of entering the spatial
data into a GIS. Rather, there are several, mutually compatible methods that can be used singly or
in combination.

The choice of data input method is governed largely by the application, the available
budget, and the type and the complexity of data being input.

There are at least four basic procedures for inputting spatial data into a GIS. These are:
• Manual digitizing;
• Automatic scanning;
• Entry of coordinates using coordinate geometry; and the
• Conversion of existing digital data.

3.2.3. Digitizing
While considerable work has been done with newer technologies, the overwhelming
majority of GIS spatial data entry is done by manual digitizing. A digitizer is an electronic device
consisting of a table upon which the map or drawing is placed. The user traces the spatial features
with a hand-held magnetic pen, often called a mouse or cursor. While tracing the features the
coordinates of selected points, e.g. vertices, are sent to the computer and stored. All points that are
recorded are registered against positional control points, usually the map corners that are keyed in
 Data Input and Topology 3.5
by the user at the beginning of the digitizing session. The coordinates are recorded in a user
defined coordinate system or map projection. Latitude and longitude and UTM is most often used.
The ability to adjust or transform data during digitizing from one projection to another is a
desirable function of the GIS software. Numerous functional techniques exist to aid the operator
in the digitizing process.

Digitizing can be done in a point mode, where single points are recorded one at a time, or
in a stream mode, where a point is collected on regular intervals of time or distance, measured by
an X and Y movement, e.g. every 3 metres. Digitizing can also be done blindly or with a graphics
terminal. Blind digitizing infers that the graphic result is not immediately viewable to the person
digitizing. Most systems display the digitized linework as it is being digitized on an
accompanying graphics terminal.

Most GIS's use a spaghetti mode of digitizing. This allows the user to simply digitize lines
by indicating a start point and an end point. Data can be captured in point or stream mode.
However, some systems do allow the user to capture the data in an arc/node topological data
structure. The arc/node data structure requires that the digitizer identify nodes.

Data capture in an arc/node approach helps to build a topologic data structure

immediately. This lessens the amount of post processing required to clean and build the
topological definitions. However, most often digitizing with an arc/node approach does not negate
the requirement for editing and cleaning of the digitized line work before a complete topological
structure can be obtained.

The building of topology is primarily a post-digitizing process that is commonly executed

in batch mode after data has been cleaned. To date, only a few commercial vector GIS software
offerings have successfully exhibited the capability to build topology interactively while the user
digitizes.

Manual digitizing has many advantages. These include:

• Low capital cost, e.g. digitizing tables are cheap;
• Low cost of labour;
• Flexibility and adaptability to different data types and sources;
• Easily taught in a short amount of time - an easily mastered skill
• Generally the quality of data is high;
• Digitizing devices are very reliable and most often offer a greater precision that the
data warrants; and
• Ability to easily register and update existing data.
For raster based GIS software data is still commonly digitized in a vector format and
converted to a raster structure after the building of a clean topological structure. The procedure
usually differs minimally from vector based software digitizing, other than some raster systems
allow the user to define the resolution size of the grid-cell. Conversion to the raster structure may
occur on-the-fly or afterwards as a separate conversion process.
3.6 Geographic Information System
3.2.4. Automatic Scanning
A variety of scanning devices exist for the automatic capture of spatial data. While several
different technical approaches exist in scanning technology, all have the advantage of being able
to capture spatial features from a map at a rapid rate of speed. However, as of yet, scanning has
not proven to be a viable alternative for most GIS implementation. Scanners are generally
expensive to acquire and operate. As well, most scanning devices have limitations with respect to
the capture of selected features, e.g. text and symbol recognition. Experience has shown that most
scanned data requires a substantial amount of manual editing to create a clean data layer. Given
these basic constraints some other practical limitations of scanners should be identified. These
include:
• Hard copy maps are often unable to be removed to where a scanning device is
available, e.g. most companies or agencies cannot afford their own scanning device
and therefore must send their maps to a private firm for scanning;
• Hard copy data may not be in a form that is viable for effective scanning, e.g. maps
are of poor quality, or are in poor condition;
• Geographic features may be too few on a single map to make it practical, cost-
justifiable, to scan;
• Often on busy maps a scanner may be unable to distinguish the features to be captured
from the surrounding graphic information, e.g. dense contours with labels;
• With raster scanning there it is difficult to read unique labels (text) for a geographic
feature effectively; and
• Scanning is much more expensive than manual digitizing, considering all the
cost/performance issues.
Consensus within the GIS community indicates that scanners work best when the
information on a map is kept very clean, very simple, and uncluttered with graphic symbology.

The sheer cost of scanning usually eliminates the possibility of using scanning methods
for data capture in most GIS implementations. Large data capture shops and government agencies
are those most likely to be using scanning technology.

Currently, general consensus is that the quality of data captured from scanning devices is
not substantial enough to justify the cost of using scanning technology. However, major
breakthroughs are being made in the field, with scanning techniques and with capabilities to
automatically clean and prepare scanned data for topological encoding. These include a variety of
line following and text recognition techniques. Users should be aware that this technology has
great potential in the years to come, particularly for larger GIS installations.

3.2.5. Coordinate Geometry

A third technique for the input of spatial data involves the calculation and entry of
coordinates using coordinate geometry (COGO) procedures. This involves entering, from survey
data, the explicit measurement of features from some known monument. This input technique is
obviously very costly and labour intensive. In fact, it is rarely used for natural resource
applications in GIS. This method is useful for creating very precise cartographic definitions of
 Data Input and Topology 3.7
property, and accordingly is more appropriate for land records management at the cadastral or
municipal scale.

3.2.6. Conversion of Existing Digital Data

A fourth technique that is becoming increasingly popular for data input is the conversion
of existing digital data. A variety of spatial data, including digital maps, are openly available from
a wide range of government and private sources. The most common digital data to be used in a
GIS is data from CAD systems. A number of data conversion programs exist, mostly from GIS
software vendors, to transform data from CAD formats to a raster or topological GIS data format.
Several ad hoc standards for data exchange have been established in the market place. These are
supplemented by a number of government distribution formats that have been developed. Given
the wide variety of data formats that exist, most GIS vendors have developed and provide data
exchange/conversion software to go from their format to those considered common in the market
place.

Most GIS software vendors also provide an ASCII data exchange format specific to their
product, and a programming subroutine library that will allow users to write their own data
conversion routines to fulfill their own specific needs. As digital data becomes more readily
available this capability becomes a necessity for any GIS. Data conversion from existing digital
data is not a problem for most technical persons in the GIS field. However, for smaller GIS
installations who have limited access to a GIS analyst this can be a major stumbling block in
getting a GIS operational. Government agencies are usually a good source for technical
information on data conversion requirements.

Some of the data formats common to the GIS marketplace are listed below. Please note
that most formats are only utilized for graphic data. Attribute data is usually handled as ASCII
text files. Vendor names are supplied where appropriate.
IGDS - Interactive Graphics This binary format is a standard in the turnkey CAD market
Design Software (Intergraph / and has become a de facto standard in Canada's mapping
Micro station) industry. It is a proprietary format, however most GIS
software vendors provide DGN translators.
DLG - Digital Line Graph (US This ASCII format is used by the USGS as a distribution
Geological Survey) standard and consequently is well utilized in the United
States. It is not used very much in Canada even though most
software vendors provide two way conversions to DLG.
DXF - Drawing Exchange This ASCII format is used primarily to convert to/from the
Format (Auto-cad) Auto-cad drawing format and is a standard in the
engineering discipline. Most GIS software vendors provide a
DXF translator.
GENERATE - ARC/INFO A generic ASCII format for spatial data used by the
Graphic Exchange Format ARC/INFO software to accommodate generic spatial data.
EXPORT - ARC/INFO Export An exchange format that includes both graphic and attribute
Format. data. This format is intended for transferring ARC/INFO
data from one hardware platform, or site, to another. It is
also often used for archiving.
3.8 Geographic Information System
ARC/INFO data. This is not a published data format,
however some GIS and desktop mapping vendors provide
translators. EXPORT format can come in either
uncompressed, partially compressed, or fully compressed
format
A wide variety of other vendor specific data formats exist within the mapping and GIS
industry. In particular, most GIS software vendors have their own proprietary formats. However,
almost all provide data conversion to/from the above formats. As well, most GIS software vendors
will develop data conversion programs dependant on specific requests by customers. Potential
purchasers of commercial GIS packages should determine and clearly identify their data
conversion needs, prior to purchase, to the software vendor.

3.3 RASTER DATA FILE FORMATS

Raster data formats
Two common data formats based on the raster data model are grids and images.

3.3.1. Grids
Grids are an ESRI file format used to store both discrete features such as buildings, roads,
and parcels, and continuous phenomena such as elevation, temperature, and precipitation. Recall
that the basic unit of the raster data model is the cell. Cells store information about what things are
like at a particular location on the earth's surface. Depending on the type of data being stored, cell
values can be either integers (whole numbers) or floating points (numbers with decimals). There
are two types of grids: one store integers and the other stores floating points.

A discrete grid contains cells whose values are integers, often code numbers for a
particular category. Cells can have the same value in a discrete grid. For example, in a discrete
grid of land use, each land use type is coded by a different integer, but many cells may have the
same code. Discrete grids have an attribute table that stores the cell values and their associated
attributes.
 Data Input and Topology 3.9
Continuous grid is used to represent continuous phenomena; its cell values are floating
points. Each cell in a continuous grid can have a different floating point value. For example, in a
continuous grid representing elevation, one cell might store an elevation value of 564.3 meters,
while the cell to the left might store an elevation value of 565.1 meters. Unlike discrete grids,
continuous grids don't have an attribute table.

Discrete grids represent discrete features such as land use categories with integer values.
Continuous grids represent continuous phenomena such as elevation with floating point values.

The attribute tables of discrete grids are INFO format, the same format in which coverage
feature class attribute tables are stored. As with coverage attribute tables, the INFO table of a
discrete grid is stored within an info folder, which is stored at the same level as the grid in a
workspace folder. Again like coverages, there is one info folder for all the grids in a workspace
folder. To avoid breaking or corrupting the connection between grid files and the info folder,
always use ArcCatalog to move, copy, rename, and delete grids.

The Grids workspace folder contains two grids: soils and vegetation. The attribute tables
for both grids are stored in the info folder. Auxiliary files called soils.aux and vegetation.aux link
the grids and their attribute tables.

3.3.2. Images
The term "image" is a collective term for raster’s whose cells, or pixels, store brightness
values of reflected visible light or other types of electromagnetic radiation, such as emitted heat
(infrared) or ultraviolet (UV). Aerial photos, satellite images, and scanned paper maps are
examples of images commonly used in a GIS.

Images can be displayed as layers in a map or they can be used as attributes for vector
features. For example, a real estate company might include photos of available houses as an
attribute of a home’s layer. To be displayed as a layer, however, images must be referenced to
real-world locations.

For example, an aerial photo as it comes from the camera is just a static picture, like a
picture of a house. There's no information about what part of the world the photo has captured,
and the photo may contain distortion and scale variations caused by the angle of the camera. To
display properly with other map layers, the aerial photo must be assigned a coordinate system and
some of its pixels must be linked to known geographic coordinates.

Raster images, such as aerial photographs and scanned maps, can be referenced to real-
world locations, then displayed as a layer in a GIS map.
3.10 Geographic Information System
There are many image file formats, which differ in the type of compression used to reduce
the file size. Some of the image formats supported by ArcGIS software.

3.4. VECTOR DATA INPUT

Digitization:
Digitizing is the process of interpreting and converting paper map or image data to vector
digital data.

3.4.1. Heads down digitization

Digitizers are used to capture data from hardcopy maps shown in the (fig.3.3). Heads
down digitization is done on a digitizing table using a magnetic pen known as Puck. The position
of a cursor or puck is detected when passed over a table inlaid with a fine mesh of wires. The
function of a digitizer is to input correctly the coordinates of the points and the lines. Digitization
can be done in two modes:

Fig.3.3. Heads down digitization

• Point mode: In this mode, digitization is started by placing a point that marks the
beginning of the feature to be digitized and after that more points are added to trace
the particular feature (line or a polygon). The number of points to be added to trace the
feature and the space interval between two consecutive points are decided by the
operator.
• Stream mode: In stream digitizing, the cursor is placed at the beginning of the feature,
a command is then sent to the computer to place the points at either equal or unequal
intervals as per the position of the cursor moving over the image of the feature.

3.4.2. Heads-up digitization

This method uses scanned copy of the map or image and digitization is done on the screen
of the computer monitor (fig.3.4). The scanned map lays vertical which can be viewed without
bending the head down and therefore is called as heads up digitization. Semi-automatic and
automatic methods of digitizing requires post processing but saves lot of time and resources
compared to manual method and is described in the following section.
 Data Input and Topology 3.11

Fig.3.4. Screenshot of On-screen/Heads up digitization

3.4.3. Digitizers for Vector Data Input

Tablet digitizers with a free cursor connected with a personal computer are the most
common device for digitizing spatial features with the plan metric coordinates from analog maps.

Fig.3.5. Digitizing Tablet

The analog map is placed on the surface of the digitizing tablet as shown in Figure 3.5.
The size of digitizer usually ranges from A3 to A0 size.

The digitizing operation is as follows.

Step 1: a map is affixed to a digitizing table.
Step 2: control points or tics at four corners of this map sheet should be digitized by the
digitizer and input to PC together with the map coordinates of the four corners.
Step 3: map contents are digitized according to the map layers and map code system in
either point mode or stream mode at short time interval.
Step 4: editing errors such as small gaps at line junctions, overshoots, duplicates etc.
should be made for a clean dataset without errors.
Step 5: conversion from digitizer coordinates to map coordinates to store in a spatial
database.
3.12 Geographic Information System
3.4.4. Major problems of Map Digitization:
• The map will stretch or shrink day by day which makes the newly digitized points
• slightly off from the previous points.
• The map itself has errors discrepancies across neighboring map sheets will produce
dis-connectivity.
• Operators will make a lot of errors and mistakes while digitizing as shown in
Figure.3.6.

Fig.3.6. Digitizing Typical Errors

3.5. DIGITIZERS
• Digitizers are the most common device for extracting spatial information from maps
and photographs
◦ the map, photo, or other document is placed on the flat surface of the digitizing
tablet
3.5.1. Hardware
• The position of an indicator as it is moved over the surface of the digitizing tablet is
detected by the computer and interpreted as pairs of x,y coordinates
◦ the indicator may be a pen-like stylus or a cursor (a small flat plate the size of a
hockey puck with a cross-hair)
• frequently, there are control buttons on the cursor which permit control of the system
without having to turn attention from the digitizing tablet to a computer terminal
• digitizing tablets can be purchased in sizes from 25x25 cm to 200x150 cm, at
approximate costs from $500 to $5,000
• early digitizers (ca. 1965) were backlit glass tables
 Data Input and Topology 3.13
◦ a magnetic field generated by the cursor was tracked mechanically by an arm
located behind the table
◦ the arm's motion was encoded, coordinates computed and sent to a host processor
◦ some early low-cost systems had mechanically linked cursors - the free-cursor
digitizer was initially much more expensive
• the first solid-state systems used a spark generated by the cursor and detected by linear
microphones
◦ problems with errors generated by ambient noise
• contemporary tablets use a grid of wires embedded in the tablet to generate a magnetic
field which is detected by the cursor
◦ accuracies are typically better than 0.1 mm
◦ this is better than the accuracy with which the average operator can position the
cursor
◦ functions for transforming coordinates are sometimes built into the tablet and used
to process data before it is sent to the host

The digitizing operation

• The map is affixed to a digitizing table
• Three or more control points ("reference points", "tics", etc.) are digitized for each
map sheet
◦ these will be easily identified points (intersections of major streets, major peaks,
points on coastline)
◦ the coordinates of these points will be known in the coordinate system to be used
in the final database, e.g. lat/long, State Plane Coordinates, military grid
◦ the control points are used by the system to calculate the necessary mathematical
transformations to convert all coordinates to the final system
◦ the more control points, the better
• digitizing the map contents can be done in two different modes:
◦ in point mode, the operator identifies the points to be captured explicitly by
pressing a button
◦ in stream mode points are captured at set time intervals (typically 10 per second)
or on movement of the cursor by a fixed amount
• advantages and disadvantages:
◦ in point mode the operator selects points subjectively
 two point mode operators will not code a line in the same way
◦ stream mode generates large numbers of points, many of which may be redundant
◦ stream mode is more demanding on the user while point mode requires some
judgement about how to represent the line
• most digitizing is currently done in point mode
3.14 Geographic Information System
3.5.2. Problems with digitizing maps
• arise since most maps were not drafted for the purpose of digitizing
◦ paper maps are unstable: each time the map is removed from the digitizing table,
the reference points must be re-entered when the map is affixed to the table again
◦ if the map has stretched or shrunk in the interim, the newly digitized points will be
slightly off in their location when compared to previously digitized points
◦ errors occur on these maps, and these errors are entered into the GIS database as
well
◦ the level of error in the GIS database is directly related to the error level of the
source maps
• maps are meant to display information, and do not always accurately record locational
information
◦ for example, when a railroad, stream and road all go through a narrow mountain
pass, the pass may actually be depicted wider than its actual size to allow for the
three symbols to be drafted in the pass
• discrepancies across map sheet boundaries can cause discrepancies in the total GIS
database
◦ e.g. roads or streams that do not meet exactly when two map sheets are placed next
to each other
• user error causes overshoots, undershoots (gaps) and spikes at intersection of lines
• diagram
• user fatigue and boredom
• for a complete discussion on the manual digitizing process, see Marble et al, 1984

Editing errors from digitizing

• Some errors can be corrected automatically
◦ small gaps at line junctions
◦ overshoots and sudden spikes in lines
• Error rates depend on the complexity of the map, are high for small scale, complex
maps
• These topics are explored in greater detail in later Units
◦ Unit 13 looks at the process of editing digitized data
◦ Units 45 and 46 discuss digitizing error

3.5.3. Digitizing costs

• A common rule of thumb in the industry is one digitized boundary per minute
 Data Input and Topology 3.15
◦ e.g. it would take 99/60 = 1.65 hours to digitize the boundaries of the 99 counties
of Iowa

3.6 TOPOLOGY IN GIS

In geo-databases, a topology is a set of rules that defines how point, line, and polygon
features share coincident geometry. Topology describes the means whereby lines, borders, and
points meet up, intersect, and cross. This includes how street centrelines and census blocks share
common geometry, and adjacent soil polygons share their common boundaries. Another example
could be how two counties that have a common boundary between them will share an edge,
creating a spatial relationship.

