TRIBOLOGY (17ME742)

Module-1
Contents:
Introduction to tribology: Historical background,

Practical importance and subsequent use in the field

Lubricants: Types and specific field of applications.

Properties of lubricants, viscosity, its measurement,

Effect of temperature and pressure on viscosity,

Lubrication types,

Standard grades of lubricants, and selection of lubricants

Objectives:

1. Basic of tribology

2. Basics of lubricants and lubrication

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1.1 Introduction

The word tribology was first reported in a landmark report by Jost (1966). The word is derived
from the Greek word tribos meaning rubbing, so the literal translation would be “the science of
rubbing.” Its popular English language equivalent is friction and wear or lubrication science,
alternatively used. The latter term is hardly all-inclusive. Dictionaries define tribology as the
science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion and of related subjects and
practices. Tribology is the art of applying operational analysis to problems of great economic
significance, namely, reliability, maintenance, and wear of technical equipment, ranging from
spacecraft to household appliances. Surface interactions in a tribological interface are highly
complex, and their understanding requires knowledge of various disciplines, including physics,
chemistry, applied mathematics, solid mechanics, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, heat
transfer, materials science, rheology, lubrication, machine design, performance, and reliability.

1.2 Historical background

Records show the use of wheels from 3500 B.C, which illustrates our ancestors’ concern with
reducing friction in translationary motion.

Figure 1.1 shows a two wheeled harvest cart with studded wheels, circa 1338 AD. The
transportation of large stone building blocks and monuments required the know-how of frictional
devices and lubricants, such as water-lubricated sleds.

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Figure 1.2 illustrates the use of a sledge to transport a heavy statue

Figure 1.1 drawing of two-wheeled harvest cart with studded wheels. Luttrell Psalter (folio
173v), circa 1338 AD by the Egyptians, circa 1880 BC (Layard, 1853). In this transportation,
172 slaves are being used to drag a large statue weighing about 600 kN along a wooden track.
One man, standing on the sledge supporting the statue, is seen pouring a liquid (most likely
water) into the path of motion; perhaps he was one of the earliest lubrication engineers. Dowson
(1998) has estimated that each man exerted a pull of about 800 N. On this basis, the total effort,
which must at least equal the friction force, becomes 172 × 800 N. Thus, the coefficient of
friction is about 0.23. A tomb in Egypt that was dated several thousand years bc provides the
evidence of use of lubricants. A chariot in this tomb still contained some of the original animal-
fat lubricant in its wheel bearings.

Fig 1.3 Tribological experiments suggested by Leonardo da Vinci

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Despite the relatively recent naming of the field of tribology, quantitative studies of friction can
be traced as far back as 1493, when Leonardo da Vinci first noted the two fundamental ‘laws’ of
friction. According to da Vinci, frictional resistance was the same for two different objects of the
same weight but making contact over different widths and lengths. He also observed that the
force needed to overcome friction doubles as weight doubles. However, da Vinci's findings
remained unpublished in his notebooks.

The two fundamental ‘laws’ of friction were first published (in 1699) by Guillaume Amontons,
with whose name they are now usually associated, they state that:

1. The force of friction acting between two sliding surfaces is proportional to the load
pressing the surfaces together
2. The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact between the two
surfaces.

Although not universally applicable, these simple statements hold for a surprisingly wide range
of systems. These laws were further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (in 1785), who
noticed that sliding (kinetic) friction is independent of the sliding velocity.
In 1798, Charles Hatchett and Henry Cavendish carried out the first reliable test on frictional
wear. In a study commissioned by the Privy Council of the UK, they used a simple reciprocating
machine to evaluate the wear rate of gold coins. They found that coins with grit between them
wore at a faster rate compared to self-mated coins. In 1860, Theodor Reye proposed Reye's
hypothesis (it). In 1953, John Frederick Archard developed the Archard equation which
describes sliding wear and is based on the theory of asperity contact.

