UNIT 4

Pest and Pest Surveillance and IPM components

Content-
 Economic important of insect
 Define Pest?
 Kind of Pest
 Pest surveillance
 Basic component
 Objective
Entomology: It is the branch of zoology which deals with the study of insect.
Economic important of insect:
 Plant pollination- bee, wasp, beetles
 Production of products- honey , bee wax, silk
 Nutrient recycling- dung feeder (scarab beetles)
 Human food- > 500 insect
 Miscellaneous- for decoration
PESTS
 ‘Pest’ is defined as an insect or other organism that causes any damage to crops, stored produce and animals’
known as pest.
 Insect pests are divided into a) Negligible 2) Minor and 3) Major depending upon the severity of damage caused
on the plant.
 Pests that cause less than 5% loss in yield, is said to be negligible. Insects which normally cause a loss ranging
from 5 to 10% are said to be minor pests
 Those which cause a loss of 10% or more in general called as major pests
Different Categories of Insect Pests
A. Based on occurrence
1. Regular pest: Occur most frequently (regularly) in a crop and have close association with that particular crop.
Eg: Chilli Thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis, Brinjal shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis
2. Occasional pests: Occur infrequently in a crop and have close association with a particular crop.
Eg: Rice case worm, Nymphula depuctalis, castor slug caterpillar, Parasa lepida ,
mango stem borer, Batocera rufamaculat
3. Seasonal pests: Occur mostly during a particular part of the year, and usually the incidence is governed
(controlled) by climatic conditions. Eg: Red hairy caterpillar on groundnut: June -July, Rice grasshoppers: June-July.
4. Persistent pests: Occur on a crop almost throughout the year. Eg: Scales and mealy bugs on many crops, paddy
stem borer.
5. Sporadic pests: Occur on a few isolated localities. Eg: coconut slug caterpillar: Macroplectra nararia,
Rice earhead bug: Leptocorisa acuta, castor slug caterpillar: Latoia lepida
Based on level of infestation
Epidemic pest:
Sudden outbreak of a pest in a severe form in a region at a particular time e.g. BPH in Tanjore, RHC in Madurai,
Pollachi
Endemic pest:
Occurrence of the pest in a low level in few pockets, regularly and confined to particular area e.g. Rice gall midge
in Madurai, Mango hoppers in Periyakulam

Important Definations
ETL: It is the level of pest population at which control measure should be applied to prevent an increasing
population from reaching EIL.
EIL: It is the lowest population density that will cause economic damage
Damage boundary: The lowest level of damage which can be measured
General equilibrium position (GEP): The average density of a population over a long period of time, fluctuate
due to biotic and abiotic factors and in the absence of permanent environmental changes.
Pest Surveillance
Refers to the constant watch on the population dynamics of pests, its incidence and damage on each crop at fixed
intervals to forewarn the farmers to take up timely crop protection measures.
Three basic components of pest surveillance
Determination of.........
a. the level of incidence of the pest species
b. the loss caused by the incidence
c. the economic benefits, the control will provide
Objectives of Pest Surveillance
 To know existing and new pest species
 To assess pest population and damage at different growth stage of crop
 To study the influence of weather parameters on pest
 To study changing pest status (Minor to major)
 To assess natural enemies
Survey and Sampling
Study the abundance of a pest species called as survey
Type of Survey
1. Fixed plot survey: Assessment of pest population /damage from fixed plots of a region. The data on pest
population/damage recorded periodic from sowing till harvest.
2. Roving survey: Assessment of pest population/damage from randomly selected spots representing larger
area
Sampling techniques
1. Absolute sampling: To count all the pests occurring in a plot
a) Sampling a unit of habitat
b) The recaptured of mark individual
2. Relative sampling: - To measure pest in terms of some values this can be compared over time and space.
a. Catch per unit effort: sweep net, shaking and beating, suction net and visual searcher.
b. Trapping: pheromone trap, light trap etc.
3. Population indices: Population indices do not count insects at all but rather are measures of insect products
such as plant damage, frass or nests.
Method of Sampling
1. Net sweeping or trapping : In this method , the density and height of crop, no.’s of sweeps required and type
of insects involved in the study are considered.
2. Light trap catch: Quantitative assessment of population abundance can be made.
Eg: hoppers, gallmidges, Light attracted night flying Lepidopterans Eg: Stem borers etc
3. Suction Trap: In this method, flying insects are trapped by sucking air into trap with a suction apparatus
operated by fan or by means of motor.
4. Adhesive or sticky or inspection trap: Suitable adhesive material (grease) pasted on paper is used for collection
of insects.
Eg: Whiteflies, jassids etc , Yellow sticky trap for whitefly
5. Bait trap catch: Many materials are used for bait as they stimulate food odors to attract insects.
Eg: Fruit flies (Malathion and jaggery), sorghum shoot flies (Fish meal bait).
6. Sight counting: Counting the population by visual observation. Population of insects in a measured area is
counted.
Eg: Paddy stem borer, brown plant hopper, gall midges etc.
7.Crop samples: The amount of damage or the number of larvae in plants/tillers.
Enter into the field at least two feet away from the bund. Select a site with a dimension of 1 sq.mt. randomly .
