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ASNT NDT LEVEL III

NDT BASIC

NDT METHODS

CHAPTER - 1

ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING

Acoustic Emission, according to ASTM, refers to the generation of transient elastic waves during
the rapid release of energy from localized sources within a material. The source of these
emissions in metals is closely associated with the dislocation movement accompanying plastic
deformation and the initiation and extension of cracks in a structure under stress.

Sources of AE: melting, phase transformations, cool down cracking and stress build up.

Acoustic emissions are stress waves produced by sudden movement in stressed materials. The
classic sources of acoustic emissions are defect-related reformation processes such as crack
growth and plastic deformation. Sudden movement at the source produces a stress wave, which
radiates cut into the structure and excites a sensitive piezoelectric transducer. As the stress in the
material is raised, many of these emissions are generated. The signals from one or more sensors
are amplified and measured to produce data for display and interpretation.

The source of the acoustic emission energy is the elastic stress field in the material. Without
stress, there is no emission. Therefore, an acoustic emission (AE) inspection is usually carried
out during a controlled loading of the structure. This can be a proof load before service; a
controlled variation of load while the structure is in service, a fatigue test, a creep test, or a
complex loading program. Often, a structure is going to be loaded anyway, and AE inspection is
used because it gives valuable additional information about the performance of the structure
under load.

AET is based on the detection and conversion of these high frequency elastic waves to electrical
signals. This is accomplished by directly coupling piezoelectric transducers on the surface of the
structure under test and loading the structure.

Sensors are coupled to the structure by means of a fluid couplant and are secured with tape,
adhesive bonds or magnetic hold downs. The output of each sensor (during structure loading) is
amplified through a low-noise preamplifier, filtered to remove any extraneous noise and furthered
processed by suitable electronic equipment.

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AE TESTING PROCESS
AE testing process consists of the following steps:

Test object and application of load: produce mechanical tensions

Source mechanisms: releasing elastic energy
Wave propagation: from the source to the sensor
Sensors: converting a mechanical wave into an electrical AE signal
Acquisition of measurement data: converting the electrical AE signal into an electronic data
Display of measurement data: plotting the recorded data into diagrams
Evaluation of the display: from diagrams to a safety-relevant interpretation

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AE SOURCES

AE SOURCES

Plastic Deformation
Dislocation Motion
Slip Formation
Crack growth
Fracture
Earth Quakes

Mechanisms of AE sources
Needless to say, acoustic emissions are not generated by the reversible, homogeneous alteration of
interatomic spacing that constitutes elastic deformation. Acoustic emissions are only generated
when some abrupt and permanent changes takes place somewhere in the material. Mechanisms
that produce acoustic emissions in metals include the movement and multiplication of
dislocations; slip; twinning; fracture and debonding of precipitates, inclusions, and surface layers;
some corrosion processes; micro-crack formation and growth; small and large crack-jumps; and
frictional processes during crack closure and opening.

The amount of AE energy released depends primarily on the size and speed of the local
deformation process.

KAISER EFFECT
Acoustic Emission generated from a material is irreversible in nature, i.e., emissions are not
generated during reloading of the material until the stress exceeds the previous maximum stress
experienced by the material.

FELICITY EFFECT
The ASTM defines the Felicity effect as the presence of an acoustic emission (or detectable
acoustic emission) at a fixed sensitivity level at stress levels below those applied previously.

Acoustic emission testing is often carried out under conditions of rising load. The first load
application will typically produce much more emission than subsequent loadings. In fact, for
instantaneously plastic materials, subsequent loading should produce no emissions at all until the
previous maximum load is exceeded. This behavior was first reported by Kaiser in 1950 and has
been a leading influence in the development of AE test methodology. Dunegan showed that for
materials that obey the Kaiser effect, emission on a repeat loading will indicate that structural
damage occurred between the first loading and the repeat.

Felicity Ratio = Stress on set of emission during reloading / Previous maximum stress

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Technically, the Kaiser effect can be construed as a Felicity Ratio (FR) of 1.0 or greater.
Systematic decreases in the Felicity Ratio as material approaches failure have been well
documented for fiber-reinforced plastics and a Felicity Ratio less than 0.95 is cause for rejection
of an FRP tank or pressure vessel tested by AE inspection according to ASME Article 11.

ACOUSTIC EMISSION SENSORS

Commonly operated frequency range of AE sensors is 30 kHz to 2 MHz.

Type of sensors
Piezoelectric
Capacitive
Electrodynamic or laser-optical (laser interferometers)

Piezoelectric sensors
They are most commonly used. They are hardy and more sensitive than other sensor techniques
such as capacitive, electrodynamic or laser-optical.

The key element of the sensor is a piezoelectric

crystal transducer that converts movement into an
electrical voltage. The crystal is housed in a suitable
enclosure with a wear plate and a connector. The
sensor is excited by the stress waves impinging on
its face, and it delivers an electrical signal to a
nearby preamplifier and then to the main signal-
processing equipment. The preamplifier can be miniaturized and housed inside the sensor
enclosure, facilitating setup and reducing vulnerability to electromagnetic noise.

Calibration of sensors
Sensors are calibrated by following methods:
Gas jet impinging on a solid surface
Ultrasonic transducer
Breaking of pencil or glass capillary or impinging a lead ball on the surface of a structure.

During an AE test, the sensors on the test piece produce any number of transient signals. A
signal from a single, discrete deformation event is known as a burst-type signal. Burst-type
signals vary widely in shape, size, and rate of occurrence, depending on the structure and the test
conditions. If there is a high rate of occurrence, the individual burst-type signals combine to
form a continuous emission.

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COUPLING AGENTS
Coupling agents are crucial to the quality of sensor coupling. They provide good acoustic contact
between the sensor and the surface of the test object. Care must be taken to assure that the
appropriate couplant is selected so that it is acceptable at the normal test temperature and does not
corrode the test object's surface. A variety of silicone greases are available for industrial,
aerospace, and other applications. Generally, the coupling layer should be made as thin as
possible by firmly pressing the sensor against the test object's surface. After attaching the sensors
with an appropriate hold-down device, the quality of the coupling must be verified (pencil lead
break, automatic coupling test). If test results are not satisfactory, the coupling procedure must be
repeated.

WAVEGUIDE
In some applications, it may not be possible to place the sensor directly on the surface of the
component (e.g. in high temperature applications). In such cases, a mechanical device called a
waveguide is used. This isolates the sensor from the adverse environmental conditions while
maintaining acoustic communication from the structure to the sensor.

SIGNAL DETECTION AND EMISSION COUNTS

After sensing and preamplification, the signal is transmitted to the main instrument, where it is
further amplified and filtered. Next is the critical step of detecting the signal. This is
accomplished with a comparator circuit, which generates a digital output pulse whenever the AE
signal exceed a fixed threshold voltage.

One of the oldest and simplest ways to quantify AE activity is to count the threshold crossing
pulses generated by the comparator. These acoustic emission counts are plotted as a function of
time or load, either as an accumulating total or in the form of a count rate histogram.

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SIGNAL PARAMETERS
The five most widely used signal measurement parameters are counts, amplitude, duration, rise
time, and the, measured area under the rectified signal envelope (MARSE).

Amplitude, A, is the highest peak voltage attained by an AE waveform. This is a very important
parameter because it directly determines the detectability of the AE event. Acoustic emission
amplitudes are directly related to the magnitude of the source event, and they vary over an
extremely wide range from microvolts to volts.

Counts, N, are the threshold-crossing pulses (sometimes called ringdown counts) discussed above.
This is one of the oldest and easiest ways of quantifying the AE signal. Counts depend on the
magnitude of the source event, but they also depend strongly on the acoustic properties.

MARSE, sometimes known as energy counts, E, is the measured area under the rectified signal
envelope. As a measure of the AE signal magnitude this quantity has gained acceptance and is
replacing counts.

Duration, D, is the elapsed time from the first threshold crossing to the last. Directly measured in
microseconds, this parameter depends on source magnitude structural acoustics, and reverberation
in much the same way as counts.

Rise time, R, is the elapsed time from the first threshold crossing to the signal peak.

Multichannel Considerations
Measurement of the signal proceeds simultaneously on every channel that detects (is hit by) the
AE wave. Acoustic emission systems are available in sizes from 1 channel to over 100 channels,
depending on the size and complexity of the structure to be tested. Typical laboratory systems
have 2 to 6 channels, while most structural tests are accomplished with 12 to 32 channels.

NOISE
Sources of Noise
• Mechanical
• Hydraulic
• Cyclic
• Electrical (Electromagnetic noise)
• Welding noise
• Pseudo noise

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Precautions against interfering noise are an integral part of AE technology. Enormous progress
has been made since the early days when students worked at night, using specially constructed
loading machines in underground laboratories to avoid disruption of their experiments by street
traffic and people moving nearby. With current technology, many tests can be performed without
special measures, and a wide range of techniques have been developed to make AE inspection
applicable in extremely noisy environments.

A basic starting point is the selection of an appropriate frequency range for AE monitoring. The
acoustic noise background is highest at low frequencies. The 100 to 300 kHz range has proved
suitable for perhaps 90% of all AE testing. In noisy environments (an electric power plant, for
example), higher frequencies, such as 500 kHz, have been necessary to reduce the noise detected
from fluid flow. Because higher frequencies bring reduced detection range, there is an inherent
trade-off between detection range and noise elimination.

Acoustic noise sources include fluid flow in pumps and valves, friction processes such as the
movement of structures on their supports, and impact processes such as rain and wind-blown
cables striking the structure. Electrical and electromagnetic noise sources include ground loops,
power switching circuits, radio and navigation transmitters, and electrical storms.

Noise elimination methods

Spatial filtering
Master-slave technique
Coincidence method
Frequency domain analysis
Parametric filtering
Using of attenuation materials

LOCATION CALCULATION
Location calculation based on time differences
The determination of the source location for each event is an essential element of AE testing. The
difference distance between a defect source and other sensors equals the arrival time difference
times the sound velocity. The location calculation is based on the arrival time differences of the
AE signal propagating from its source to different sensors, where the AE wave is propagating in
concentric circles from its source and arrives at different sensors at different times. This time
delay is proportional to the distance between the sensor and the source.

CODES AND STANDARDS FOR AET

ASTM STANDARDS
E569 Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Structures during Controlled Stimulation
E610 Definition of Terms Relating to Acoustic Emission
E650 Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emission Contact Sensors
E749 Acoustic Emission Monitoring during Continuous Welding
E750 Measuring the Operating Characteristics of Acoustic Emission Instrumentation

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COMPARISIONS BETWEEN AE TESTING AND OTHER NDT METHODS

Acoustic emission differs from most other nondestructive testing (NDT) methods in two key
respects. First, the signal has its origin in the material itself, not in an external source. Second,
acoustic emission detects movement, while most other methods detect existing geometrical
discontinuities.

Often in NDT there is no one method that can provide the whole solution; for cost effectiveness,
technical adequacy, or both, it is best to use a combination of methods. Because acoustic emission
has features that distinguish it so sharply from other methods, it is particularly useful when used
in combination with them.

A major benefit of AE inspection is that it allows the whole volume of the structure to be
inspected nondestructively in a single loading operation. It is not necessary to scan the structure
looking for local defects; it is only necessary to connect a suitable number of fixed sensors, which
are typically placed 1 to 6 m (4 to 20 ft) apart. This leads to major savings in testing large
structures, for which other methods require removal of insulation, decontamination for entry to
vessel interiors, or scanning of very large areas.

The global AE inspection is used to identify areas with structural problems, and other NDT
methods are then used to identify more precisely the nature of the emitting defects.

AE TESTING OTHER NDE METHODS

Requires stress Do not require stress
Tests whole structure at once Tests local regions
Detects active movements of defects Detects geometric forms of defects
Requires access only at sensors Requires access to all regions inspected
Main problem: noise related Main problem : geometry related

APPLICATION OF AE TESTING
Proof testing
Incipient failure detection
Leaks detection
Fatigue and fracture studies
Phase transformation
Structural integrity evaluation
Nuclear, chemical industries
Rock mechanics
Soil stability
Aerospace applications
Material characterization

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An acoustic emission is a natural phenomenon occurring in the widest range of materials,

structure, and processes. The largest-scale acoustic emissions are seismic events, while the
smallest-scale processes that have been observed with AE inspection are the movements of small
numbers of dislocations in stressed metals. In between, there is a wide range of laboratory studies
and industrial testing.

In the laboratory, AE inspection is a powerful aid to materials testing and the study of
deformation and fracture. It gives an immediate indication of the response and behavior of a
material under stress, intimately connected with strength, damage, and failure. Because the AE
response of a material depends on its microstructure and deformation mode, material differ
widely in their AE response. Brittleness and heterogeneity are two major factors conducive to
high emissivity. Ductile deformation mechanisms, such as microvoid coalescence in soft steels,
are associated with low emissivity.

Acoustic emission equipment is highly sensitive to any kind of movement in its operating
frequency range (typically 20 to 1200 kHz). The equipment can detect not only crack growth and
material deformation but also such processes as solidification, friction, impact, flow, and phase
transformations. Therefore, AE techniques are also valuable for:

In-process weld monitoring

Detecting tool touch and tool wear during automatic machining
Detecting wear and loss of lubrication in rotating equipment, and topological studies.
Detecting loose parts and loose particles
Detecting and monitoring leaks, cavitations and flow
Monitoring chemical reactions, including corrosion processes, liquid-solid
transformations, and phase transformations

When these same processes of impact, friction, flow, and so on, occur during a typical AE
inspection for cracks or corrosion, they constitute a source of unwanted noise. Many techniques
have been developed for eliminating or discriminating against these and other noise sources.

Application of AE in material studies

Acoustic emission is a remarkable tool for studying material deformation because the information
it provides is both detailed and immediate. With its sensitivity to microstructure and its intimate
connection with failure processes, AE inspection can give unique insights into the response of
material to applied stress. Acoustic emission analysis is most useful when used in conjunction
with other diagnostic techniques, such as stress-strain measurements, microscopy, crack- opening-
displacement measurements and potential drop (for crack growth), or ultrasonic damping
measurements (for dislocation studies). Acoustic emission complements these techniques and
offers additional information on the dynamics of the underlying deformation processes, their
interplay, and the transitions from one type of deformation to another.

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ADVANTAGES OF AE TESTING
Numerous test objects such as spherical natural or liquid gas tanks and petrochemical reactors
have been successfully tested with the AE testing method.
AE testing complements hydrotesting and pneumatic testing.
AE monitoring during pneumatic pressure testing can be used to assure a safe test.
AE testing provides an early warning system for developing or growing defects.
With AE monitoring, the pressure test can be stopped before failure occurs.

LIMITATIONS OF AE TESTING
Components need to be loaded
Skill and expertise are required
Signal analysis could be complex
Complicated by interference by noise from surrounding operating equipment
Static characteristics of flaws cannot be obtained

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CHAPTER - 2
EDDY CURRENT TESTING

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Eddy current inspection is based on the principles of electromagnetic induction and is used to
identify or differentiate among a wide variety of physical, structural and metallurgical conditions
in electrically conducive ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic metals and metal parts.

Coil

Primary magnetic field

Secondary magnetic field

Surface crack

Distorted
eddy current flow

Electrically
conducting material

Eddy current inspection can be used to:

Measure or identify such conditions and properties as electrical conductivity, magnetic

permeability, grain size, heat treatment condition, hardness, and physical dimensions.

Detect cracks, seams, laps, voids and inclusions.

Sort dissimilar metals and detect differences in their composition, microstructure, and other
properties.

Measure the thickness of a nonconductive coating on a conducive metal, or the thickness of a

nonmagnetic metal coating on a magnetic metal.

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ET VERSUS MT
In eddy current inspection, the eddy currents create their own electro-magnetic field, which can
be sensed either through the effects of the field on the primary exciting coil or by means of an
independent sensor. In nonferromagnetic materials, the secondary electromagnetic field is derived
exclusively from eddy currents. However, with ferromagnetic materials, additional magnetic
effects occur that are usually of sufficient magnitude to overshadow the field effects caused by the
induced eddy currents. Although undesirable, these additional magnetic effects result from the
magnetic permeability of the material being inspected and can normally be eliminated by
magnetizing the material to saturation in a static (direct current) magnetic field.

Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Faraday in 1831. He found that when the current in
a loop of wire was caused to vary (as by connecting or disconnecting a battery furnishing the
current), an electric current was induced in a second, adjacent loop. This is the effect used in eddy
current inspection to cause the eddy current to flow in the material being inspected and it is the
effect used to monitor these currents.

ET PARAMETERS
The principal operating variables encountered in eddy current inspection includes coil impedance,
electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, lift-off and fill factors, edge effect, and skin effect.

Impedance
When direct current is flowing in a coil, the magnetic field reaches a constant level, and the
electrical resistance of the wire is the only limitation to current flow. However, when alternating
current is flowing in a coil, two limitations are imposed:

The ac resistance of the wire, R

A quantity known as inductive reactance, XL

Inductive reactance, XL, is the combined effect of coil inductance and test
frequency and is expressed in ohms. Total resistance to the flow of
alternating current in a coil is called impedance, Z
Z = [ X L 2 + R 2 ] 1/2

where X L = inductive reactance [ohm]

R = resistance [ohm]

XL = 2 π f L
where X L = inductive reactance [ohm]
f = frequency or operating frequency [Hz]
L = inductance [H]

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Phase angle of the circuit can be calculated by the following equation.

Tan θ = XL/ R

Change in Impedance depends on:

Electrical Conductivity (σ)
Magnetic Permeability (µ)
Electromagnetic coupling
Microstructure
Frequency (f) of excitation

When a metal part is placed adjacent to or within a test coil, the electromagnetic field threading
the coil is changed as a result of eddy current flow in the test object. In general, both the ac
resistance and the inductive reactance of the coil are affected. The resistance of the loaded coil
consists of two components, namely, the ac resistance of the coil wire and the apparent, or
coupled, resistance caused by the presence of the test object. Changes in these components reflect
conditions within the test object.

Impedance is usually plotted on an impedance-plane diagram. In the diagram (above figure),

resistance is plotted along X-axis and inductive reactance along the Y-axis.

Electrical conductivity (σ)

All materials have a characteristic resistance to the flow of electricity. Those with the highest
resistivity are classified as insulators, those having an intermediate resistivity are classified as
semiconductors, and those having a low resistivity are classified as conductors. The conductors,
which include most metals, are of greatest interest in eddy current inspection. The relative
conductivity of the common metals and alloys varies over a wide range.

As the temperature of metal increases, the electrical conductivity decreases.

σ=1/ρ

where ρ = Resistivity

The unit of resistivity is µΩ-cm.

Capacity for conducting current can be measured in terms of either conductivity or resistivity. In
eddy current inspection, frequent use is made of measurement based on the International
Annealed Copper Standard (IACS). In this system, the conductivity of annealed, unalloyed copper
is arbitrarily annealed, unalloyed copper is arbitrarily rated at 100% and the conductivities of
other metals and alloys are expressed as a percentage of these standards. Thus, the conductivity of
unalloyed aluminum is rated 61% IACS, or 61% that of unalloyed copper.

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Magnetic permeability
Ferromagnetic metals and alloys, including iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys, act to
concentrate the flux of a magnetic field.

Magnetic permeability is not necessarily constant for a given material but depends on the strength
of the magnetic field acting upon it. For example, consider a sample of steel that has been
completely demagnetized and then placed in a solenoid coil. As current in the coil is increased,
the magnetic field associated with the current will increase. The magnetic flux within the steel,
however, will increase rapidly at first and then level off so that an additionally large increase in
the strength if the magnetic field will result in only a small increase in flux within the steel. The
steel sample will then have achieved a condition known as magnetic saturation. The curve
showing the relation between magnetic field intensity and the magnetic flux within the steel is
known as a magnetization curve.

The magnetic permeability of a material is the ratio between the strength of the magnetic field and
the amount of magnetic flux within the material. At saturation (where there is no appreciable
change in induced flux in the material for a change in field strength) the permeability is nearly
constant for small changes in field strength.

Because eddy currents are induced by a varying magnetic field, the magnetic permeability of the
material being inspected strongly influences the eddy current response. Consequently, the
techniques and conditions used for inspecting magnetic materials differ from those used for
inspecting nonmagnetic materials. However, the same factors that may influence electrical
conductivity (such as composition, hardness, residual stresses, and flaws) may also influence
magnetic permeability. Thus, eddy current inspection can be applied to both magnetic and
nonmagnetic materials. Although magnetic conductors also have an electrical conductivity that
can vary with changes in material conditions, permeability changes generally have a much greater
effect on eddy current response at lower test frequencies than conductivity variations.

Fill factor
In an encircling coil, a condition comparable to lift-off is known as fill factor. It is a measure of
how well the part being inspected fills the coil. As with lift-off, changes in fill factor resulting
from such factors, as variations in outside diameter must be controlled because small changes can
give large indications.

FILL FACTOR = Η = (D1)2 / (d2)2

where d1 = diameter of testing part

d2 = diameter of coil

Probe size
One of the major faults in eddy current testing is the use of an over-size probe. The probe coil
should be no greater than twice the length of the minimum discontinuity of interest.

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Edge Effect
When an inspection coil approaches the end or edge of a part being inspected, the eddy currents
are distorted because they are unable to flow beyond the edge of a part. The distortion of eddy
currents results in an indication known as edge effect. Because the magnitude of the effect is very
large, it limits inspection near edges.

Effect of material boundaries. (a) Eddy currents undisturbed by material boundaries. (b)
Eddy currents compressed by material boundaries .

Test frequency
The inspection frequencies used in eddy current inspection range from about 200 Hz to 6 MHz or
more. Inspections of nonmagnetic materials are usually performed at a few kilohertz. In general,
the lower frequencies, which start at about 1 kHz, are used for inspecting magnetic materials.
However, the actual frequency used in any specific eddy current inspection will depend on the
thickness of the material being inspected, the desired depth of penetration, the degree of
sensitivity or resolution required, and the purpose of the inspection.

In EC testing, the use of low frequency would provide good detectability and provide good
penetration, and decrease in the phase difference between near and far surface.

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250.0
Depth of penetration (mm) Graphite

25.0
Titanium
Stainless steel

2.50
Aluminium

0.250

Ingot iron
0.025
High alloy steel Copper

0.0025
10H Z 100 1kH Z 10 100 1MH Z 10 100

Frequency

Multifrequency techniques
Instrumentation capable of operating at two or more frequencies has expanded the capabilities of
the eddy current method by allowing the user to perform simultaneous tests and to provide for
signal combinations using multiparameter techniques.

Lift-off factor
When a probe inspection coil, attached to a suitable inspection instrument, is energized in air, it
will give some indication even if there is no evidence material in the vicinity of the coil. The
initial indication will begin to change as the coil is moved closer to a conductor. Because the field
of the coil is strongest close to the coil, the indicated change on the instrument will continue to
increase at a more rapid rate until the coil is directly on the conductor. These changes in
indication with changes in spacing between the coil and the conductor, or part being inspected,
are called lift-off. The lift-off effect is so pronounced that small variations in spacing can mask
many indications resulting from the condition or conditions of primary interest. Consequently, it
is usually necessary to maintain a constant relationship between the size and shape of the coil and
the size and shape of the part being inspected. The lift-off effect also accounts for the extreme
difficulty of performing an inspection that requires scanning a part having a complex shape.

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DEPTH OF PENETRATION

The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a material is affected by the frequency of the
excitation current and the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the specimen. The
depth of penetration decreases with increasing frequency and increasing conductivity and
magnetic permeability.

The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or about 37% of the surface density,
is called the standard depth of penetration (δ). Although eddy currents penetrate deeper than one
standard depth of penetration they decrease rapidly with depth. At two standard depths of
penetration (2 δ), eddy current density has decreased to 1/e squared or 13.5% of the surface
density. At three depths (3δ) the eddy current density is down to only 5% of the surface density.
δ = K/ [( ρ /f μrel)] 1/2

where δ = standard depth of penetration [inch]

K = 1.98
ρ = resistivity [μohm-cm]
f = frequency or operating frequency [Hz]
μ = μrel = permeability = 1 for non-ferromagnetic material

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Phase lag
Phase lag is a parameter of the eddy current signal that makes it possible to obtain information
about the depth of a defect within a material. Phase lag is the shift in time between the eddy
current response from a disruption on the surface and a disruption at some distance below the
surface. The generation of eddy currents can be thought of as a diffusion process meaning that the
eddy currents below the surface take a little longer to form than those at the surface. Therefore,
subsurface defects will be detected by the eddy current instrument a little later in time than
surface defects. Both the signal voltage and current will have this phase shift or lag with depth.

At one standard depth of penetration, the phase lag is 57 degrees or one radian. This means that
the eddy currents flowing at one standard depth of penetration (δ) below the surface, lag the
surface currents by 57 degrees. At two standard depths of penetration (2 δ) they lag the surface
currents by 114 degrees. Therefore by measuring the phase lag of a signal, the depth of a defect
can be estimated.

Skin Effect
In addition to the geometric relationship that exists between the inspection coil and the part being
inspected, the thickness and shape of the part itself will affect eddy current response. Eddy
currents are not uniformly distributed throughout a part being inspected; rather, they are densest at
the surface immediately beneath the coil and become progressively less dense with increasing
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distance below the surface- a phenomenon known as the skin effect. At some distance below the
surface of a thick part there will be essentially no currents flowing.

PROBES
The inspection coil is essential
part of every eddy current
inspection system. The shape of
the inspection coil depends to a
considerable extent on the
purpose of the inspection and on
the shape of the part being
inspected. When inspecting for
flaws, such as cracks or seams, it
is essential that the flow of the
eddy currents be as nearly
perpendicular to the flaws as
possible to obtain a maximum
response from the flaws. If the
eddy current flow is parallel to flaws, there will be little or no distortion of the currents and
therefore very little reaction on the inspection coil.

Absolute probes
Absolute probes generally have a single test coil that is used to generate the eddy currents and
sense changes in the eddy current field. As discussed in the physics section, AC is passed through
the coil and this sets-up a expanding and collapsing magnetic field in and around the coil. When
the probe is positioned next to a conductive material, the changing magnetic field generate eddy
currents within the material. The generation of the eddy currents take energy from the coil and
this appears as an increase in the electrical resistance of the coil. The eddy currents generate their
own magnetic field that opposes the magnetic field of the coil and this changes the inductive
reactance of the coil. By measuring the absolute change in impedance of the test coil, much
information can be gained about the test material.

Absolute coils can be used for flaw detection, conductivity measurements, liftoff measurements
and thickness measurements. They are widely used due to their versatility. Since absolute probes
are sensitivity to things such as conductivity, permeability liftoff and temperature, steps must be
taken to minimize these variables when they are not important to the inspection being performed.
It is very common for commercially available absolute probes to have a fixed "air loaded"
reference coil that compensates for ambient temperature variations.

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Differential probes
In many applications, an absolute coil arrangement is undesirable. For example, in tubing
inspection, an absolute arrangement will indicate dimensional variations in both outside diameter
and wall thickness even though such variations may be well within allowable limits. To avoid this
problem, a differential coil arrangement can be used.
Differential probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition, although they could be
wound in addition with similar results. When the two coils are over a flaw-free area of test
sample, there is no differential signal developed between the coils since they are both inspecting
identical material. However, when one coil is over a defect and the other is over good material, a
differential signal is produced. They have the advantage of being very sensitive to defect yet
relatively insensitive to slowly varying properties such as gradual dimensional or temperature
variations. Probe wobble signals are also reduced with this probe type. There are also
disadvantages to using differential probes. Most notably, the signals may be difficult to interpret.
For example, if a flaw is longer than the spacing between the two coils, only the leading and
trailing edges will be detected due to signal cancellation when both coils sense the flaw equally

TEST COIL ARRANGEMENTS

Test coils can be categorized into three main mechanical groups; probe coils, bobbin coils, and
encircling coils .

Probe coils
Surface coil, probe coil, flat coil, or pancake coil are all common terms used to describe the same
test coil type.

Surface probes are usually designed to be handheld and are intended to be

used in contact with the test surface. Surface probes generally consist of a coil
of very fine wire encased in a protective housing. The size of the coil and
shape of the housing are determined by the intended use of the probe. Most of
the coils are wound so that the axis of the coil is perpendicular to the test surface.

ID or Bobbin Probes
ID probes, which are also referred to as Bobbin probes, inside coils or feed-through probes, are
inserted into hollow products, such as a pipe, to inspect from the inside out. The ID probes have a
housing that keep the probe centered in the product and the coil(s) orientation so me what
constant relative to the test surface. The coils are most commonly wound around the
circumference of the probe so that the probe inspects an area around the entire circumference of
the test object at one time.

Bobbin Probes (Absolute) Bobbin Probes (Differential)

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OD or Encircling Coils: The encircling coil is used to enclose an

article about one of its axes to give the maximum effect from the
article. This coil must be shorter than the article to reduce end effect.
Encircling coil or OD probes are commonly used to inspect
solid products, such as bar.

DATA DISPLAY
Eddy current test data may be displayed or indicated in a variety of ways. The type of display or
readout depends on the test requirements. Test records may require archive storage-on large in
service components so that corrosion or discontinuity rates of change can be monitored and
projected. In some production tests, a simple GO/NO-GO indicator circuit is all that is required.
Some common readout mechanisms are indicator lights, audio alarms, meters, digital displays,
cathode ray tubes, recorders, and computer printout or display.

CALIBRATION
Test calibration or standardization is the process of adjusting the instrument display to represent a
known reference standard so that the test can be a comparison between the test material and the
reference standard. The validity of the test thus depends upon the validity of the reference
standard. Moreover, the test system should be checked at regular intervals against the reference
standard to ensure that it is operating properly and is still set up correctly for the test being
performed. If a variation in instrument performance or setup is discovered, all material tested
since the last verification of proper performance and setup should be retested.

Since there is an infinite variety of discontinuity conditions, it is neither possible nor practical to
have a set of reference standards so complete as to replicate every possible condition that could be
detected during a test. Testing is therefore not a matter of matching each test signal with an
identical reference signal. Instead, one obtains practical reference standards that contain a
manageable number of representative discontinuity conditions. Signals that vary from these must
then be interpreted through techniques such as impedance plane analysis.

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The following rules apply to the selection and fabrication of standards:

The test standard should be of the same material, with the same wall thickness and configuration,
and receive the same processing as the material to be tested.
The artificial discontinuities in the standard should model the natural discontinuities expected in
the test material.
For example
a. Drilled holes can simulate pits.
b. EDM notches or saw cuts can simulate cracks.
c. Thickness reduction in tubing can simulate wear.
d. Heat Treatment can simulate a conductivity change.

THICKNESS MEASUREMENTS OF THIN MATERIAL

Eddy current techniques can be used to perform a
number of dimensional measurements, without
the need for couplant. The types of measurements
that can be made include:
Thickness of thin metal sheet and foil, and of
metallic coatings on metallic and nonmetallic
substrate

Cross-sectional dimensions of cylindrical

tubes and rods

Thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metallic substrates

CODES AND STANDARDS FOR ET

ASME, SECTION V, ARTICLE 8, APPENDIX 1 and 2, Electromagnetic (Eddy current) testing
of heat exchanger tubes

ASTM-E-426 Electromagnetic (Eddy current) testing of seamless and welded tubular products
austenitic stainless steel and similar alloys

ASTM E 566 Electromagnetic (Eddy current) sorting of ferrous metals

ASTM E 690 In-situ electromagnetic (Eddy current) examination of non-magnetic heat-

exchanger tubes

ASTM-E-309 Eddy current examination of steel tubular products using magnetic saturation

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ADVANTAGES OF ET
Testing of any metallic material
High inspection speed ( > 5 m / s)
Can efficiently detect very fine surface fatigue cracks (~ 5 μm width and 50 μm depth)
High temperature testing possible
Non-contact of test object (no couplant required like in ultrasonic testing)
Recording of inspection data possible
Accurate measurement of conductivity
Immediate indication
Testing of metallic (conducting) materials (depth < 8 mm)

LIMITATIONS OF ET

Specific nature of discontinuities is not clearly identified

Depth of penetration restricts testing to depth of less than one quarter
Testing of ferromagnetic metals is sometimes difficult
A permanent record of discontinuity is often not available.
Non conducting materials cannot be tested.

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CHAPTER - 3
INFRARED OR THERMAL TESTING

INTRODUCTION
Infrared/Thermal testing (IR), a NDT methods, involves the measurement or mapping of surface
temperatures as heat flows to, from and/or through an object as a means to predict or diagnose
failure. This may involve the use of contacting or non contacting devices, or a combination of
both. A fundamental knowledge of heat flow and the thermal behavior of materials are necessary
to understand the significance of temperature and temperature changes on a test sample. The basic
principle of IR is that the flow of heat from the surface of a solid is affected by internal flaws such
as disbonds, voids or inclusions.

Contacting devices include thermometers of various types, thermocouples, thermopiles and

thermochromic coatings. No contacting devices include convection (heat flux) devices, optical
pyrometers, infrared radiation thermometers, infrared line scanners and infrared thermal imaging
(thermo graphic) equipment.

The thermal maps produced by infrared thermal imaging instruments are called thermograms. To
understand and interpret thermograms, the thermographer must be familiar with the fundamentals
of temperature and heat transfer, infrared radiative heat flow and the performance of infrared
thermal imaging instruments and other thermal instruments.

PRINCIPLE/THEORY
Wavelength of thermal energy

The wavelength of thermal radiation extends from 0.7 microns to several hundred microns (1
mm). As highlighted in the image, this means that not all of the heat radiated from an object will
be visible to the human eye, but the heat is detectable. Consider the gradual heating of a piece of
steel. With the application of a heat source, heat radiating from the part is felt long before a
change in color is noticed. If the heat intensity is great enough and applied for long enough, the
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part will gradually change to a red color. The heat that is felt prior to the part changing color is the
radiation that lies in the infrared frequency spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. Infrared
radiation has a wavelength that is longer than visible light or, in other words, greater than 700
nanometers. As the wavelength of the radiation shortens, it reaches the point where it is short
enough to enter the visible spectrum and can be detected with the human eye.

Fundamentals of temperature and heat transfer

Heat is a transient form of energy in which thermal energy is transient. What is often referred to
as a heat source such as an oil furnace or an electric heater) is really one form or another of
energy conversion – the energy stored in one object being converted to heat and flowing to
another object. Heat flow is thermal energy in transit and heat always flows from warmer objects
to cooler objects. Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy contained in an object. It is the
degree of hotness or coldness of an object that is measurable by any of a number of relative
scales.