Other pioneers of tribology research are Australian physicist Frank Philip Bowden and British
physicist David Tabor, both of Cavendish Laboratory. Together they wrote the seminal textbook
The Friction and Lubrication of Solids (Part I originally published in 1950 and Part II in 1964).
Michael J. Neale was another leader in the field during the mid-to-late 1900's. He specialized in
solving problems in machine design by applying his knowledge of tribology. Neale was
respected as an educator with a gift for integrating theoretical work with his own practical

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experience to produce easy-to-understand design guides. The Tribology Handbook, which he

first edited in 1973 and updated in 1995, is still used around the world and forms the basis of
numerous training courses for engineering designers.

Duncan Dowson surveyed the history of tribology in his 1997 book History of Tribology (2nd
edition). This covers developments from prehistory, through early civilizations (Mesopotamia,
ancient Egypt) and highlights the key developments up to the end of the twentieth century.

1.3 Practical Importance

Industrial Significance of Tribology is crucial to modern machinery which uses sliding and
rolling surfaces. Examples of productive friction are brakes, clutches, driving wheels on trains
and automobiles, bolts, and nuts. Examples of productive wear are writing with a pencil,
machining, polishing, and shaving. Examples of unproductive friction and wear are internal
combustion and aircraft engines, gears, cams, bearings, and seals.
According to some estimates, losses resulting from ignorance of tribology amount in the United
States to about 4% of its gross national product (or about $200 billion dollars per year in 1966),
and approximately one-third of the world’s energy resources in present use appear 4 Introduction
to Tribology as friction in one form or another. Thus, the importance of friction reduction and
wear control cannot be overemphasized for economic reasons and long-term reliability.
According to Jost (1966, 1976), savings of about 1% of gross national product of an industrial
nation can be realized by better tribological practices. According to recent studies, expected
savings are expected to be of the order of 50 times the research costs. The savings are both
substantial and significant, and these savings can be obtained without the deployment of large
capital investment.
The purpose of research in tribology is understandably the minimization and elimination of
losses resulting from friction and wear at all levels of technology where the rubbing of surfaces
is involved. Research in tribology leads to greater plant efficiency, better performance, fewer
breakdowns, and significant savings

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1.4 Subsequent use in the field.

Tribology is not only important to heavy industry; it also affects our day-to-day life. For
example, writing is a tribological process. Writing is accomplished by the controlled transfer of
lead (pencil) or ink (pen) to the paper. During writing with a pencil there should be good
adhesion between the lead and the paper so that a small quantity of lead transfers to the paper
and the lead should have adequate toughness/hardness so that it does not fracture/break. The
objective when shaving is to remove hair from the body as efficiently as possible with minimum
discomfort to the skin. Shaving cream is used as a lubricant to minimize friction between the
razor and the skin. Friction is helpful during walking and driving. Without adequate friction, we
would slip and a car would skid! Tribology is also important in sports. For example, a low
friction between the skis and the ice is desirable during skiing. Fabric fibers should have low
friction when touching human skin.

Body joints need to be lubricated for low friction and low wear to avoid osteoarthritis and joint
replacement. The surface layer of cartilage present in the joint provides the bearing surface and is
lubricated with a joint fluid consisting of lubricant, hyaluronic acid (HA) and lipid. Hair
conditioner coats hair in order to repair hair damage and lubricate it. It contains silicone and fatty
alcohols. Low friction and adhesion provide a smooth feel in wet and dry environments, reduce
friction between hair fibers during shaking and bouncing, and provide easy combing and styling.
Skin creams and lotions are used to reduce friction between the fingers and body skin. Saliva and
other mucous biofluids lubricate and facilitate the transport of food and soft liquids through the
body. The saliva in the mouth interacts with food and influences the taste–mouth feel.

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LUBRICANTS:

Oil Lubricants
Any liquid having some amount of viscosity can be regarded as lubricant. At the same time, it
should be as mobile as possible to remove heat and to avoid power loss due to viscous drag. It
should be stable under thermal and oxidation stresses, have low volatility, good mechanical
stability, etc.
Natural Organics
These include animal fat, whale oil, shark oil, vegetable oils, mineral oils etc. animal fats are
naturally occurring esters formed by the combination of long chain organic acids with alcohols.
Castor oil, rapeseed oil, etc. belong to vegetable oil category. These have low oxidation and
thermal stability than mineral oils. They also have a tendency to break down to give sticky
deposits. The refining of pertroleym produces mineral oils. They can be obtained for a range of
viscosities very mobile to very viscous. The chemical compounds making up mineral oils are
mainly hydrocarbons of three types:
(a) Parafins – open chain hydrocarbons
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(b) Napthenes- closed ring hydrocarbons

(c) Aromatics- hydrocarbons based on benzene rings.
Oil is termed as paraffinic oil or napthenic oil depending on the majority percentage of paraffin’s
or napthenes in it. The aromatics though remain as a small percentage, play a vital role in
boundary lubrication. Mineral oils can be used up to a maximum temperature of 2000C whereas
animal and vegetables can be used up to a maximum temperature of 1200C.
Synthetic Organics
Synthetic organics have evolved as a result of the requirement of lubricant to be used at extreme
temperatures, pressure, humidity, etc. these can be used up to a maximum temperature of 400 0
C. these include synthetic hydrocarbons, diester, chlorofluro-carbon, fatty acid esters,
polyglycolether, fluoroester, phosphate ester, silicate ester, silicone, silane, polyphenyl ether,
disiloxane, perfluoroalkyl polyether, etc. synthetic hydrocarbons are prepared by the
polymerization of specific olefin monomers and these can be prepared to optimize their
viscosity-temperature, stability and volatility properties. Chloroflurocarbons are chemically inert
and have excellent thermal and oxidation stability but suffer form the drawbacks like poor
viscosity-temperature properties, high-pour point, high volatility, etc. they are expensive and
difficult to make and hence find only limited use. Esters on the other hand, have excellent
viscosity-temperature properties, volatility properties, good additive response to oxidative and
lubrication behaivour. An enormous variety of esters is possible by the combination of different
acids and alcohols. Fatty acid esters have moderately low volatility and low thermal and
oxidation resistance. These are used in most magnetic tapes and floppy disk drives. Dester or
dibasic esters are commonly used in aircraft engines because of their better volatility
characteristics than fatty acid esters. Neopentyl polyol esters are better than diesters in relation to
thermal and oxidation stability and volatility. These are used as a gas turbine engine lubricant.
Polyglycol ethers have very good thermal properties. Fluoroesters have good oxidation resistance
but poor viscosity-temperature properties. Phosphate esters have excellent lubrication property
and find wide use as anti-wear additives for petroleum and some other synthetic lubricants.
Silicate esters have high-thermal stability, low viscosity and volatiblity but poor hydrolytic
stability. These are mainly used for low-temperature corrosion prevention. Silicones have
extreme chemical inertness, thermal stability but low volatility and surface tension. So these are
ideal hydrodynamic lubricants. These are also used in various types of grease formulation for

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space use, these are very expensive and hence find limited use only in extreme operating
conditions. Sialnes have high-thermal stability compared to others. Polyphenyl ethers (PPE) have
good thermal and oxidation resistance but poor volatility and viscosity properties.
Perfluoropolyethers (PFPE) are suitable for high-temperature applications, high vacuum,
chemical resistance application etc.
GREASES
In fact, greases are oils that are thickened with solids (thickner) to form semi-fluid products. The
type of thickner determines the characteristics of the grease. Greases are preferred to liquid
lubricants in cases where the application of continuous supply of lubricant is not needed or there
is no sufficiently tight enclosure to retain a liquid lubricant. They are very common in rolling
element bearings, as the lubricating arrangement is very simple. They act as lubricant as well as
seal dir. But the use of greases is limited as they do not flow easily and cannot carry away the
heat generated at high speed operations.
Thickeners compose 5 to 17 percent of a simple grease formulation and control the
characteristics of the product grease. The alkaline compounds are added and saponification
occurs. The water produced from chemical reaction is boiled off. The amount of soap (thicner)
formation depends on the amount of fatty acid and alkaline compound (generally metal
hydroxide) used. The resulting thickening action is known as consistency, which is a measure of
the hardness or softness of the grease. A variety of thickeners is used and accordingly properties
of resulting grease are obtained. Water stabilized calcium soap is a variety based on calcium
stearate stabilized with water. The grease with such thickner has excellent water resistance but its
use is limited to about 800C because of evaporation of stabilizing water at high temperature.
Anhydrous calcium soap or calcium 12 hydroxy stearate does not have such problem and hence
can be used up to 1200C. its drop point ( a temperature at which a grease melts) is about 1450C.
sodium soap greases tend to be fibrous relative to other types and can be used to about 120 0C,
the drop point ranging between 1500C to 2300C. they generally lack the oxidation resistance of
lithium and caly greases. Lithium soaps (lithium 12-hydroxy stearate) are most versatile in use.
The drop point is about 1950C and even after metling, when recooled, they usually return to a
grease texture, although properties vary. They are resistant to water, oxidation and also mechani
cal working. Complex soap thickners are nowadays much in use because of their high-drop
point. Clay thickeners containing bentonite or hectorite clay are also used. They do not melt but

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have poor oxidation stability. Polymerized substituted ureas (polyureas) are also used in several
cases. They have the drop point at about 2600C. calcium soap greases are used in rolling element
bearings where temperature extremes do not occur. Sodium soaps are generally used in plain
journal and slider bearings and gears. Lithium soaps are used as multipurpose greases. Complex
soaps are particularly used for high temperature applications.
Lubricating oils is the largest single component of grease (containing 65 to 95 percent) and
controls the frictional characteristics of greases. The overall performance of grease is largely
affected by the oil viscosity property, oxidation resistance, volatility, compatibility of oil, etc.
most lubricant greases used in industry have petroleum oils as their liquid base. The petroleum
oil based greases can be used up to 1750C depending on their thickener. The synthetic oil-based
greases can be used at higher temperature. Silicon-based greases thickened with ammetine and
silica can used at temperature up to 3000C.
VISCOSITY
The most important single property of a lubricant is its viscosity. Viscosity of a fluid may be
defined as its resistance to flow. It is also defined as resistance to shear. This resistance is due to
internal friction and it is a molecular phenomenon.
The ability of a fluid film to carry load depends directly on the viscosity of the lubricant. As the
fluid resists flow, the work done on the fluid is converted into heat and hence the temperature of
the fluid and its surroundings increases. If the viscosity of the lubricant is too high, heat
generated is also too high. If viscosity of the lubricant is too low, then it is difficult to maintain
fluid film between the rubbing surfaces under load.
Therefore selection of proper viscosity for particular bearing is an important factor in bearing
design.
Newton’s law of viscous flow (Equation of flow)
Consider two plane parallel surfaces separated by a fluid film of thickness ‘h’. a force F is
applied on the upper surface which moves the plate with a constant velocity ‘u’ with respect to
stationary plate as shown in fig 1.4.

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Fig 1.4: Fluid film separating stationary and moving plates Fig 1.5: Series of parallel layers

It can be assumed that the film is made up of series of parallel layers as shown in fig 1.5 and the
force F makes these layers to slide on over the other. The layer in contact with the stationary
surface have ‘zero’ velocity & the layer in contact with the moving plate has velocity u.
The intermediate layers have velocities proportional to distance y from the stationary plate.
Fig 1.4 shows an elemental film of cross section ABCD. After a short interval of time this
element is displaced to a new position A1B1C1D1. Newton’s law of viscous flow states that
“Shear stress at any point in a fluid is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain”

ταR

Shear strain =

Rate of shear strain =

R=

Since rate of shear strain is constant at any point in the film the above equation can be written as

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R=

ταR

τα

τ=ɳ

τ= =ɳ = ɳ

ɳ=

Where ɳ is a constant of proportionality called absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity

Absolute viscosity (Dynamic Viscosity):
Absolute viscosity is defined as the force required to move a plane surface having unit surface
area over another plate with unit velocity when the two surfaces are separated by a layer of fluid
of unit thickness
Unit of absolute viscosity:
CGS unit: the unit of absolute viscosity is called Poise.
1 Poise is equal to the viscosity of the fluid requiring a force of 1 dyne to move a unit cm 2 area
over a stationary plate with a velocity of 1 cm/sec when the distance between the moving and the
stationary plate is filling by fluid film of thickness 1 cm.

Newtonian fluid and fluidity

Newtonian fluid:
A fluid which obeys Newton’s law of viscous flow is called Newtonian fluid ‘or’ a fluid in
which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear is called the Newtonain fluid/

Fluidity:
It is the reciprocal of absolute viscosity.
It shows the property of fluid by which is flows

Fluidity =

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Viscosity Index
Viscosity index is a dimensionless number that represents how the viscosity of a hydraulic fluid
changes with temperature. (It also applies to fluids like engine and automatic transmission oils,
gear lubricants, and power-steering fluids.) The greater the viscosity index , the smaller the
change in fluid viscosity for a given change in temperature, and vice versa. Thus, a fluid with a
low viscosity index will experience a relatively large swing in viscosity as temperatures change.

Hagen – Poiseuille Law (Discharge through capillary tube)

Hagen – Poiseuille deduced the relationship between the rate of flow (discharge) of liquid

through a capillary and other parameters such as viscosity of the liquid, pressure in the liquid,

diameter and length of the capillary tube. This relation is called Hagen – Poiseuille law.

Consider a capillary tube of radius R through which a liquid is flowing. Consider a cylindrical

element of fluid having radius ‘r’ and length ‘dx’.

Fig 1.6: Flow through a capillary tube showing forces acting and velocity distribution

Assumptions:

1. Flow is steady and laminar

2. Fluid is incompressible and fills the entire tube

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3. Diameter of the capillary is so small that change in pressure across the capillary can be

neglected

4. The pressure at the left end of the capillary tube is greater than that at the right end and

pressure drops gradually from left to right.

Discharge = Velocity X Area ----- (1)

Step (i) : Velocity distribution (u)

Forces on the element;

i. Pressure force at the left end = p x πr2

ii. Pressure force at the right end = (p-dp) πr2

iii. Shear force = τ x 2πr x dx

Equilibrium of forces:

∑F=0

p πr2 - p πr2 + dpπr2 = τ2πr x dx

dpπr = τ 2dx

τ= ----- (2)

Newton’s law:

τ=-ɳ ------- (3)

‘-‘ sign indicates negative velocity gradient

From equation (2) and (3)

=-ɳ

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du =

Integrating

u=

u= ------------ (4)

Boundary condition

At r = r, u = 0

0=

C=

Substituting in equation (4)

u=

u=

This equation shows that the velocity distribution is parabolic across the tube.

Maximum velocity: At r = 0, u = umax

umax = ------- (5)

Step (2) Area

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Fig.1.7: Velocity distribution across the tube showing elemental ring

Consider an elemental ring at a radius r having thickness ‘dr’ as shown in fig. the area of

this elemental ring is da = 2πr dr ------ (6)

Step (iii): Discharge (Q)

Discharge across the section

Q=

dQ = uda

dQ = x (2πr dr)

dQ =

Integrating

Q= d

Q=

Q=

Q=

R=

Q=

Q= (24.17 : P-24.9 DHB)

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Flow between parallel stationary plates

Consider flow of fluid between two parallel stationary planes of width B seperat4ed by a fluid of

thickness h as shown in fig 1.8.

Fig. 1.8: Flow between two parallel stationary planes showing forces acting and velocity

distribution

Assumptions:

1. Flow is steady and laminar

2. The fluid is incompressible and completely fills the clearance

3. Width B is assumed to be so high when compared to h (clearance) that change in pressure

across the cross section of the plane can be neglected.

4. Pressure at the left end of the clearance is higher than at the right end and drops gradually

from left to right.

Consider an element of fluid having thickness 2y, length dx and width b.

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Discharge = velocity X area

Step (i): Velocity distribution (u)

Forces acting on the element

i. Pressure force at the left end = p x b x 2y

ii. Pressure force at the right end = (p – dp) x b x 2y

iii. Shear force = τ x (dx x b) x 2

Equilibrium of forces:

∑F = o

p X b X 2y - (p – dp)X b X 2y - τ x (dx X b) x 2 = 0

p X b X 2y - p X b X 2y + dp X b X 2y =2.b X τ X dx = 0

2b X dp X y = 2b X τ dx

τ=y -----------------(1)

Newton’s law of viscous flow

τ=-ɳ ------- (3) (E : 24.1 : P-24.3 DHB)

-ve sign indicate –ve velocity gradient.

From equation (1) and (2)

-ɳ = y

du = - ydy

Integrating

U=-

U=- +C ---------------(4)

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Boundary condition

At y = t, u = 0

0=- +C

C=

Substituting in equation (4)

u=- +

u=

the above equation shows that the velocity distribution is parabolic and maximum velocity

occurs at the middle of the section.

Maximum velocity:

umax =

Step (2): Area

Fig. 1.9: Flow between parallel stationary planes showing the element

Consider an elemental area (b X dy) above and below the axis through which discharge is taking

place.

Area of the element da = b X dy X 2

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Step (3): Discharge

Discharge across the section Q =

dQ = u da

dQ = b X dy X 2

dQ =

Q=

Q=

Q=

The entire width is B and the clearance h = 2t

t=

Q=

Q=

Apparatus for measuring viscosity

1. Couette- Hatschek viscometer

2. Flowers viscometer

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3. Michell viscometer

4. Ostwald viscometer

5. Saybolt universal viscometer

1. Couette- Hatschek viscometer (Primary viscometer)

τ= =

T=FXR

Fig. 1.10: Couette – Hatschek Viscometer

This apparatus consists of two cylinders (1) and (2). The outer cylinder (1) is fixed to a table

which can be rotated about its vertical axis at a constant speed. The inner cylinder (2) is

suspended, by the torsion wire (4). The tested fluid fills the space between the two cylinders.

When the outer cylinder rotates the motion in the liquid between the two cylinder is similar to

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the condition of flow of a liquid between two parallel planes as shown in fig. when the torque T

is applied on the outer cylinder it rotates and tends to rotate the inner cylinder. Due to this, wire

(4) is twisted.

A mirror (5) is connected to this wire. The angular displacement of the inner cylinder is

measured by the deflection of a beam of light reflected from the mirror. The wire is calibrated

such that the deflection of wire gives a measure of viscosity. This instrument is usually used for

determining viscosity of liquid having higher viscosity.

2. Flowers viscometer (Secondary viscometer)

This instrument belongs to the category of secondary viscometer. The absolute viscosity of liquid

cannot be obtained directly by using a secondary viscometer. To use this instrument for

measuring viscosity, it must be calibrated first by using liquids of known viscosity.

Fig. 1.11: Flowers Viscometer

It consists of a glass tube with a small ball whose diameter is smaller than the inner diameter of

the tube. The tube is filled with the liquid whose viscosity is to be measured. After placing the

tube in an inclined position to the horizontal, the ball at device is used to indicate the instant

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when the ball reaches the lower end of the tube. The time taken by the ball to travel from left end

to right end of the tube is a measure of viscosity of the liquid.

3. Michell viscometer

Fig.1.12: Michell Viscometer

It consists of a stainless steel ball (1) of 1 inch diameter and a spherical cup (2) with hollow

grove. Three small projections are provided on the cup 1200 apart. These projections maintain a

minimum clearance of about 0.001 mm between ball and cup surface. The hollow handle (4) of

non conducting material is connected to the cup. Thermometer (3) is inserted into the handled for

measuring the temperature of the cup.

To determine the viscosity of oil, a small sample of the oil is placed in the cup while the

instrument is held with the cup onwards. Then the ball is placed in the cup and pressed so that

excess oil enters the circumferential groove (5). In the cup only a layer of oil of about 0.01 mm

thick fills the space between ball and the cup. Then the whole instrument is inverted and held

vertically with the ball at the lower end as shown in fig. in this position the ball is suspened for

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some period of time by the negative pressure in the film between the ball and the cup. Due to the

negative pressure in the oil film, oil is sucked from the groove gradually into the space between

ball and the cup. When the thickness of the oil becomes so high that it can be no longer maintain

negative pressure, the ball falls down. The time required for this process is proportional to

absolute viscosity of the oil.

4. Ostwald Viscometer

The arrangement for Ostwald viscometer is as shown in fig. kinematic viscosity is determined by

measuring the time required for the liquid level to drop from mark (A0 to (B). this instrument is

usually made of glass and during the test it is immersed in a temperature controlled water bath.

Fig. 1.13: Ostwald Viscometer

The instrument is calibrated as discussed below.

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= t

v = K.t

where K =

Here K is a constant value for the given instrument. By using some liquid of known viscosity and

density such as distilled water the time required for a known volume V to flow through the

capillary is determined. This constant is established for the particular instrument. After

calibration, the kinematic viscosity and dynamic viscosity of any fluid can be measured.

5. Saybolt Viscometer:

The standard method of measuring of measuring the viscosity of lubricating oil is by using

Saybolt universal viscometer shown in fig1.14.

Fig. 1.14: Saybolt Viscometer

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to measure the viscosity of oil, the oil to be tested is heated approximately to the required

temperature in a separate vessel and poured into cup (A) until it reaches the rim of the cup and

just begins to overflow into the gallery (B). now the water bath (C) is heated to the oil

temperature by means of by an electric heater. The flow of oil through the jet starts when cork

(E) is removed. The time required in seconds, t0 fill the receiving flask up to 60 cm3 graduation

mark is a measure of viscosity of the oil and is designated as Saybolt universal viscosity (SUV).

To convert SUV to absolute viscosity following formula may be used.

Η = vt ----------------- (E24.7: P – 24.4 DHB)

vt = v15.5 – 0.000637 (t -15.5) ----------------- (E24.1a: P – 24. DHB)

Effect of temperature and pressure on viscosity:

Viscosity of liquid lubricant is a function of temperature. When temperature increases molecules

more away from each other reducing inter molecules force. Hence viscosity of a lubricating oi,

decreases with increase in temperature. This change is different for different oils. Two oils of

some viscosity at a particular temperature may have different viscosities at another temperature.

A term called viscosity index Vi is used to indicate the effect of temperature on change in

viscosity. A low viscosity index indicates that the change in viscosity is large for a given change

of temperature. A high viscosity index indicates small change in viscosity for a specified change

in temperature. Fig shows the variation of absolute viscosity with temperature.

Effect of Pressure: As pressure of the fluid is increased the molecules are forced to come

together, hence viscosity of fluid increases with increase in pressure. At low pressure this

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increase relatively slows but at higher pressure this increase is greater. Fig shows variation of

viscosity with pressure.

Fig. 1.15 : Absolute viscosity of air as a function of temperature at atmospheric pressure

Fig. 1.16 : Kinematic viscosity of air as a function of temperature at atmospheric pressure

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Types of lubrication (Regime of lubrication)

It is classified into four basic types:

They are:

1. Thick-Fluid Lubrication

 Hydrostatic Lubrication

 Hydrodynamic Lubrication

2. Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication

3. Mixed Lubrication

4. Boundary Lubrication

Hydrodynamic Lubrication

Fig. 1.17: Hydrodynamic lubrication

 Hydrodynamic lubrication implies there is a thick film of fluid between the moving

surfaces, so that no contact occurs between the surfaces

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 HD lubrication is often referred to as the ideal lubricated contact condition because the

lubricating films are normally many times thicker (typically 5-500 µm) than the height of

the irregularities on the bearing surface, and solid contacts do not occur.