Record insect damage in percentage or population/plant.
Eg: stem borers, rice gall midge
Pest Forecasting
Forecasting of pest incidence or outbreak based on information obtained from, pest surveillance.
Uses
• Predicting pest outbreak which needs control measure
• Suitable stage at which control measure gives maximum protection
Types of pest forecasting
Short term forecasting: Based on 1 or 2 seasons
It usually employs different methodologies More accurate than long term forecasting
Long term forecasting: Based on affect of weather parameters on pest
It deals with more comprehensive issues support management decision regarding planning and products, plant and
processes.
Integrated pest management
 IPM is a pest control strategy that uses a variety of complementary strategies including biological & cultural
management, mechanical & physical controls, genetics and pesticides when needed.
 The goal of IPM is to use all appropriate tools and tactics to keep pest populations below economic threshold
level and to avoid adverse effects to humans, wildlife, and the environment
Principles of IPM
 Identification of key pest and its natural enemy
 Developed management strategy
 Establishment of economic threshold
 Development of economic technique
 Description of predictive models
Why IPM is necessary in Agriculture?
1. Environmental Hazards:
 Use of chemical pesticides has caused several adverse effects on animal as well as plant kingdom either directly
or indirectly.
chronic effects of pesticides reported by physicians in human beings include cancer, asthma, paralysis, high BP,
genetic mutation, blindness, infertility to males etc
2. Pesticides Poisoning:(contamination of food stuffs)
 Whenever pesticides applied in the field, their residues remain on the crop depending on the chemical
properties of pesticides.
3. Development of resistance:
Excessive and indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides by farmers has led to the development of resistance in a
large no. of target pests. As a result of which these pests are not controlled by the recommended doses of pesticides,
forcing the farmers to use higher doses and its repeated applications
4) Pest resurgence-
 It is a phenomenon, where after application of a pesticide, a good initial kill of pests occurs, but after sometime,
sudden increase is noticed in population of the particular pest, led the farmers for repeated application of pesticides.
eg. Plant hoppers.
 This is due to the increased fecundity/egg laying by females, shortened life cycle, higher feeding rate and
destruction of natural enemies (Chelliah,1987)
IPM based on following basic component
1. Prevention. Smart management decisions can prevent susceptibility to pests.
2. Pest Identification. It is critical to correctly identify an organism in order to confirm that it is indeed a pest and
plan for the best solutions.
3. Monitoring. By identifying pests and measuring infestation, farmers can make better decisions about when and
how to apply a control method.
4. Determining economic thresholds. Action must be taken when costs of pest damage exceed the costs of the
control.
5. Control Methods. When possible, use the most effective (with the least negative impact) cultural, mechanical,
biological, and/or natural chemical controls to manage pests.
6. Evaluating the pest management strategy. Evaluation allows one to identify how and why the management
strategy was successful or not and to improve it when possible. This requires keeping records so that one can learn
from his or her mistakes and successes!

CULTURAL CONTROL
Cropping Techniques
• Ploughing
• Puddling
• Pest free seed material
• High seed rate
• Plant density
• Earthing up
• Destruction of weed hosts
• Destruction of alternate host
• Flooding
• Pruning/topping
• Intercropping
• Trap cropping
• Water management
• Application of fertilizers
• Timely harvesting
• Synchronized sowing: Dilution of pest infestation e.g., Rice, Cotton
• Crop rotation: Breaks insect life cycle
• Crop sanitation
• a) Destruction of insect infested parts (eg.) Mealy bug in brinjal
• b) Removal of fallen plant parts (eg.) Cotton
• c) Crop residue destruction (eg.) Cotton stem weevil
PHYSICAL CONTROL
Modification of physical factors in the environment to minimise (or) prevent pest problems.
Use of physical forces like temperature, moisture, etc. in managing the insect pests.
A. Manipulation of temperature
 Sun drying the seeds to kill the eggs of stored product pests.
 Hot water treatment (50-55oC for 15 min) against rice white tip nematode.
 Flame throwers against locusts.
 Burning torch against hairy caterpillars.
 Cold storage of fruits and vegetables to kill fruit flies (1-2oC for 12-20 days).
B. Manipulation of moisture
 Alternate drying and wetting rice fields against BPH.
 Drying seeds (below 10% moisture) affects insect development.
 Flooding the field for the control of cutworms
C. Manipulation of light
1. Treating the grains for storage using IR light to kill all stages of insects (eg.) Infra-red seed treatment unit
2. Providing light in storage godowns as the lighting reduces the fertility of Indian meal moth, Plodia.
Mechanical control:
Life stages are killed by manual (or) mechanical force.
1. Exclusion (Barriers)
 The idea is pretty straight to keep pests away
 Exclusion can be achieved by several means, one of which is row covers. Row covers are not only useful for
frost protection and weed control, but can provide a barrier from insect pests.
 Another exclusion method is use of a mesh screen around plants or garden beds. If you grow in a greenhouse,
you already have an exclusion method in place: your greenhouse walls
2. Destruction
 A common destruction method is the use of diatomaceous earth (Crystaline silica prepared from
sedementory rocks) to kill insect pests.