Common terms used when referring to topology include: dimensionality, adjacency,

connectivity, and containment, with all but dimensional dealing directly with the spatial
relationships of features.

Dimensionality - the distinction between point, line, area, and volume, which are said to
have topological dimensions of 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

3.6.1. Adjacency
Adjacency including the touching of land parcels, counties, and nation-states (They share
a common border).

3.6.2. Connectivity
Connectivity including junctions between streets, roads, railroads, and rivers (Very
common topological error. See diagrams about "Overshoot" below).

3.6.3. Containment
Containment when a point lies inside rather than outside an area.

Topology defines and enforces data integrity rules (there should be no gaps between
polygons). It supports topological relationship queries and navigation (navigating feature
adjacency or connectivity), sophisticated editing tools, and allows feature construction from
unstructured geometry (constructing polygons from lines).
3.16 Geographic Information System
Addressing topology is more than providing a data storage mechanism. In GIS, topology is
maintained by using some of the following aspects:
• The geo-database includes a topological data model using an open storage format for
simple features (i.e., feature classes of points, lines, and polygons), topology rules, and
topologically integrated coordinates among features with shared geometry. The data
model includes the ability to define the integrity rules and topological behaviour of the
feature classes that participate in a topology.
• Most GIS programs include a set of tools for query, editing, validation, and error
correction of topology.
• GIS software can navigate topological relationships, work with adjacency and
connectivity, and assemble features from these elements. It can identify the polygons that
share a specific common edge; list the edges that connect at a certain node; navigate along
connected edges from the current location; add a new line and "burn" it into the
topological graph; split lines at intersections; and create resulting edges, faces, and nodes.

3.6.4. Topological Consistency rules

Topological consistency describes the trustworthiness of the topological and logical
relationships between the dataset segments (Joksic and Bajat, 2004). These relations typically involve
spatial data inconsistencies such as incorrect line intersections, polygons not properly closed, duplicate
lines or boundaries, or gaps in lines. It deals with the structural integrity of a given data set based on a
formal framework for modelling of spatial data and relationships among objects. These types of errors
must be corrected to avoid incomplete features and to ensure data integrity. Topological errors, which
occur during digitizing and data exploration processes, are also known as semantic errors (Ubeda and
Egenhofer, 1997). Topological errors exist due to violation of predefined topology rules. The most
common topology errors in map data are shown in Figure including: - Duplicate Lines - Overshoots -
Undershoots - Micro Segments - Pseudo Nodes - Merge Adjacent Endpoints - Self Intersection.

Fig.3.7. Various Topological Errors

 Data Input and Topology 3.17
3.6.5. Non Topological File Formats
Raster formats
• ADRG – National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s ARC Digitized Raster
Graphics
• Binary file – An unformatted file consisting of raster data written in one of
several data types, where multiple band are stored in BSQ (band sequential), BIP
(band interleaved by pixel) or BIL (band interleaved by line). Geo-referencing and
other metadata are stored one or more sidecar files.
• Digital raster graphic (DRG) – digital scan of a paper USGS topographic map
• ECRG – National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s Enhanced Compressed
ARC Raster Graphics (Better resolution than CADRG and no color loss)
• ECW – Enhanced Compressed Wavelet (from ERDAS). A compressed wavelet
format, often lossy.
• Esri grid – proprietary binary and meta-dataless ASCII raster formats used by Esri
• GeoTIFF – TIFF variant enriched with GIS relevant metadata
• IMG – ERDAS IMAGINE image file format
• JPEG2000 – Open-source raster format. A compressed format, allows both lossy and
lossless compression.
• MrSID – Multi-Resolution Seamless Image Database (by Lizardtech). A compressed
wavelet format, allows both lossy and lossless compression.
• netCDF-CF – netCDF file format with CF medata conventions for earth science data.
Binary storage in open format with optional compression. Allows for direct web-
access of subsets/aggregations of maps through OPeNDAP protocol.
• RPF – Raster Product Format, military file format specified in MIL-STD-2411
• CADRG – Compressed ADRG, developed by NGA, nominal compression of 55:1
over ADRG (type of Raster Product Format)
• CIB – Controlled Image Base, developed by NGA (type of Raster Product Format)

Vector formats
• AutoCAD DXF – contour elevation plots in AutoCAD DXF format (by Autodesk)
• Cartesian coordinate system (XYZ) – simple point cloud
• Digital line graph (DLG) – a USGS format for vector data
• Esri TIN - proprietary binary format for triangulated irregular network data used
by Esri
• Geography Markup Language (GML) – XML based open standard (by OpenGIS)
for GIS data exchange
• GeoJSON – a lightweight format based on JSON, used by many open source GIS
packages
3.18 Geographic Information System
• GeoMedia – Intergraph's Microsoft Access based format for spatial vector storage
• ISFC – Intergraph's MicroStation based CAD solution attaching vector elements to a
relational Microsoft Access database
• Keyhole Markup Language (KML) – XML based open standard (by OpenGIS) for
GIS data exchange
• MapInfo TAB format – MapInfo's vector data format using TAB, DAT, ID and
MAP files
• National Transfer Format (NTF) – National Transfer Format (mostly used by the
UK Ordnance Survey)
• Spatialite – is a spatial extension to SQLite, providing vector geo-database
functionality. It is similar to Post-GIS, Oracle Spatial, and SQL Server with spatial
extensions
• Shapefile – a popular vector data GIS format, developed by Esri
• Simple Features – Open Geospatial Consortium specification for vector data
• SOSI – a spatial data format used for all public exchange of spatial data in Norway
• Spatial Data File – Autodesk's high-performance geo-database format, native
to MapGuide
• TIGER – Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing
• Vector Product Format (VPF) – National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s
format of vectored data for large geographic databases

Grid formats
• USGS DEM – The USGS' Digital Elevation Model
• GTOPO30 – Large complete Earth elevation model at 30 arc seconds, delivered in the
USGS DEM format
• DTED – National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s Digital Terrain Elevation
Data, the military standard for elevation data
• GeoTIFF – TIFF variant enriched with GIS relevant metadata
• SDTS – The USGS' successor to DEM

3.7. LINKING THE ATTRIBUTE DATA TO THE SPATIAL DATA

Before you can use your spatial data as a basis for exploring your attribute data, you must
link the attribute data to the spatial data. One way to use the attribute data after you have linked it
to the spatial data is by creating a theme to control the appearance of features in the spatial
data. See Overview of SAS/GIS Software for more information.

In the layer bar, right-click the COUNTY layer name to open the pop-up menu for the
COUNTY layer. Select Edit to open the GIS Layer window. In the definition for the COUNTY
 Data Input and Topology 3.19
layer, select Thematic. The GIS Attribute Data Sets window appears for you to define the link to
the theme data set.

In the GIS Attribute Data Sets window, select New to define a new link. In the
resulting select a Member window, select MAPS.USAAC. You must next specify the values that
are common to both the attribute and spatial data, because the common values provide the
connection between the spatial data and the attribute data.

The spatial database and the MAPS.USAAC data set share compatible state and county
codes, so first select STATE in both the Data Set Vars and Compositeslists, and then select
COUNTY in both lists. Select Save to save the link definition to the Links list. Finally,
select Continue to close the GIS Attribute Data Setswindow.

After the GIS Attribute Data Sets window closes, the Var window automatically opens for
you. Select which variable in the attribute data provides the theme data for your theme. Select the
CHANGE variable to have the counties colored according to the level of change in the county
population. Select OK to close the Var window.

The counties in the spatial data are colored according to the demographic values in the
attribute data set, as shown in the following display.

Linking the Attribute Data as a Theme

Fig.3.8. Linking the Attribute Data as a Theme

3.7.1. Linking External Databases
The ArcGIS Maps Connect workflow supports external content from Microsoft SQL
Server 2008 R2, 2012, 2012 R2, and 2014, including the SQL Server Express editions. The
external content must contain data that can be geo-coded, such as an address, U.S. city, U.S. state,
ZIP code, or world city. The external content must also contain a primary key column.
Alternatively, the table can contain an existing SQL server spatial data type (geography or
3.20 Geographic Information System
geometry) column that is then converted by the Arc-GIS Maps Connect workflow for use in
ArcGIS Maps for SharePoint.

If the external table has an existing spatial column that contains no data, the
ArcGIS Maps Connect workflow populates the column based on other location information in
the table (for example, address). If no spatial column exists, the ArcGIS Maps Connect
workflow creates a geography spatial type column named EsriShape with a Spatial Reference
Identifier (SRID) of 4326 (WGS 84). The EsriShape field supports all geometries including
points, lines, and polygons. In all scenarios, the external content can be enriched with
additional geographic data variables from ArcGIS.

3.7.2. Note
If the ArcGIS Maps Connect workflow fails, ensure the appropriate permissions for
Microsoft SQL Server have been set. You can view the error messages in the SharePoint site
workflow history to view exact details on the settings that need to be corrected.

When the ArcGIS Maps Connect workflow completes, the result is a regular SharePoint
list, not an external list. That said, the fields created from the SQL Server database are of an
external type, and edits made to these fields in SharePoint cannot be passed back to the database.
SharePoint can only pass back the fields it has created, such as for the ArcGIS Maps Locate
workflow and geoenrichment.

3.8. OPEN DATABASE CONNECTIVITY (ODBC)

In computing, Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) is a standard application
programming interface (API) for accessing database management systems (DBMS). The
designers of ODBC aimed to make it independent of database systems and operating systems. An
application written using ODBC can be ported to other platforms, both on the client and server
side, with few changes to the data access code.

ODBC accomplishes DBMS independence by using an ODBC driver as a translation layer

between the application and the DBMS. The application uses ODBC functions through an ODBC
driver manager with which it is linked, and the driver passes the query to the DBMS. An ODBC
driver can be thought of as analogous to a printer driver or other driver, providing a standard set of
functions for the application to use, and implementing DBMS-specific functionality. An
application that can use ODBC is referred to as "ODBC-compliant". Any ODBC-compliant
application can access any DBMS for which a driver is installed. Drivers exist for all major
DBMSs, many other data sources like address book systems and Microsoft Excel, and even for
text or comma-separated values (CSV) files.

ODBC was originally developed by Microsoft and Simba Technologies during the early
1990s, and became the basis for the Call Level Interface (CLI) standardized by SQL Access
Group in the UNIX and mainframe field. ODBC retained several features that were removed as
part of the CLI effort. Full ODBC was later ported back to those platforms, and became a de facto
standard considerably better known than CLI. The CLI remains similar to ODBC, and
applications can be ported from one platform to the other with few changes.
 Data Input and Topology 3.21
3.8.1. History of Before ODBC
The introduction of the mainframe-based relational database during the 1970s led to a
proliferation of data access methods. Generally these systems operated together with a simple
command processor that allowed users to type in English-like commands, and receive output. The
best-known examples are SQL from IBM and QUEL from the Ingres project. These systems may
or may not allow other applications to access the data directly, and those that did use a wide
variety of methodologies. The introduction of SQL aimed to solve the problem of language
standardization, although substantial differences in implementation remained.

Also, since the SQL language had only rudimentary programming features, users often
wanted to use SQL within a program written in another language, say Fortran or C. This led to the
concept of Embedded SQL, which allowed SQL code to be embedded within another language.
For instance, a SQL statement like SELECT * FROM city could be inserted as text within C
source code, and during compiling it would be converted into a custom format that directly called
a function within a library that would pass the statement into the SQL system. Results returned
from the statements would be interpreted back into C data formats like char * using similar library
code.

There were several problems with the Embedded SQL approach. Like the different
varieties of SQL, the Embedded SQLs that used them varied widely, not only from platform to
platform, but even across languages on one platform – a system that allowed calls into IBM's DB2
would look very different from one that called into their own SQL/DS. Another key problem to
the Embedded SQL concept was that the SQL code could only be changed in the program's source
code, so that even small changes to the query required considerable programmer effort to modify.
The SQL market referred to this as static SQL, versus dynamic SQL which could be changed at
any time, like the command-line interfaces that shipped with almost all SQL systems, or a
programming interface that left the SQL as plain text until it was called. Dynamic SQL systems
became a major focus for SQL vendors during the 1980s.

Older mainframe databases, and the newer microcomputer based systems that were based
on them, generally did not have a SQL-like command processor between the user and the database
engine. Instead, the data was accessed directly by the program – a programming library in the case
of large mainframe systems, or a command line interface or interactive forms system in the case
of dBASE and similar applications. Data from dBASE could not generally be accessed directly by
other programs running on the machine. Those programs may be given a way to access this data,
often through libraries, but it would not work with any other database engine, or even different
databases in the same engine. In effect, all such systems were static, which presented considerable
problems.

3.8.2. Early efforts

By the mid-1980s the rapid improvement in micro-computers and especially the
introduction of the graphical user interface and data-rich application programs like Lotus 1-2-3 led
to an increasing interest in using personal computers as the client-side platform of choice in client-
server computing. Under this model, large mainframes and minicomputers would be used
primarily to serve up data over local area networks to microcomputers that would interpret,
display and manipulate that data. For this model to work, a data access standard was a requirement
– in the mainframe field it was highly likely that all of the computers in a shop were from one
3.22 Geographic Information System
vendor and clients were computer terminals talking directly to them, but in the micro field there
was no such standardization and any client might access any server using any networking system.

By the late 1980s there were several efforts underway to provide an abstraction layer for
this purpose. Some of these were mainframe related, designed to allow programs running on those
machines to translate between the variety of SQL's and provide a single common interface which
could then be called by other mainframe or microcomputer programs. These solutions included
IBM's Distributed Relational Database Architecture (DRDA) and Apple Computer's Data Access
Language. Much more common, however, were systems that ran entirely on microcomputers,
including a complete protocol stack that included any required networking or file translation
support.

One of the early examples of such a system was Lotus Development's DataLens, initially
known as Blueprint. Blueprint, developed for 1-2-3, supported a variety of data sources, including
SQL/DS, DB2, FOCUS and a variety of similar mainframe systems, as well as microcomputer
systems like dBase and the early Microsoft/Ashton-Tate efforts that would eventually develop into
Microsoft SQL Server. Unlike the later ODBC, Blueprint was a purely code-based system, lacking
anything approximating a command language like SQL. Instead, programmers used data
structures to store the query information, constructing a query by linking many of these structures
together. Lotus referred to these compound structures as query trees.

Around the same time, an industry team including members from Sybase (Tom Haggin),
Tandem Computers (Jim Gray & Rao Yendluri) and Microsoft (Kyle G) were working on a
standardized dynamic SQL concept. Much of the system was based on Sybase's DB-Library
system, with the Sybase-specific sections removed and several additions to support other
platforms. DB-Library was aided by an industry-wide move from library systems that were tightly
linked to a specific language, to library systems that were provided by the operating system and
required the languages on that platform to conform to its standards. This meant that a single
library could be used with (potentially) any programming language on a given platform.

The first draft of the Microsoft Data Access API was published in April 1989, about the
same time as Lotus' announcement of Blueprint. In spite of Blueprint's great lead – it was running
when MSDA was still a paper project – Lotus eventually joined the MSDA efforts as it became
clear that SQL would become the de facto database standard. After considerable industry input, in
the summer of 1989 the standard became SQL Connectivity (SQLC).

3.8.3. SAG and CLI

In 1988 several vendors, mostly from the UNIX and database communities, formed the
SQL Access Group (SAG) in an effort to produce a single basic standard for the SQL language.
At the first meeting there was considerable debate over whether or not the effort should work
solely on the SQL language itself, or attempt a wider standardization which included a dynamic
SQL language-embedding system as well, what they called a Call Level Interface (CLI). While
attending the meeting with an early draft of what was then still known as MS Data Access, Kyle
Geiger of Microsoft invited Jeff Balboni and Larry Barnes of Digital Equipment Corporation
(DEC) to join the SQLC meetings as well. SQLC was a potential solution to the call for the CLI,
which was being led by DEC.
 Data Input and Topology 3.23
The new SQLC "gang of four", MS, Tandem, DEC and Sybase, brought an updated
version of SQLC to the next SAG meeting in June 1990. The SAG responded by opening the
standard effort to any competing design, but of the many proposals, only Oracle Corp had a
system that presented serious competition. In the end, SQLC won the votes and became the draft
standard, but only after large portions of the API were removed – the standards document was
trimmed from 120 pages to 50 during this time. It was also during this period that the name Call
Level Interface was formally adopted. In 1995 SQL/CLI became part of the international SQL
standard, ISO/IEC 9075-3.[8] The SAG itself was taken over by the X/Open group in 1996, and,
over time, became part of The Open Group's Common Application Environment.

MS continued working with the original SQLC standard, retaining many of the advanced
features that were removed from the CLI version. These included features like scrollable cursors,
and metadata information queries. The commands in the API were split into groups; the Core
group was identical to the CLI, the Level 1 extensions were commands that would be easy to
implement in drivers, while Level 2 commands contained the more advanced features like cursors.
A proposed standard was released in December 1991, and industry input was gathered and worked
into the system through 1992, resulting in yet another name change to ODBC.

3.8.4. JET and ODBC

During this time, Microsoft was in the midst of developing their Jet database system. Jet
combined three primary subsystems; an ISAM-based database engine (also named Jet,
confusingly), a C-based interface allowing applications to access that data, and a selection of
driver dynamic-link libraries (DLL) that allowed the same C interface to redirect input and output
to other ISAM-based databases, like Paradox and xBase. Jet allowed using one set of calls to
access common microcomputer databases in a fashion similar to Blueprint, by then renamed
DataLens. However, Jet did not use SQL; like DataLens, the interface was in C and consisted of
data structures and function calls.

The SAG standardization efforts presented an opportunity for Microsoft to adapt their Jet
system to the new CLI standard. This would not only make Windows a premier platform for CLI
development, but also allow users to use SQL to access both Jet and other databases as well. What
was missing was the SQL parser that could convert those calls from their text form into the C-
interface used in Jet. To solve this, MS partnered with PageAhead Software to use their existing
query processor, SIMBA. SIMBA was used as a parser above Jet's C library, turning Jet into an
SQL database. And because Jet could forward those C-based calls to other databases, this also
allowed SIMBA to query other systems. Microsoft included drivers for Excel to turn its
spreadsheet documents into SQL-accessible database tables.

3.8.5. Release and continued development

ODBC 1.0 was released in September 1992. At the time, there was little direct support for
SQL databases (versus ISAM), and early drivers were noted for poor performance. Some of this
was unavoidable due to the path that the calls took through the Jet-based stack; ODBC calls to
SQL databases were first converted from Simba Technologies's SQL dialect to Jet's internal C-
based format, then passed to a driver for conversion back into SQL calls for the database. Digital
Equipment and Oracle both contracted Simba Technologies to develop drivers for their databases
as well.
3.24 Geographic Information System
Circa 1993, OpenLink Software shipped one of the first independently developed third-
party ODBC drivers, for the PROGRESS DBMS, and soon followed with their UDBC (a cross-
platform API equivalent of ODBC and the SAG/CLI) SDK and associated drivers for
PROGRESS, Sybase, Oracle, and other DBMS, for use on Unix-like OS (AIX, HP-UX, Solaris,
Linux, etc.), VMS, Windows NT, OS/2, and other OS.

Meanwhile, the CLI standard effort dragged on, and it was not until March 1995 that the
definitive version was finalized. By then, Microsoft had already granted Visigenic Software a
source code license to develop ODBC on non-Windows platforms. Visigenic ported ODBC to a
wide variety of Unix platforms, where ODBC quickly became the de facto standard. "Real" CLI is
rare today. The two systems remain similar, and many applications can be ported from ODBC to
CLI with few or no changes.

Over time, database vendors took over the driver interfaces and provided direct links to
their products. Skipping the intermediate conversions to and from Jet or similar wrappers often
resulted in higher performance. However, by then Microsoft had changed focus to their OLE DB
concept (recently reinstated), which provided direct access to a wider variety of data sources from
address books to text files. Several new systems followed which further turned their attention
from ODBC, including ActiveX Data Objects (ADO) and ADO.net, which interacted more or less
with ODBC over their lifetimes.

As Microsoft turned its attention away from working directly on ODBC, the UNIX field
was increasingly embracing it. This was propelled by two changes within the market, the
introduction of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) like GNOME that provided a need to access these
sources in non-text form, and the emergence of open software database systems like PostgreSQL
and MySQL, initially under Unix. The later adoption of ODBC by Apple for using the standard
Unix-side iODBC package Mac OS X 10.2 (Jaguar) (which OpenLink Software had been
independently providing for Mac OS X 10.0 and even Mac OS 9 since 2001) further cemented
ODBC as the standard for cross-platform data access.

Sun Microsystems used the ODBC system as the basis for their own open standard, Java
Database Connectivity (JDBC). In most ways, JDBC can be considered a version of ODBC for
the programming language Java instead of C. JDBC-to-ODBC bridges allow Java-based programs
to access data sources through ODBC drivers on platforms lacking a native JDBC driver, although
these are now relatively rare. Inversely, ODBC-to-JDBC bridges allow C-based programs to
access data sources through JDBC drivers on platforms or from databases lacking suitable ODBC
drivers.

3.8.6. ODBC today

ODBC remains in wide use today, with drivers available for most platforms and most
databases. It is not uncommon to find ODBC drivers for database engines that are meant to be
embedded, like SQLite, as a way to allow existing tools to act as front-ends to these engines for
testing and debugging.

However, the rise of thin client computing using HTML as an intermediate format has
reduced the need for ODBC. Many web development platforms contain direct links to target
databases – MySQL being very common. In these scenarios, there is no direct client-side access
 Data Input and Topology 3.25
nor multiple client software systems to support; everything goes through the programmer-supplied
HTML application. The virtualization that ODBC offers is no longer a strong requirement, and
development of ODBC is no longer as active as it once was.[citation needed]

3.9. GPS
Stands for "Global Positioning System." GPS is a satellite navigation system used to
determine the ground position of an object. GPS technology was first used by the United States
military in the 1960s and expanded into civilian use over the next few decades. Today, GPS
receivers are included in many commercial products, such as automobiles, Smartphone, exercise
watches, and GIS devices.

The GPS system includes 24 satellites deployed in space about 12,000 miles (19,300
kilometers) above the earth's surface. They orbit the earth once every 12 hours at an extremely fast
pace of roughly 7,000 miles per hour (11,200 kilometers per hour). The satellites are evenly
spread out so that four satellites are accessible via direct line-of-sight from anywhere on the globe.

Each GPS satellite broadcasts a message that includes the satellite's current position, orbit,
and exact time. A GPS receiver combines the broadcasts from multiple satellites to calculate its
exact position using a process called triangulation. Three satellites are required in order to
determine a receiver's location, though a connection to four satellites is ideal since it provides
greater accuracy.

In order for a GPS device to work correctly, it must first establish a connection to the
required number of satellites. This process can take anywhere from a few seconds to a few
minutes, depending on the strength of the receiver. For example, a car's GPS unit will typically
establish a GPS connection faster than the receiver in a watch or Smartphone. Most GPS devices
also use some type of location caching to speed up GPS detection. By memorizing its previous
location, a GPS device can quickly determine what satellites will be available the next time it
scans for a GPS signal.

3.9.1. Uses of GPS

GPS has many uses, for example;
• Clock synchronization: The GPS time signals use highly accurate atomic clocks.
This technology can be used for things like automatic updates of daylight saving times
on cell phones
• Disaster relief and emergency services: Depend upon GPS for location
• Tracking a vehicle, person, pet or aircraft: Receivers provide continuous tracking and
can provide an alert if the receiver leaves a set area. Pets can be chipped so they can be
found if they become lost
• Geotagging: Applying location coordinates to digital objects such as photographs and
other documents for purposes such as creating map overlays.
• Bus tour commentary: your location will determine what information is displayed
about approaching points of interest
• Bus stops: to show how long the bus will take to arrive at a bus stop
3.26 Geographic Information System
• Navigation: eg Navman. The device uses voice activation to describe a preferred
route based on the position of the receiver, the position of the destination and a street
map
• Personal Locator Beacons (PLB): used to inform search and rescue authorities of
your exact location in the event of an emergency
• Recreation: For example, geo-caching and way-marking
• Surveying: Surveyors use absolute locations to make maps and determine property
boundaries
• Tectonics: enables fault motion measurement in earthquakes
Maps have come a long way since people first began drawings to show where they were.
Modern maps are created using special software that combines lots of different sorts of
information. This system of modern mapping is called GIS – Geographic Information Systems.
GIS is used by organizations, such as city councils, that need access to data and need to be able to
combine different data sets together. GIS gives people in these organisations graphical
representations of data that allows them to:
• Analyze situations
• Write reports
• Track changes
• Make decisions
• Plan for the future, for example which parts of the high country have undergone tenure
review

GIS requires four things:

People: people who use GIS are professionals who have been educated to use GIS and
have made a career out of working with GIS

Data: geospatial information (where things are located) and the details of objects such as
services, roads, buildings etc. are collected and entered into the GIS software

Software: GIS software analyses data and presents it in different combinations for the
user

Hardware: includes hand held devices for collecting data and computers with GIS
software

3.9.2. Basic structure of GPS

Three-block configuration
GPS consists of the following three segments.
Space segment (GPS satellites)
A number of GPS satellites are deployed on six orbits around the earth at the altitude of
approximately 20,000 km (four GPS satellites per one orbit), and move around the earth at 12-
hour-intervals.
 Data Input and Topology 3.27
Control segment (Ground control stations)
Ground control stations play roles of monitoring, controlling and maintaining satellite
orbit to make sure that the deviation of the satellites from the orbit as well as GPS timing are
within the tolerance level.

User segment (GPS receivers)

User segment (GPS receivers)

Fig.3.9. Three elements of GPS

3.9.3. GPS positioning
Firstly, the signal of time is sent from a GPS satellite at a given point. Subsequently, the
time difference between GPS time and the point of time clock which GPS receiver receives the
time signal will be calculated to generate the distance from the receiver to the satellite. The same
process will be done with three other available satellites. It is possible to calculate the position of
the GPS receiver from distance from the GPS receiver to three satellites. However, the position
generated by means of this method is not accurate, for there is an error in calculated distance
between satellites and a GPS receiver, which arises from a time error on the clock incorporated
into a GPS receiver. For a satellite, an atomic clock is incorporated to generate on-the-spot time
information, but the time generated by clocks incorporated into GPS receivers is not as precise as
the time generated by atomic clocks on satellites. Here, the fourth satellite comes to play its role:
the distance from the fourth satellite to the receiver can be used to compute the position in
relations to the position data generated by distance between three satellites and the receiver, hence
reducing the margin of error in position accuracy.

The Fig--- below illustrates an example of positioning by two dimensions (position

acquisition by using two given points). We can compute where we are at by calculating distance
from two given points, and the GPS is the system that can be illustrated by multiplying given
points and replacing them with GPS satellites on this figure.
3.28 Geographic Information System

Fig.3.10. position acquisition by using two given points

3.9.4. GPS signals

GPS satellites broadcast beams in two carrier frequencies; L1 (1,575.42 MHz) and L2
(1,227.60 MHz). Beams that can be accessible to the general public are encoded in C/A
(Coarse/Acquisition) code, and the beams that can be used only by the US military force are
encoded in P (Precise) code. C/A code consists of identification codes of each satellite and is
broadcast together with navigation messages. The data of the orbit of each satellite is called the
ephemeris*, and the data of orbit of all satellite is called the almanac**. The navigation messages
are broadcast at a rate of 50 bits per second. Utilizing this collection of data, GPS receiver
calculates distance between satellites and the receiver in order to generate position data. In the Fig
1-4, the details of C/A code is described, and in the Fig 1-5, navigation messages are described.
*The ephemeris provides the precise orbit for the satellite itself, which can be used to
generate precise location of the satellite, necessary information for calculating position
information. It is the indigenous data that is used only by each of the GPS satellites with
specific identification number.
**The almanac can be regarded as simplified ephemeris data and contains coarse orbit and
status information for all satellites in the network. It is used to locate available satellites in
order a GPS receiver to generate current position and time. It takes 12.5 minutes to receive
all the almanac data.

3.9.5. C/A code:

L1 signal from the GPS satellites is phase-modulated in C/A code, which is the
pseudorandom code. The pseudorandom code is also called pseudorandom noise code, which is
known as a Gold code. As the Fig. 1-4 illustrates, C/A code is a sequence of digital signals “1”
and “0”. In GPS, 1,023 consecutive patterns comprise a sequence, and subsequently, this sequence
will continually repeat one after another.

Fig.3.11. C/A code used identify the GPS

 Data Input and Topology 3.29
3.9.6. Navigation message
Navigation message consists of 25 frames, each of which includes 5 sub-frames of 300
bits each. The data length of 1 bit is 20 ms, and thus, the length of each sub-frame is 6 seconds,
and each frame is a grouping of 1,500 bits of information with the frame length of 30 seconds.
Since navigation message consists of 25 frames, this would add up to the message length of 12.5
minutes (30 seconds x 25=12.5 minutes). The GPS receiver requires 12.5 minutes to receive all
the necessary set of data, necessary condition for positioning, when initial power activation takes
place. The GPS receiver is capable of storing this set of data gained in the past internal backup
battery, and it reads out the set of data when power reactivation takes place, hence instantaneously
starting to receive GPS position.

Fig.3.12. Navigation message

Positioning accuracy
Factors that trigger GPS position errors

Ionosphere
The ionosphere is a portion of the upper atmosphere, between the thermosphere and the
exosphere. When GPS signals pass through this layer, the propagation velocity of the GPS signal
goes slower, hence causing propagation error.

Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest
portion of Earth's atmosphere. Radio
reflections caused by dry atmosphere
and water vapor within provoke GPS
position error.

Multipath propagation
GPS signal is not immune to
reflection when it hits on the ground,
structures and many others. This
phenomenon is called multipath
propagation, one of the causes of GPS
position errors. Fig.3.13. GPS position error
3.30 Geographic Information System
3.9.7. DOP (Dilution of Precision)
DOP is a value that shows the degree of degradation of the GPS positioning accuracy. The
smaller the value is, the higher the positioning accuracy is. This value depends upon the positions
of the GPS satellites tracked for positioning. If the tracked satellites spread evenly over the earth,
the positioning accuracy would become higher, and if the positions of tracked satellites are
disproportionate, the positioning accuracy would become lower.

Fig.3.14. DOP value is smaller Fig.3.15. DOP value greater

3.9.8. Signal strength

State of reception of GPS depends upon the strength of GPS signals. The greater the signal
strength is, the more stable the reception status is. Whereas the reception status would become
unstable when the GPS signal became weaker, due to obstacles or noise sources in the vicinity of
a GPS receiver.

Fig.3.16. Example of stable GPS positioning

Fig.3.17. Example of unstable GPS positioning

 Data Input and Topology 3.31
3.9.9. Number of satellites tracked for positioning
State of reception of GPS depends upon the number of satellites tracked for positioning.

If the number of the tracked satellites is great, GPS positioning becomes greater, but if
there were a fewer satellites tracked for positioning, it would be difficult to generate GPS position.
The Fig. 1-11 illustrates the occasion where the GPS receiver tracks a greater number of satellites
for positioning. The Fig. 1-12 illustrates the occasion where the GPS receiver tracks only a few
number of satellites for positioning.

Fig.3.18. GPS satellite are portrayed as blue circles above

3.10. CONCEPT OF GPS BASED MAPPING

GPS consists of a constellation of radio navigation satellite and a ground control segment.
It manages satellite operation and users with specialized receivers who use the satellite data to
satisfy a broad range of positioning requirements.

In brief, following are the key features of GPS:-

• The basis of GPS is „triangulation‟ more precisely trilateration from satellites
• A GPS receiver measures distance using the travel time of radio signals.
• To measure travel time GPS needs very accurate timing that is achieved with some
techniques.
• Along with distance, one needs to know exactly where the satellites are in space.
• Finally one must correct for any delays, the signal experience as it travels through the
atmosphere.
The whole idea behind GPS is to use satellites in space as reference points for location
here on earth. By very accurately measuring the distances from at least three satellites, we can
„triangulate‟ our position anywhere on the earth by resection method.

3.10.1. GPS Elements

GPS has 3 parts: the space segment, the user segment, and the control segment, Figure-1.2
illustrates the same. The space segment consists of a constellation of 24 satellites, each in its own
orbit, which is 11,000 nautical miles above the Earth. The user segment consists of receivers,
3.32 Geographic Information System
which can be held in hand or mount in the vehicle. The control segment consists of ground
stations (six of them, located around the world) that make sure the satellites are working properly.
More details on each of these elements can be referred from any standard book or online literature
on GPS.

Fig.3.19. GPS segments

3.10.2. GPS Satellite Navigation System

GPS is funded and controlled by the U. S. Department of Defense (DOD). While there are
many thousands of civil users of GPS worldwide, the system was designed for and is operated by
the U. S. military. It provides specially coded satellite signals that can be processed in a GPS
receiver, enabling the receiver to compute position, velocity and time. Four GPS satellite signals
are used to compute positions in three dimensions and the time offset in the receiver clock.

3.10.3. GPS Positioning Techniques

GPS positioning techniques may be categorized as being predominantly based on code or
carrier measurements. Code techniques are generally simple and produce low accuracy, while
carrier techniques are more complex and produce higher accuracy. There exist a variety of
positioning methods for both code and carrier measurements. The suitability of each for a specific
application is dependent on the desired accuracy, logistical constraints and costs. Many variables
affect this accuracy, such as the baseline lengths, ionospheric conditions, magnitude of selective
availability, receiver types used, and processing strategies adopted.

3.10.4. Differential GPS (DGPS)

The technique used to augment GPS is known as “differential”. The basic idea is to locate
one or more reference GPS receivers at known locations in users‟ vicinities and calibrate
ranging errors as they occur. These errors are transmitted to the users in near real time. The errors
are highly correlated across tens of kilometers and across many minutes. Use of such corrections
can greatly improve the accuracy and integrity.

To increase the accuracy of positioning, Differential-GPS (D-GPS) was introduced. The

idea is as follows: a reference station is located at a known and accurately surveyed point. The
 Data Input and Topology 3.33
GPS reference station determines its GPS position using four or more satellites. Given that the
position of the GPS reference station is exactly known, the deviation of the measured position to
the actual position and more importantly the measured pseudo range to each of the individual
satellites can be calculated. The differences are either transmitted immediately by radio or used
afterwards for correction after carrying out the measurements. The man made error like “Selective
Availability” can be corrected using this.

3.10.5. GPS applications in Transportation

Due to the high accuracy, usability, ease and economy of operations in all weather, offered
by GPS, it has found numerous applications in many fields ranging from accuracy level of mm for
the high precision geodesy to several meters for navigational positioning. Some of the applications
in urban and transportation field are:
• Establishment of ground control points for imageries / map registration,
• Determination of a precise geo ID using GPS data,
• Survey control for topographical and cadastral surveys,
• Air, road, rail, and marine navigation,
• Intelligent traffic management system,
• Vehicle tracking system etc.
3.34 Geographic Information System
TWO MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANWERS

1) What is scanning? (May/June - 2011)

A piece of hard ware for converting an analogue source of document into digital raster format
(a light sensitive device).Most commonly used method. When raster data are there to be
encoded scanning is the most appropriate option. There are three different types of scanners
available in usage: - Flat-bed scanners (a PC peripheral). Rotating drum scanners. Large
format feed scanners

2) What are the output methods / components of GIS?

