INTRODUCTION TO THEORY OF MACHINESA N D M E C H A N I S M S

A mechanism is a device that transforms motion to some desirable

pat-tern and typically develops very low forces and transmits little
power. A machine typically contains mechanisms that are designed
to pro-vide significant forces and transmit significant power. Some
examples of typical mechanisms are a stapler, a door lock, car
window wiper, etc. Some examples of machines that possess motions
similar to the mechanisms above are an automobile engine, a crane,
and a robot. There is no clear line of difference between mechanisms
and machines. They differ in degree rather than definition.

R OBOTICS
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FIGURE 2.1
Four-bar linkage.
Bar 2Bar 12341Bar 3Ground 2BaseGround 1Revolutes
If a mechanism involves light forces and is run at slow speeds, it can some-times be
strictly treated as a kinematic device; that is, it can be analyzed kine-matically without
regard to forces. Machines (and mechanisms running at higherspeeds), on the other hand, must
be fi rst treated as mechanisms. A kinematicanalysis of their velocities and accelerations must
be done and then they mustbe treated as dynamic systems in which their static and
dynamic forces due toaccelerations are analyzed using the principles of kinetics. Most of
the applica-tions in robotics involve motions at lower speeds and low or moderate forces
areinvolved. So we will restrict our discussion only to the kinematics of mechanismsin
this chapter. However, there are certain instances where the study of the dy-namics
becomes very essential in robotics. A discussion of those instances isbeyond the scope of
this book

Four-bar Mechanism
In the range of planar mechanisms, the simplest group of lower pair mechanismsis four-
bar linkages. A four-bar linkage comprises four bar-shaped links and fourturning pairs as
shown in Figure 2.1
The link opposite the frame is called the coupler link, and the links,
which are hinged to the frame, are called side links. A link, which is
free to rotate through 360 degrees with respect to a second link, will
be said to revolve relative to the second link (not necessarily a
frame). If it is possible for all four bars to become simultaneously
a l i g n e d , s u c h a s t a t e i s c a l l e d a c h a n g e p o i n t . Some important concepts in
link mechanisms are:1.
Crank:
A side link, which revolves relative to the frame, is called a crank.2.
Rocker:
Any link that does not revolve is called a rocker.3.
Crank-rocker mechanism:
In a four-bar linkage, if the shorter side link revolves and the other one rocks (i.e.,
oscillates), it is called a crank-rockermechanism.4.
Double-crank mechanism:
In a four-bar linkage, if both of the side links revolve, it is called a double-crank
mechanism.5.
Double-rocker mechanism:
In a four-bar linkage, if both of the side links rock, it is called a double-rocker
mechanism. Before classifying four-bar linkages, we need to introduce some basic no-
menclature. In a four-bar linkage, we refer to the line segment between hinges on a given
link as a
bar
where:
s=length of the shortest bar
l=length of the longest bar
p, q=lengths of the intermediate bars

Grashof’s theorem
states that a four-bar mechanism has at least one re-volving link if
s+l <=p+q (2.1)and all three mobile links will rock if
s+l > p+q. (2.2)All four-bar mechanisms fall into one of the four categories listed in
Table2.1.From Table 2.1 we can see that for a mechanism to have a crank, the sum of the
length of its shortest and longest links must be less than or equal to the sum of the length
of the other two links. However, this condition is necessary but not sufficient. Mechanisms
satisfying this condition fall into the following three categories:

Inversion of the Slider-crank Mechanism

Inversion
is a term used inkinematics for a reversal or interchange of form orfunction as applied to
kinematic chains and mechanisms. For example, taking adifferent link as the fi xed
link, theslider-crank mechanism shown in Figure 2.4acan be inverted into the mechanisms
shown in Figures 2.4b, c, and d. Differentexamples can be found in the application
of thesemechanisms. For example, themechanism of the pump device in Figure 2.5 is the
same as that in Figure 2.4b.
Figure 1
SYNTHESIS OF MECHANISMS
Most engineering design practice involves a combination of synthesis and analysis.
However, one cannot analyze anything until it is synthesized into existence. Many
mechanism design problems require the creation of a device with certain motion
characteristics. An example could be moving a tool from position A to position B in a
particular time interval. There could be endless possibilities. But a common denominator
is often the need for a linkage to generate the desired motions. So, we will now explore
some simple synthesis techniques to enable you to create potential linkage design
solutions for some typical kinematic applications.