3. Removal
 Removal methods include hand picking (which is usually followed by destruction), use of traps,
water pressure sprays, and insect vacuums.
 Light traps, color traps, and sticky traps are all useful not only for collecting the offensive insects, but to
monitoring pest population and the species that are present.
 Sticky traps are cheap and easy to use.
Manual Force
 Hand picking the caterpillars
 Sieving and winnowing: Red flour beetle (sieving) rice weevil (winnowing)
 Shaking the plants: Passing rope across rice field to dislodge caseworm and shaking neem tree to dislodge
June beetles
 Hooking: Iron hook is used against adult rhinoceros beetle
 Crushing: Bed bugs and lice
 Combing :Delousing method for Head louse
 Brushing: Woolen fabrics for clothes moth, carper beetle
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
The successful management of a pest by means of another living organism (parasitoids, predators and pathogens)
that is encouraged and disseminated by man is called biological control.
“The action of parasites, predators or pathogens in maintaining another organism’s population density at a lower
average than would occur in their absence”. (Paul De Bach, 1964).
Biocontrol agents:
Entomopathogenic Bacterias: Bacillus thuringenensis
Entomopathogenic Fungus: Beuveria bassiana and Metarrhizium anisoplae
Entomopathogenic Viruses: NPV (Nuclear Polyhydrosis virus) and GV (Graniolosis virus)
Entomopathogenic Nematodes: Steinernema and Heterorhabtida
Entomopathogenic Insects: Parasitoids and Predators
Techniques in biological control:
• Introduction
• Augmentation
• Conservation
1. Introduction:
 It is the deliberate introduction and establishment of natural enemies to a new locality where they did not occur
or originate naturally.
2. Augmentation:
 It is the rearing and releasing of natural enemies to supplement the numbers of naturally occurring natural
enemies.
3. Conservation:
 The actions to preserve and release of natural enemies by environmental manipulations or alter production
practices to protect natural enemies that are already present in an area or non use of those pest control measures
that destroy natural enemies.
Approaches to augmentation
a. Inoculative releases:
 Large number of individuals are released only once during the season and natural enemies are expected to
reproduce and increase its population for that growing season. Hence control is expected from the progeny and
subsequent generations and not from the release itself.
b. Inundative releases:
 It involves mass multiplication and periodic release of natural enemies when pest populations approach
damaging levels.
 Natural enemies are not expected to reproduce and increase in numbers.
 Control is achieved through the released individuals and additional releases are only made when pest
populations approach damaging levels
Important conservation measures
 Use selective insecticide which is safe to natural enemies.
Avoidance of cultural practices which are harmful to natural enemies and use favorable cultural practices
 Cultivation of varieties that favour colonization of natural enemies
 Providing alternate hosts for natural enemies.
 Preservation of inactive stages of natural enemies.
 Provide pollen and nectar for adult natural enemies
Parasite:
 Parasite is one, which attaches itself to the body of the other living organism either externally or internally and
gets nourishment and shelter at least for a shorter period if not for the entire life cycle.
 The organism, which is attacked by the parasites, is called hosts.
Parasitism: Is the phenomenon of obtaining nourishment at the expense of the host to which the parasite is
attached.
Parasitoid: It is an insect parasite of an arthropod, parasitic only in immature stages, destroys its host in the process
of development and free living as an adult.
Eg: Braconid wasps
Qualities of a Successful Parasitoid in Biological Control Programme
1. Should be adaptable to environmental conditions in the new locally
2. Should be able to survive in all habitats of the host
3. Should be specific to a particulars sp. of host
4. Should be able to multiply faster than the host
5. Should be having more fecundity
6. Life cycle must be shorter than that of the host
7. Should have good searching capacity for host
8. Should be amendable for mass multiplication in the labs
9. It Should be free from hyper parasitoids
Specialization based on the stage of the host
1. Egg parasite : Trichogramma australicum
2. Early larval parasite – Apanteles taragama
3. Mid larval parasite – (Micro) Bracon hebtor
 4. Prepupal parasite – Gonizus nephantidis
5. Prepupal parasite – Elasmus nephantidis
6. Pupal parasite –Stomatoceros sulcatiscutellum
Trichospilus pupivora, Testrastichus israeli,
Some successful examples
 Control of cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi on fruit trees by its predatory vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis
in Nilgiris.
 The predator was imported from California in 1929 and from Egypt in 1930 and multiplied in the laboratory
and released. Within one year the pest was effectively checked
 For the biological suppression of Water Fern, Salvinia molesta, the weevil, Cyrtobagous salviniae, was
imported from Australia in 1982.
 Exotic weevil, C. salviniae was released for the control of water fern, S. molesta in a lily pond in Bangalore in
1983-84.
 Within 11 months of the release of the weevil in the lily pond the salvinia plants collapsed and the lily growth,
which was suppressed by competition from salvinia resurrected.
 Biological Control of Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia spp some exotic natural enemies were introduced in India
viz.hydrophilic weevils– Neochetina bruchi, galumnid mite Orthogalumna terebrantis (South America) in 1982
for the biological suppression of water hyacinth
 Apple woolly aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum in Coonor area by Aphelinus mali (parasitoid) in 1937 from North
America
Practical significance of Bio-control (Advantages)
1. It is exercised in a wide area.
2. The application of biotic agent is easy and possible in inaccessible areas like dense forest..
3. It is safe for humans and animal health.
4. The biotic agents survive in nature till the pest is prevalent.
5. It is a cheaper method if successfully deployed and persuaded.
6. It is a self perpetuating in nature.
7. It has no risk of environment pollution.
8. It does not require and special equipment to apply and can be mass multiplied at farmer’s level.
9. It may provide/generate employment revenues to rural people.
9. No problem of pest resistance and resurgence
Limitation
Bio-control is slow process and takes little more time to achieve control of crop pests. The possible constrains
are:
A) At farmer’s Level:
1. Non availability of biotic agents for field application timely.
2. Illiteracy among farmer as they have no access to new technologies to read.
3. Small holdings may cause migration of bio-agent.
4. Inclination towards use of chemical pesticides.
5. Non availability of popular literature.
B) At Government Level:
1 Relatively less attention to Bio-control projects than chemical industries.
2. Importation of biotic agents is very less.
3. Mass production of biotic agents limited techniques for indigenous and exotic use.
4. Field Utilization of biotic agents.
5. Integration of bio-agent with pesticides.
6. Laboratory evaluation of biotic agents and their field efficiency.
7. Transfer of technology requires more attention
Resistance
 Resistance: The development of an ability in a strain of insects to tolerate doses of toxicant which would be
prove lethal to majority of individual in a normal population of the same species-Brown,1958
 The first report of DDT resistance in mosquitoes Culex fatigans in 1952.
 Agricultural pests first reported by Pradhan et.al. in 1963.
 Singhara beetle Galerucella biraminica showed Resistance against DDT and BHC from Delhi.
 The large number of resistance species order Diptera (36%)
 58% Show resistance to Cyclodiene group of pesticides
 57% against DDT
 52% Against Organophosphosphatic compounds
 17% Against Carbamates and 9.5% synthetic pyrethroid.
Mechanisms of Resistance:
A. Physiological mechanism
a: Resistance to insecticide is due to the ability of insects to detoxify (degrade) toxicants by enzymes, mixed
function oxidases (MFO).
 These detoxifying enzymes are more in resistant strains (R) than in susceptible
strains(S) .
These non-toxic break down products can be excreted or stored in the body without any harm to the insects
b. Cuticular penetration: Insecticides penetration through cuticle is slow in ‘R’
strains than in ‘S’ strains because of bristles, thick pulvilli etc
c. Increased storage: The ability of storing in the non sensitive tissues like fat body variable in ’R’ and ‘S’ strains.
d. Increased excretion: ‘R’ strains detoxify and excrete insecticides faster than ‘S’
strains.
e. Penetration into target organs: AChE is present only in ganglia, so a toxicant must enter the ganglia to inhibit
AChE slow in ‘R’, fast in case of ‘S’
Types of Resistance
1. Ecological Resistance or Pseudo resistance
Apparent resistance resulting from transitory characters in potentially susceptible host plants due to environmental
conditions.
Pseudo resistance may be classified into 3 categories
A. Host evasion
Host may pass through the most susceptible stage quickly or at a time when insects are less or evade injury by
early maturing. This pertains to the whole population of host plant.
B. Induced Resistance
Increase in resistance temporarily as a result of some changed conditions of plants or environment such as change
in the amount of water or nutrient status of soil
C. Escape
Absence of infestation or injury to host plant due to transitory process like incomplete infestation. This pertains to
few individuals of host
2.Genetic Resistance
A. Based on number of genes
1.Monogenic resistance:Controlled by single gene Easy to incorporate into plants by breeding Easy to break also
2. Oligogenic resistance: Controlled by few genes
3. Polygenic resistance: Controlled by many genes
4. Major gene resistance: Controlled by one or few major genes (vertical resistance)
5. Minor gene resistance: Controlled by many minor genes. The cumulative effect of minor genes is called adult
resistance or mature resistance or field resistance. (horizontal resistance).
B. Based on biotype reaction
1. Specific resistance: Effective against specific biotypes.
2. Non specific resistance: Effective against all the known biotypes

C. Based on population/Line concept

a. Pureline resistance: Exhibited by liens which are phenotypically and genetically similar
b. Multiline resistance: Exhibited by lines which are phenotypically similar but genotypically dissimilar
D. Miscellaneous categories
a. Cross resistance: Variety with resistance incorporated against a primary pest, confers resistance to another insect.
b. Multiple resistance: Resistance incorporated in a variety against different environmental stresses like insects,
diseases, nematodes, heat, drought, cold, etc.
E. Based on evolutionary concept
a. Sympatric resistance: Acquired by co-evolution of plant and insect (gene for gene) Governed by major genes
b. Allopatric resistance: Not by co-evolution of plant and insect. Governed by many genes
Host plant resistance(HPR)
 The relative amount of heritable qualities possessed by a plant which influences the ultimate degree of damage
done by insects (Painter, R.H., 1951)
 Plant resistance to a specific characters was discovered in 1782 when the wheat variety Underhill showed
resistance against Hessian fly Mayetiola destructor
 Apple variety Winter Majetin show resistance to wooly aphid.
Mechanisms of HPR
The three important mechanisms of resistance are
- Antixenosis (Non preference)
- Antibiosis
- Tolerance
Antixenosis:
 Host plant characters responsible for non-preference of the insects for shelter, oviposition, feeding, etc.
 It denotes presence of morphological or chemical factor which alter insect behaviour resulting in poor
establishment of the insect.
Examples
• Trichomes in cotton - resistant to whitefly,
• Wax bloom on crucifer leaves - deter feeding by DBM,
• Plant shape and colour also play a role in non preference
• Open panicle of sorghum - Supports less Helicoverpa armigeraion infestion
Antibiosis
• Adverse effect of the host plant on the biology (survival, development and reproduction) of the insects and their
progeny due to the biochemical and biophysical
• factors present in it.
• Manifested by larval death, abnormal larval growth, etc.
• Antibiosis may be due to
• - Presence of toxic substances
• - Absence of sufficient amount of essential nutrients
• - Nutrient imbalance/improper utilization of nutrients
• Chemical factors in Antibiosis -
• Chemicals present in plants Imparts resistance against
1.DIMBOA (Dihydroxy methyl benzo oxazin) Against European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis
2. Gossypol (Polyphenol) Helicoverpa armigera (American bollworm)
3. Sinigrin Aphids, Myzus persicae
4. Cucurbitacin Cucurbit fruit flies
5. Salicylic acid Rice stem borer
Physical factors in antibiosis
• Thick cuticle, glandular hairs, silica deposits, tight leaf sheath, etc.
Tolerance
Ability to grow and yield despite pest attack. It is generally attributable to plant vigour, re growth of damaged
tissue, to produce additional branches, compensation by growth of neighbouring plants.
Use of tolerance in IPM
 Tolerant varieties have high ETL- require less insecticide
 Apply less selection pressure on pests.
 Biotype development is less
Compatibility of HPR in IPM
A. Compatability with chemical control
- HPR enhances efficacy of insecticides
- Higher mortality of leaf hoppers and plant hoppers in resistant variety compared to susceptible variety
- Lower concentration of insecticide is sufficient to control insects on resistant variety
B. Compatibility with biological control
- Resistant varieties reduce pest numbers - thus shifting pest: Predatory (or parasitoid) ratio favourable for
biological control. e.g. Predatory activity of mirid bug-Cyrtorhinus lividipennis on BPH was more on a
resistant rice variety IR-36 than susceptible variety IR-8
- Insects feeding on resistant varieties are more susceptible to virus disease (NPV)
C. Compatibility with cultural method
- Cultural practices can help in better utilization of resistant varieties. e.g. Use of short duration, pest resistant
plants effective against cotton boll weevil in USA.
Advantages of HPR as a component in IPM
Specificity: Specific to the target pest. Natural enemies unaffected Cumulative effect Lasts for many successive
generations
Eco-friendly: No pollution. No effect on man and animals
Easily adoptable: High yielding insect resistant variety easily accepted and adopted by farmers.
Effectiveness: Res. variety increases efficacy of insecticides and natural enemies
Disadvantages of HPR
Time consuming: Requires from 3-10 years by traditional breeding programmes to develop a resistant variety.
Biotype development: A biotype is a new population capable of damaging and surviving on plants previously
resistant to other population of same species.
Genetic limitation: Absence of resistance genes among available germination

Chemical control:
Control of insects with chemicals is known is chemical control.
 The term pesticide is used to those chemicals which kill pests.
 These pests may include insects, animals, mites, diseases or even weeds.
Pesticides includes (Categories of pesticides)
Insecticides: Chemicals which kill insects
Nematicides: which kill nematodes,
Acaricides: which kill mites,
Rodenticides: which kill rats,
Weedicides: That kill weeds also called herbicides
Fungicides: That kill fungus etc.
Bacteriocides: That kill Bacteria.
Importance of chemical control:
 They are highly effective, rapid in curative action, adoptable to most situations.
 Insecticides are the only tool for pest management that is reliable for emergency action when insect pest
populations approach or exceed the ETL
 For most of the pest problems chemicals provides the only acceptable solution. But, some people thinks,
pesticides use is not an ecological safe.
 When their use made on sound ecological principles, chemical pesticides provide dependable and valuable
tools for the biologist.
General Properties of Insecticides
1. Pesticides are generally available in a concentrated from which are to be diluted and used except in ready to
use dust and granules.
2. They are highly toxic and available in different formulations
Properties of an ideal pesticide:
1. It should be easily available in the market under different formulations.
2. It should be toxic and kill the pest required to be controlled.
3. It should not be phytotoxic to the crops on which it is used.
4. It should not be toxic to non target species like animals, natural enemies etc.
5. It should be less harmful to human beings and other animals.
6. It Should not leave residues in crops like vegetables.
7. It should have wide range of compatibility.
8. It should not be toxic to bees and fish and other beneficial organisms.
9. It should have higher tolerance limits.
10. Should possess quick known down effect.
11. Should be stable on application.
12. Should be free from offensive odour.
13. Should be cheaper
Classifications of Insecticides
Based on origin,
Based on mode of entry,
Based on mode of action
Based on chemical nature of the toxicant

I. Based on the origin

A. Inorganic insecticides:
Comprise compounds of mineral origin and elemental sulphur.
