Sensors & Transducers
Sensors & Transducers
Shams University
Sec:
1
A-‐
Sensors
&
Transducers:
Sensor
is
used
for
an
element
produces
signal
related
to
the
measured
quanDty
(Unusable
signal).
Transducer
is
used
for
an
element
when
subject
to
physical
change
experiences
a
related
change
(i.e
produces
a
usable
signal).
B-‐Performance Terminology:
These terms used to define the performance of sensors & transducers:
1-‐
Range
&
Span
:
Range
means
the
limits
for
input
to
vary
between,
while
span
means
maximum
input
value
-‐
minimum
input
value.
3-‐ Accuracy: SummaDon of all possible errors that are likely to occur.
4-‐ SensiDvity: the raDo between how much o/p you get per unit input.
5-‐ Hysteresis error: Different o/p values from the same value of measured quanDty.
6-‐
Non
linearity
error:
it’s
assumed
the
relaDon
between
i/p
&
o/p
to
be
linear
&
so
error
is
the
difference
from
the
straight
line.
7-‐ Repeatability: Ability to give the same o/p for repeated applicaDons of the same i/p
8-‐
Stability:
Ability
to
give
the
same
o/p
for
the
same
i/p
measured
over
a
period
of
Dme.
9-‐ Dead Band: The range of i/p for which there is no o/p.
10-‐ ResoluDon: Smallest change in i/p that produce an observable change in the o/p.
Dynamic
CharacterisDcs:
Behavior
between
the
Dme
of
i/p
values
change
&
the
Dme
that
the
o/p
value
sefles
to
steady
state
values.
1-‐
Response
Dme:
Time
elapse
ager
a
constant
i/p
is
applied
to
the
sensor
up
to
the
point
at
which
it
gives
95%
of
the
o/p
value.
3-‐
Rise
Dme:
Time
taken
for
o/p
to
raise
to
specified
percentage
of
steady-‐state
o/p.
4-‐
Sefling
Dme:
Time
taken
for
o/p
to
sefle
within
some
percentage
(commonly
2%
of
the
steady-‐state
value).
Displacement sensors -‐-‐> used to measure amount how much object has moved.
PosiDon sensors -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐> used to determine posiDon with reference point.
Proximity
sensors
-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐>
used
to
determine
when
object
has
moved
to
with
parDcular
distance.
There are some point to consider when selecDon which of them to use:
Contact Sensors : where the object is in physical contact with the sensor.
Non
-‐
Contact
Senors:
where
the
object
is
not
in
contact
with
the
sensor.
The
most
commonly
used
displacement
sensors
are:
It
is
a
metal
wire
&
metal
foil
strip
can
be
stuck
onto
surfaces
like
stamp,
When
it
is
subjected
to
strain,
it’s
resistance
change
proporDonal
to
the
strain.
The
capacitance
(C)
consists
of
two
parallel
plates
&
it
is
value
depends
on
the
overlaped
area
between
the
two
plates,
When
one
of
the
two
plates
is
displaced
away
from
its
posiDon,
the
capacitance
value
changes
due
to
the
overlap
area.
If
a
coil
is
supplied
with
AC
current,
an
alternaDng
magneDc
field
is
produced
and
if
there
is
a
metal
object
proximity
to
this
field
eddy
currents
are
induced
in
it,
these
eddy
currents
produce
an
other
magneDc
field
distorts
the
original
magneDc
field
form
the
AC
current,
So
the
impedance
of
the
coil
changes
and
so
the
amplitude
of
the
AC
current.
6-‐InducDve
proximity
switch:
It
consists
of
a
coil
wound
around
a
core,
when
the
end
of
the
coil
is
close
to
metal
object
its
inductance
changes,
this
change
could
be
monitored
by
its
effect
on
an
electric
circuit
and
the
change
used
to
trigger
a
switch.
PneumaDc
sensors
involve
the
use
of
compressed
air
as
the
displacement
or
the
proximity
of
an
object
is
changed
into
a
change
in
pressure.
The
switch
is
a
small
electrical
device
requires
a
physical
contact
and
a
small
operaDng
force
to
close
the
contacts
and
so
the
switch
is
on
or
off,
there
are
many
types
of
them
can
be
used
to
detect
an
object
proximity.
Reed
switch
is
the
most
commonly
used
for
checking
the
closure
of
doors,
it
is
considered
non-‐contacDng
switch
since
it
depends
on
magnet
on
the
proximate
object
to
close
or
open
the
switch.
These
devices
can
be
used
to
detect
the
presence
of
an
opaque
object
by
it
breaking
a
beam
of
light
or
infrared
radiaDon,
falling
on
such
device
or
by
detecDng
the
light
reflected
back
by
the
object.
The following sensors can be used to detect velocity & moDon:
1-‐Tachogenerator:
It
is
used
to
measure
the
angular
velocity,
it
consisted
of
a
toothed
wheel
of
ferromagneDc
material
afached
to
the
rotaDng
shag,
pick
up
coil
is
wound
on
a
magnet,
as
the
wheel
rotates,
the
teeth
move
past
the
coil
and
the
air
gap
between
the
coil
&
the
ferromagneDc
material
changes
thus
the
flux
linked
by
a
pick
up
coil
changes
resulDng
in
producing
an
alternaDve
e.m.f
in
the
coil.