Type, Number, and Dimensional Synthesis

Synthesis of a mechanism in most situations cannot be done in a strictly defined
manner. Since most real problems have more unknown variables than the number of equations that
describes the system’s behavior, you cannot simply solve the equations to get a solution.
So there are a number of methods avail-able to approach the problem of synthesis. Each
method can be approached in a qualitative or quantitative manner. If the number of
unknowns is more than or equal to the number of equations, then quantitative synthesis
can be employed. Most of the practical design situations actually have a lesser number of
equations as compared to the number of variables. Hence, those cases are solved by a
qualitative approach.

Type Synthesis
refers to the definition of a proper type of mechanism b e s t s u i t e d t o t h e
problem. It is a qualitative method and it requires some experience
and knowledge of the various types of mechanisms that exist and
which also may be feasible from a performance and manufacturing
stand-point. As an example, assume that the task is to design a
device to track the straight line motion of a part on a conveyor belt
and spray it with a chemical coating as it passes by. This has to be
done at high, constant speed, with good accuracy and repeatability,
and it must be reliable. Unless you have had the opportunity to see a
wide variety of mechanical equipment, you might not be aware that
this task could conceivably be achieved by any of the following
devices:
■A straight line linkage
■A cam and follower
■An air cylinder
■A hydraulic cylinder
■A robot
■A solenoid
Each of these solutions, while possible, may not be optimal or even practical. More
details need to be known about the problem to make that judgment. The straight-line
linkage may prove to be too large and to have undesirable accelerations; the cam and
follower will be expensive, though accurate and repeatable. The air cylinder is
inexpensive, but noisy and unreliable. The hydraulic cylinder is more expensive as is the
robot. The solenoid, while cheap, has high impact loads and high impact velocity. So,
you can see that the choice of the device type can have a large effect on the quality of
design. A poor design in the type synthesis stage can create insoluble problems later on.

Dimensional Synthesis of a linkage is the determination of the proportions (lengths) of

the links necessary to accomplish the desired motion. It can be a form of quantitative
synthesis if an enough number of equations is available, but can also be a form of
qualitative synthesis. Dimensional synthesis of cams is usually quantitative. However,
dimensional synthesis of linkages is usually qualitative. Dimensional synthesis assumes
that, through type synthesis, you have al-ready determined that a linkage (or cam) is the
most appropriate solution to the problem.
Number Synthesis of a linkage is done to determine the number and order of
links and joints necessary to produce motion of a particular DOF .Link order
in this context refers to the number of nodes per link, i.e., binary, quaternary,
ternary, etc. The value of number synthesis is to allow the exhaustive
determination of all possible combinations of links that will yield any chosen
DOF. This then equips the designer with a definitive catalog of potential
linkages to solve a variety of motion-control problems. Using the number
synthesis method to determine all possible link configurations for one DOF
motion, we can arrive at the following conclusion. There is only one four-link
confi guration, two six-link configurations, and five possibilities for an eight-
link confi guration.

Function Generation, Path Generation, and Motion Generation

Function generation is defi ned as the correlation of an input motion with an out-put
motion in a mechanism. A function generator is conceptually a black box that delivers
some predictable output in response to a known input. Historically, be-fore the advent of
electronic computers, mechanical function generators found wide application in artillery
range finders and shipboard gun-aiming systems, and many other tasks. They are in fact
mechanical analog computers. The development of inexpensive digital electronic
microcomputers for control systems coupled with the availability of compact servomotors
has reduced the demand for these mechanical function generator linkage devices. Many
such applications can now be served more economically and efficiently with electromechanical
devices. Moreover, the computer-controlled electromechanical function generator is
programmable, allowing rapid modification in the function generated as demand changes. The cam-
follower system is a form of mechanical function generator, and it is typically capable of
higher force and power levels per dollar than electromechanical systems
Path generation is defined as the control of a point in the plane such that it follows some
prescribed path. This is typically achieved with at least four bars, where in a point in the
coupler traces the desired path. No attempt is made in path generation to control the
orientation of the link that contains the point of interest. However, it is common for the
timing of the arrival of the point at particular locations along the path to be defined. This
case is called path generation with prescribed timing and is analogous to function
generation in that a particular output function is specified. Motion generation is defined as the control
of a line in the plane such that it assumes some prescribed set of sequential positions. Here the
orientation of the link containing the line is important. This is a more general problem
than path generation. In fact, path generation is a subset of motion generation. An
example of a motion generation problem is the control of the bucket on a bulldozer. The
bucket must assume a set of positions to dig, pick up, and dump the excavated earth.
Conceptually, the motion of a line, painted on the side of the bucket, must be made to
assume the desired positions. A linkage is the usual solution.