This group includes
• Arsenate and fluorine compounds as insecticides.
• Sulphur as acaricides
• zinc phosphate as rodenticides.
B. Organic Insecticides:
1. Insecticides of animal origin: Nereistoxin isolated from marine annelids, fish oil resin soap
from fishes etc.
2. Botanical insecticides: Nicotinoids, pyrethroids, Rotenoids etc.
3. Synthetic organic insecticides: Organochlorines, Organophosphorous, Carbamate insecticides et
II. Based on the mode of entry
1. Contact poisons: These insecticides are capable of gaining entry into the insect body either through
spiracles and trachea or through the cuticle itself. Hence, these poisons can kill the insects by mere
coming in contact with the body of the insects.
Eg.DDT and HCH.
2. Stomach poisons: The insecticides applied on the leaves and other parts of plants when ingested act
on the digestive system of the insect and bring about the kill of the insect.
Eg: Calcium arsenate, lead arsenate
3. Fumigants:
 A fumigant is a chemical substance which is volatile at ordinary temperatures and sufficiently toxic
to the insects.
 Fumigation is the process of subjecting the infested material to the toxic fumes or vapours of
chemicals or gases which have insecticidal properties.
 Chemical used in the fumigant and a reasonably airtight container or room is known as
fumigation chamber or “Fumigatorium”.
 Fumigants mostly gain entry into the body of the insect through spiracles in the trachea.
Commonly used Fumigants and their doses:
1. Aluminium phosphide, marketed as Celphos tablets used against field rats , groundnut bruchids
etc
2. Carbon disulphide 8-20 for food grains
3. EDCT (Ethylene Dichloride Carbon Tetrachloride) for food grains
4. EDB (Ethylene dibromide)
5. SO2: By burning sulphur in godowns SO2 fumes are released.
4. Systemic insecticides
  Chemicals that are capable of moving through the vascular systems of plants irrespective of site of
application and poisoning insects that feed on the plants.
 Ex: Methyl demeton, Phosphamidon , Acephate
 Some insecticides are not possessing systemic action are called non systemic insecticides. Some non
systemic insecticides, however, have ability to move from one surface leaf to the other. They are called
as ‘translaminar insecticides’ .
 Eg. Malathion, Diazinon, spinosad etc.
Qualities of an ideal systemic insecticides
1. Should have high intrinsic pesticidal activity
2. The toxicant must be adequately liposoluble for it to be absorbed by the plant system and water
soluble for it to be translocated in the plant system.
3. The toxicant or its metabolites should be stable for sufficiently long period to exercise
residual effect.
4. Sufficiently soluble in water for translocation through vascular system
5. Should degrade to nontoxic form in reasonable time to avoid toxicity to consumer
III. Based on mode of action:
1. Physical poisons:
Bring about the kill of insects by exerting a physical effect.
Eg: Heavy oils, tar oils etc. which cause death by asphyxiation. Inert dusts effect loss of body moisture
by their abrasiveness as in aluminium oxide or absorb moisture from the body as in charcoal.
2. Protoplasmic poisons:
A toxicant responsible for precipitation of protein especially destruction of cellular protoplasm of midgut
epithelium. Eg. Arsenical compounds.
3. Respiratory poisons: Chemicals which block cellular respiration as in hydrogen cyanide (HCN),
carbon monoxide etc.
4. Nerve poisons:
Chemicals which block Acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) and effect the nervous system.
Eg. Organophosphorous, carbamates.
5. Chitin inhibitors:
Chitin inhibitors interfere with process of synthesis of chitin due to which normal moulting and
development is disrupted.
Eg. Novaluron, Diflubenzuran, Lufenuron ,Buprofezin
6. General Poisons:
Compounds which include neurotoxic symptoms after some period and do not belong to the above
categories.
Eg.Chlordane, Toxaphene, aldrin
V. Generation wise:
First generation: Inorganics and Botanicals
Second generation: Synthetic organics
Third generation: GR (IGRs) like MH & JH mimics
Fourth generation: Synthetic pyrethroids
Fifth generation: Synthetic pyrethroids and Neonecotinoids
1. Alfamethrin - Alfaguard/ Fartac 10 EC
2. Fenpropathrin – Danitol 10 EC
3. Bifenthrin – Taletar 10 EC
4. Fluvalinate – Mavrik
5. Ethofenpron – Treban 10 EC and Neonecotinoids

Semiochemicals
Semiochemicals are chemical substances that mediate communication between organisms.
Pheromones (intraspecific semiochemicals) Allelochemics (interspecific semiochemicals).
Pheromones are chemicals secreted into the external environment by an animal which elicit a
specific reaction in a receiving individual of the same species.
Pheromones are volatile in nature and they aid in communication among insects.
 Pheromones are exocrine in origin (i.e. secreted outside the body). Hence they were
earlier called as ectohormones.
 In 1959, German chemists Karlson and Butenandt isolated and identified the first
pheromone, a sex attractant from silkworm moths.