• Plotter,
• Printer,
• VDU,
• Tape Drive

3) Write the component of scanner

• A light source.
• A back ground.
• A lens.

4) What is overlying?
Map overlay is the process by which it is possible to take two or more different thematic map
layers of the same area and overlay them on top of the other and form a composite new layer
this techniques is used to overlay vector data on a raster image. In Vector base systems map
overlay is time consuming, complex and computationally expensive. In raster based systems
it is quick, straightforward and efficient

5) What is Conflation? (May/June - 2013)

Conflation occurs when the identities of two or more individuals, concepts, or places,
sharing some characteristics of one another, seem to be a single identity; the differences
appear to become lost. In logic, it is the practice of treating two distinct concepts as if
they were one, which produces errors or misunderstandings as a fusion of distinct
subjects, tends to obscure analysis of relationships which are emphasized by contrasts.
However, if the distinctions between the two concepts appear to be superficial, intentional
conflation M/J is desirable for the sake of conciseness and recall.

6) List out the types of scanner.

1) Flat bed scanner
2) Rotating drum scanner
3) Large format feed scanner
 Data Input and Topology 3.35

Flat bed scanner is a PC peripheral which is small and comparatively inaccurate. The rotating
drum scanners are accurate but they tend to be slow and expensive. Large format feed
scanner are the most suitable type for inputting GIS data as they are cheap, quick and
accurate.

7) What are the different input methods into a GIS?

The different methods of input into a GIS are;
• Key board entry
• O.C.R.
• Digitizing Manual digitizing, Automatic digitizing Scanning,
• Automatic line follower
• Electronic data transfer

8) Write short notes on digitizing (May/June - 2011)

The process of convert the data from maps and other documents in to digital form. The digital
form M/J is vector or raster data. A digitizer is used to convert the data from maps into digital
form. Manual digitizing automatic digitizing.

9) List the various errors in digitizing

a) Scale and resolution of the source/base map.
b) Quality of the equipment and the software used.
c) Incorrect registration. A shaky hand. Line thickness.
d) Overshoot.
e) Under shoot.
f) Spike.
g) Displacement.
h) Polygonal knot.
i) Psychological errors.
3.36 Geographic Information System
10) What are the different types of grid based models?
The Grid based models can be broadly classified as
1) Weighted Summation models `
2) Weighted mean model
3) Unique combination model

11) What are the output methods / components of GIS?

• Plotter,
• Printer,
• VDU,
• Tape Drive

12) Write the component of scanner

• A light source.
• A back ground.
• A lens.

13) Write short notes on topographical in GIS

In geo-databases, a topology is a set of rules that defines how point, line, and polygon
features share coincident geometry. Topology describes the means whereby lines,
borders, and points meet up, intersect, and cross. This includes how street centrelines and
census blocks share common geometry, and adjacent soil polygons share their common
boundaries. Another example could be how two counties that have a common boundary
between them will share an edge, creating a spatial relationship.

Common terms used when referring to topology include: dimensionality, adjacency,

connectivity, and containment, with all but dimensional dealing directly with the spatial
relationships of features.

Dimensionality - the distinction between point, line, area, and volume, which are said to
have topological dimensions of 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

14) What is an Open Database Connectivity?

Open Database Connectivity. In computing, Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) is a
standard application programming interface (API) for accessing database management
systems (DBMS). The designers of ODBC aimed to make it independent of database
systems and operating systems.
 Data Input and Topology 3.37

15) What is the difference between GPS remote sensing and GIS?
First do remote sensing than do GNSS (GPS) and at last GIS. GPS (global positioning
system) is a way to assign a location to a point on the Earth. Remote sensing is the use of
sensors on board either planes or satellites to collect data usually in a grid like pattern of
pixels called raster data.

16) What are the different GPS systems?

The four global GNSS systems are – GPS (US), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (EU), BeiDou
(China). Additionally, there are two regional systems – QZSS (Japan) and IRNSS or NavIC
(India).

17) What data is collected by GPS?

GPS Data Collection. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation
system. A GPS unit determines its position using satellites that orbit the earth. Each satellite's
position, as well as the current time, is transmitted via radio signals.

18) What are the applications of GPS?

Some of the industries that use this application include;
• Aviation. Most of the modern aircraft use GPS receivers to provide the pilots and
passenger with real-time aircraft position.
• Marine.
• Farming.
• Science.
• Surveying.
• Military.
• Financial Services.
• Telecommunications.
3.38 Geographic Information System
19) Describe the dilution of precision (dop)
DOP or GDOP (geometric dilution of precision) or PDOP (position dilution of
precision) describes error caused by the relative position of the GPS satellites. Basically, the
more signals a GPS receiver can “see” (spread apart versus close together), the more precise
it can be. From the observer’s point of view, if the satellites are spread apart in the sky, then
the GPS receiver has a good GDOP.

20) Define in GPS Satellite Navigation System

GPS is a satellite navigation system used to determine the ground position of an object. GPS
technology was first used by the United States military in the 1960s and expanded into
civilian use over the next few decades.

21) What is Differential GPS (DGPS)?

Differential Global Positioning Systems (DGPS) are GPS systems that use fixed reference
locations on Earth to calculate positioning errors transmitted by the satellites in view. Since
the location of these reference points in already know, they can easily calculate any
positioning errors that are being transmitted by the GPS constellation. This error information
is then transmitted out to GPS devices, which use this information to calculate their accurate
position.

DGPS uses pseudo-range corrections and range-rate corrections from the reference station
which has enough channels to track all satellites in view. The system calculates the difference
between the GPS calculated position for the ground reference station and the actual position
of the ground reference station.
 Data Input and Topology 3.39
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) Briefly explain the Scanners for Raster Data Input in GIS. (May/June - 2012)
2) Write detailed notes on raster data input system in GIS
3) Briefly explain the digitization processes in GIS. (May/June - 2012)
4) Write detailed notes on raster data file formats.
5) Describe the vector data input in GIS.
6) Briefly explain the digitization processes in GIS. (May/June - 2012)
7) Briefly explain the Topology in GIS.
8) Write detailed notes on linking the attribute data to the spatial data.
9) Briefly explain the Open Database Connectivity (ODBC)
10) Describe the GPS, Uses of GPS, structure of GPS and GPS positioning etc.
11) Briefly explain the Concept of GPS based mapping.
 CHAPTER- 4

DATA QUALITY AND STANDARDS

4.1. VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS TOOLS

A systematic examination of a problem or complex entity in order to provide new
information from what is already known (ESRI – GIS Dictionary)

Spatial analysis is the process that turns raw input spatial data into value-added useful data
or information that ultimately supports decision making and reveals hidden or unknown patterns

Common vector analysis tools are:

• Buffering
• Overlay
• Other feature manipulation tools
Buffering
• Buffer – a region that is less than or equal to a specified distance
• Can buffer points, lines and polygons used to examine proximity constraints?

Example:
• Identify potential customers within 3km of store
• Identify parks within 10km of Islamabad Highway
• Identify schools within 5 km of industrial zone

4.1.1. Buffer Analysis:

• A buffer is a zone with a width created around a spatial feature and is measured in
units of distance from the feature. The generated buffer takes the shape of the feature.
• In case of a point the buffer is a circle (refer Figure 4.1 (a), with a radius equal to the
buffer distance. In case of a line (refer Figure 4.1 (b), it is a band and for a polygon it
is a belt of a specific buffer distance from the edge of polygon, surrounding the
polygon.
• The inward buffer for a polygon is called setback (refer Figure 4.1 (c), the polygon on
the right hand side).
4.2 Geographic Information System
• Buffering is used for neighborhood analysis which aims to evaluate the characteristics
of the area surrounding the spatial feature.

Figure.4.1. Buffer Analysis Diagram

• Common examples of buffering include the identification of properties within a
certain distance of an object, delineation of areas around natural features where human
activities are restricted, determination of areas affected by location etc.
• Clip is used to subset a point, line or a polygon theme using another polygon theme as
the boundary of the area of interest.
• In the illustration above, the input, point feature shows the location of drinking water
wells in three villages as shown in Figure 4.2.
• To know how many wells fall in village 1, the input feature class is clipped using the
boundary of the village 1. The output feature class shows that five wells are present in
village 1(One).

Figure.4.2. Drinking Water Wells in Three Villages

• Split causes the input features to form subset of multiple output feature classes. The
split field’s unique values form the names of the output feature classes.

Fig.4.3. Polygon theme of Watershed Boundaries

 Data Quality and Standards 4.3
• In the illustration above, a point theme of wells is split using the polygon theme of
watershed boundaries as shown in Figure 4.3.
• The output of this operation contains multiple feature classes which are named on the
unique value of watershed boundaries (in this case, the unique value is the watershed
number WS1, WS2 etc.).
• Each output class represents the number of wells present in a particular watershed i.e.
WS1 or watershed 1 has three wells. Similarly, WS2, WS3 and WS4 have 3, 2, and 2
wells respectively.
4.1.2. Overlay Analysis
• Union creates a new theme by overlaying two polygon themes. It is same as ‘or’
Boolean operator. The output theme contains the combined polygons and attributes of
both themes. Only polygon themes can be combined using union as shown in Figure
4.4.

.
Fig.4.4. Overlay Analysis – Union
• Let’s say we are interested in knowing no potential zone for urban development. It is
clear that no construction can be done on a water body or land covered by agriculture
or forest. So, we can say union of areas under water, agriculture and forest would
present us the area having no potential for urban development.
• Intersect creates a new theme by overlaying a point, line or polygon theme with an
intersecting polygon theme. It is same as ‘and’ Boolean operator. The output theme
contains only the feature inside the intersecting polygons.

Fig.4.5. Overlay Analysis – Intersect

• From the same example given above, if we try to know the area having potential for
• Urban development we need to intersect the polygon themes to get a common area
which is not under water, agriculture or forest as shown in Figure 4.5.
4.4 Geographic Information System
• From the same example given above, if we try to know the area having potential for
urban development we need to intersect the polygon themes to get a common area
which is not under water, agriculture or forest.

4.1.3. Feature Manipulation

Dissolve

Append

Select

Clip
 Data Quality and Standards 4.5
Erase

Split

4.2. DATA ANALYSIS TOOLS

• The Analysis toolbox contains a powerful set of tools that perform the most
fundamental GIS operations. With the tools in this toolbox, you can perform overlays,
create buffers, calculate statistics, perform proximity analysis, and much more.
Whenever you need to solve a spatial or statistical problem, you should always look in
the Analysis toolbox.
• The Analysis toolbox has four toolsets. Each toolset performs specific GIS analysis of
feature data.
Toolsets Description
Extract GIS datasets often contain more data than you need. The Extract tools let you
select features and attributes in a feature class or table based on a query (SQL
expression) or spatial extraction. The output features and attributes are stored in a
feature class or table.
Overlay The Overlay toolset contains tools to overlay multiple feature classes to combine,
erase, modify, or update spatial features, resulting in a new feature class. New
information is created when overlaying one set of features with another. There are
six types of overlay operations; all involve joining two existing sets of features
into a single set of features to identify spatial relationships between the input
features.
Proximity The Proximity toolset contains tools that are used to determine the proximity of
features within one or more feature classes or between two feature classes. These
tools can identify features that are closest to one another or calculate the distances
between or around them.
4.6 Geographic Information System

Statistics The Statistics toolset contains tools that perform standard statistical analysis
(such as mean, minimum, maximum, and standard deviation) on attribute data as
well as tools that calculate area, length, and count statistics for overlapping and
neighboring features.

4.3. NETWORK ANALYSIS

It is a type of line analysis which involves set of interconnected lines. Railways, highways,
transportation routes, rivers etc are examples of networks. Network analysis is used to find the
shortest alternated routes between origins to destination Network Analyst provides network based
spatial analysis tools for solving complex routing problems.

Modeling in GIS Highway alignment studies:

4.3.1. Highway Alignment

The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground is called the
alignment. The Horizontal Alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal deviations and
curves. Changes in gradient curves are covered under vertical alignment of roads.

A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment would result in one or
more of the following disadvantages:
1) Increase in construction cost
2) Increase in maintenance cost
3) Increase in vehicles operation cost
4) Increase in accident rate.

The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations are that it
should be:
1) Short 2) Easy 3) Safe 4) Economical

4.3.2. Factor affecting Highway Alignment:

The various factors which control the highway alignment in general may be listed as:
1) Obligatory points
2) Traffic
3) Geometric design
4) Economics
5) Other considerations In hill roads additional care has to be given for: Stability-
6) Drainage
 Data Quality and Standards 4.7
4.3.3. Stages of New Highway Project:
1) Selection of route, finalization of highway alignment and geometric design details.
2) Collection of materials and testing of subgrade soil and other construction material,
mix design of pavement materials and design details of pavement layer.
3) Construction stages including quality control.

4.3.4. Steps Involved in a New Highway Project:

1) Map study
2) Reconnaissance Survey
3) Preliminary survey
4) Location of Final Alignment
5) Detailed survey
6) Material survey
7) Design
8) Earth work
9) Pavement Construction
10) Construction

4.3.5. Need of Study

The conventional method of highway alignment is a tedious and time consuming process
• The conventional highway alignment needs a lot of manual work and expensive
• Remote sensing and Geographical information system makes the highway alignment
easier. It needs less man power,
• less time consuming and economic.

4.3.6. Objectives of study

The objectives of the present study are as follows,
• To identify the factors that influence on highway alignment studies
• To prepare the thematic layers based on the identified factors
• To analyses the traffic volume and future expansion.
• To identify the favorable route for highway alignment.

4.3.7. Methodology
• The base (study area) map, Drainage, Slope and Contour maps were prepared with the
help of SOI Topo-sheet (on 1:50,000 scale).
4.8 Geographic Information System
• IRS LISS III satellite data was used and by using Digital Image Processing techniques
the following thematic maps such as geomorphology, Land use/ Land Cover were
generated as shown in the figure.5.22.
• The DEM is used in order to understand the terrain condition, environmental factors
and social economic status in this study area.
• The factors considered are mainly related to the land use, geology, land value and soil.
The weights and ranks are assigned to each of the above themes, according to expert
opinions, for GIS analysis. After assigning weights and ranks these themes are
overlaid to get an overlaid map.
• Finally, possible/feasible route was identified based on various physical and cultural
parameters and their inherent properties.
• The cost reduction analysis was also done for substantiating the formation of highway.
Finally, possible/feasible route was identified based on various physical and cultural
parameters and their inherent properties. The cost reduction analysis was also done for
substantiating the formation of highway.

Figure.5.22. Methodology
• The main purpose of traffic survey are traffic monitoring, traffic control and
management, traffic enforcement, traffic forecasting, model calibration and validating
etc.
• The purpose of caring out traffic volume count are designing, improving traffic
system, planning, management.
• The traffic volume count study is carried out to get following useful information.
Magnitudes, classifications and the time and directional split of vehicular flows
 Data Quality and Standards 4.9
• Proportion of vehicles in traffic stream - Hourly, daily, yearly and seasonal variation
of vehicular flows
• Flow fluctuation on different approaches at a junction or different parts of a road
network system.
• Network analysis is used to find the shortest alternated routes between origins to
destination Network Analyst provides network-based spatial analysis tools for solving
complex routing problems.

4.3.8. Conclusion
• The purpose of this study was to develop a tool to locate a suitable less time
consuming, shortest route between two points.
• The GIS approach using ground parameters and spatial analysis provided to achieve
this goal. Raster based map analysis provide a wealth of capabilities for incorporating
terrain information surrounding linear infrastructure.
• Costs resulting from terrain, geomorphology, land use, drainage and elevation
resulting the shortest routes for the study area.
• Results indicate that the route which was designed applying GIS method is avoid
traffic problems, less time consuming more environmentally effective, and cheaper.
• This proposed shortest route provides traffic free, pollution free, risk free, operating
for movement of vehicle passing from chettikullam to kottar.
• Time and consumption of fuel will also be reduced considerably. GIS method can also
be used for route determination for irrigation, drainage channels, power lines and
railways.

4.4. TWO MODELS OF DIGITAL EDUCATION

From the introduction of the World Wide Web in 1993 the young of the world have
experienced two models of digital education, that outside the school walls and that within.

Outside the young and the digitally connected families of the world employed – unseen –
the naturally evolving laissez faire model. Within the school the young worked within the
traditional, highly structured model.
4.10 Geographic Information System
It is time the difference is understood, the global success and benefits of the laissez faire
recognised and lauded, and the serious shortcomings of the highly structured understood and
addressed.

For much of the period the two models ran in parallel, with most schools showing little or
no interest in the out of school digital education.

Around 2010 – 2012 the scene began to change when a handful of digitally mature schools
began genuinely collaborating with their families in the 24/7/365 digital education of the children.
Those schools had reached the evolutionary stage where their teaching model and culture closely
mirrored that of the families. They revealed what was possible with collaboration.

That said it took time for that collaboration to take hold more widely and for the most part
the parallel models continue in operation today, with the difference between the in and out of
school teaching growing at pace.

It is surely time for schools and government to question the retention of the parallel modes
and to ask if taxpayers are getting value for the millions upon millions spent solely on schools
when the digitally connected families receive no support.

Might it be time to employ a more collaborative approach where the schools complement
and add value to the contribution of the families?

Without going into detail, it bears reflecting on the distinguishing features of the learning
environment and digital education model, of both the digitally connected family and the school,
and asking what is the best way forward,

4.4.1. The learning environments.

Digitally connected families
That of the families we know well. It has been built around the home’s warmth and
support, and the priority the parents attached to their children having a digital education that
would improve their education and life chances. The focus has always been on the child – the
individual learner – with the children from the outset being provided the current technology by
their family and empowered to use that technology largely unfettered.

Importantly the family as a small regulating unit, with direct responsibility for a small
number of children could readily trust each, and monitor, guide and value their learning from birth
onwards, assisting ensure each child had use of the current technology and that the use was wise
and balanced.

The learning occurred within a freewheeling, dynamic, market driven, naturally evolving
environment, anywhere, anytime, just in time and invariably in context. Those interested could
operate at the cutting edge and the depth desired.

Very early on the young’s use of the digital was normalized, with the learning occurring as
a natural part of life, totally integrated, with no regard for boundaries
 Data Quality and Standards 4.11
The time available to the digitally connected family was – and continues to be – at least
four/five times greater than that in the school.

It was too many seemingly chaotic, but also naturally evolving.

Very quickly the family learning environment became collaborative, socially networked,
global in its outlook, highly enjoyable and creative where the young believed anything was
possible.

By the latter 2000’s most families had created – largely unwittingly – their own
increasingly integrated and sophisticated digital ecosystem, operating in the main on the personal
mobile devices that connected all in the family to all manner of other ecosystems globally.

4.4.2. Digital learning in the school.

The general feature of the school digital learning environment has been invariably one of
unilateral control, where the ICT experts controlled every facet of the technology and its teaching.

They chose, configured and controlled the use of both the hardware and software,
invariably opting for one device, one operating system and a standard suite of applications.

The students were taught within class groups, using highly structured, sequential, teacher
directed, regularly assessed instructional programs.

The school knew best. The clients – the parents and students – were expected to acquiesce.
There was little or no recognition of the out of school learning or technology or desire to
collaborate with the digitally connected families.

The teaching was insular, inward looking, highly site fixated.

In reflecting on school’s teaching with the digital between 1993 and 2016 there was an all-
pervasive sense of constancy, continuity, with no real rush to change. There was little sense that
the schools were readying the total student body to thrive within in a rapidly evolving digitally
based world.

Significantly by 2016 only a relatively small proportion of schools globally were

operating as mature digital organizations, growing increasingly integrated, powerful higher order
digitally based ecosystems.

The reality was that while the learning environment of the digitally connected families
evolved naturally at pace that of most schools changed only little, with most schools struggling to
accommodate rapid digital evolution and transformation.

4.4.3. The teaching models

With the advantage of hindsight, it is quite remarkable how hidden the laissez faire model
has remained for twenty plus years, bearing in mind it has been employed globally since the
advent of the WWW.
4.12 Geographic Information System
For years, it was seen simply as a different, largely chaotic approach used by the kids –
with the focus being on the technological breakthroughs and the changing practices rather than on
the underlying model of learning that was being employed.

It wasn’t until the authors identified and documented the lead role of the digitally
connected families of the world did we appreciate all were using basically the same learning
approach. The pre-primary developments of the last few years affirmed the global application of
the model.

We saw at play a natural model that was embraced by the diverse families of the world.

All were using the same model – a naturally evolving model where the parents were
‘letting things take their own course ‘(OED).

The learning was highly individualized, with no controls other than the occasional parent
nudge. That said the learning was simultaneously highly collegial, with the young calling upon
and collaborating with their siblings, family members, peers and social networks when desired.

Interestingly from early on the young found themselves often knowing more about the
technology in some areas than their elders – experiencing what Tapscott (1998) termed an
‘inverted authority’ – being able to assist them use the technology.

Each child was free to learn how to use, and apply those aspects of the desired
technologies they wanted, and to draw upon any resources or people if needed.

In the process the children worldwide – from as young as two – directed their own
learning, opting usually for a discovery based approach, where the learning occurred anytime,
anywhere 24/7/365. Most of the learning was just in time, done in context and was current,
relevant, highly appealing and intrinsically motivating. Invariably it was highly integrated, with
no thought given to old boundaries – like was it educational, entertainment, communication, social
science or history.

In contrast the school digital teaching model has always been highly structured and
focused on what the school or education authority ‘experts’ believed to be appropriate.

Throughout the period the teaching has been unilaterally controlled, directed by the
classroom teacher, with the students disempowered, distrusted and obliged to do as told.

The teaching built upon linear, sequential instructional programs where the digital
education was invariably treated like all other subjects, shoehorned into an already crowded
curriculum and continually assessed. Some authorities made the ‘subject’ compulsory, others
made it optional.

The focus – in keeping with the other ‘subjects’ in the curriculum – was academic. There
was little interest in providing the young the digital understanding for everyday life.

The teaching took place within a cyber walled community, at the time determined by the
teaching program.
 Data Quality and Standards 4.13
Increasingly the course taught and assessed became dated and irrelevant.

In considering why the young and the digitally connected families of the world have
embraced the laissez faire model of digital education aside from the young’s innate curiosity and
desire to learn we might do well to examine the model of digital learning we have used over the
last twenty plus years and reflect on how closely it approximates that adopted by the young.

Might they be following that ancient practice of modelling the behavior of their parents?

4.4.4. The way forward

Near a quarter of a century on since the introduction of the WWW and an era of profound
technological and social change it is surely time for governments and educators globally to
• Publicly recognise the remarkable success of the digitally connected families and the
laissez faire teaching model in the 24/7/365 digital education of both the children and
the wider family
• Understand the digitally connected families are on trend to play an even greater lead
role
• identify how best to support the family’s efforts without damaging the very successful
teaching model employed
• Consider how best to enhance the educational contribution of all the digitally
connected families in the nation, including the educationally disadvantaged
• Rethink the existing, somewhat questionable contribution of most schools and the
concept of schools as the sole provider of digital education for the young
• Examine where scarce taxpayer monies can best be used to improve the digital
education in the networked world.
Let us all finally recognize the core qualities and the remarkable global success of the
laissez faire digital education model and build upon its achievements.

4.5. 3D DATA COLLECTION AND UTILIZATION

Geographic Information Science (GIS) offers powerful tools for performing detailed
analysis of spatial information and solving complex problems. Traditional GIS data is based on
mapping in two dimensions, an x and y-value, which can be limiting in some applications.
Utilizing 3D GIS software lets users engage with data from a whole new perspective that results in
more nuanced insights and detailed visualizations.
• 3D GIS bring enhanced depth into data collection and analysis by incorporating a z-
value into mapping. Most commonly, that means including elevation data, but users
have many options for adding layers of information. For instance, a map might include
a dimension based on the concentrations of certain chemicals and minerals or which
parcels of land are best suited for development. Working with three dimensions, GIS
professionals can often apply their findings to address real-world issues with greater
accuracy.
• While 3D models are more difficult to create and maintain than 2D ones, there are
myriad 3D GIS applications where this technology is greatly beneficial. These four
4.14 Geographic Information System
examples demonstrate how an investment in 3D GIS modeling can generate added
value:

4.5.1. City Planning

Cities have a way of growing to encompass previously under- or undeveloped areas in a
process often called urbanization or urban sprawl. There are many reasons behind urban sprawl,
including a desire to build improved infrastructure, affordable land or tax rates, or overcrowding
inside the city. Urban sprawl can have a major impact on people who decide to leave the city as
well as those who remain. For example, as residents move farther away from the city center,
infrastructure such as roads or public transportation systems must accommodate their commutes,
and traffic can lead to higher rates of air pollution.

To minimize the negative impacts of urban sprawl and increased development, it’s
important for city planners to carefully determine the best way to grow urban areas. Urban
development needs to take into consideration today’s requirements, potential changes in demand
and the long-term effects of building upward and outward.

3D GIS software can help city planners visualize what their proposed changes will look
like and predict the outcomes for current residents and future generations. One example was the
2012 revitalization of the Mulheim Sud district in Cologne, Germany, located on the Rhine River.
The project set out to make the district, which included a mix of residential, commercial and
industrial buildings, more environmentally friendly over the course of two decades.

A 3D model spotlighted building information, aerial photos, energy performance, air

pollution, lidar elevation data, noise and traffic. The wide range of integrated information allowed
architects, planning engineers and others to collaborate effectively. As the district develops
further, the 3D model will help future planners with energy and environmental modeling and
guide public participation initiatives.

4.5.2. Building Information Modeling

Building information modeling (BIM) is a technology that generates digital
representations of facilities and relevant processes. BIM has given facilities managers the ability
to closely review structures, beginning with the construction planning phase.
 Data Quality and Standards 4.15
Used in conjunction with 3D GIS data, BIM can help create robust building management
plans and allow for more detailed analysis. For example, before breaking ground on a construction
project, stakeholders can review findings from GIS and BIM to draw conclusions about
environmental impact, sustainability, disaster readiness and how to optimize the use of assets and
space.

BIM and 3D GIS can also come together to support the preservation and restoration of
historical buildings. An effort to digitally record cultural heritage sites in Dublin, Ireland, drew on
Historic Building Information Modeling (HBIM) and 3D GIS to document and analyze selected
locations.

One project focused on restoring buildings along Henrietta Street, which dates its earliest
construction to 1730. By the 21st century, the street was lined with buildings in serious need of
care. HBIM technology made it possible to map the extent of the damage and visualize what the
area looked like when new. Researchers employed GIS tools to note attributes of individual
buildings like the years of construction and address information. In the process, they developed a
store of information that could be used to generate in-depth visualizations or guide tourists.

4.5.3. Coastal Modeling and Analysis

A nation’s coastline is a crucial gateway for imports and exports, and about 40 percent of
the world’s population lives within 60 miles of a coast. But these areas also pose numerous
challenges for development.

Its critical for planners to understand the factors that affect construction and maintenance
for shipping ports, fisheries, mineral mining operations and wilderness preservation areas.
Responsible coastal development must be informed by underwater topography, local vegetation
and predictions for the long-term environmental impact.

Resource planning systems that draw on GIS can provide insights into the economic,
environmental and cultural results of activities along the coast. The right data makes all the
difference in sustainably performing operations like construction or excavation. When preparing
for the extraction of resources on the coastline, organizations benefit from synthesizing
information like:
• Findings from 3D GIS mapping that suggest the likely outcomes of dredging material
in the water
• Lidar topographical surveys
• Data sets from past extraction activities
• Trends in coastal change

4.5.4. Wind Farm Assessment

Planning a wind farm requires a detailed analysis of an environment and the potential
effects of the structures. By using 3D GIS modeling, planners and other stakeholders can get a
better idea of the impact from wind farm development on wildlife and people.
4.16 Geographic Information System
For example, when assessing possible wind farm locations in two dimensions, a bird’s
migratory path might make a location seem inaccessible. However, reviewing that same space
using 3D GIS data may reveal that the elevation of birds’ flight paths and the height of the wind
farm are compatible.

In Switzerland, developers wanted to find a way to accurately determine the noise that
would be generated from the installation of a new wind farm. A team developing a visual-acoustic
simulation tool decided to study Mont Crosin in the Canton of Bern, Switzerland, which is home
to 16 wind turbines. The researchers analyzed recordings taken on days with varying wind and
weather conditions and wind speed measurements taken with a 3D ultrasonic anemometer. They
generated 3D models representing vegetation, infrastructure and the wind turbines themselves.
The data allowed planners to predict the noise and environmental impact that would be produced
by the proposed wind farm.
 Data Quality and Standards 4.17
TWO MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANWERS

1) What are the components of data quality?

The following review of data quality focuses on three distinct components, data accuracy,
quality, and error.

2) What are data quality standards?

A Data Quality Standard (or Data Standard) is a term used to describe a documented
agreement on the representation, format, and definition for common data. Data Quality
Standards can be enforced through data quality software.

3) What is buffering?
Buffering is the creation of polygons that surround other points, lines or polygons. Buffers
M/J be created either to exclude a certain amount of area around a point, line or polygon or to
include only the buffer area in a study

4) What is meant by buffer in GIS?

A buffer in GIS is a zone around a map feature measured in units of distance or time. A
buffer is useful for proximity analysis. A buffer is an area defined by the bounding region
determined by a set of points at a specified maximum distance from all nodes along segments
of an object.

5) What is buffering in spatial analysis?

More spatial analysis tools. Buffering is an important and often used spatial analysis tool but
there are many others that can be used in a GIS and explored by the user. Spatial overlay is a
process that allows you to identify the relationships between two polygon features that share
all or part of the same area.

6) What is a query GIS?

A query layer is a layer or stand-alone table that is defined by a SQL query. Query layers
allow both spatial and non-spatial information stored in a DBMS to be easily integrated into
GIS projects within Arc-Map.

7) What is a clip in GIS?

In GIS, to clip is to overlay a polygon on one or more target features (layers) and extract from
the target feature (or features) only the target feature data that lies within the area outlined by
the clip polygon. In other words, the boundaries of the second polygon are imposed on the
first polygon.

8) How do I use a network analyst in Arc-GIS?

• Start ArcCatalog.
• Enable the ArcGIS Network Analyst extension. ...
4.18 Geographic Information System
• On the Standard toolbar, click the Connect to Folder button.
• Browse to the folder with the Network Analyst tutorial data.
• Click OK.
• In Cata-log Tree, expand.\Arc Tutor\Network Analyst\Tutorial > Exercise01 >
SanFrancisco.gdb.

9) What is Network Analyst?

Network analyst is a somewhat broad term that is used to describe several fields of work
related to computer networks. Those who work in this field might be referred to as network
architects, web administrators and developers, and telecommunication specialists.

10) What is the use of network analysis?

Analyzing the structure of a network involves the use of both graphical and statistical
procedures, for instance, to determine the centrality of particular nodes and to detect
community subgroup structures within the network.

11) What is GIS education?

A Geographic Information System (GIS) can be used effectively throughout several levels of
formal and informal education. Robert Tinker, an educational researcher focused on using
technology to teach math and science, advocated using GIS software to link students to global
effects and concerns.

12) What is spaghetti model in GIS?

In the spaghetti model, the shared boundary of two neighboring polygons is defined as two
separate, identical lines. The inclusion of topology into the data model allows for a single line
to represent this shared boundary with an explicit reference to denote which side of the line
belongs with which polygon.

13) Which software is best for data analysis?

Below is the list of top 10 of data analytics tools, both open source and paid version, based on
their popularity, learning and performance.
• R Programming. R is the leading analytics tool in the industry and widely used for
statistics and data modeling.
• Tableau Public:
• SAS:
• Apache Spark.
• Excel.
• RapidMiner:
• KNIME.
• QlikView.
 Data Quality and Standards 4.19
14) What is BIM?
BIM as a ‘workflow’ in which all of the building objects that combine to make up the
building design coexist in a single database. This concept is important because it allows us to
understand the entire building lifecycle (encompassing design, build and operation) from a
single, central data store. So, in theory, a BIM implementation should allow a single, logical,
consistent source of information associated with the building.

BIM can be defined as a process or methodology that:

• Facilitates the integration of data from multiple sources/formats
• Combines the data to form a Common Operating Picture for the entire building
lifecycle
• Enables a comprehensive assessment of the financial and environmental cost of any
building project

15) Where does GIS fit within BIM?

So now we’ve defined BIM, where does GIS fit into an industry that has been predominantly
CAD and architecture based? The remit of a BIM implementation requires that projects have
a holistic view of the data and an integrated set of processes. This is also a common
framework of an enterprise level GIS implementation.

An enterprise GIS system will ensure that:

• All the data is stored in a central repository
• Any data with a common geography can be related to each other
• The project can be assessed at any scale (from individual assets to a whole country)
Out of the three points made above, the third one is possibly the most significant. The
strength of a GIS is the ability to work at any scale (and move between them seamlessly).
It is for this reason that we see GIS gaining importance in the BIM and Facilities
Management space. With the ability to scale, facilities managers and building contractors
can have a common operating picture which delivers an appropriate level of detail based
on the context. The real power of scalability comes with the ability to view data at both
4.20 Geographic Information System
levels. This way, the questions around life cycle cost, carbon footprint etc. can be
answered easily.

16) Benefits of using GIS within BIM

Some of the major benefits that a GIS will bring to a Facilities Management system
include the following capabilities:
• Spatial analytics – which enables project managers and designers to understand the
impact of their design and proposed implementation before the project has even
started. This is a concept known as Geo-design.
• Logistics and networks – This is applicable for both the transport of materials as well
as movement of people.
• Ability to model and forecast – for both the actual construction and also specific
instances like emergency scenarios. An example case study can be found here.
• Use throughout lifecycle – the same platform can be used in the planning, construction
and operation phase
• Enable sharing of information – a GIS will standardize data and processes, ensuring
that different organisation or departments will be able to share information (also
commonly called a common operational picture). An example case study can be
found here.
• Visualization – Creating maps, models and reports for board level audiences is easier
using a mapping solution. See here for an example.
 Data Quality and Standards 4.21
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) Explain (May/June - 2011)

a) Buffering techniques
b) Overlaying techniques
c) Feature Manipulation
2) Briefly explain the Data Analysis tools.
3) Explain the methods of modeling in GIS highway alignment studies. (May/June - 2016)
4) Write an essay of Digital Education models.
5) Write notes on 3D data collection.
6) Explain
a) Building Information Modeling
b) Coastal Modeling and Analysis
c) Wind Farm Assessment
 CHAPTER- 5

APPLICATIONS

5.1. GIS APPLICATIONS

Introduction:
GIS Applications in Geology: Geologists use GIS in a various applications. The GIS is
used to study geologic features, analyze soils and strata, assess seismic information, and or create
three dimensional (3D) displays of geographic features.

Mapping locations:
GIS can be used to map locations. GIS allows the creation of maps through automated
mapping, data capture, and surveying analysis tools.

Mapping quantities:
People map quantities, like where the most and least are, to find places that meet their
criteria and take action, or to see the relationships between places. This gives an additional level
of information beyond simply mapping the locations of features.

Mapping densities:
While you can see concentrations by simply mapping the locations of features, in areas
with many features it may be difficult to see which areas have a higher concentration than others.
A density map lets you measure the number of features using a uniform areal unit, such as acres or
square miles, so you can clearly see the distribution.

Finding distances:
GIS can be used to find out what's occurring within a set distance of a feature.

