Well Performance

Introduction to
Nodal Analysis

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Well Performance
2

Introduction to Nodal Analysis

Instructional Objectives
1. Explain the concept of Nodal Analysis.
2. List 4 segments in the reservoir/well system where
pressure loss occurs.
3. Define the following terms: inflow performance curve,
outflow performance curve, system graph, solution node.

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Upon completion of this section, the student should be able to:

1. Explain the concept of Nodal Analysis.
2. List the four major segments between the reservoir and the separator where
pressure loss occurs.
3. Give definitions for each of the following terms:
Inflow performance curve
Tubing performance curve
System graph
Solution node
Well Performance
3

Pressure Losses in Well System

∆P4 = (Pwh - Psep)

Gas
Sales line
Pwh Psep Liquid
Stock tank

∆P1 = Pr - Pwfs = Loss in reservoir

∆P3 = Pwf - Pwh ∆P2 = Pwfs - Pwf = Loss across completion
∆P3 = Pwf - Pwh = Loss in tubing
∆P4 = Pwh - Psep = Loss in flowline
∆PT = Pr - Psep = Total pressure loss

Pwf Pwfs Pr Pe

∆P1 = (Pr - Pwfs)

∆P2 = (Pwfs - Pwf) Adapted from Mach et al, SPE 8025, 1979.
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Fluid flows from the reservoir to the stock tank because of the pressure gradients
within the system. The total pressure drop from the reservoir to the separator is the
sum of the individual pressure drops through four different segments: in the
reservoir, across the completion, up the wellbore, and through the flowline.
It is relatively straightforward to calculate the pressure drop for each of these
segments, if we know the flow rate and either the upstream or downstream pressure,
and the physical properties of the segment.
But we do not know the flow rate - that is what we are trying to find. How do we
calculate the flow rate, knowing the reservoir and separator pressures? This is the
central question of Nodal Analysis.
Given the reservoir pressure and the separator pressure, along with the physical
properties of each segment, what is the flow rate at which the well will produce?
Well Performance
4

Nodal Analysis

∆P4 = (Pwh - Psep)

Gas
Sales line
Pwh Psep Liquid
Stock tank

∆P1 = Pr - Pwfs = Loss in reservoir

∆P3 = Pwf - Pwh ∆P2 = Pwfs - Pwf = Loss across completion
∆P3 = Pwf - Pwh = Loss in tubing
∆P4 = Pwh - Psep = Loss in flowline
∆PT = Pr - Psep = Total pressure loss

Pwf Pwfs Pr Pe

∆P1 = (Pr - Pwfs)

∆P2 = (Pwfs - Pwf) Adapted from Mach et al, SPE 8025, 1979.
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How do we determine the right flow rate? We know the separator pressure and the
average reservoir pressure.
We start in the reservoir at the average reservoir pressure, pr, and assume a flow
rate. This lets us calculate the pressure just beyond the completion, pwfs. We can
then calculate the pressure drop across the completion, and the bottomhole pressure
pwf. This pressure is valid only for the assumed flow rate.
Or, we may start at the separator at psep, and calculate the pressure drop in the
flowline to find the wellhead pressure, pwh. Then we can calculate the bottomhole
pressure pwf. Again, this pressure is valid only for the assumed flow rate.
The two calculated bottomhole pressures will probably not be the same. If not, then
the assumed rate is wrong.
“Nodal” analysis refers to the fact that we have to choose a point or “node” in the
system at which we evaluate the pressure - in this case, the bottom of the wellbore.
This point is referred to as the solution point or solution node.
Well Performance
5

Inflow Performance Curve

3500
Inflow (Reservoir) Curve
3000
Flowing bottomhole pressure, psi

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved Production rate, STB/D

Lets assume that the well is completed open hole, and that the well is neither
damaged nor stimulated. In this case, the pressure drop across the completion is
zero.
For the moment, we ignore the wellbore and the flowline.
If the flow rate is 0, the bottomhole pressure pwf will be the same as the average
reservoir pressure, pr. As we increase the flow rate, the pressure drop in the
reservoir segment increases - causing the bottomhole pressure pwf to decrease.
When we graph the flowing bottomhole pressure as a function of flow rate, the
result is a curve intersecting the y-axis at the initial reservoir pressure, and
intersecting the x-axis at the maximum rate the well would produce if opened to the
atmosphere at the perforations.
This curve is usually referred to as the “inflow curve” or the “reservoir curve”.
Until we take into account the pressure drop within the wellbore, this curve tells us
very little about the rate at which the well will produce for a given wellhead
pressure.
Well Performance
6