 They coined the term pheromone. Since this first report.
 Hundreds of pheromones have been identified in many organisms. The advancement
made in analytical chemistry aided pheromone research.
Based on the responses elicited pheromones can be classified into 2 groups
a) Primer pheromones: They trigger off a chain of physiological changes in the recipient
without any immediate change in the behaviour.

They act through gustatory (taste) sensilla. (eg.) Caste determination and reproduction
in social insects like ants, bees, wasps, and termites are mediated by primer pheromones.
These pheromones are not of much practical value in IPM.
b) Releaser pheromones: These pheromones produce an immediate change in the behaviour
of the recipient.
 Releaser pheromones may be further subdivided based on their biological activity
• Sex pheromones
• Aggregation pheromones
• Alarm pheromones
• Trail pheromones
 Releaser pheromones act through olfactory (smell) sensilla and directly act on the
central nervous system of the recipient and modify their behaviour.
 They can be successfully used in pest management programmes
Sex pheromones are released by one sex only and trigger behaviour patterns in the other
sex that facilitate in mating.
They are most commonly released by females but may be released by males also. In over 150
species of insects, females have been found to release sex pheromones and about 50 species males
produce.
Insect orders producing sex pheromones
Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, Dictyoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Neuroptera
and mecoptera. In Lepidoptera, sex pheromonal system is highly evolved
Pheromone producing glands:
In Lepidoptera they are produced by reversible glands at the tip of the abdomen of the females.
Chemical nature of sex pheromones
In general pheromones have a large number of carbon atoms (10-20) and high molecular weight
(180-300 daltons).
Butenandt and his coworkers in 1959 isolated 12mg of pheromone from the abdomen of half a
million virgin females of silkworm. They named the pheromene as Bombykol.
Pest Management With Sex Pheromones
Synthetic analogues of sex pheromones of quite large No. of pests are now available for use in
Pest management. Sex pheromones are being used in pest management in three different ways.
a) In sampling and detection (Monitoring)
b) To attract and kill (Mass trapping)
c) To disrupt mating (Confusion or Decoy method)
INSECT GROWTH REGULATORS
Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) are compounds which interfere with the growth, development
and metamorphosis of insects.
IGRs include synthetic analogues of insect hormones such as ecdysoids and juvenoids and non-
hormonal compounds such as precocenes (Anti JH) and chitin synthesis inhibitors
Natural hormones of insects which play a role in growth and development are
1. Brain hormone: The are also called activation hormone(AH). AH is secreted by neuro
secretory cells (NSC) which are neurons of central nervous system (CNS). It’s role is to activate
the corpora allata to produce juvenile hormone (JH).
2. Juvenile hormone (JH): Also called neotinin. It is secreted by corpora allata
which are paired glands present behind insect brain.
Their role is to keep the larva in juvenile condition. JH I, JH II, JH III and JH IV have been
identified in different groups of insects.
The concentration of JH decreases as the larva grows and reaches pupal stage. JH I, II and IV are
found in larva while JH III is found in adult insects and are important for development of ovary in
adult females.
3. Ecdysone: Also called Moulting hormone (MH). Ecdysone is a steroid and is secreted by
Prothorasic Glands (PTG) present near prothorasic spiracles.
Moulting in insects is brought about only in the presence of ecdysone. Ecdysone level decreases
and is altogether absent in adult insects.
IGRs used in Pest management
a) Ecdysoids: These compunds are synthetic analogues of natural ecdysone. When applied
in insects, kill them by formation of defective cuticle.
The development processes are accelerated by passing several normal events resulting in
integument lacking scales or wax layer.
b) Juvenoids (JH mimics): They are synthetic analogues of Juvenile Hormone (JH). They are
most promising as hormonal insecticides.
JH mimics were first identified by Williams and Slama in the year 1966.
They found that the paper towel kept in a glass jar used for rearing a Pyrrhocoris bug caused the
bug to die before reaching adult stage.
They named the factor from the paper as ‘paper factor’ or ‘juvabione’. They found that the
paper was manufactured from the wood pulp of balsam fir tree (Abies balsamea) which
contained the JH mimic.
C) Anti JH or Precocenes:
They act by destroying corpora allata and preventing JH synthesis.
When treated on immature stages of insect, they skip one or two larval instars and turn into tiny
precocious adults.
They can neither mate, nor oviposit and die soon.
Eg. PB (Piperonyl Butoxide)
d) Chitin Synthesis inhibitors:
Benzoyl phenyl ureas have been found to have the ability of inhibiting chitin synthesis in vivo by
blocking the activity of the enzyme chitin synthetase.
Two important compounds in this category are Diflubenzuron (Dimilin) and Penfluron.
The effects they produce on insects include
• Disruption of moulting
• Displacement of mandibles and labrum
• Adult fails to escape from pupal skin and dies
• Ovicidal effect
IGRS from Neem: Leaf and seed extracts of neem which contains azadirachtin as the active
ingredient, when applied topically causes growth inhibition, malformation, mortality and reduced
fecundity in insects.
Hormone mimics from other living organisms: Ecdysoids from plants (Phytoecdysones) have
been reported from plants like mulberry, ferns and conifers. Juvenoids have been reported from
yeast, fungi, bacteria, protozoans, higher animals and plants.