Mapping and monitoring change:

GIS can be used to map the change in an area to anticipate future conditions, decide on a
course of action, or to evaluate the results of an action or policy.
5.2 Geographic Information System
5.2. GIS Application in Natural Resource Management
Introduction:
Spatial Information is the base for natural resource management. It has been very much
essential to know the spatial as well as temporal distribution of the resource if they are to be
properly managed in a sustainable manner. Based on the resource base situation, certain
management prescriptions can be recommended. The Remote Sensing (RS), Geographic
Information System (GIS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) are such technologies that are
much more reliable, precise and efficient as well than any other resource assessment technology in
resource assessment, change detection, suitability analysis, scenario study impact assessment etc.

Management of natural resources is the need of the hour and therefore commands due
importance in the GIS, CAD and Software industry as well. The technical specifications of
geographic information system (GIS) and computer aided designing and drafting services assist in
management of natural resources.

The GIS for Natural Resource Management maps are useful tool that help in fast and
effective decision making as they create comprehensive maps.

GIS services for Natural Resource Management to the following sectors:

• Environment
• Mining and Geology
• Oil and Gas
• Forestry
• Agriculture

The services offered by a part of its GIS for Natural Resource Management are:
• Thematic Mapping for Natural Resource Management
• Geospatial Livelihood planning
• Spatial Data modelling
• Site suitability analysis
• Satellite image processing
• Land Use Land Cover Mapping
• Geological database creation
• Environmental management using GIS
• Forestry mapping services

5.2.1. Environmental Management

The world is developing at an astonishing rate and while this development has aided in
improving the quality of life, it has also escalated the unaccounted consumption of natural
resources. GIS for Environmental Management acts as important management tool that helps in
 Applications 5.3
maintaining sustainability of natural resources, environment management. The environmental
reforms and policies have grown leaps and bounds from the times of its foundation and therefore
the use of modern technologies is inevitable. Modern day technologies like GIS for Environmental
Management can help in understanding the effects on the environment from an inter-disciplinary
aspect. This holistic approach is not only benefits the flora and fauna but also benefits mankind by
achieving sustainable development using GIS for Environmental Management.

GIS for Environmental Management experience in the following fields:

• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies which define the status of
environment (like air quality, water quality data etc.).
• Creating maps that assist in management of environment in times of natural disaster.
• Thematic maps focusing on development and loss of habitat for specific flora and
fauna
• Wild life management for endangered species
• Carbon Mapping
• Geospatial Livelihood planning
• Spatial Data modelling
• Corridor Mapping
• Thematic maps focusing on areas such as water management, air quality management
and waste management.
IT caters to the need of creating deliverables of GIS for Environmental Management for
various governmental and privately owned organisations. The environmental data for various
developmental initiatives is created and stored in multiple GIS formats using high end software
such as Arc-GIS, ERDAS Imagine/ER Mapper, MapInfo and AutoCAD Map, and Arc-FM.

GIS stands for Geographic Information system. It is a computer system that collects,
analyzes, stores and disseminates geographic information for use by different entities to facilitate
informed and smooth decision making. GIS has important uses in different fields, including in the
environmental field. Below are some of the importance of GIS in environment.

5.2.2. Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA)

EIA is an important policy initiative to conserve natural resources and environment. Many
human activities produce potential adverse environmental effects which include the construction
and operation of highways, rail road‘s, pipelines, airports, radioactive waste disposal and more.
Environmental impact statements are usually required to contain specific information on the
magnitude and characteristics of environmental impact. The EIA can be carried out efficiently by
the help of GIS, by integrating various GIS layers; assessment of natural features can be
performed.

5.2.3. Disaster Management

Today a well-developed GIS systems are used to protect the environment. It has become
an integrated, well developed and successful tool in disaster management and mitigation. GIS can
5.4 Geographic Information System
help with risk management and analysis by displaying which areas are likely to be prone to natural
or man-made disasters. When such disasters are identified, preventive measures can be developed.

5.2.4. Zoning of Landslides hazard

Landslide hazard zonation is the process of ranking different parts of an area according to
the degrees of actual or potential hazard from landslides. The evaluation of landslide hazard is a
complex task. It has become possible to efficiently collect, manipulate and integrate a variety of
spatial data such as geological, structural, surface cover and slope characteristics of an area, which
can be used for hazard zonation.

Determination of land cover and land use

Land cover means the feature that is covering the barren surface .Land use means the area
in the surface utilized for particular use. The role of GIS technology in land use and land cover
applications is that we can determine land use/land cover changes in the different areas. Also it
can detect and estimate the changes in the land use/ land cover pattern within time. It enables to
find out sudden changes in land use and land cover either by natural forces or by other activities
like deforestation.

5.2.5. Estimation of flood damage

GIS helps to document the need for federal disaster relief funds, when appropriate and can
be utilized by insurance agencies to assist in assessing monetary value of property loss. A local
government need to map flooding risk areas for evaluate the flood potential level in the
surrounding area. The damage can be well estimate and can be shown using digital maps .

5.2.6. Management of Natural Resources

By the help of GIS technology the agricultural, water and forest resources can be well
maintain and manage. Foresters can easily monitor forest condition. Agricultural land includes
managing crop yield, monitoring crop rotation, and more. Water is one of the most essential
constituents of the environment. GIS is used to analyze geographic distribution of water resources.
They are interrelated, i.e. forest cover reduces the storm water runoff and tree canopy stores
approximately 215,000 tons carbon. GIS is also used in aforestation.

5.2.7. Soil Mapping

Soil mapping provides resource information about an area. It helps in understanding soil
suitability for various land use activities. It is essential for preventing environmental deterioration
associated with misuse of land. GIS Helps to identify soil types in an area and to delineate soil
boundaries. It is used for the identification and classification of soil. Soil map is widely used by
the farmers in developed countries to retain soil nutrients and earn maximum yield.

5.2.8. Wetland Mapping

Wetlands contribute to a healthy environment and retain water during dry periods, thus
keeping the water table high and relatively stable. During the flooding they act to reduce flood
levels and to trap suspended solids and attached nutrients. GIS provide options for wetland
mapping and design projects for wetland conservation quickly with the help of GIS. Integration
 Applications 5.5
with Remote Sensing data helps to complete wetland mapping on various scale. We can create a
wetland digital data bank with spices information using GIS.

5.2.9. Irrigation management

Water availability for irrigation purposes for any area is vital for crop production in that
region. It needs to be properly and efficiently managed for the proper utilization of water.

5.2.10. Identification of Volcanic Hazard

Volcanic hazard to human life and environment include hot avalanches, hot particles gas
clouds, lava flows and flooding. Potential volcanic hazard zone can be recognized by the
characteristic historical records of volcanic activities, it can incorporate with GIS. Thus an impact
assessment study on volcanic hazards deals with economic loss and loss of lives and property in
densely populated areas.

5.2.11. Mining and Geology

The depletion of resources at a fast rate and implementation of policies that ensure
sustainability of the resources have led mining and geology industry to realise the importance of
technologies such as, GIS for mining and geology GIS. While mining and geology industry is a
traditional industry, the use of GIS for mining and geology GIS has brought about a revolution by
ensuring cost efficient and detailed studies of the concerned area. GIS for mining and geology GIS
help in creation of maps that are an amalgamation of all the information regarding the concerned
area.

The GIS for mining and geology GIS services at IT can assist the industry by providing:
• Site suitability analysis
• Mineral mapping to identify potential mineral zones
• Lithological structural features detection
• Geological database creation
• Map updation for mineral exploration
• Capturing, gridding, contouring of features
• Georeferencing
• Topographical & Physiographical mapping
• Satellite image processing
• Image Classification
• Well-log data capturing
• Digitization and Attribution
• Theme Creation and Map Preparation
• Data Analysis and Report Generation
• Trench & Surface mapping
5.6 Geographic Information System
• Rock / Mineral mapping and Analysis
• Geological Thematic mapping
GIS for mining and geology GIS services use image analysis software packages such as
ENVI, ER-Mapper, ERDAS Imagine, MultiSpec, ArcGIS, ERDAS Imagine / ER Mapper, Arc-
GIS, MapInfo, AutoCAD Map and Micro-Station to easily build focused and detailed spectral
libraries tailored to the application requirements.

5.2.12. Oil and Gas

The growth and development of nations worldwide has led to a steep rise in the demands
for oil and gas. This trend has led to the oil and gas mining industries to invest more in
progressive and adaptive technologies like GIS for oil and gas. Crude oil and gas is now found in
further deep across the earth‘s surface than it was previously, and hence it is essential to use
precise technologies like GIS for oil and gas for fuel exploration and appropriate utilization. GIS
for oil and gas deals with large amounts of data daily such as data based on the geographic
features of the site to data for well-logging, pipeline planning, etc., the data required to understand
the impact of the project on the environment. GIS for oil and gas also helps in land management
which includes working on centralisation of the data for report creation for regulators or for better
analysis of the project.

IT has been providing GIS for oil and gas to leading oil and petroleum exploration and
distribution companies globally. Their operational and research teams have been using GIS for oil
and gas for the following:
• Data index maps creation
• Exploration Survey
• Block ranking via quantitative analysis
• Land management
• Well log digitization
• Thematic maps
• Field operations using high resolution imagery
• Pipeline planning
• Environmental management
• Disaster management
GIS for oil and gas use industry standard software such as Arc-GIS, ERDAS Imagine / ER
Mapper, MapInfo and AutoCAD Map for projects pertaining to oil and gas industry.

5.2.13. Forestry
Forestry mapping services such as Forestry GIS are often required by government and
commercial agencies to perform value assessments for certification, funding, policy
recommendations and regulatory compliances. Often, the forest-cover data available with the
private and govt. agencies is dated and unreliable. This data is not helpful to the user, forestry GIS
 Applications 5.7
can enable creation of updated data. The fast paced growth and the effect of multiple industries
have led to the need for a more precise and unique response to manage the forestry data.

IT‘s forestry mapping services use Forestry GIS and other techniques to provide
project specific solutions in the field of forest management, watershed management,
desertification combat, biodiversity management, environmental monitoring and wildlife
habitat encroachment.

The services provided a Forestry GIS sector to help in managing the forestry assets
can be summarized as:
• Forestry GIS management and suitable livelihood development
• Forest Spatial Data Information portal
• Forestry mapping services for corridor identification
• Species level classification and biodiversity forestry mapping services
• Change detection studies of forest management
• Environment impact assessment studies
• Identifying sites for eco-restoration
• Forestry mapping services of plantations and zonal mapping
• Ortho rectification, haze removal, NDVI for deforestation, forest management and fire
mapping

IT‘s Forestry GIS services use high end software such as Arc-GIS, ERDAS Imagine/ER
Mapper, MapInfo and AutoCAD Map, and Arc-FM.

5.2.14. Agriculture
GIS application in agriculture has been playing an increasingly important role in crop
production throughout the world by helping farmers in increasing production, reducing costs, and
managing their land resources more efficiently. GIS application in agriculture such as agricultural
mapping plays a vital role in monitoring and management of soil and irrigation of any given farm
land. GIS agriculture and agricultural mapping act as essential tools for management of
agricultural sector by acquiring and implementing the accurate information into a mapping
environment. GIS application in agriculture also helps in management and control of agricultural
resources. GIS agriculture technology helps in improvement of the present systems of acquiring
and generating GIS agriculture and resources data.

IT uses GIS application in agriculture sector such as GIS agriculture for improving present
method of acquiring and generating agricultural and resources data.

The company uses different spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions for:
• Crop mapping yield estimation
• Crop assessment and Crop health
• Irrigated landscape mapping
5.8 Geographic Information System
• Application development for GIS agriculture
• Soil and irrigation amendment analysis
• Suitability assessment studies
• Erosion identification and remediation
• Agricultural mapping for detailed vegetation cover and monitoring
• Change detection studies and developing crop models
• Damage and land degradation assessment studies
• Elevation models for efficient drainage
These studies and projects can be executed on any standard GIS formats using high end
software such as Arc-GIS, ERDAS Imagine/ER Mapper, MapInfo and Auto-CAD Map, and Arc-
FM.

5.3. GIS AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

An advanced information system like GIS plays a vital role and serves as a complete
platform in every phase of infrastructure life cycle. Advancement and availability of technology
has set new marks for the professionals in the infrastructure development areas. Now more and
more professionals are seeking help of these technologically smart and improved information
systems like GIS for infrastructure development. Each and every phase of infrastructure life-cycle
is greatly affected and enhanced by the enrolment of GIS.

5.3.1. Planning
In planning its major contribution is to give us with an organized set of data which can
help professionals to combat complex scenarios relating to the selection of site, environmental
impact, study of ecosystem, managing risk regarding the use of natural resources, sustainability
issues, managing traffic congestion, routing of roads and pipelines etc.

5.3.2. Data Collection

Precise and accurate data is the core driving factor of any successful project. GIS is
equipped with almost all those tools and functions that enables user to have access to the required
data within a reasonable time.

5.3.3. Analysis
Analysis is one of the major and most influential phases of infrastructure life cycle.
Analysis guides us about the validity or correctness of design or we can say that analysis is a
method which supports our design. Some of the analyses that can be performed by GIS are:

• Water distribution analysis

• Traffic management analysis
• Soil analysis
• Site feasibility analysis
 Applications 5.9
• Environment impact analysis
• Volume or Area analysis of catchment
• River or canals pattern analysis
• Temperature and humidity analysis

5.3.4. Construction
It is the stage when all layout plans and paper work design come into existence in the real
world. The GIS helps the professionals to understand the site conditions that affect the schedule
baseline and cost baseline. To keep the construction within budget and schedule GIS guides us
about how to utilize our resources on site efficiency by:
• Timely usage of construction equipment.
• Working Hours
• Effects of seasonal fluctuations.
• Optimizing routes for dumpers and concrete trucks
• Earth filling and cutting
• Calculation of volumes and areas of constructed phase thereby helping in Estimation
and Valuation.

5.3.5. Operations
Operations are controlled by modeling of site data and compared by the baselines prepared
in planning phase. Modeling of site may be in the form of raster images or CAD drawings. These
can help us to keep track of timely operations of activities.

GIS can help to make a record of work that has been completed and can give us
visualization in the form of thematic maps which will guide us about rate of operations, completed
operations and pending operations.

In short we can say that GIS will prove to be the foundation of next generation civil
engineering.

5.3.6. Soil and foundation

GIS helps in generating soil maps and geology maps of the area that needs to be
investigated. This will greatly help in finalising the type and depth of foundation, load bearing
capacity of the soils etc. Though the complete finalisation is not possible without in-situ lab tests
of the soil, GIS is definitely an aid in this respect.

5.3.7. Structural engineering

For designing, modelling, scheduling work flow and for maintenance of building, GIS
geo-databases can be created which will be immensely useful and saves lot of time. Oh and GIS
can be integrated with CAD too.
5.10 Geographic Information System
5.3.8. Construction management
Along with Infrastructure management, GIS can be employed to calculate the costs; do
site suitability analysis which will save lot of time.

5.3.9. Transportation engineering

Specifically, traffic engineering is boosted with the help of GIS. Once the database is
created (It might take lot of time and needs constant up gradation too) and network analysis is
performed, it becomes immensely useful to predict the traffic conditions, finalise the optimum
route, locate nearest police stations, hospitals, find alternate routes, you name it, all can be done
using GIS.

A GIS application needs to be explored even more and the near future is heavily relying
on GIS.

5.4. NAVIGATION
Navigation mapping assists the navigation content providers using GIS, GPS, and Remote
sensing technologies instead of traditional method of manual assimilation of data for generation of
navigation content. The accuracy of the new technology ensures creation of flawless maps. The
rampant increase in the number of people who use computerised navigational services for
everyday use. This trend has led to the development of new and innovative geodata content
services and products.

IT offers mapping of:

• Street and road network
• Point of interest
• 2D Landmarks
• 2D footprints
• 3D city models
• Indoor Building Maps
• Street Digitization
• 3D Landmarks
The maps are created while paying attention to details such as grid alignment, capturing
dimensions accurately, positional accuracy and completeness of content. The data can be provided
on multiple platforms.

Its uses high end software such as Arc-GIS, ERDAS Imagine / ER Mapper, MapInfo and
AutoCAD Map to generate the final product in varied formats according to the project‘s
requirements.

5.4.1. Direction-Finding
The use of GIS in navigation industry has been growing at a steady rate. These days the
navigation industry uses new technologies such as GIS, GPS, Remote sensing instead of
 Applications 5.11
traditional method of manual assimilation of data for generation of navigation content. The GIS
services assist the navigation industry in creating flawless maps.

This steep rise in use of GIS can be credited to the rampant increase in the number of
people who use computerised navigational services for everyday use. This trend has led to the
development of new and innovative geo-data content services and products. IT offers high quality
and cost effective navigational map data services.

IT services include mapping of:

• Road and street network data creation
• Point of interest (POI) data creation
• 3D Building Landmark creation (3DLM)
• 2D building footprints digitization (2DFP)
• 3D city model creation
• Indoor Building Maps creation
• Street Digitization
IT creates the maps while paying attention to details such as grid alignment, capturing
dimensions accurately, positional accuracy and completeness of content. The data can be provided
in multiple platforms. IT has extensive experience across multiple technologies, platforms for
product development and sustenance engineering.

The experts use high end software such as ArcGIS, ERDAS Imagine / ER Mapper,
MapInfo and AutoCAD Map to generate the final product in varied formats according to the
client‘s requirements.

5.5. VEHICLE TRACKING

Vehicle Security is a primary concern for all vehicle owners. Owners as well as
researchers are always on the lookout for new and improved security systems for their vehicles.
One has to be thankful for the upcoming technologies, like GPS systems, which enables the owner
to closely monitor and track his vehicle in real-time and also check the history of vehicle's
movements.

This new technology, popularly called vehicle Tracking Systems has done wonders in
maintaining the security of the vehicle.

Vehicle Tracking System is one of the biggest technological advancements to track the
activities of the vehicle. The security system uses Global Positioning System GPS, to find the
location of the monitored or tracked vehicle and then uses satellite or radio systems to send to
send the coordinates and the location data to the monitoring center. At monitoring center various
software‘s are used to plot the Vehicle on a map. In this way the Vehicle owners are able to track
their vehicle on a real-time basis. Due to real-time tracking facility, vehicle tracking systems are
becoming increasingly popular among owners of expensive vehicles.
5.12 Geographic Information System

The vehicle tracking hardware is fitted on to the vehicle. It is fitted in such a manner that it
is not visible to anyone who is outside the vehicle. Thus it operates as a covert unit which
continuously sends the location data to the monitoring unit.

When the vehicle is stolen, the location data sent by tracking unit can be used to find the
location and coordinates can be sent to police for further action. Some Vehicle tracking System
can even detect unauthorized movements of the vehicle and then alert the owner. This gives an
edge over other pieces of technology for the same purpose

Monitoring center Software helps the vehicle owner with a view of the location at which
the vehicle stands. Browsing is easy and the owners can make use of any browser and connect to
the monitoring center software, to find and track his vehicle. This in turn saves a lot of effort to
find the vehicle's position by replacing the manual call to the driver.

As we have seen the vehicle tracking system is an exciting piece of technology for vehicle
security. It enables the owner to virtually keep an eye on his vehicle any time and from anywhere
in the world.

5.5.1. Vehicle Tracking Systems - Overview

Introduction
Vehicle tracking systems are devices used for tracking location of vehicles in real time.
This is made possible by installing electronic devices in the vehicle; it is the signals sent out by
the devices that enable owners or other parties entrusted with the tracking job to trace and follow
the vehicle.

It was the shipping industry that first started using vehicle tracking systems. When large
fleet of vehicles were spread out over the vast expanses of ocean, the owner corporations often
found it difficult to keep track of what was happening. As the saying goes necessity is the mother
of invention; thus GPS tracking systems which originally were used in military operations found
their application here. The commercial application grew poular very soon and these days
consumer vehicles of all sorts use tracking systems as devices to prevent theft and enhance
retrieval.
 Applications 5.13
The Technology
GPS (Global Positioning System) is the technology most commonly used for vehicle
tracking these days. There are also other variants of AVL (Automatic Vehicle Location) that
enable easy location of vehicles. The GPS modules with their satellite linked positioning
technique make easy and accurate location of the vehicle possible. The information can be viewed
on electronic maps that are connected to the Internet or otherwise supported by specialized
software. Advanced GPS modules may also have cellular or satellite transmitters that
communicate with remote users apart from the central station from where the tracking is done.

As we saw earlier, the GPS system uses satellite signals. These systems were originally
developed by the government for defense purposes. The satellite part is thus available to civilians
and commercial users free of cost. All the user needs to do is install the appropriate devices for
sending out and receiving signals. This makes GPS an inexpensive technology.

The other AVL systems like Loran and LoJack are terrestrial based and use radio
frequency (RF) transmitters. RF transmitters send out powerful signals that can pass through
walls, garages and other indoor barriers. Terrestrial or otherwise, most of these do not need
antenna to be in direct line of sight with the satellite. This is a major advantage of the
technology‘s progress.

Active and Passive Tracking

In the case of passive tracking, the device simply stores information of the vehicle like
GPS location, speed, change in direction and events. This information is downloaded onto a
computer for study purposes when the vehicle gets back to its original destination. In the case of
active tracking, the device not only collects the information mentioned above, but it also transmits
the information in real time through satellite or cellular networks.

Uses of Vehicle Tracking

Commercial fleet operators are by far the largest users of vehicle tracking systems. These
systems are used for operational functions such as routing, security, dispatch and collecting on-
board information.

These systems are also used in consumer vehicles as devices for preventing theft and
retrieving stolen/lost vehicles. The signal sent out by the installed device help the police to track
the vehicle. These tracking systems can be used as an alternative for traditional car alams or in
combination with it. Installing tracking systems can thus bring down the insurance costs for your
vehicle by reducing the risk factor.

Vehicle Tracking systems often have several alternatives, like sending automatic alerts to
a phone or email if the vehicle is moved without due authorization. They can also work as one
layer of several combined security measures.

Apart from security concerns, the tracking systems can also help users such as taxi
services to improve their customer service. The systems enable the operators to identify the empty
taxis and direct the nearest one to pick up the customer.
5.14 Geographic Information System
Vehicle tracking systems can also be applied for monitoring driving behavior for both
commercial and individual situations. Parents for instance can use tracking devices to keep an eye
on their teenage son‘s driving.

5.5.2. Markets for Vehicle Tracking Systems

Based on the uses described above, we can categorize the users of vehicle tracking
systems into the following segments.

Tracking and Recovery of Stolen Vehicles: GPS, or better still RF, can help to trace and
recover stolen vehicles. LoJack devices can even be activated remotely by the police

Vehicle Tracking System

Synopsis:
Vehicle Tracking System is the technology used to determine the location of a vehicle
using different methods like GPS and other radio navigation systems operating through satellites
and ground based stations. By following triangulation or trilateration methods the tracking system
enables to calculate easy and accurate location of the vehicle. Vehicle information like location
details, speed, distance traveled etc. can be viewed on a digital mapping with the help of a
software via Internet. Even data can be stored and downloaded to a computer from the GPS unit at
a base station and that can later be used for analysis. This system is an important tool for tracking
each vehicle at a given period of time and now it is becoming increasingly popular for people
having expensive cars and hence as a theft prevention and retrieval device.

System:
The system consists of modern hardware and software components enabling one to track
their vehicle online or offline. Any vehicle tracking system consists of mainly three parts mobile
vehicle unit, fixed based station and, database and software system.
• Vehicle Unit: It is the hardware component attached to the vehicle having either a
GPS/GSM modem. The unit is configured around a primary modem that functions
with the tracking software by receiving signals from GPS satellites or radio station
points with the help of antenna. The controller modem converts the data and sends the
vehicle location data to the server.
• Fixed Based Station: Consists of a wireless network to receive and forward the data
to the data center. Base stations are equipped with tracking software and geographic
map useful for determining the vehicle location. Maps of every city and landmarks are
available in the based station that has an in-built Web Server.
• Database and Software: The position information or the coordinates of each visiting
points are stored in a database, which later can be viewed in a display screen using
digital maps. However, the users have to connect themselves to the web server with
the respective vehicle ID stored in the database and only then s/he can view the
location of vehicle traveled.
 Applications 5.15
Summation:
No doubt, Vehicle tracking system whether it is GPS based or any other wireless medium
has brought one of the most important technological advances in today‘s communication field.
Now one doesn‘t have to leave a place to know where a particular vehicle is at a given period of
time. The automatic vehicle locating system only with the help of a tinny electronic device and
tracking software can detect the real-time location of a vehicle by using the conventional cell
phone network and Internet.

5.5.3. Various applications of GIS based tracking are:

Vehicle Tracking System
Vehicle tracking systems are used to manage the fleet of vehicles. The vehicles are fitted
with GPS receiver and radio based transmitter device to transfer the vehicle location data on the
server for further analysis. On the server GIS maps are used to plot the location.

Vehicle navigation systems

The vehicle navigation systems are used to help the vehicle in navigating to its destination.
The GPS based navigation system uses GIS based maps to guide the vehicle.

5.5.4. Vehicle Tracking and Recovery System

Introduction
Vehicle tracking originated from the shipping industry, where the need for managing
fleets is the top priority. The tracking system makes it easy in locating ships or vehicle easily on
real time basis. It provides power to individual or operator to have full control over its moving
asset.

It is also used as a defense mechanism which protects the vehicles such as construction
equipments, trucks, trailers etc. from theft. This is done with the help of some electronic
equipment attached to the vehicles so that the location of the missing vehicle can be identified as
early as possible.

Devices used to locate and recover:

• Various systems are used to locate the stolen vehicle Mostly GPS, the Global
Positioning System, is used to find out the exact geographic position of the vehicle.
• Another device is satellite transmitters, which transmits signal to a remote user about
the location of the vehicle.
• Loran and Lojack units locate the vehicle by radio frequency that can penetrate
through stone-built structures such as walls, buildings and garages.

Mainly two types of tracking are described: Active tracking and Passive tracking.
• Active tracking works on real time basis that is after collecting information about
location, speed, and destination, the device sends it to data centre. Radio frequency is
active technology.
5.16 Geographic Information System
• Passive tracking works as long as vehicle is on destination. It stores GPS data that can
be later downloaded to the computer. Here different tracking software is available for
storing and downloading data.

Benefits:
This technology is best used by fleet operators for better management. Everything routing,
dispatch, onboard information, security is managed efficiently. Driving behaviour can also be
known by this device.

Technology holds good for consumers‘ vehicles also. Device also makes the task of police
to recover the stolen vehicles easily. It also works as alert system and raise an alarm when vehicle
is removed from the place without authority. Information regarding its location, status and daily
reports can be taken on real time basis from the vehicle itself.

Field of uses:
Technology can be used for different purposes including service management, fleet
management, stolen vehicle recovery, field sales and trailer tracking.

5.5.5. Features and Functions of GPS Vehicle Tracking System

While handing over the vehicle to the children, there is always a rule book attached. But
there are always chances of violation of the instructions given to children. Way out lies in the GPS
vehicle tracking system. By this device one can easily monitor whether the rules are being
followed by the child or not.

The devices with various facilities help to keep a watch and control on them. You just
need to attach a small tracking device with your vehicle and the service providers do the rest with
tracking software that provides timely details of the vehicle. Some of the basic features are given
below.

Function:
Device identifies the location of the vehicle on a real time basis. Just through internet you
can easily track your exact position of the vehicle.

Whether passive or active the tracking devices store all location and speed details that you
can collect through your PC by using internet and a special software made for this purpose. Even
one can set the speed limitation in the device attached. If somebody drives the car beyond the
specified speed limit, it will alert you immediately.

Device helps not only to keep limit on its speed but also on its area. Similarly you can
create safety zones so that the moment your vehicle goes out of the designated area, the device
alerts you through SMS, email or by using any other wireless media.

Best feature of the system is its easiness with which it can be used. From anywhere one
can get the information about that particular vehicle by logging in the information required.
Details about the car are displayed within seconds.
 Applications 5.17
Some devices work even in a smarter way by making a chart of the entire activities of the
vehicle over a period of time that you can analyse later on. Hence, these tracking devices have
really revolutionised the communication medium by providing various cool features at your
fingertips.

5.5.6. GPS for better fleet management

GPS technology was developed by US for military purposes to help navigation in air,
water as well as on land. Later it became indispensable in commercial areas. A group of satellites
are used to send the received data back to receivers on the surface of the earth.

For tracing the time lag between the time code signal sent and the time it was actually
received on earth GPS makes use of theory of relativity propounded by Einstein and four signals
to provide accuracy.

Once the technology was confined to military domain, today it became a $15 billion
industry. Mostly GPS is being used by the public transportation agencies as they generally have to
deal with larger area. For example school buses in cities to keep the track of the buses to make
safety of the passengers sure. GPS gives drivers information about the other vehicle so that on the
basis of information received may align its own course avoiding traffic congestion. Thus keeping
passengers safe and also saving time.

This also gives parents peace of mind as they find that vehicle carrying their children are
regularly being monitored or kept watch.

In India, a fleet of one fifty GPS enabled metered taxis were launched in Mumbai. This
enhanced fleet provided better customer services as they now were able to book a taxi in advance
just by few strokes on internet or phone and call taxi at a preferred location. This added one more
to the list of benefits to the customer that now customer will be charged appropriately as all the
data regarding mileage will be sent back to the control centre. This also ensures the safety of the
passenger as there are reduced chances of kidnapping or harming the passenger by virtue of
monitoring of the vehicle.

In companies device is used to track especially supply trucks and trucks used by the
contractors going to job sites. This permits real time tracking of the mobile asset. This also
abridges the gap between the actual mileage and the bill paid for it. Transparency naturally comes
in the system.

Thus tracking of vehicles reduces the cost of labour, fuel and culminates into the efficient
service delivery system.

5.6. MARKETING
GIS provides more in-depth analysis, assessment, and understanding of your marketing
and promotions. Visualize where your customers are located by analyzing demographic,
psychographic, purchasing, and spending characteristics for accurate customer segmentation and
helping you find more like them. Use market potential to your advantage so you can optimize
your store network and maximize sales from every outlet by improving marketing outreach,
campaign performance, and brand interaction. Location analytics is a key element to the
5.18 Geographic Information System
successful development, evolution, and growth of all aspects of marketing, from social media to
display advertising, coupon optimization, and sentiment analysis.

Success stories
These stories show how business organizations are gaining benefits using GIS technology
and spatial analysis.

• Nike Learns Who Its Customers Are

• Location-based Choices Drive Growth at Starbucks
• Carrefour Group–Better Business Analytics by Understanding Location

5.6.1. Applications of GIS in Business

GIS, like many other industries, has found its way in business as well. There are various
aspects of the business and corporate world where GIS has found meaning. Below are some of the
applications of this very interesting invention in the field of business.

Banking:
Being market driven banks need to provide customer centric services around planning of
resources and marketing. GIS plays an important role providing planning, organizing and decision
making.

Assets Management:
GIS helps organizations to locate and store information about their assets. Operations and
maintenance staff can also deploy their enterprise and mobile workforce.

Dairy Industry:
Geographic Information Systems are used in the distribution of products, production rate,
location of shops and their selling rate. These can also be monitored by using a GIS system.

Tourism:
Tourists can get all the information they need on a click, measuring distance, finding
hotels, restaurants and even navigate to their respective links. This Information plays a vital role
to tourists in planning their travel from one place to another.

Business:
GIS is used for managing business information based on its location. GIS can keep track
of where customers are located, site business, target marketing campaigns, and optimize sales
territories and model retail spending patterns.

Market Share:
Examining branch locations, competitor locations and demographic characteristics to
identify areas worthy of expansion or determine market share in Maptitude.
 Applications 5.19
ATM Machine:
Filling in market and service gaps by understanding where customers, facilities, and
competitors are with address locating, database management and query tools.

World Bank Economic Statistics:

Slicing and dicing raw financial data from the World Bank.

Merger and Acquisitions:

Profiling and finding opportunities to gain and build where customers are with market
profiling.

Supply and Demand:

Identifying under-served areas and analyzing your competitor's market.

Community Reinvestment Act (CRA):

Fulfilling the obligations to loan in areas with particular attention to low- and moderate-
income households – using GIS to understand spatial demographics.

Mobile Banking:
Capturing locations where existing mobile transaction occur and assisting in mobile
security infrastructure.

Internet of Things:
Improving efficiency, accuracy and economic benefit through a network of physical
objects such as devices, vehicles, buildings and other items—embedded with electronics,
software, sensors, and network connectivity that enables these objects to collect and exchange
information with one another.

Market Share Analysis:

Optimizing the locations of facilities so the allocated demand is maximized in the
presence of competitors using tools like location-allocation in ArcGIS.

Integrated Freight Network Model:

Integrating highly detailed information about shipping costs, transfer costs, traffic
volumes and network interconnectivity properties in a GIS-based platform. (Integrated Freight
Network Model)

X Vision Sales and Marketing Data Management Application:

GIS Enabled Sales and Marketing Application is cloud based software to automate the
business process of sales and marketing department. Its primary functioning includes the
digitization of files & records, generation of reports including Maps functionality using GIS
Platform. This application helps the users in input, updation and retrieval of different set of
information to perform their daily tasks.
5.20 Geographic Information System
It has proven to be powerful Prospect Capturing & Follow Up tool from the first Phone
Call, Email, Site Visit, all information relating to a prospective customer is maintained in this
module to give continuity to customer handling across various sales force. The prospect database
is useful for profiling customers and using in launch of subsequent other projects. It also enables
Automation of the Sales business processes starting from Booking, Allotment, Transfer, Demand
Notice, Collection and Recovery Process, Pre Possession, Handover are handled smooth and A
detailed Customer History is maintained and available at the press of a key.

Key Features of the Application

• Maintain Sales Stock: Sold, Available, Blocked, On Hold, un-Released
• Customer Profile: CRM, Customer interaction Management, Sold Units Management.
Customer management via self-service Customer Portal
• Booking form, creation of payment schedule, receipts against schedule
• Receipt creation, Interest on Delayed payments, Excess Amounts,
• Auto Demand letter generation, Payment Reminders
• Collection reminders and collection aging lists
• Transfer of units. (Resale)
• Email Templates: Birthday Wishes, Greetings, Payments, general bulk email to
customers, SMS messages, etc
• Prospecting/pre-sales to sales closure lifecycle of sales mapping

5.7. CASE STUDIES

5.7.1. Network Intelligence Portal
The Network Intelligence Portal is a secure cloud-based information service that brings
together asset condition and other survey data from across the network in real-time. It gathers data
directly from CCTV, ultrasonic and acoustic survey equipment. Using award winning mapping
tools, it delivers network insight to the right user at the right time. Provided by SCISYS in close
collaboration with Balfour Beatty and JD7 this novel service enables Asset Managers to:
• Direct & supervise remote ‗no-dig‘ survey operations using live site data;
• Make informed capital and operational expenditure decisions.
• Develop LEAN and sustainable operations that drive improved operational efficiency,
reduce carbon emissions and water footprint, and lower Health & Safety risk exposure
for the workforce;
• Provide assurance that ―as built‖ asset data is held securely, ensuring its availability
when needed and its integrity for future re-use;
• Improve client satisfaction by reducing the time taken to resolve issues
• Reduce SIM Impact by using a pro-active investigation and data capture, storage and
streaming service, avoiding dry holes and conservative customer disruptive fixes.
 Applications 5.21

Fig.5.8. Network Intelligence Portal in action

5.7.2. Key Service Features

Trusted Supplier:
Asset condition data is captured on-site using state-of-the-art surveying technology
supplied by JD7 and operated by trained staff.

Remote Oversight:
Data is available on the desktop in real-time, subject to a suitable network connection in
the field, enabling decision makers to manage their time more effectively.