Outflow Performance Curve

3500

Outflow (Tubing) Curve

3000
Flowing bottomhole pressure, psi

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved Production rate, STB/D

Now let’s assume that the separator is so close to the wellhead that we may ignore
the pressure drop through the flowline.
At some low flow rate, perhaps 200 STB/D, the flowing bottomhole pressure may
be 1500 psi. In order to increase the flow rate without changing the surface
pressure, we have to raise the flowing bottomhole pressure.
(At extremely low flow rates, the bottomhole pressure actually falls with increasing
flow rate. This is a real phenomenon, and we will address it at some length later in
the course. For now, note that the bottomhole pressure for a shut-in well filled with
oil is actually higher than the bottomhole pressure for a well flowing a mixture of
oil and gas at low rates.)
This curve is usually referred to as the “outflow curve” or the “tubing performance
curve”.
Until we take into account the reservoir behavior, this curve also tells us almost
nothing about the rate at which the well will produce.
Well Performance
7

System Graph
3500
Inflow (Reservoir) Curve
3000 Outflow (Tubing) Curve
Flowing bottomhole pressure, psi

2500
1957.1 psi

2000

1500

1000

500 2111 STB/D

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved Production rate, STB/D

The inflow curve describes the relationship between the bottomhole pressure and
the flow rate for the reservoir.
The outflow curve describes the relationship between the bottomhole pressure and
flow rate for the wellbore.
When we graph these two curves on the same graph, we refer to this as the “system
graph”. The intersection of the inflow curve and the outflow curve gives the one
unique flow rate at which the well will produce for a specified set of reservoir and
wellbore properties. The point of intersection will also give the unique bottomhole
pressure at which this rate will occur.
If we had chosen a different point as our solution node, the shapes of the curves
would have been different. The y-coordinate of the intersection of the inflow and
outflow curves would have given the pressure at the new solution node. The flow
rate at which the curves intersect, however, will be the same no matter where the
solution node is taken. Calculated intersection points may differ slightly because of
numerical errors.
Well Performance
8

Solution Node At Wellhead

∆P4 = (Pwh - Psep)

Gas
Sales line
Pwh Psep Liquid
Stock tank

∆P1 = Pr - Pwfs = Loss in reservoir

∆P3 = Pwf - Pwh ∆P2 = Pwfs - Pwf = Loss across completion
∆P3 = Pwf - Pwh = Loss in tubing
∆P4 = Pwh - Psep = Loss in flowline
∆PT = Pr - Psep = Total pressure loss

Pwf Pwfs Pr Pe

∆P1 = (Pr - Pwfs)

∆P2 = (Pwfs - Pwf) Adapted from Mach et al, SPE 8025, 1979.
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

What if we take the solution node at the wellhead? Again, we know the separator
pressure and the average reservoir pressure.
As with the bottomhole node, we start in the reservoir at the average reservoir
pressure, pr, and assume a flow rate. This lets us calculate the pressure just beyond
the completion, pwfs. We can then calculate the pressure drop across the
completion, and the bottomhole pressure pwf. Finally, we calculate the pressure
drop up the wellbore to find the wellhead pressure pwh. This pressure is valid only
for the assumed flow rate.
Or, we may start at the separator at psep, and calculate the pressure drop in the
flowline to find the wellhead pressure, pwh. Again, this pressure is valid only for the
assumed flow rate.
Graphing inflow and outflow curves for a range of assumed rates allows the solution
flow rate and wellhead pressure to be obtained from the intersection of the curves.
Well Performance
9

System Graph - Wellhead Node

1600
Inflow Curve
1400 Outflow Curve
Flowing wellhead pressure, psi

1200

1000

800
500 psi

600

400

200
2050 STB/D

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved Production rate, STB/D

In general, the inflow curve describes the relationship between the pressure at the
solution node and the flow rate into the node. For this case, with the solution node
at the wellhead, the inflow curve represents the combined performance of the
reservoir and tubing system.
The outflow curve describes the relationship between the pressure at the solution
node and flow rate out of the node. Here, with the solution node taken at the
wellhead, the outflow curve is horizontal - we have fixed the wellhead pressure at
500 psi in our input data.
The intersection of the curves gives the flow rate (2050 STB/D) and the wellhead
pressure (500 psi). The slight discrepancy between this value and the 2111 STB/D
calculated using a bottomhole node should not be of concern.
Well Performance
10