2-‐
Pyroelectric
sensors:
To
detect
the
moDon
of
heat
source.
the
sensing
element
has
to
be
between
general
background
heat
radiaDon
&
the
moving
heat
source,
dual
element
is
used
when
they
both
receive
a
heat
signal
their
o/p
is
cancelled,
&
when
a
heat
source
moves
the
heat
radiaDon
moves
from
one
of
the
sensing
elements
to
the
other
resulDng
in
current
flow.
F-‐ Force:
Many
of
the
devices
used
to
monitor
fluid
pressure
involve
monitoring
the
elasDc
deformaDon
of
diaphragms,
capsules,
bellows
&
tubes.
For
diaphragms
when
there
is
a
pressure
difference
the
diaphragm
centre’s
becomes
displaced,
this
displacement
could
be
monitored
by
displacement
sensors.
Capsules
can
be
considered
two
corrugated
diaphragms
combined
and
give
even
greater
sensiDvity.
A
different
form
of
deformaDon
is
by
using
tube
with
an
ellipDcal
cross
secDon,
by
increasing
pressure,
it
tends
to
more
circular
cross
secDon,
The
helical
shapes
gives
more
sensiDvity.
When
such
tube
in
C
shaped
(Bourdon
tube)
the
c
opens
up
when
the
pressure
increased.
Also there are some other sensors used to measure the pressure:
Piezoelectric
sensors
are
used
for
measurements
of
pressure,
forces
&
acceleraDon
&
they
are
mainly
used
for
transient
rather
than
steady
pressures.
Measuring
flow
rate
of
liquids
involves
devices
based
on
the
measurement
of
the
pressure
drop
occurring
when
the
fluid
flows
through
a
construcDon,
The
following
devices
are
used
to
measure
the
flow
rate:
2-‐Turbine meter:
Liquid
level
could
be
directly
monitored
by
the
posiDon
of
liquid
surface
in
a
vessel,
or
indirectly
through
the
vessel
weight
or
by
measuring
the
pressure
at
certain
points.
The
following
devices
are
used
to
measure
the
liquid
level:
1-‐ Floats:
A
direct
method
depends
on
monitoring
the
movement
of
a
float.This
float
may
cause
a
lever
arm
to
rotate
to
move
a
slider
across
a
potenDometer.
the
result
of
o/p
voltage
related
to
the
liquid
height.
This
determines
the
pressure
difference
between
the
liquid
at
the
base
of
vessel
and
atmospheric
pressure,
the
vessel
being
open
to
the
atmospheric
pressure,
it
is
easily
to
calculate
the
liquid
level.
J-‐
Temperature:
It
consists
of
two
different
metal
strips
bounded
together,
have
different
coefficients
of
expansion,
when
temp.
change
they
bends
into
curved
strip,
with
the
higher
coefficient
metal
on
the
outside
curve.
It
is
based
on
that
the
resistance
of
metals
increase
over
a
limited
temp.
it
consists
of
coils
of
wire
from
metal
wounded
,
held
by
a
high
temperature
glass
adhesive
inside
a
ceramic
tube.
3-‐ Thermistors:
Small
pieces
of
material
made
of
mixtures
of
metal
oxides,
they
are
formed
in
many
shapes,
however
their
resistance
decrease
with
the
temp.
increase.
they
have
very
rapid
response
to
temp.
change.
4-‐Thermocouples:
If
two
metals
are
joined
a
potenDal
difference
occurs
across
this
juncDon,
it
depends
on
the
metal
&
the
juncDon
temp.
The
thermocouples
is
a
complete
circuit
of
two
juncDons
if
both
are
at
the
same
temp.
there
is
no
e.m.f.
however
there
is
a
temp.
difference
there
is
e.m.f.these
juncDons
are
kept
in
a
sheath
to
protect
them
this
sheath
depends
on
the
temp.
at
which
thermocouples
will
be
used.
The
are
some
factors
that
needed
to
be
considered
to
select
sensors
for
a
parDcular
applicaDon:
1-‐
The
nature
of
the
measurement
required
(The
variable,
it’s
nominal
value,
range
of
values,
accuracy
required,
required
speed
of
the
measurement).
3-‐
The
possible
sensors
can
be
idenDfied
taking
into
account
their
factors
such
as
range,
accuracy,
linearity,
speed
of
response,
power
supply
requirements,
life,
cost.
The
sensors
selecDon
cannot
be
taken
in
isolaDon
from
considering
the
form
of
o/p
ager
the
signal
condiDoning
.
Mechanical
switches
consist
of
one
or
more
pairs
of
contacts
which
can
be
mechanically
opened
or
closed.
1-‐ Debouncing:
Switch
bounce
is
a
problem
occurs
when
mechanical
switch
is
switched
to
close
the
contacts,
it
hits
the
other
and
because
the
contacDng
elements
are
elasDc
bounce
for
a
number
of
Dmes
before
finally
sefled
down,
This
leads
to
problem
with
microprocessor.
&
to
over
come
way
may
use
a
sogware
to
make
the
microprocessor
detect
the
switch
ager
a
certain
period
of
Dme.
Or
we
may
use
a
hardware
to
use
a
flipflop
changes
its
value
when
switch
change
the
contact
,
Or
we
may
use
schmif
trigger
also
to
solve
this
problem.
2-‐ Keypads: