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1 Introduction and Physical Layer

1.1 Introduction
,QWRGD\¶VZRUOGWKHFRPPXQLFDWLRQLVGHFLGLQJWKHDOOIDFWVRIWKHJURZWK(IIHFWLYH
easiest, understandable, timely communications are creating WKH ZRUOG¶V EHWWHU JURZWK 7KH
growth of the internet, telecommunication field, communication devices make the people
interactive, happily and wealthy. An event happens in place can be communicated to any place
in the world. For example, a live sports event happened in Calcutta can be viewed by the people
sitting in any place in the world.
The network allows people to communicate information to any people in the world by
means of one-to-one, one-to-many or all. In this chapter, we are going to study about the
introduction of networks, network hardware, network software and network architecture.
1.1.1 Data Communication
x Data

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the two parties who are creating and using it. The Webster dictionary defined data as
³information in digital form that can be transmitted or processed´7KHGDWDPD\EHLQDQ\
form such as text, symbols, images, videos, signals and so on.
x Communication

Communication is a referred as exchanging information from one entity to another entity

in a meaningful way. The entities may be referred as human being, machines, animals, birds,
etc. The communication could be done between the two entities / parties. The meaningful way
refers that the meaning of the communication must be understandable between the two entities.
The figure 1.1 shows the model for communication between two people.

Hello

Speaker Listener

Figure 1.1 Communication between two persons

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In figure 1.1 the speaker (a person) making oral communication to the listener (other
SHUVRQ LQ DQ XQGHUVWDQGDEOH ODQJXDJH µ(QJOLVK¶ XVLQJ WKH ZRUG ³Hello´ 7R SURYLGH WKH
communication, the information must be carried by a carrier. The carrier may be either wire or
wireless. In oral communication between two people, the wireless is acting as a carrier to carry
the information. In computer technology, the carrier is referred as communication medium. In
computer network, the speaker is referred as source of the information and listener is referred
as the receiver or destination of the information.
x Data Communication

)URPWKHDERYHWZRUHIHUHQFHZHXQGHUVWDQGWKDW³Data communication is process of

exchanging data between two devices through a communication medium in a meaningful way´
The devices must be part of the communication system. The communication system is made
up of the both hardware equipment and software. To provide the effective communication
system, the following four fundamental characteristics must be followed;
1. Delivery : The data to be communicated must be delivered to the correct destination.
2. Accuracy : The data should be delivered accurately as it is without any alteration.
3. Timeliness : The communication system must deliver the data without any delay.
4. Jitter : In network the data are split into smaller groups (packets) and send them
separately. The variation of the arrival between two packets is referred as
jitter.

1.1.2 Components
The following five components are the essential part of the communication system and
figure 1.2 shows the representation of the components placement in the communication system.

Protocol Protocol
Rule 1 Rule 1
Rule 2 Rule 2
: :
: :
Rule n Data/message Rule n

Medium
Source Destination

Fig 1.2 Components of Data Communication

1. Data/Message : It is the primary part of the communication system. The information
is communicated between the source and destination is called
data/message.

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2. Source : The source is a device which generates and sends the data to the
destination.
3. Destination : It is a device that receives the data.
4. Medium : It acts as carrier to carry the data from the source to the destination.
The carrier provides the path through wire or wireless.
5. Protocol : It is set of rules that govern the data communication in a correct
manner.

The source and destination may be computer, mobile phones, workstations, servers,
video cameras and so on. The protocol provides the effective communication. This provides
the methodology how to interact with each other without any loss or interference.
1.1.3 Mode of Data Flow
The data flow defines the flow direction of the data between source and destination. The
data flow may be either simplex or half-duplex or full duplex. The figure 1.3 shows the three
modes of the data flow.

Direction of data at all time

Monitor
CPU
a. Simplex data flow

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Direction of data at ƚŝŵĞ͛ƚ2͛

Device1 Device2
b. Half-duplex data flow

Direction of data at all time

Direction of data at all time

Device1 Device2
c. Full-duplex data flow
Fig. 1.3. Mode of Data Flow
x Simplex : In simplex mode, the direction of the data flow is unidirectional.
One of the device can transmit the data and another device can

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receive at all time (Fig. 1.3.a). The example is the CPU sends the
data to the monitor at all the time.

x Half-Duplex : In half-duplex mode, the data can be transmitted on both

directions but not at the same time (device 1 to device 2 or device
2 to device 1) (Fig. 1.3.b). One device can send and another one
can receive at a time. The example is walkie-talkie. The entire
medium is used for the one-way transmission.

x Full-Duplex : In full-duplex mode, the data can be transmitted on both

directions (device 1 to device 2 and device 2 to device 1) at the
same time (Fig. 1.3.c). One device can send and another one can
receive at a time. The example is telephone communication. In
this, the entire medium is divided for the two-way transmission.

1.2 Networks
A network is set of interconnected devices (sometime referred as nodes) which are used
to transmit data between them with agreed protocols. The networks are used to connect the
people, machines, devices to share the data anywhere in the world. The devices can be
computers, printers, mobile phones, servers which are capable of sending and receiving data.
The data can be generated by a device.
There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer network and a
distributed system. The key distinction is that in a distributed system, a collection of
independent computers appears to its users as a single coherent system. Usually, it has a single
model or paradigm that it presents to the users. Often a layer of software on top of the operating
system, called middleware, is responsible for implementing this model. A well-known example
of a distributed system is the World Wide Web, in which everything looks like a document
(Web page).
1.2.1 History of Network
A computer network is a digital telecommunications network which allows nodes to
share resources. In computer networks, computing devices exchange data with each other using
connections (data links) between nodes. These data links are established over cable media such
as wires or optic cables, or wireless media such as Wi-Fi.
Computer networking as we know it today may be said to have gotten its start with the
Arpanet development in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Prior to that time there were computer
vendor ³QHWZRUNV´GHVLJQHGSULPDULO\WRFRQQHFWWHUPLQDOVDQGUHPRWHMREHQWU\VWDWLRQVWRD
mainframe.
In 1940, George Sitbit used a teletype machine to send instructions for a problem set
from his model at Dartmouth college to his complex number calculator in New York and
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computers included the military radar system Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE)
was started.
Later, in 1960s, the notion of networking between computers viewing each other as equal
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strong emphasis of the Arpanet work was its reliance on the then novel technique of packet
switching to efficiently share communication resRXUFHVDPRQJ³EXUVW\´XVHUVLQVWHDGRIWKH
more traditional message or circuit switching. The table 1.1 gives the time frame of the
computer network growth from network to internet.
Year Event
The idea of ARPANET, one of the earliest computer networks, was proposed by Leonard Kleinrock
1961
in 1961, in his paper titled "Information Flow in Large Communication Nets."
The term "packet" was coined by Donald Davies in 1965, to describe data sent between computers
1965
over a network.
ARPANET was one of the first computer networks to use packet switching. Development of
1969 ARPANET started in 1966, and the first two nodes, UCLA and SRI (Standford Research Institute),
were connected, officially starting ARPANET in 1969.
The first RFC surfaced in April 1969, as a document to define and provide information about computer
1969
communications, network protocols, and procedures.
The first network switch and IMP (Interface Message Processor) was sent to UCLA on August 29,
1969
1969. It was used to send the first data transmission on ARPANET.
The Internet was officially born, with the first data transmission being sent between UCLA and SRI
1969
on October 29, 1969, at 10:30 p.m.
Steve Crocker and a team at UCLA released NCP (NetWare Core Protocol) in 1970. NCP is a file
1970
sharing protocol for use with NetWare.
1971 Ray Tomlinson sent the first e-mail in 1971.
ALOHAnet, a UHF wireless packet network, is used in Hawaii to connect the islands together.
1971
Although it is not Wi-Fi, it helps lay the foundation for Wi-Fi.
1973 Ethernet is developed by Robert Metcalfe in 1973 while working at Xerox PARC.
1973 The first international network connection, called SATNET, is deployed in 1973 by ARPA.
An experimental VoIP call was made in 1973, officially introducing VoIP technology and capabilities.
1973
However, the first software allowing users to make VoIP calls was not available until 1995.
The first routers were used at Xerox in 1974. However, these first routers were not considered true IP
1974
routers.
1976 Ginny Strazisar developed the first true IP router, originally called a gateway, in 1976.
Bob Kahn invented the TCP/IP protocol for networks and developed it, with help from Vint Cerf, in
1978
1978.
Internet protocol version 4, or IPv4, was officially defined in RFC 791 in 1981. IPv4 was the first
1981
major version of the Internet protocol.
1981 BITNET was created in 1981 as a network between IBM mainframe systems in the United States.
CSNET (Computer Science Network) was developed by the U.S. National Science Foundation in
1981
1981.
1983 ARPANET finished the transition to using TCP/IP in 1983.
1983 Paul Mockapetris and Jon Postel implement the first DNS in 1983.
The NSFNET (National Science Foundation Network) came online in 1986. It was a backbone for
1986
ARPANET, before eventually replacing ARPANET in the early 1990's.
1986 BITNET II was created in 1986 to address bandwidth issues with the original BITNET.
1988 The first T1 backbone was added to ARPANET in 1988.

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WaveLAN network technology, the official precursor to Wi-Fi, was introduced to the market by
1988
AT&T, Lucent, and NCR in 1988.
Details about network firewall technology was first published in 1988. The published paper discussed
1988 the first firewall, called a packet filter firewall, that was developed by Digital Equipment Corporation
the same year.
Kalpana, a U.S. network hardware company, developed and introduced the first network switch in
1990
1990.
IPv6 was introduced in 1996 as an improvement over IPv4, including a wider range of IP addresses,
1996
improved routing, and embedded encryption.
The first version of the 802.11 standard for Wi-Fi is introduced in June 1997, providing transmission
1997
speeds up to 2 Mbps.
The 802.11a standard for Wi-Fi was made official in 1999, designed to use the 5 GHz band and provide
1999
transmission speeds up to 25 Mbps.
802.11b devices were available to the public starting mid-1999, providing transmission speeds up to
1999
11 Mbps.
1999 The WEP encryption protocol for Wi-Fi is introduced in September 1999, for use with 802.11b.
802.11g devices were available to the public starting in January 2003, providing transmission speeds
2003
up to 20 Mbps.
2003 The WPA encryption protocol for Wi-Fi is introduced in 2003, for use with 802.11g.
The WPA2 encryption protocol is introduced in 2004, as an improvement over and replacement for
2003
WPA. All Wi-Fi devices are required to be WPA2 certified by 2006.
The 802.11n standard for Wi-Fi was made official in 2009. It provides higher transfer speeds over
2009
802.11a and 802.11g, and it can operate on the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bandwidths.
The Wi-Fi Alliance introduced WPA3 encryption for Wi-Fi in January 2018, which includes security
2018
enhancements over WPA2.

Table 1.1 Time period of Network growth

1.2.2 Uses of Computer Networks
The computer networks are used in different applications to meet the requirement of
different people at different places in different time. The following are the uses of computer
network.
a) Business Applications.
Many companies have a substantial number of computers. For example, a company may
have separate computers to monitor production, keep track of inventories, and do the payroll.
Initially, each of these computers may have worked in isolation from the others, but at some
point, management may have decided to connect them to be able to extract and correlate
information about the entire company.
1. Resource sharing: The main task of the connectivity of resources is resource
sharing. For example, a high-volume networked printer may be installed instead of
large collection of individual printers.
2. Information Sharing : large and medium-sized company and many small companies
are vitally dependent on computerized information. This can be done by a simple
client server model connected by network as illustrated in Fig.1.4.

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Figure 1.4 A network with two clients and one server

In client-server model in detail, two processes are involved, one on the client machine
and one on the server machine. Communication takes the form of the client process
sending a message over the network to the server process. The client process then
waits for a reply message. When the server process gets the request, it performs the
requested work or looks up the requested data and sends back a reply. These messages
are shown in Fig. 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Client-server model involves requests and replies

3. Connecting People : another use of setting up a computer network has to do with
people rather than information or even computers. It is achieved through Email,
Video Conferencing.
4. E-commerce : many companies is doing business electronically with other
companies, especially suppliers and customers, and doing business with consumers
over the Internet.
b) Home Applications
The computer network provides better connectivity for home applications via desktop
computers, laptops, iPads, iPhones. Some of the more popular uses of the Internet for home
users are as follows:
1. Access to remote information.
2. Person-to-person communication (peer-to-peer).
i. Peer-to-peer - there are no fixed clients and servers.
ii. Audio and Video sharing
3. Interactive entertainment.
4. Electronic commerce.

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Table 1.2 Some forms of e-commerce

c) Mobile Users
As wireless technology becomes more widespread, numerous other applications are
likely to emerge. Wireless networks are of great value to fleets of trucks, taxis, delivery
vehicles, and repairpersons for keeping in contact with home. Wireless networks are also
important to the military.
Although wireless networking and mobile computing are often related, they are not
identical, as Table 1.3 shows. Here we see a distinction between fixed wireless and mobile
wireless. Even notebook computers are sometimes wired. For example, if a traveller plugs a
notebook computer into the telephone jack in a hotel room, he has mobility without a wireless
network.

Table 1.3 Combinations of wireless networks and mobile computing

Another area in which wireless could save money is utility meter reading. If electricity,
gas, water, and other meters in people's homes were to report usage over a wireless network,
there would be no need to send out meter readers.
d) Social issues
The widespread introduction of networking has introduced new social, ethical, and
political problems. A popular feature of many networks are newsgroups or bulletin boards
whereby people can exchange messages with like-minded individuals. As long as the subjects
are restricted to technical topics or hobbies like gardening, not too many problems will arise.
The following are the issues in society due to the misbehave or misconduct of computer
networks.
1. Network neutrality
2. Digital Millennium Copyright Act
3. Profiling users

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4. Phishing
1.2.3 Criteria of Network
A network must have the following important criteria for effective communication.
x Performance

The performance of a network is measured by many factors such as transit time, response
time. The transit time is amount of time required to travel a message from source to destination.
The response time is amount of time required for inquiry and response.
x Throughput and Delay

The throughput of the network is measures as amount of data transferred for specified
period of time. The high transmission within the specified period of time is called as high
throughput network. The delay is measured as time difference between the transit time and
actual time taken to transmit. A good network maintains high through and low delay.
x Reliability

The reliability of a network is referred as data delivery should be accurate, less frequency
of break in medium, fast recovery of the physical and logical (data) errors.
x Security

The security of a network is referred as protecting the data from damages and alteration,
unauthorized access of medium, devices and data, providing mechanisms for losses and
intrusions.
1.2.4 Types of connection
As we have already known that a network is a two or more devices interconnected
through a communication medium. The medium provides the physical pathway between two
devices. The connectivity between the devices is classified into point-to-point and multipoint.
x point-to-point

It provides a direct and dedicated link between two devices (normally source and
destination). The entire transmission capacity of the link is shared for these two devices only
(Fig 1.6.a). For example, link between monitor and computer.
x Multipoint

A link is shared by many devices and the transmission capacity is shared by all devices
connected (fig 1.6.b). For example, a cable TV network or client-server network.

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Link

a. Point-to-point connection

Client machines

Link

Server

b. Multipoint connection

Fig. 1.6. Type of connectivity

1.3 Network Hardware

1.3.1 Introduction
It is now time to turn our attention from the applications and social aspects of
networking (the dessert) to the technical issues involved in network design (the spinach). There
are two types of transmission technology that are in widespread use: broadcast links and
point-to-point links.
Point-to-point links:
Point-to-point links connect individual pairs of machines.
x packets : To go from the source to the destination on a network made up of

x
point-to-point links, short messages, called packets.
Unicasting: Transmission with exactly one sender and exactly one receiver is
sometimes called unicasting.
Broadcast links:
On a broadcast network, the communication channel is shared by all the machines on
the network; packets sent by any machine are received by all the others. An address field within
each packet specifies the intended recipient.
Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended
for the receiving machine, that machine processes the packet; if the packet is intended for some
other machine, it is just ignored.

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A wireless network is a common example of a broadcast link, with communication

shared over a coverage region that depends on the wireless channel and thetransmitting
machine
x Broadcasting: Broadcast systems usually also allow the possibility of
addressing a packet to all destinations by using a special code in the address
field. When a packet with this code is transmitted, it is received and processed
by every machine on the network. This mode of operation is called

x
broadcasting.
Multicasting: Some broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of
the machines, which known as multicasting.
An alternative criterion for classifying networks is by scale. Distance is important as a
classification metric because different technologies are used at different scales.

Figure 1.7 Classification of interconnected processors by scale.

In Figure 1.7we classify multiple processor systems by their rough physical size. At the
top are the personal area networks, networks that are meant for one person. Beyond these come
longer-range networks. These can be divided into local, metropolitan, and wide area networks,
each with increasing scale. Finally, the connection of two or more networks is called an
internetwork. The worldwide Internet is certainly the best-known (but not the only) example
of an internetwork.
1.3.2 Personal Area Networks
PANs (Personal Area Networks) let devices communicate over the range of a person.
A common example is a wireless network that connects a computer with its peripherals. Almost
every computer has an attached monitor, keyboard, mouse, and printer. Without using wireless,
this connection must be done with cables.

x Bluetooth: some companies got together to design a short-range wireless network

called Bluetooth to connect these components without wires.
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The idea is that if your devices have Bluetooth, then you need no cables. You just put them
down, turn them on, and they work together. For many people, this ease of operation is a big
plus.

Figure 1.8 Bluetooth PAN configuration.

Bluetooth networks use the master-slave paradigm of Figure. 1.8. The system unit (the
PC) is normally the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc., as slaves. The master tells the
slaves what addresses to use, when they can broadcast, how long they can transmit, what
frequencies they can use, and so on.
Bluetooth can be used in other settings, too. It is often used to connect a headset to a
mobile phone without cords and it can allow your digital music player A completely different
kind of PAN is formed when an embedded medical device such as a pacemaker, insulin pump,
or hearing aid talks to a user-operated remote control.
PANs can also be built with other technologies that communicate over short ranges,
such as RFID on smartcards and library books.
1.3.3 Local Area Networks
The next step up is the LAN (Local Area Network). A LAN is a privately owned
network that operates within and nearby a single building like a home, office or factory. LANs
are widely used to connect personal computers and consumer electronics to let them share
resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information. When LANs are used by companies, they
are called enterprise networks.
Wireless LANs are very popular these days, especially in homes, older office buildings,
cafeterias, and other places where it is too much trouble to install cables. In these systems,
every computer has a radio modem and an antenna that it uses to communicate with other
computers.

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Figure 1.9 Wireless and wired LANs. (a) 802.11. (b) Switched Ethernet.
Each computer talks to a device in the ceiling as shown in Fig. 1.9(a). This device,
called an AP (Access Point), wireless router, or base station, relays packets between the
wireless computers and also between them and the Internet.
Being the AP is like being the popular kid as school because everyone wants to talk to
you. However, if other computers are close enough, they can communicate directly with one
another in a peer-to-peer configuration.
There is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, popularly known as WiFi,
which has become very widespread. It runs at speeds anywhere from 11 to hundreds of Mbps.
Wired LANs use a range of different transmission technologies. Most of them use copper wires,
but some use optical fiber. LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case
transmission time is bounded and known in advance.
Typically, wired LANs run at speeds of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps, have low delay
(microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very few errors. Newer LANs can operate at up to
10 Gbps. Compared to wireless networks, wired LANs exceed them in all dimensions of
performance. It is just easier to send signals over a wire or through a fiber than through the air.
x Ethernet :The topology of many wired LANs is built from point-to-point links.
IEEE 802.3, popularly called Ethernet.
x Switched Ethernet. Fig. 1.9(b) shows a sample topology of switched Ethernet.
Each computer speaks the Ethernet protocol and connects to a box called a switch
with a point-to-point link.
x Switch: Each computer speaks the Ethernet protocol and connects to a box called
a switch with a point-to-point link. A switch has multiple ports, each of which can
connect to one computer. The job of the switch is to relay packets between
computers that are attached to it, using the address in each packet to determine
which computer to send it to.
While we could think of the home network as just another LAN, it is more likely to
have different properties than other networks.

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[1]. The networked devices have to be very easy to install. Wireless routers are the most
returned consumer electronic item. People buy one because they want a wireless
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rather than listen to elevator music while on hold on the technical helpline.
[2]. The network and devices have to be foolproof in operation. Air conditioners used
to have one knob with four settings: OFF, LOW, MEDIUM, and HIGH.
[3]. The low price is essential for success. People will not pay a $50 premium for an
Internet thermostat because few people regard monitoring their home temperature
from work that important.
[4]. It must be possible to start out with one or two devices and expand the reach of the
network gradually
[5]. Security and reliability will be very important. Losing a few files to an email virus
is one thing; having a burglar disarm your security system from his mobile computer
and then plunder your house is something quite different.
In short, Home LANs offer many opportunities and challenges. Most of the latter relate
to the need for the networks to be easy to manage, dependable, and secure, especially in the
hands of nontechnical users, as well as low cost.
1.3.4 Metropolitan Area Networks
A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) covers a city. The best-known examples of
MANs are the cable television networks available in many cities. These systems grew from
earlier community antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception.
In those early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and a signal
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Then companies began jumping into the business, getting contracts from local governments to
wire up entire cities.
The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed for cable
only. Often these channels were highly specialized, such as all news, all sports, all cooking, all
gardening, and so on.
When the Internet began attracting a mass audience, the cable TV network operators
began to realize that with some changes to the system, they could provide two-way Internet
service in unused parts of the spectrum. At that point, the cable TV system began to morph
from simply a way to distribute television to a metropolitan area network.
A MAN might look something like the system shown in Fig. 1.10. In this figure we see
both television signals and Internet being fed into the centralized cable head end for
VXEVHTXHQWGLVWULEXWLRQWRSHRSOH¶s homes.

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Figure 1.10 A metropolitan area network based on cable TV.

Recent developments in highspeed wireless Internet access have resulted in another
MAN, which has been standardized as IEEE 802.16 and is popularly known as WiMAX.
1.3.5 Wide Area Networks
A WAN (Wide Area Network) spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent. We will begin our discussion with wired WANs, using the example of a company
with branch offices in different cities.
The WAN in Fig.1.11 is a network that connects offices in Perth, Melbourne, and
Brisbane. Each of these offices contains computers intended for running user (i.e., application)
programs. We will follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts.

Figure 1.11 WAN that connects three branch offices in Australia.

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The rest of the network that connects these hosts is then called the communication
subnet, or just subnet for short. The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host,
just as the telephone system carries words (really just sounds) from speaker to listener.
In WANs, the subnet consists of two distinct components: Transmission Lines and
Switching Elements.
x Transmission lines: Its move bits between machines. They can be made of copper
wire, optical fiber, or even radio links. Most companies do not have transmission
lines lying about, so instead they lease the lines from a telecommunications
company.
x Switching elements: It is switching elements or switches, are specialized
computers that connect two or more transmission lines. When data arrive on an
incoming line, the switching element must choose an outgoing line on which to
forward them.
x Router These switching computers have been called by various names in the past;
the name router is now most commonly used.
The WAN as we have described it looks similar to a large wired LAN, but there are
some important differences that go beyond long wires. Usually in a WAN, the hosts and subnet
are owned and operated by different people.
We are now in a position to look at two other varieties of WANs. First, rather than lease
dedicated transmission lines, a company might connect its offices to the Internet This allows
connections to be made between the offices as virtual links that use the underlying capacity of
the Internet. This arrangement, shown in Fig. 1.12, is called a VPN (Virtual Private
Network).
Compared to the dedicated arrangement, a VPN has the usual advantage of
virtualization, which is that it provides flexible reuse of a resource (Internet connectivity). A
VPN also has the usual disadvantage of virtualization, which is a lack of control over the
underlying resources. With a dedicated line, the capacity is clear. With a VPN your mileage
may vary with your Internet service.

Figure 1.12 WAN using a virtual private network.

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The second variation is that the subnet may be run by a different company. The subnet
operator is known as a network service provider and the offices are its customers. This
structure is shown in Fig. 1.13. The subnet operator will connect to other customers too, as
long as they can pay and it can provide service.
Since it would be a disappointing network service if the customers could only send
packets to each other, the subnet operator will also connect to other networks that are part of
the Internet. Such a subnet operator is called an ISP (Internet Service Provider) and the
subnet is an ISP network. Its customers who connect to the ISP receive Internet service.

Figure 1.13 WAN using an ISP network.

1.3.6 Internetworks
People connected to one network often want to communicate with people attached to a
different one. The fulfillment of this desire requires that different, and frequently incompatible,
networks be connected. A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or
internet.
Subnets, netZRUNVDQGLQWHUQHWZRUNVDUHRIWHQFRQIXVHG7KHWHUPµµVXEQHW¶¶makes
the most sense in the context of a wide area network, where it refers to the collection of routers
and communication lines owned by the network operator. A network is formed by the
combination of a subnet and its hosts. A subnet might be described as a network, as in the case
RIWKHµµ,63QHWZRUN¶¶RI)LJXUH$QLQWHUQHWZRUNPLJKWDOVREHGHVFULEHGDVDQHWZRUN
as in the case of the WAN in Figure 1.10
x Gateway: The general name for a machine that makes a connection between two
or more networks and provides the necessary translation, both in terms of hardware
and software, is a gateway. Gateways are distinguished by the layer at which they
operate in the protocol hierarchy.
Since the benefit of forming an internet is to connect computers across networks, we
do not want to use too low-level a gateway or we will be unable to make connections between

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different kinds of networks. We do not want to use too high-level a gateway either, or the
connection will only work for particular applications.
The leveOLQWKHPLGGOHWKDWLVµµMXVWULJKW¶¶LVRIWHQFDOOHGWKHQHWZRUNOD\HUDQGDURXWHU
is a gateway that switches packets at the network layer. We can now spot an internet by finding
a network that has routers.

1.4 Network Software

computer hardware was the main concern at the starting of computer development.
Later the network software is highly required. In the following sections we examine the
software structuring technique in some detail.
1.4.1 Protocol Hierarchies
To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized as a stack of layers or
levels, each one built upon the one below it. The number of layers, the name of each layer, the
contents of each layer, and the function of each layer differ from network to network. The
purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers, shielding those layers
from the details of how the offered services are actually implemented.
Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another machine. The
rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the layer n protocol.
A five-layer network is illustrated in Fig. 1-13. The entities comprising the corresponding
layers on different machines are called peers. The peers may be processes, hardware devices,
or even human beings. In other words, it is the peers that communicate by using the protocol.

Figure 1-13. Layers, protocols, and interfaces

In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n on
another machine. Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer

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immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached. Below layer 1 is the physical medium
through which actual communication occurs. In Fig. 1-13, virtual communication is shown by
dotted lines and physical communication by solid lines
Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface. The interface defines which
primitive operations and services the lower layer makes available to the upper one. A set of
layers and protocols is called a network architecture. List of protocols used by a certain system,
one protocol per layer, is called a protocol stack.
Now consider a more technical example: how to provide communication to the top
layer of the five-layer network in Fig. 1-14. A message, M, is produced by an application
process running in layer 5 and given to layer 4 for transmission. Layer 4 puts a header in front
of the message to identify the message and passes the result to layer 3. The header includes
control information, such as sequence numbers, to allow layer 4 on the destination machine to
deliver messages in the right order if the lower layers do not maintain sequence. In some layers,
headers can also contain sizes, times, and other control fields.

Figure 1-14. Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5.

1.4.2 Design Issues for the Layers
Some of the key design issues that occur in computer networks are present in several
layers. The following are briefly mention some of the more important ones.
x Identifying senders and receivers - some form of addressing is needed in order to
specify a specific source and destination.
x Rules for data transfer - The protocol must also determine the direction of data
flow, how many logical channels the connection corresponds to and what their

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priorities are. Many networks provide at least two logical channels per connection,
one for normal data and one for urgent data.
x Error control ± when circuits are not perfect, both ends of the connection must
agree on which error-detecting and error-correcting codes is being used.
x Sequencing - protocol must make explicit provision for the receiver to allow the
pieces to be reassembled properly.
x Flow Control - how to keep a fast sender from swamping a slow receiver with data.
This is done by feedback-based (receiver to sender) or agreed-on transmission rate.
x Segmentation and reassembly - several levels are the inability of all processes to
accept arbitrarily long messages. It leads to mechanisms for disassembling,
transmitting, and then reassembling messages.
x Multiplexing and demultiplexing ± to share the communication medium by several
users.
x Routing - When there are multiple paths between source and destination, a route
must be chosen.
1.4.3 Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
Connection-oriented : the service user first establishes a connection, uses the connection,
and then releases the connection. During the connection establishment, some negotiation
is carried out about parameters to be used, such as maximum message size, quality of
service required, and other issues. For example, it is looks like a telephone conversation.
Connectionless : the service user sends data when it is ready without checking anything.
Each message carries the full destination address, and each one is routed through the
system independent of all the others.
Figure 1-15 summarizes the types of services used for connection-oriented or
connectionless services for different purposes.

Figure 1-15. Six different types of service

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1.4.4 Service Primitives

A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to a user
process to access the service. These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report
on an action taken by a peer entity. The set of primitives available depends on the nature of the
service being provided. The primitives for connection-oriented service are different from those
of connectionless service.

Figure 1-16. Five service primitives for implementing a simple connection-oriented service.
1. The server executes LISTEN to indicate that it is prepared to accept incoming
connections.
2. The client process executes CONNECT to establish a connection with the server (1) as
in figure 1.17. The client process is suspended until there is a response. When the
system sees that the packet is requesting a connection, it checks to see if there is a
listener. If so, it does two things: unblocks the listener and sends back an
acknowledgement (2). The arrival of this acknowledgement then releases the client.

Figure 1-17. Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction on a connection-oriented

network
3. The next step is for the server to execute RECEIVE to prepare to accept the first request.
The RECEIVE call blocks the server.
4. Then the client executes SEND to transmit its request (3) followed by the execution of
RECEIVE to get the reply.
5. The arrival of the request packet at the server machine unblocks the server process so
it can process the request. After it has done the work, it uses SEND to return the answer
to the client (4). The arrival of this packet unblocks the client, which can now inspect
the answer.

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6. If the client has additional requests, it can make them now. If it is done, it can use
DISCONNECT to terminate the connection. Usually, an initial DISCONNECT is a
blocking call, suspending the client and sending a packet to the server saying that the
connection is no longer needed (5).
7. When the server's packet (6) gets back to the client machine, the client process is
released and the connection is broken.
1.4.5 The Relationship of Services to Protocols
Services and protocols are distinct concepts, although they are frequently confused.
This distinction is so important and differentiated as follows;
x Service : A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the
layer above it. The service defines what operations the layer is prepared to perform
on behalf of its users, but it says nothing at all about how these operations are
implemented. A service relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower
layer being the service provider and the upper layer being the service user.
x Protocol : it is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the packets, or
messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer. Entities use
protocols to implement their service definitions.
In other words, services relate to the interfaces between layers, as illustrated in Fig. 1-
18. In contrast, protocols relate to the packets sent between peer entities on different machines.
It is important not to confuse the two concepts.

Figure 1-18. The relationship between a service and a protocol

1.5 Network Architecture

1.5.1 Introduction
One of the requirements for network design is that a computer network must provide
general, cost-effective, fair, and robust connectivity among a large number of computers.
Though networks do not remain fixed at any single point in time but must evolve to
accommodate changes in both the underlying technologies upon which they are based as well
as changes in the demands placed on them by application programs. Furthermore, networks
must be manageable by humans of varying levels of skill. Designing a network to meet these
requirements is not a small task.

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To deal with this complexity, network designers have developed general blueprints²
usually called network architectures²that guide the design and implementation of networks.
1.5.2 Layering and Protocols
The idea of an abstraction is to define a model that can capture some important aspect
of the system, encapsulate this model in an object that provides an interface that can be
manipulated by other components of the system, and hide the details of how the object is
implemented from the users of the object. Abstractions naturally lead to layering, especially
in network systems. The general idea is that start with the services offered by the underlying
hardware and then add a sequence of layers, each providing a higher (more abstract) level of
service. For example, a simple network as having two layers of abstraction sandwiched
between the application program and the underlying hardware, as illustrated in Figure 1.19.

FIGURE : 1.19 Example of a layered network system.

The layer immediately above the hardware might provide host-to-host connectivity,
abstracting away the fact that there may be an arbitrarily complex network topology between
any two hosts. The next layer up builds on the available host-to-host communication service
and provides support for process-to-process channels, abstracting away the fact that the
network occasionally loses messages. Layering provides two features.
9 First, it decomposes the problem of building a network into more manageable
components.
9 Second, it provides a more modular design.
1.5.3 Protocols
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An
entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot
simply send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to occur,
the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when
it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
x Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the
first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address
of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.

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x Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How
is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the
final destination of the message?
x Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps
but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the
receiver and some data will be lost.
1.5.4 Protocol Architecture
The two most widely referenced protocol architectures that served as the basis for the
development of interoperable communications standards are
[1]. OSI architecture or OSI reference model and
[2]. Internet architecture or TCPIP protocol suite
TCPIP is the most widely used interoperable architecture and OSI has become the
standard model for classifying communications functions.
1.5.5 OSI Reference Model
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s. An open system is a
set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture.
The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between
different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and
software. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.
It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the
process of moving information across a network. Figure 1.20 shows the seven layers of OSI
a). Layered Architecture
The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data link Layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

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Figure 1.20 Seven layers of the OSI model

Figure 1.21 shows the layers involved when a message is sent from device A to device
B. As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These
intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model.

Figure 1.21 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it.
Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4.
Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on another machine.
This communication is governed by an agreed-upon series of rules and conventions called
protocols. The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer-
to-peer processes. Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-peer process using
the protocols appropriate to a given layer.
b). Peer-to-Peer Processes

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At the physical layer, communication is direct. In Figure 1.21, device A sends a stream
of bits to device B (through intermediate nodes). At the higher layers, however, communication
must move down through the layers on device A, over to device B, and then back up through
the layers. Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives
from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it. At layer 1
the entire package is converted to a form that can be transmitted to the receiving device.
At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process
receiving and removing the data meant for it. For example, layer 2 removes the data meant for
it, then passes the rest to layer 3. Layer 3 then removes the data meant for it and passes the rest
to layer 4, and so on.
c). Interfaces Between Layers
The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the sending
device and back up through the layers of the receiving device is made possible by an interface
between each pair of adjacent layers. Each interface defines the information and services a
layer must provide for the layer above it.
d). Organization of the Layers
The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups. Layers 1, 2, and 3-
physical, data link, and network are the network support layers, Layers 5, 6, and 7-session,
presentation, and application are the user support layers. The upper OSI layers are almost
always implemented in software; lower layers are a combination of hardware and software,
except for the physical layer, which is mostly hardware.
Figure 1.22 gives an overall view of the OSI layers, D7 means the data unit at layer 7,
D6 means the data unit at layer 6, and so on. The process starts at layer 7 (the application
layer), then moves from layer to layer in descending, sequential order. At each layer, a header,
or possibly a trailer, can be added to the data unit. Commonly, the trailer is added only at layer
2. When the formatted data unit passes through the physical layer (layer 1), it is changed into
an electromagnetic signal and transported along a physical link.

Figure 1.22 An exchange using the OSI Model

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Upon reaching its destination, the signal passes into layer 1 and is transformed back
into digital form. The data units then move back up through the OSI layers. As each block of
data reaches the next higher layer, the headers and trailers attached to it at the corresponding
sending layer are removed, and actions appropriate to that layer are taken. By the time it reaches
layer 7, the message is again in a form appropriate to the application and is made available to
the recipient.
e). Encapsulation
Figure 1.22 reveals another aspect of data communications in the OSI model:
encapsulation. A packet (header and data) at level 7 is encapsulated in a packet at level 6. The
whole packet at level 6 is encapsulated in a packet at level 5, and so on. In other words, the
data portion of a packet at level N - 1 carries the whole packet (data and header and maybe
trailer) from level N. The concept is called encapsulation; level N - 1 is not aware of which
part of the encapsulated packet is data and which part is the header or trailer. For level N - 1,
the whole packet coming from level N is treated as one integral unit.
1.5.6 Layers in the OSI model
The functions of each layer in the OSI model are described as follows;
1) Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a
physical medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium. It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur. Figure 1.23 shows the position of the
physical layer with respect to the transmission medium and the data link layer.

Figure 1.23 Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one
hop (node) to the next.

The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

x Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It
also defines the type of transmission medium.

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x Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits

(sequence of 0s or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded
into signals--electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding
(how 0s and I s are changed to signals).
x Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined
by the physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit,
which is how long it lasts.
x Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit
rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the
receiver clocks must be synchronized.
x Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices
to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a
dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
x Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to
make a network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every device
is connected to every other device), a star topology (devices are connected through
a central device), a ring topology (each device is connected to the next, forming a
ring), a bus topology (every device is on a common link), or a hybrid topology (this
is a combination of two or more topologies).
x Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only
one device can send; the other can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-way
communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, but not
at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send
and receive at the same time.
2) Data Link Layer
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a
reliable link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).
Figure 1.24 shows the relationship of the data link layer to the network and physical layers.

Figure 1.24 Data link layer

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The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node)
to the next.

Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

x Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units called frames.
x Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's
network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects the network
to the next one.
x Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than
the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow
control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
x Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a
mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved
through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
x Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link
layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at
any given time.
Figure 1.25 illustrates hop-to-hop (node-to-node) delivery by the data link layer. As the
figure 1.25 shows, communication at the data link layer occurs between two adjacent nodes.
To send data from A to F, three partial deliveries are made. First, the data link layer at A sends
a frame to the data link layer at B (a router). Second, the data link layer at B sends a new frame
to the data link layer at E. Finally, the data link layer at E sends a new frame to the data link
layer at F.

Figure 1.25 Hop-to-hop delivery

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Note that the frames that are exchanged between the three nodes have different values
in the headers. The frame from A to B has B as the destination address and A as the source
address. The frame from B to E has E as the destination address and B as the source address.
The frame from E to F has F as the destination address and E as the source address. The values
of the trailers can also be different if error checking includes the header of the frame.
3) Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of
the packet between two systems on the same network (links), the network layer ensures that
each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination.
If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network
layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with connecting
devices between the networks (links), there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish
source-to-destination delivery. Figure 1.26 shows the relationship of the network layer to the
data link and transport layers.

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets

from the source host to the destination host.

Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

x Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer
handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we
need another addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination
systems. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer
that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
x Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks
(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or
switches) route or switch the packets to their final destination. One of the functions
of the network layer is to provide this mechanism. Figure 1.27 illustrates end-to-end
delivery by the network layer.

Figure 1.26 Network layer

As the figure 1.27 shows, now we need a source-to-destination delivery. The network
layer at A sends the packet to the network layer at B. When the packet arrives at router B, the
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router makes a decision based on the final destination (F) of the packet. Router B uses its
routing table to find that the next hop is router E. The network layer at B, therefore, sends the
packet to the network layer at E. The network layer at E, in tum, sends the packet to the network
layer at F.

Figure 1.27 Source-to-destination delivery

4) Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
A process is an application program running on a host. Whereas the network layer oversees
source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship
between those packets. It treats each one independently, as though each piece belonged to a
separate message, whether or not it does. The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that
the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control
at the source-to-destination level. Figure 1.28 shows the relationship of the transport layer to
the network and session layers.

Figure 1.28 Transport layer

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The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another.

Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

x Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the same time.
For this reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one
computer to the next but also from a specific process (running program) on one
computer to a specific process (running program) on the other. The transport layer
header must therefore include a type of address called a service-point address (or
port address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the
transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
x Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments,
with each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the
transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination
and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
x Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-
oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent
packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-
oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the
connection is terminated.
x Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow
control. However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than
across a single link.
x Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control. However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather
than across a single link. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire
message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or
duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission. Figure
1.29 illustrates process-to-process delivery by the transport layer.

Figure 1.29 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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5) Session Layer
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not
sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes,
maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.

The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

x Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows
the communication between two processes to take place in either half-duplex (one
way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
x Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file
of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure
that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged independently. In this case, if
a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be
resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not
be resent. Figure 1.30 illustrates the relationship of the session layer to the transport
and presentation layers.

Figure 1.30 Session layer

6) Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems. Figure 1.31 shows the relationship between the presentation
layer and the application and session layers.

The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and

encryption.

Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:

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x Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually

exchanging information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The
information must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because
different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is
responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The
presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent
format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine
changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
x Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form
and sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the
original process to transform the message back to its original form.
x Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information. Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission
of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.

Figure 1.31 Presentation layer

7) Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the
network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote
file access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed
information services.

Figure 1.32 Application layer

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Figure 1.32 shows the relationship of the application layer to the user and the
presentation layer. Of the many application services available, the figure shows only three:
XAOO (message-handling services), X.500 (directory services), and file transfer, access, and
management (FTAM). The user in this example employs XAOO to send an e-mail message.

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:

x Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a
physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the
application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The user's
computer talks to the software terminal which, in turn, talks to the host and vice
versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals
and allows the user to log on.
x File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access
files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote
computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote
computer locally.
x Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
x Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and
access for global information about various objects and services.
1.5.7 Summary of OSI Layers
Figure 1.33 shows a summary of duties for each layer.

Figure 1.33 Summary of layers

1.5.8 TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
TCPIP is a result of protocol research and development conducted on the experimental
packet-switched network, ARPANET, funded by the Defence Advanced Research Projects

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Agency (DARPA), and is generally referred to as the TCPIP protocol suite. This protocol suite
consists of a large collection of protocols that have been issued as Internet standards by the
Internet Architecture Board (IAB). The communication task for TCPIP is organized into five
relatively independent layers:
1. Physical layer
2. Network access layer
3. Internet layer
4. Host-to-host or transport layer
5. Application layer
1) Physical layer
The physical layer covers the physical interface between a data transmission device
(e.g., workstation, computer) and a transmission medium or network.

This layer is concerned with specifying the characteristics of the

transmission medium, the nature of the signals, the data rate, and related
matters.

2) Network access layer

The network access layer is concerned with the exchange of data between an end
system and the network to which it is attached. The sending computer must provide the network
with the address of the destination computer, so that the network may route the data to the
appropriate destination. The specific software used at this layer depends on the type of network
to be used; different standards have been developed for circuit-switching, packet-switching
(e.g., X.25), local area networks (e.g., Ethernet), and others. Thus, it makes sense to separate
those functions having to do with network access into a separate layer. By doing this, the
communications software, above the network access layer, need not be concerned about the
specifics of the network to be used. The same higher-layer software should function properly
regardless of the particular network to which the computer is attached.

The network access layer is concerned with access to and routing data
across a network for two end systems attached to the same network.

3) Internet layer
In cases where two devices are attached to different networks, procedures are needed
to allow data to traverse multiple interconnected networks. This is the function of the internet
layer. The internet protocol (IP) is used at this layer to provide the routing function across
multiple networks. This protocol is implemented not only in the end systems but also in routers.
A router is a processor that connects two networks and whose primary function is to relay data
from one network to the other on its route from the source to the destination end system.

The internet layer concerns with the routing functions across multiple
networks.

4) Host-to-host layer or transport layer

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Regardless of the nature of the applications that are exchanging data, there is usually a
requirement that data be exchanged reliably. That is, we would like to be assured that all of the
data arrive at the destination application and that the data arrive in the same order in which they
were sent. The mechanisms for providing reliability are essentially independent of the nature
of the applications. Thus, it makes sense to collect those mechanisms in a common layer shared
by all applications; this is referred to as the host-to-host layer or transport layer. The
transmission control protocol (TCP) is the most commonly-used protocol to provide this
functionality.
5) Application layer
Finally, the application layer contains the logic needed to support the various user
applications. For each different type of application, such as file transfer, a separate module is
needed that is peculiar to that application.
Figure 1.34 shows how the TCPIP protocols are implemented in end systems

FIGURE 1.34 TCPIP Protocol architecture model.

From the figure 1.34 it is observed that the physical and network access layers provide
interaction between the end system and the network, whereas the transport and application
layers are what is known as end-to-end protocols; they support interaction between two end
systems. The internet layer has the flavor of both. At this layer, the end system communicates
routing information to the network but also must provide some common functions between the
two end systems.

1.6 Physical Layer

Information can be transmitted on wires by varying some physical property such as
voltage or current. By representing the value of this voltage or current as a single-valued
function of time, f(t), we can model the behavior of the signal and analyze it mathematically.
1.6.1 Fourier Analysis
In the early 19th century, the French mathematician Jean-Baptiste Fourier proved that
any reasonably behaved periodic function, g(t) with period T can be constructed as the sum of
a (possibly infinite) number of sines and cosines:
ଵ
݃ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ ଶ ܿ ൅ σஶ ஶ
௡ୀଵ ܽ௡ •‹ሺ ʹߨ݂݊‫ݐ‬ሻ ൅ σ௡ୀଵ …‘•ሺʹߨ݂݊‫ݐ‬ሻ - (2.1)

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