Inflow Performance
Oil Wells

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Well Performance
11

Instructional Objectives

Calculate the IPR for oil wells using

– Darcy’s law
– Vogel’s equation
– Shape factors

Convert Shape Factors

Calculate Time to Stabilization

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Upon completion of this section, the student shall be able to:

• Calculate the IPR for an oil well under each of the following conditions:
• producing above the bubble point, using Darcy’s law
• producing below the bubble point, using the Vogel IPR.
• producing from a reservoir of arbitrary shape.
• Convert shape factors from any one convention to another.
• Calculate time required to reach stabilization.
Well Performance
12

Reservoir Capabilities

Darcy’s Law

Liquid flow in Laminar Flow through a permeable medium is
described by Darcy’s Law

7.08 × 10 −3 k h ( p − pwf )
q=
  re  3 
µ o Bo  ln   − + s 

  rw  4 

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The equation uses average reservoir pressure, . The reservoir is circular

p with the
well in the center. The outer boundary is closed (no flow).
Well Performance
13

Reservoir Capabilities

s = Skin Factor (dimensionless)

 k   ra 
s =  − 1 ln  
 ka   rw 

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Well Performance
14

Productivity Index

A common indicator of liquid reservoir behavior is PI or

productivity index
– Referred to as “J” in SPE nomenclature

q
J=
p − p wf

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While determining J from test data [q/ - pwf] is accurate,

p it can hide performance
potential because it is measured downstream of the perforations. Thus, the effect of
poor or plugged perforations is included in the productivity index of the well.
While these data can be obtained from a test (and usually are) one can calculate
them using Darcy’s Law.

( - pwf) is usually called the drawdown.

p
Well Performance
15

Productivity Index in Terms of Darcy’s Law

7.08 × 10 −3 kh
J=
 r  3 
µ o Bo  ln e  − + s 
  rw  4 

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The equation above is a better indicator of reservoir performance because it

describes the behavior upstream of the perforations.
It assumes radial flow in a closed reservoir.
Well Performance
16

Productivity Index in Terms of Darcy’s Law

7.08 × 10 −3 kh
J=
  re  3 
µ o Bo  ln  − + s 
  rw  4 

J ≈ kh (k in Darcies)

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We can approximate J as follows.

For re = 750 ft, rw = 0.3 ft, s = 0, we have

750
ln − 0.75 + 0 ≈ 7.08
0.3
so we can approximate J as
10 −3 kh
J≈
µ o Bo
For many oils, µB is approximately 1, so this simplies to:

, or where k is in Darcys.

J ≈ 10 −3 kh J ≈ kh
Well Performance
17

Calculating Flowrate

Using PI, we can calculate flowrate, q, quickly and easily

from

q = J (p − p wf )

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The flow rate when we draw the well down completely (pwf = atmospheric pressure)
is called the absolute open flow potential (AOF).
Well Performance
18

Exercise 1

Given reservoir parameters:

– K = 30 md
– h = 40 ft
– µo = 0.5 cp
– Bo = 1.2 RB/STB
– hole size = 8 ½ inches
– s = 0

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Well Performance
19

Exercise 1

Calculate:
– J for re = 1,000 ft
– q for a drawdown (p − p wf ) of 750 psi
– q for a drawdown of 1,000 psi
– With p = 3,000 psia, calculate q for a complete drawdown
(absolute open flow potential).

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Well Performance
20

Multiphase Flow

Bubblepoint pressure (pb)

– Pressure at which first bubble of gas is released from reservoir
oils

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A well does not always produce only liquid. When pressure drops below the
bubblepoint pressure, bubbles of gas start to form within the liquid. The
pressure at which the first bubble of gas is released is called the bubblepoint
pressure (pb). Moreover, as the quantity of gas increases, µo increases, and
the relative permeability to oil, kro, decreases.
Well Performance
21

Multiphase Flow

Vogel’s Behavior
– IPR Curve - Vogel plotted the data using the following
dimensionless variables

p wf q
and
p q max

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Vogel1 simulated the performance of a large number of wells with a reservoir

pressure below the bubblepoint pressure pb, and plotted pwf/p versus qo/qmax.

qmax is defined as the theoretical maximum possible flow rate, at pwf = 0.

The abbreviation “IPR” stands for Inflow Performance Relation. An IPR curve is a
plot of flowing bottomhole pressure, pwf, vs production rate, q, for a fixed average
drainage area pressure.
Well Performance
22

Vogel Curve

0.8

0.6
pwf/pr

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

q/qmax
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Well Performance
23

Multiphase Flow

Mathematical model for Vogel’s curve

 q  
2
p  p 
  = 1 − 0.2  wf  − 0.8  wf  
 qmax    p   p  


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This equation is valid for water cut below 50%.

The pressure drop due to perforations/completion is already taken into account in

the equation.
Well Performance
24

Multiphase Flow

Mathematical relationship between Vogel (qmax) and Darcy

(AOF)

AOF J × p
q max = =
1.8 1.8

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Use of this relationship allows us to make an Inflow Performance (IPR) curve that is
valid upstream of the perforations, and that does not mask reservoir potential.
Well Performance
25

Finding Vogel qmax

1

0.8

0.6
pwf/pr

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

q/qmax
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Well Performance
26

Exercise 2

Reservoir parameters:
– p = 2,350 psia
– k = 140 md
– h = 35 ft
– µo = 0.8 cp
– Bo = 1.25 rbbl/STB
– re = 2,000 ft
– rw = 0.411 ft
– pb = 3,000 psia
– s = 2
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Well Performance
27

Exercise 2

Calculate J

Calculate qmax

Construct IPR curve

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Well Performance
28
Multiphase Flow

Combination Darcy/Vogel
Co
p ns
ta
nt
J

pb

Vo
ge
l Be
Pressure

ha
pwf vi
or

J pb
qb
1.8 qmax
O

O Rate q
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When is p above pb, we can have both Darcy and Vogel behavior (depending on the
value of the drawdown) for the IPR curve.
Well Performance
29

Multiphase Flow

qb = J ( p − pb )

 p ≥ pb : q = J ( p − p wf )

  p wf  p wf 
2

 p ≤ p b : q = q b + (q max − q b ) 1 − 0 .2 − 0 . 8  
  p b  pb  

Jpb
q max = qb +
1 .8
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Well Performance
30

Multiphase IPR - Steady State Flow

qg qg
qo qo

pw pe

Mass of gas and oil crossing a plane per unit time must be
same for any cross section

Saturation may vary from one end to other

If capillary pressure is ignored, pressure gradient at any point
along the path is same in both oil and gas phases
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Note:
Flow rates qo and qg are written at surface conditions. In the reservoir, gas may be
either free gas or in solution. We will use formation volume factors and solution
gas-oil ratios to determine the relationship between volumes at surface conditions
and reservoir volumes of both phases.
Well Performance
31

Steady State Multiphase Flow

 R 
 q g − s qo  Bg µ g
q o Bo µ o
= −
dp 1000 
=− −3
dL 1.127 × 10 k o A 1.127 × 10 −3 k g A

kg k rg Bg µ g
= = (R − R s )
ko k ro Bo µ o

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Left hand side is a function of saturation only. RHS is a function of pressure only.
Therefore, saturation must be a unique function of pressure, along the flow path,
under steady state flow.
Well Performance
32

Finding So from P
So
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
1000 1000

100 100

10 10
(R-Rs)(Bgµg/Boµo)

krg/kro

1 1

krg/kro
0.1 0.1

0.01 0.01
(R-Rs)(Bgµg/Boµo)
0.001 0.001

0.0001 0.0001
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
p
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Given pressure p, we can calculate krg/kro from the RHS using only pressure
dependent fluid properties. Then we can graphically find So as shown.
Note that the y-axes have identical scales, because the variables plotted against the
y-axes have the same numerical value at a given pressure, tying pressure and
saturation together.
Well Performance
33

Steady State Multiphase Flow

dp q o Bo µ o
=−
dL 1.127 × 10 −3 kk ro A

k ro qo
− dp = dL
Bo µ o 1.127 × 10 −3 kA

pw

∫
k ro qo L
dp =
pe Bo µ o 1.127 × 10 −3 kA

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The first equation is the ODE for the oil component in steady state multiphase flow.
Since saturation is a unique function of pressure along the flow path, we may use
separation of variables to solve the ODE for SS multiphase flow, second and third
equations.
Well Performance
34

Multiphase Pseudopressure

∫
k ro
mo ( p ) = dp
p ref Bo µ o

1.127 × 10 −3 kA
qo = (mo ( pe ) − mo ( p w ))
L

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If we define a pseudopressure for multiphase flow (first equation), we can calculate the relationship
between pressure drop and flow rate using the second equation. This relationship is exact for steady
state multiphase flow.
Note that the multiphase pseudopressure is dependent on the producing GOR, and will change as the
reservoir pressure declines.
Well Performance
35

Pseudosteady State Flow

7.08 × 10 −3 kh(m( p ) − m( p wf ))
qo =
 re  3
ln  − + s
 rw  4

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We can use the multiphase pseudopressure as an approximation for pseudosteady

state flow to a vertical well in a closed reservoir.
Well Performance
36

Comparison with Vogel’s Equation

3000

2500

2000
Pwf, psi

1500

1000

500 Multiphase pseudopressure

Vogel

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Rate, STB/D
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The multiphase pseudopressure gives results that are similar, but not identical to,
those predicted by Vogel’s equation. Depending on the specific reservoir and fluid
properties, the Vogel equation may predict a higher or lower flow rate than the
multiphase pseudopressure.
Vogel’s equation does not account for variations in relative permeability, gas-oil
ratio, or viscosity.
The multiphase pseudopressure accounts for variations in all of these parameters,
but requires that the correct values be known.
In this fiqure, the reservoir is at initial pressure of 2650 psi, and the producing and
solution gas-oil ratios are equal. Above the bubble point pressure, we have single-
phase flow, and Darcy’s law applies; below the bubble point pressure, multiphase
flow effects cause the flow rate to be less than that predicted by Darcy’s law.
Well Performance
37

Comparison with Vogel’s Equation

1200

1000

800
Pwf, psi

600

400

200 Multiphase pseudopressure

Vogel

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Rate, STB/D
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In this figure, the average reservoir pressure has fallen to 1000 psi, the average gas
saturation is 28.5%, and the producing gas-oil ratio is 2100 scf/STB.
Well Performance
38

Future IPR Curves

3000
Flowing Bottomhole Pressure, psia

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Flow Rate, STB/D
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Reservoir pressure decreases as oil is produced. To forecast future performance, we

need to be able to calculate how the IPR curve changes as reservoir pressure
declines.
This graph shows the IPR curve for a solution gas drive reservoir at several different
stages in its life, calculated using the steady-state multiphase flow equation.
Above the bubble point pressure, the IPR curve has a relatively straight section at
rates low enough that the flowing bottomhole pressure is above the bubble point
pressure.
At the bubble point pressure, the IPR curve has shifted to the left, without changing
shape.
As the reservoir pressure continues to fall further below the original bubble point
pressure, the IPR becomes steeper at low flow rates, indicating a loss in productivity
because of reduced effective permeability to oil.
Well Performance
39

Calculating Future IPR Curves

Steady-State Multiphase Flow Theory

– Relative permeability
– Saturation vs. pressure

Standing/Vogel Procedure
– Relative permeability
– Saturation vs. pressure

Fetkovich/Vogel Procedure

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Well Performance
40

Productivity Index

q
J=
p − p wf

 q 
J ≡ lim (J ) = lim
* 
p wf → p q →0  p − p 
 wf 

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The productivity index J is defined as the flow rate at any pressure divided by the
drawdown. Above the bubble point, this value is approximately constant. Below
the bubble point J decreases with pressure.
J* is defined as the limiting value of the productivity index for small drawdowns.
Well Performance
41

Standing/Vogel Procedure

 k   k ro 
J *f = J *p  ro   
 µ o Bo f  µ o Bo p

J *f p f
q max f =
1.8

  
2
 q p  p 
  = 1 − 0.2  wf  − 0.8  wf  
 q max f    p   p  
    f   f  
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The Standing - Vogel procedure is based on an observation by Muskat that well

productivity is proportional to kr/Bµ.
J* is defined as the limiting value of the productivity index for small drawdowns.
If the oil saturation can be predicted as a function of time, and the relative
permeability is known as a function of saturation, the value of J* at any point in the
future can be predicted from its present value.
Standing recommended that the Tarner material balance procedure be used to
predict saturation vs. time. The similar Muskat material balance procedure may
also be used.
Once we have calculated J*f, we can use the Vogel equation below the original
bubble point by calculating qmax f in terms of J*f.
Well Performance
42

Fetkovich/Vogel Procedure

3
 pf 
q max f = q max p  
p 
 p

  
2
 q p  p 
  = 1 − 0.2  wf  − 0.8  wf  
 q max f    p   p  
    f   f  

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Often we do not know either the relative permeability relationships or the oil
saturation as a function of reservoir pressure.
Ekmeier proposed a method for calculating future IPR curves using concepts from
both Fetkovich and Vogel.
This method does not require either prediction of saturation vs reservoir pressure or
knowledge of the relative permeability relationships. The value qmax p may be
obtained from a single test at current reservoir pressure, or may be estimated from
Darcy’s law if test data are not available.
Well Performance
43

Shape Factors

Circular Reservoir

q 7.08 × 10 −3 kh
J=
( p − p wf ) =   re  3 
µ o Bo  ln  − + s 
  
  rw  4 

What if the reservoir is not circular?

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

The equation uses average reservoir pressure. The reservoir is circular with the well
in the center. The outer boundary is closed (no flow).
Well Performance
44

Shape Factors

Dietz Shape Factor

q 7.08 × 10 −3 kh
J=
( p − p wf ) =  1  10.06 A  3 
µ o Bo  ln 2 
 − + s 

 2  C A rw  4 

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The outer boundary is closed (no flow), the reservoir may have any shape, and the
well may be placed anywhere in the reservoir.
Well Performance
45

Shape Factors

Odeh Shape Factor

q 7.08 × 10 −3 kh
J=
( p − p wf ) =   C A Odeh A  3


µ o Bo ln   − + s
  rw  4 
   

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

The outer boundary is closed (no flow), the reservoir may have any shape, and the
well may be placed anywhere in the reservoir.
Well Performance
46

Shape Factors

Fetkovich-Vienot Shape Factor Skin

q 7.08 × 10 −3 kh
J=
( p − p wf ) =   r′  3 
µ o Bo  ln e  − + sCA + s 
  rw  4 

A
re′ ≡
π

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

The outer boundary is closed (no flow), the reservoir may have any shape, and the
well may be placed anywhere in the reservoir.
 Well Performance
47

Shape Factor Relationships

10.07 10.07 π 2
CA = =
C A Odeh exp(2 sCA )
2

10.07 exp(sCA )
C A Odeh = =
CA π

 10.07 
s CA = ln (πC A Odeh ) = ln  π 
 C A 

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Shape Dietz Odeh Fetkovich Shape Dietz Odeh Fetkovich

CA CA, Odeh sCA CA CA, Odeh sCA

31.62 0.564 0.573 1 10.84 0.964 1.108

2

31.6 0.565 0.573 1 4.51 1.494 1.546

2

27.6 0.604 0.641 1 2.077 2.202 1.934

2

27.1 0.610 0.650 1 3.157 1.786 1.725

60°
2

21.9 0.678 0.756 1 0.581 4.162 2.571

1/3{ 2

0.098 10.14 3.461 1 0.111 9.529 3.399

2

1
30.9 0.571 0.584 5.38 1.368 1.458
4

1
13.0 0.881 1.018 2.69 1.935 1.805
4

1
4.51 1.494 1.546 0.232 6.591 3.030
4

1
3.34 1.738 1.697 0.1155 9.337 3.379
4

1
1 21.8 0.679 0.758 2.361 2.065 1.870
5
2
Well Performance
48

Transient IPR Curves

Darcy’s Law Assumes That

– Average pressure, p, is constant.
– Drainage radius, re, is constant.

These assumptions are true in pseudo-steady state only, i.e.
when all of the outer boundaries of the reservoir are reached.

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Well Performance
49

Transient IPR Curves

The time to reach pseudo-steady state, tpss, can be

calculated with the following equation

2
948φµ o ct re
t pss =
k

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Note that, in the formula to calculate time to pseudo-steady state, the drainage
radius is squared. Thus, it is very important to have a good estimate of re when
calculating time to pseudo-steady state.
Well Performance
50

Exercise 5
Oil Well Stabilization Time

Find tstab with the following data
– φ = 0.1
– µo = 0.5 cp
– ct = 2 X 10-5 psi-1
– re = 1,500 ft

For the following values of k:
– 0.1 md, 1.0 md, 10 md, and 100 md

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Well Performance
51

Transient Flow

1600

Flowing bottomhole pressure, psi 1400

1200

1000

800

1 hr
600

6 hrs
400

200 7 days
Stabilized 1 day

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Flow rate, STB/D

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Before pseudo-steady state is reached, the IPR curves will exhibit the characteristics
shown in the figure until stabilized.
Well Performance
52

Transient IPR Curves

q
J=
( pi − p wf )
kh
=
  kt  
162.6µ o Bo  log  − 3.23 + 0.869s 
 
  φµ o ct rw
2
 

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

If t < tstab, we have to use the transient flow equations, given above.
Well Performance
53

Vertical Multiphase Flow

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Well Performance
54

Vertical Multiphase Flow

Instructional Objectives
1. List the 3 components of pressure loss for multiphase flow
in vertical pipe.
2. Define liquid holdup.
3. Define and calculate critical rate to remove liquids.

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Upon completion of this section, the student should be able to:

1. List the 3 components of pressure loss for multiphase flow in vertical pipe.
2. Define liquid holdup.
3. Define and calculate the critical rate necessary to remove liquids and to keep a
wellbore unloaded.
Well Performance
55

Pressure Loss in Inclined Pipe

∆Z

∆h
∆P

After Brown, Technology of Artificial Lift Methods, Vol 4, p. 71

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved
Well Performance
56

Pressure Loss Components

dP g f m ρ m vm2 ρ m vm dvm
= ρ m sin θ + +
dZ tot g c 2gcd g c dZ

Elevation
Friction

Acceleration
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Elevation accounts for approximately 80% of total pressure drop, range from 70 to
98%
Friction accounts for most of remaining pressure drop
Acceleration accounts for only a very small amount of pressure drop
Nomenclature
d - pipe diameter
f - friction factor
g - acceleration of gravity
gc - conversion factor
P - pressure
v - velocity
Z - distance along flow path
ρ - density
Subscripts
m - mixture properties
Well Performance
57

Liquid Holdup

VL
HL ≡
Vg VL + Vg

ρ m = H L ρ L + (1 − H L )ρ g
VL

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Holdup is the fraction of the total volume in the pipe occupied by liquid.

Once the holdup is known, the mixture density is readily determined from the gas
and liquid densities.
Well Performance
58

Critical Rate To Lift Liquid

Most gas wells produce some liquids

Liquids may be
– Vaporized in reservoir gas
– Free liquid in reservoir

Liquids will accumulate if not lifted to surface

Accumulated liquids will reduce productivity

For a given set of conditions, there is a minimum flow rate to
lift liquids

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Well Performance
59

Models for Liquid Transport

Continuous film model Entrained drop model

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• Continuous film model

• Liquid moves up along walls of tubing
• Gas must move fast enough that drag keeps liquid moving

• Entrained drop model

• Liquid is suspended as drops in the gas stream
• Each droplet has terminal velocity depending on its size, shape, and
density
• Drops are held together by surface tension
• Drops larger than certain size are torn apart by gas stream
• Can predict terminal velocity for largest drops that will occur as a
function of surface tension, density of gas, and density of liquid
Well Performance
60

Critical Velocity

[ (
 σ 1 4 ρ L − ρ g
vt = 1.912
)1 4 ]

 ρ g1 2 

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Nomenclature

vt = terminal velocity of liquid droplet, ft/sec

ρL = liquid density, lbm/ft3
ρg = gas density, lbm/ft3
σ = interfacial tension, dynes/cm
Well Performance
61

Critical Rate

3060 pvt A
qc =
Tz

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Nomenclature
A = area open to flow, ft2
p = flowing pressure, psia
qc = critical rate, Mscf/D
T = flowing temperature, ºR
vt = terminal velocity of liquid droplet, ft/sec
z = real gas deviation factor, dimensionless