Advantages of Using IGRs
 Effective in minute quantities and so are economical
 Target specific and so safe to natural enemies
 Bio-degradable, non-persistent and non-polluting
 Non-toxic to humans, animals and plants
Disadvantages
 Kills only certain stages of pest
 Slow mode of action
 Since they are chemicals possibility of build-up of resistance
 Unstable in the environment
Quarantine:
 Definition: Preventing the entry and establishment of foreign plant and animal pest in
a country or area and eradication or suppression of the pests established in a limited
area through compulsory legislation or enactment.
or
Plant quarantine is defined as the legal enforcement of the measures aimed to prevent pests
from spreading or to prevent them to multiply further in case they have already gained entry
and have established in new restricted areas.
The importance of imposing restrictions on the movement of pest-infested plants or plant
materials from one country to another was realized when the grapevine phylloxera got
introduced into France from America by about 1860 and the San jose scale spread into
the USA in the later part of the 18th century and caused severe damage.
The first Quarantine Act in USA came into operation in 1905. While Govt. of India passed an
Act in 1914 entitled “Destructive Insect and Pests Act of 1914” to prevent the introduction
of any insect, fungus or other pests into our country. This was later supplemented by a more
comprehensive act in 1917.
Pests Accidentally Introduced Into India
1. Pink bollworm - Pectinophora gossypiella
2. Cotton cushion scale - Icerya purchasi
3. Wooly aphid of apple - Aphelinus mali
4. SanJose scale - Quadraspidiotus perniciosus
5. Potato tuber moth – Phthorimoea operculella
6. Cyst (Golden) nematode of potato - Globodera sp.
7. Giant african snail - Acatina fullica
8. Subabul psyllid - Heteropsylla cubana
9. Bunchytop disease of banana
10. Spiralling whitefly - Aleyrodicus dispersus
Quarantine
Isolation to prevent spreading of infection
Plant Quarantine
Legal restriction of movement of plant materials between countries and between states
within the country to prevent or limit introduction and spread of pests and diseases in areas
where they do not exist.
PEST LEGISLATIONS
1905 - ‘Federal Insect Pest Act’ - first Quarantine act against SanJose scale in USA
1912 - ‘US Plant Quarantine Act’
1914 - ‘Destructive Insects and Pests Act’ of India (DIPA)
1919 - ‘Madras Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act’
1968 - ‘The Insecticides Act’
1) Legislation to prevent the introduction of foreign pests:
To prevent the entry of foreign pests all countries have restrictions. They enforce quarantine
laws.
The imported plant material has to be thoroughly examined at the ports of entry.
The Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage was established in Faridababd
in 1946.
Prior to which customs authorities did the enforcement of quarantine laws.
From 1949, DPPQS deals with the commercial import of consignments of grains, plants and plant
products for consumption through its network of 35 Plant Quarantine Stations spread across
the country including seaports, airports and land frontiers.
These operate under the provisions made under the “Destructive Insect and Pests Act of 1914”.
Further Government of India has approved NBPGR, New Delhi for quarantine processing of
all germplasm including transgenic planting material under exchange for research purposes,
Forest Research Institute(FRI) Dehadradun for forest plants and
Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Kolkatta for ornamental plants to enforce quarantine laws.
The importation of plant material from foreign countries has to be done only through any of these
ports.
The consignment should also be accompanied with the certificate issued by the Officers of
agriculture department of the exporting country so as confirm that the consignments are pest
free. This certificate is called as ‘Phytosanitory certificate’.
) Legislation to prevent the spread of already established pests:
The Destructive Insect and Pests Act, 1914, have empowered the states to enact such laws as are
necessary to prevent the spread of dangerous insects within their jurisdiction.
The Madras Government enacted the Madras Agricultural Pests and Diseases act in 1919 and
was the first state to enact such laws in our country.
This act was passed to prevent the spread of pests or diseases or weeds form
one part of the state to another.
Cottony cushiony scale when localized in Nilgiris and Kodiakanal none of the alternate host
plants were permitted to get transported from these areas.
Quarantine stations were opened at Mettupalayam and Gudalur of Nilgiris and at
Shenbegmur station of Kodaikanal in 1943 and were closed subsequently.
The Insecticide Act, 1968
The Insecticide Act, 1968 has been enforced on 2nd September, 1968 by the Government of India
to regulate the import, manufacture, sale, transport and distribution and use of insecticides.
The government of India also constituted the Central Insecticide Board (CIB) to advise the state
and central governments as per this act.
The insecticide rules of 1971 framed under the Insecticides Act 1968 had come in to force in
1971.
Salient features of the insecticides act (1968)
1. Compulsory registration with CIB (Central level)
2. Licence for manufacture, formulation and sale at state level
3. Inter departmental/Ministerial/Organisational co-ordination achieved by high level
Advisory Board “Central Insecticides Board” with 28 members form various fields
4. Registration committee (RC) to look after registration aspects of insecticides
5. Enforcement by Insecticide inspectors at state/central level
6. Power to prohibit the import, manufacture and sale of insecticides and also
confiscate stocks. Guilty are punishable.