Intuitive User Interface:

The map-based interface makes the data accessible and easy to understand. Analysis tools
allow the full detail of the data to be scrutinised, enabling decisions based on the best possible
network condition information.

Data Security:
Video and pipe-wall condition data is held securely to prevent unauthorised access,
ensuring data quality and the audit trail are maintained. Only authorised users can view the data,
accessing the system using a secure user name and password.

High Availability:
Private cloud hosting ensures data is available when required. Data is backed-up to a
separate storage location to ensure business continuity in the unlikely event of data loss on the live
service.

Extensible Service:
The service is designed to allow new data sources to be incorporated as and when they are
required, such as on the introduction of new network inspection technologies.
5.22 Geographic Information System
5.7.3. Benefits to Utility Companies
An increasing number of pipe condition assessment and camera systems provide asset
management information in a variety of formats. The SCISYS Network Intelligence Portal will
combine all of the data to provide a comprehensive view of this information, enabling focused and
astute solution design and delivery.

By combining the above data, asset managers and capital planners are able to take more
effective investment decisions, resulting in better service outcomes for their customers. This will
provide a robust, long term and sustainable solution that delivers a more targeted solution with
lower CAPEX, whilst driving progress towards water efficiency and leakage reduction targets.

5.7.4. Digiright
Digiright is a solution from SCISYS that allows users to quickly and efficiently capture
and edit real world features (point, line and polygon) through their web browser. Digiright can be
deployed on premise or provided as a fully managed cloud service, including the provision of base
mapping from Ordnance Survey or other mapping providers.

Fig.5.9. Digiright in action

Digiright is an enterprise-ready GIS framework for spatial vector editing. Digiright has
been designed to simplify and automate the process of feature capture and processing by putting
the tools in the hands of the end users, but with a high level of quality assurance.

Digiright has integrated security and is scalable. It will integrate with mainstream
Geographic Information data feeds as well as a customer‘s own spatial data.

Functional Overview
• Easily customised and extensible
• Lightweight and simple to deploy
• Easily integrated
• Inbuilt validation rules
 Applications 5.23
Digiright is ideal for
• Capturing point, line and polygon data
• Editing in the office or the field
• Maintaining clean geometries
• snapping to existing features, guide lines or features from other data sources
• Overlaying raster / vector data
• Dragging Geometries

5.7.5. Cartosys

Cartosys delivers all of the essential tools an organisation needs to successfully deploy
location-based services.

The Cartosys toolkit, built on open standards, integrates proven and supported open source
tools into a single out-of-the-box solution that is quick and easy to deploy, configure and manage,
without the need for software coding.
• Built on open standards with an open API.
• Integrates with your existing open source and COTS products.
• Provides a rapid, cost effective way to deliver your geospatial needs.

5.7.6. SLD Editor

The SLD Editor is a Java desktop application developed by SCISYS and contributed to
the open-source community that allows the creation and editing of OGC Styled Layer Descriptors
interactively using a graphical user interface.

The application provides a toolset to improve workflow.

• Main features include:
• Vector (point, line and polygon) symbol editing
• Raster symbol editing
• Text symbol editing
5.24 Geographic Information System
• Functions, filters, expressions, transformations all configurable via dialog
• GeoServer vendor options supported:
• Labelling
• WKT geometry
• Windbarbs
• Integration with GeoServer
• Map viewer
• Ability to convert Esri MXD files to SLD files (requires separate licensed components
not supplied as part of this project)

Forestry commission - Tree Alert

Forestry Commission Tree Alert – leveraging the power of Open Source GI tools and
Crowd-sourcing techniques to track the spread of tree diseases

Background
Ash dieback is a tree disease that has hit the headlines in recent years, threatening to
almost completely destroy Britain‘s estimated 130 million ash trees, but it‘s not the only threat to
native tree species. An increasing number of invasive pests and diseases threaten British trees. In
response, the Forestry Commission needed to have efficient processes to address the threats in a
proactive and consistent way.

In July 2013, EU LIFE+ approved funding for the 4 year Observatree project lead by the
Forestry Commission. As part of this project the opportunity was seized to take advantage of an
engaged public as ‗citizen scientists‘ as well as the 25,000 or so people who work in the arboreal
industry. What was needed was an easy to use application that would allow them to make
scientifically useful reports about their observations.

5.7.7. Solution
With limited time and budget available to the project team, an innovative and efficient
approach was required. Any solution needed to be ready for deployment prior to the start of the
next growing season, when most of the reports are made.

To achieve this goal the Forestry Commission engaged SCISYS to help them design and
deliver Tree Alert. Tree Alert is a browser based application that guides users through a series of
intelligent questions, which reflect previous answers, to help to identify the issue, including
confirmation of the species as well as the key symptoms.

Using an Open Architecture combining a number of Open Source and existing SCISYS
technologies, the project team were able to take advantage of functionality already available. The
basis of the site uses the content management system Joomla to provide an application framework.
This has been integrated with the SCISYS Digiright component to capture the location
information about the observation.
 Applications 5.25
Benefits
Tree Alert has significantly increased the reach of the Forestry Commission in collecting
observation about potential tree diseases and pests. Commenting on the solution Roger Coppock,
Head of Corporate and Forestry Support, Forestry Commission said ―The information gathered on
the Tree Alert site doesn‘t just allow us to investigate individual cases reported by the general
public, as we can now set priorities based on risk and track the incidence of new and invasive
pests and diseases. This information will prove invaluable in our understanding of how tree pests
and diseases spread in Britain, and help us to protect our woodlands for generations to come.‖

5.7.8. Natural Resources Wales Spatial Data Consultancy

Background
The Environment Agency depends upon vast quantities of data and information to carry
out its statutory duties and responsibilities, a significant proportion of which is spatial. In
developing its information assets, the Environment Agency must adhere to European legislation
that governs access to and re-use of public sector information, including the future impacts of the
INSPIRE Directive.

Solutions and Services Delivered

Natural Resources Wales commissioned SCISYS to undertake strategic and technical
consultancy to provide advice and support for the successful operation of existing GIS
implementations as well as the development of new implementations. The services supplied by
SCISYS included:
• Recommendations and working examples of the most suitable spatial data comparison
tool to fit with their existing implementation.
• Improvements to existing data management processes and workflow , for example the
development and implementation of a methodology to update regional and area
datasets when updates are applied at the national or regional level.
• An INSPIRE compliant GEMINI 2.1 metadata export facility
• Review of existing data management and technical implementation for fly-tipping
photograph geo-tagging.

Benefits
The benefits to Natural Resources Wales include:
• A data comparison tool that can be used to detect change within the flood zones. The
tool compares newly generated data to previous polygons to assist in the preparation
of data for delivery into external data products.
• Improved data management procedures and processes which are aligned to and
integrated with their data management lifecycle workflow.
• Gemini 2.1 INSPIRE compliant metadata integrated into the data management
lifecycle.
5.26 Geographic Information System
• A set of recommendations and an associated roadmap to enable Natural Resources
Wales to streamline and develop its fly-tipping photograph geo-tagging process.

5.7.9. Coal Authority

The Coal Authority (TCA) manages the effects of past coal mining, including subsidence
damage claims which are not the responsibility of licensed coal mine operators. It deals with mine
water pollution and other mining legacy issues.

Background
In undertakings these operations the Authority collects, uses and maintains a vast array of
spatial data in some cases dating back hundreds of years. TCA were using a wide variety of end-
of-life point solutions to deliver services from islands of data across their enterprise. Apart from
the considerable financial implications of maintaining this position it was identified as limiting the
business as it was unable to adapt to changing market conditions and predicted volumes of
business. Corporate knowledge was ―siloed‖ making it time consuming to provide the highest
quality safety advice.

Solution
TCA commissioned SCISYS to supply an enterprise information service: known as
"Inferis", this facilitates smarter working via corporate data sharing and service re-use. Services
supplied span the entire software life cycle from analysis to support. A centralised spatially
enabled database serves all functions. SCISYS worked closely with TCA to understand their
corporate business processes and policies, considering each process in isolation. These were then
translated into the minimum number of generic capabilities and provided as re-useable services,
including the innovative approach of embedding suitably configured mapping (GIS) services
within workflow steps. Previously isolated pools of data are now accessible via the re-useable
services from a spatially enabled database. This significantly empowers the business as all
information and opinion on a site is available in one system: making the most of TCA assets. The
same services are re-used in all aspects of the business, from web based customer self service to
forensic geospatial analysis of corporate data by TCA specialists.

Inferis uses a hybrid architecture combining Esri components for back-end data processing
combined with open source components (Open Layers and Geo-server) to visualise and capture
data via the internal corporate GIS browser, cartosys, and external feature capture tool (the
SCISYS Digiright component).

"Up to date and accurate operational information is key to every decision we make in the
business and to our customers who rely on our coal mining report when buying and selling
property. With Inferis, for the first time, we have a single integrated system which provides the
solutions we need across the business and access to the most up to date information including
Ordnance Survey products." Says Steve Pennell, The Coal Authority Director of Mining
Information and Services.
 Applications 5.27
Benefits
• All spatial data assets are now available across the whole enterprise
• 100% increase in mining report generation productivity
• 98% of reports ordered and returned electronically via self service
• >70% of property boundaries digitised by the customer
Commenting on the delivery Steve Pennell, The Coal Authority Director of Mining
Information and Services said "Up to date and accurate operational information is key to every
decision we make in the business and to our customers who rely on our coal mining report when
buying and selling property. With Inferis, for the first time, we have a single integrated system
which provides the solutions we need across the business and access to the most up to date
information including Ordnance Survey products."
5.28 Geographic Information System

TWO MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANWERS

1) What is the application of GIS?

GIS Applications in Geology: Geologists use GIS in a various applications. The GIS is used
to study geologic features, analyze soils and strata, assess seismic information, and or create
three dimensional (3D) displays of geographic features.

2) How is GIS used in natural resource management?

Use of Remote Sensing and GIS in Natural Resource Management. In natural resource
management, remote sensing and GIS is mainly used in the mapping process. These
technologies can be used to develop a variety of maps.

3) How is GIS used in environmental management?

Below are some of the importance of GIS in environment.
• Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA).
• Disaster Management.
• Zoning of Landslides hazard.
• Determination of land cover and land use.
• Estimation of flood damage.
• Management of Natural Resources.
• Soil Mapping.
• Wetland Mapping.

4) How is GIS used in forestry?

Under the GIS program, the forest maps were digitized and a forestry inventory can be
updated constantly. GIS provides a way for forestry agencies to manage and manipulate their
databases. Land sat satellite is used to update the individual maps that need current
information due to forest harvesting or forest fires.

5) How is GIS used in agriculture?

GIS application in agriculture such as agricultural mapping plays a vital role in monitoring
and management of soil and irrigation of any given farm land. GIS application in agriculture
also helps in management and control of agricultural resources.

6) What are some examples of agricultural technology?

With that in mind, here are seven emerging technologies that can literally change the
agricultural landscape in the years ahead.
• Soil and Water Sensors.
 Applications 5.29
• Weather Tracking.
• Satellite Imaging.
• Pervasive Automation.
• Minichromosomal Technology.
• RFID Technology.
• Vertical Farming.

7) What is the role of GIS in disaster management?

GIS is useful for hazard zone mapping and during emergency conditions mitigation of people
can easily possible using this map. A GIS technology is much useful in modeling of disaster
risks and human adaptations to hazards. It is also provides decision support system in disaster
management.

8) What is the role of technology in disaster management?

Integration of space technology inputs into natural disaster monitoring and mitigation
mechanisms is critical for hazard reduction. The disaster preparedness and awareness is the
only effective way of mitigating the impact of future disasters.

9) How GIS application in civil engineering.

GIS in civil engineering provides a dominant location to conduct longitudinal analysis
overlay data and assimilate other solutions systems. Fabricated on a database and not in the
individual project files, GIS allows civil engineers to effortlessly manage share, reuse and
analyze data thus managing time and resources.

10) How GIS application in civil engineering.

The use of GIS in navigation industry has been growing at a steady rate. The GIS services
assist the navigation industry in creating flawless maps. This steep rise in use of GIS can be
credited to the rampant increase in the number of people who use computerised navigational
services for everyday use.

11) What is called Vehicle Tracking System?

Vehicle tracking systems are used to manage the fleet of vehicles. The vehicles are fitted with
GPS receiver and radio based transmitter device to transfer the vehicle location data on the
server for further analysis. On the server GIS maps are used to plot the location.

12) What is called Vehicle navigation systems?

The vehicle navigation systems are used to help the vehicle in navigating to its destination.
The GPS based navigation system uses GIS based maps to guide the vehicle.

13) What is fleet management in GIS?

Fleet management is the most important function for any bus based public transport
organization. This involves scheduling and planning of routes and at the same time ensuring
that the buses run as per the schedule.
5.30 Geographic Information System
14) What are applications of GIS in Business?
Geographic Information Systems are powerful decision-making tools for any business or
industry since it allows the analyzation of environmental, demographic, and topographic data.
Data intelligence compiled from GIS applications help companies and various industries, and
consumers, make informed decisions.

15) What are applications of GIS case study?

GIS Applications and Case Studies. This unit presents
(1) A case study and
(2) A bibliographic resource for GIS in the medical field.
The case study illustrates the use of a GIS to monitor and analyze spatial patterns of
physicians multiple locations.

16) Significance of SLD EDITOR in GIS.

In cartography, a Styled Layer Descriptor (SLD) is an XML schema specified by the Open
Geospatial Consortium (OGC) for describing the appearance of map layers. It is capable of
describing the rendering of vector and raster data.

17) List out the benefits to Natural Resources Wales include

• A data comparison tool that can be used to detect change within the flood zones. The
tool compares newly generated data to previous polygons to assist in the preparation
of data for delivery into external data products.
• Improved data management procedures and processes which are aligned to and
integrated with their data management lifecycle workflow.
• Gemini 2.1 INSPIRE compliant metadata integrated into the data management
lifecycle.
• A set of recommendations and an associated roadmap to enable Natural Resources
Wales to streamline and develop its fly-tipping photograph geo-tagging process.

18) List out the benefits to Coal Authority

• All spatial data assets are now available across the whole enterprise
• 100% increase in mining report generation productivity
• 98% of reports ordered and returned electronically via self service
• >70% of property boundaries digitised by the customer
 Applications 5.31
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) Briefly explain the GIS application in natural resource management

2) Explain application of GIS in environmental management
3) Briefly application of GIS in forestry
4) Describe the application of GIS Mining, Geology, Oil and Gas
5) Explain GIS application in agriculture
6) Write notes on GIS application in civil engineering
7) Write notes on GIS application in navigation
8) Describe the GIS application in vehicle tracking and fleet management system
9) Explain the applications of GIS in Business
10) Briefly explain applications of GIS case studies
 APPENDIX- A

MODEL QUESTION PAPERS

MODEL QUESTION PAPERS - I

B.E/B.Tech. DEGREE MODEL EXAMINATION
Third Semester
Civil Engineering
OCE552 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM
(Regulations 2013)
Answer ALL questions
PART-A (10 × 2 = 20 Marks)

1. What is Geographical co-ordinate system?

2. What are the components of GIS?
3. Compare vector & raster data structure.
4. Define Run length encoding.
5. Write short notes on digitizing.
6. Describe the dilution of precision (dop).
7. What is spaghetti model in GIS?
8. What is BIM?
9. What is the role of GIS in disaster management?
10. What is fleet management in GIS?

PART–B (2 × 13 = 26 MARKS)
11. (a) Describe in detail, the Basic spatial concepts. Add a note on introduction to GIS.
(or)
(b) Write an essay on attribute data model.
App-A.2 Geographic Information System
12. (a) Compare and contrast raster and vector data representation with suitable examples.
(or)
(b) Explain Triangular Irregular Network (TIN)
13. (a) Briefly explain the Scanners for Raster Data Input in GIS
(or)
(b) Briefly explain the Open Database Connectivity (ODBC)
(or)
14. (a) Explain
a) Buffering techniques
b) Overlaying techniques
c) Feature Manipulation
(or)
(b) Explain the methods of modeling in GIS highway alignment studies
15. (a) Briefly Application of GIS in forestry
(or)
(b) Briefly explain applications of GIS case studies

PART-C (1 × 16 = 16 MARKS)
16. (a) Write detailed notes on Raster Data Compression.

(or)
(b) Briefly explain the Data Analysis tools.
 Model Question Papers App-A.3
MODEL QUESTION PAPERS - II
B.E/B.Tech. DEGREE MODEL EXAMINATION
Third Semester
Civil Engineering
OCE552 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM
(Regulations 2013)
Answer ALL questions
PART-A (10 × 2 = 20 Marks)
1. What is the difference between datum and ellipsoid?
2. What is GIS datum?
3. Distinguish between spatial & non spatial data.
4. Explain TIN.
5. What is overlying?
6. Write short notes on topographical in GIS
7. What is buffering?
8. Where does GIS fit within BIM?
9. How is GIS used in agriculture?
10. Significance of SLD EDITOR in GIS

PART–B (2 × 13 = 26 MARKS)

11. (a) Write an essay on Geographic Coordinate Systems.

(or)
(b) Write an essay on scale of measurement/Level of measurements
12. (a) Explain the components of GIS with neat diagram and discuss about the database
structures that are employed in GIS data management.
(or)
(b) Write an essay on Map Scale and Errors during Data Entry.

13. (a) Briefly explain the digitization processes in GIS

(or)
(b) Briefly explain the Topology in GIS
App-A.4 Geographic Information System
(or)
14. (a) Write an essay of Digital Education models.
(or)
(b) Explain
a) Building Information Modeling
b) Coastal Modeling and Analysis
c) Wind Farm Assessment
15. (a) Briefly explain the GIS application in natural resource management
(or)
(b) Write notes on GIS application in navigation

PART-C (1×16 = 16 MARKS)

16. (a) What is data model? Add notes on different types of data
(or)
(b) Describe the GPS, Uses of GPS, structure of GPS and GPS positioning etc.