 As a bearing with convergent shape in the direction of motion starts to move in the

longitudinal direction from rest, a thin fluid layer of fluid is pulled through because of

viscous entertainment and is then compressed between the bearing surfaces, creating a

sufficient (hydrodynamic) pressure to support the load without any external pumping

agency. This is the principle of hydrodynamic lubrication.

 A high load capacity can be achieved in the bearings that operate at high velocities in the

presence of fluids of high viscosity. These bearings are also called self-acting bearings.

 Hydrodynamic lubrication doesn’t need an oil pump or pressurized lubricant source to

happen, but will be reached if a shaft spins fast enough in a bearing supplied with

sufficient lubricant flow.

 The coefficient of friction in the HD regime can be small as 0.001.

 Prevalent in journal and thrust bearings

Hydrostatic Lubrication

 Hydrostatic Lubrication is accomplished by introducing the fluid from outside, under a

sufficient pressure to separate the surfaces and balance the load, even when there is no

relative motion.

 Bearings that depend upon hydrostatic lubrication are called externally pressurized.

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Fig. 1.18 Hydrostatic bearing

 Here lubricant is forced into the clearance space of the bearing from an external high-

pressure source. The pressure in the film is therefore not self-induced but externally

induced.

 When the shaft starts rotating, the pump supply oils at high pressure into the clearance

zone. This lifts the journal, reduces the starting friction and also the eccentricity.

Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication

Fig. 1.19 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication

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 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication conditions occur when a rolling motion exists between

the moving elements, and the contact zone has a low degree of conformity.

 The curve of the roller and the race in a rolling element bearing are very dissimilar. In

fact, the roller and inner race are curved in opposite directions and thus have a small

contact area (almost a single point of contact), this creates high-contact pressures.

 As the oil enters the contact zone between a ball and raceway ( by rolling action), the

oil’s pressure rises sharply. This high pressure in turn significantly increases the oil’s

viscosity and load-holding ability. This concentrated load will slightly deform (flatten)

the metal of the rolling elements and race in the contact zone. The deformation only

occurs in the contact zone, and the metal elastically returns to its normal form as the

rotation continues.

 Examples of machinery applications that operate under EHL are rolling element bearings,

gear teeth and cam contacts (rolling) where high rolling contact loads occur.

Mixed Lubrication

Fig. 1.20 : Mixed lubrication

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 The transition between the hydrodynamic/elastohydrodynamic and boundary lubrication

area known as a mixed lubrication in which two lubrication mechanisms may be

functioning.

 There may be more frequent solid contacts, but at least a portion of the bearing surface

remains supported by a partial hydrodynamic film.

Boundary Lubrication

Fig 1.21: Boundary Lubrication

 Boundary lubrication is lubrication by a liquid under conditions where the solid surfaces

are so close together that appreciable contact between opposing asperities is possible.

 As the load increases, speed decreases or the fluid viscosity decreases and the coefficient

of friction can increases sharply and approach high levels (about 0.1 or much higher). In

this region, it is customary to speak of boundary lubrication.

Properties of lubricant

1. Relative density

2. Specific heat and thermal conductivity

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3. Acidity and Alkalinity

4. Oxidation stability

5. Flash point

6. Foaming

7. Pour Point

8. Demulsibility

9. Extreme-pressure properties

Problems

1. Two Reservoirs A and B are connected by a capillary of bore 1.25 mm and length of capillary

is 1250 mm. as show in fig. pressure in reservoir A is 40 N/cm 2. Calculate the rate of flow

between the reservoirs if the tanks are filled with an oil of viscosity 180 centi poise.

Solution;

Data:

d = 125 mm = 1.25 x 10-3 m

L = 1250 mm = 1.25 m

PA = 40 N/cm2 = 40 x 104 N/m2

PB = 20 N/cm2 = 20 x 104 N/m2

Η = 180 cP = 108 x 10-3 Poise = 0.18 Pa s

1cP = 10-3 Pa s.

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Q = ? (Rate of flow)

Q= (E. 24.17: P : 24.9 : DHB)

= =
= 16 x 104
Q=
x 16 x 104

Q = 5.37 x 10-8 m3/sec

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