The three modes of heat transfer are conductive, convective and radiative. All heat is transferred
by one of these three modes. In most situations, heat is transferred by a combination of two or all
three modes.

Of these three modes of heat transfer, objects tend to increase or decrease their temperature until
they come to thermal equilibrium with their surroundings. To maintain a steady state heat flow
condition, energy must be continuously supplied by some means of energy conversion so that the
temperature differential, and hence the heat flow, remains constant.

Emissivity
A very important consideration in radiation heat transfer is the emissivity of the object being
evaluated. Emissivity is a measure of a surface's efficiency in transferring infrared energy. It is
the ratio of thermal energy emitted by a surface to the energy emitted by a perfect blackbody at
the same temperature. A perfect blackbody only exists in theory and is an object that absorbs and
reemits all of its energy. Human skin is nearly a perfect blackbody as it has an emissivity of 0.98,
regardless of actual skin color.

Emissivity (ε) – The ratio of a target surface’s radiance to that of a blackbody at the same
temperature, viewed from the same angle and over the same spectral interval; a generic lookup
value for a material. Values range from 0 to 1.0.

Reflectance/Reflectively (ρ) – The ratio of the total energy reflected from a surface to total
incidence on that surface; ρ = 1 - ε - τ; for a perfect mirror this approaches 1.0; for a blackbody
the reflectivity is 0. Technically, reflectivity is the ratio of the intensity of the reflected radiation
to the total radiation and reflectance is the ratio of the reflected flux to the incident flux. In
thermography, the two terms are often used interchangeably.

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Transmissivity/Transmittance (τ) – The proportion of infrared radiant energy impinging on an

object’s surface, for any given spectral interval, that is transmitted through the object. (τ = 1 - ε -
ρ). For a blackbody, transmissivity = 0. Transmissivity is the internal transmittance per unit
thickness of a nondiffusing material.

Absorptivity/Absorptance (α) – The proportion (as a fraction of 1) of the radiant energy

impinging on a material’s surface that is absorbed into the material. For a blackbody, this is unity
(1.0). Technically, absorptivity is the internal absorptance per unit pathlength. In thermography,
the two terms are often used interchangeably.

Blackbody
Blackbody, blackbody radiator – A perfect emitter, an object that absorbs all the radiant energy
impinging on it at all wavelengths and reflects and transmits none. It has a surface with emissivity
of unity (1.0) at all wavelengths.

Gray body – A radiating object whose emissivity is a constant value, less than unity (1.0) over a
specific spectral range.

Opaque – Impervious to radiant energy. In thermography, an opaque material is one that does not
transmit thermal infrared energy, (τ = 0).

Infrared radiation
Infrared – The infrared spectrum is loosely defined as that portion of the electromagnetic
continuum extending from the red visible (0.75 µm) to about 1000 µm (1mm). Because of
instrument design considerations and the infrared transmission characteristics of the atmosphere,
however, most infrared measurements are made between 0.75 and 20 µm.

Thermal resistance (R) – A measure of a material’s resistance to the flow of thermal energy,
inversely proportional to its thermal conductivity, k. (1/R = k).

Thermal radiation – The mode of heat flow that occurs by emission and absorption of
electromagnetic radiation, propagating at the speed of light and, unlike conductive and convective
heat flow, capable of propagating across a vacuum; the form of heat transfer that allows infrared
thermography to work because infrared energy travels from the target to the detector by radiation.

Thermogram – A thermal map or image of a target where the gray tones or color hues correspond
to the distribution of infrared thermal radiant energy over the surface of the target (qualitative
thermogram); when correctly processed and corrected, a graphic representation of surface
temperature distribution (quantitative thermogram).

Thermograph – Another word used to described an infrared thermal imager.

Thermometer – Any device used for measuring temperature

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Radiant energy related to target surface temperature

All target surfaces warmer than absolute zero radiate energy in the infrared spectrum. Very hot
targets radiate in the visible region as well, and our eyes can see this because they are sensitive to
light. The sun, for example, is at a temperature of about 6000 K and appears to glow white hot.
The heating element of an electric stove at 800 K glows a cherry red and, as it cools, it loses its
visible glow but continues to radiate. This radiant energy can be felt with a hand placed near the
surface even though the glow is invisible.

Infrared energy emitted from surface of a blackbody is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

W = s ε T4

where W = radiant flux emitted per unit area (W/m2)

ε = emissivity (unity for a blackbody target)
s = Stefan-Boltzmann constant =5.673 x 10-8 Wm-2 K-4
T = absolute temperature of the blackbody (K)

The total radiant flux emitted per unit area of surface, (the area under the curve) is proportional to
the fourth power of the absolute surface temperature.

Wien’s displacement law

The wavelength of peak of the emission by a blackbody at a given temperature can be determined
using a formula

λ max = b/T

where λ max = peak wavelength or wavelength of maximum radiation (μm)

b = Wien’s displacement constant or 2897 (μm K)
T = the absolute temperature of the black body (K)

DETECTORS
Thermal detectors
Infrared detectors can sense infrared radiant energy and produce useful electrical signals
proportional to the temperature of target surfaces. Thermal energy detection and measurement
equipment comes in a large variety of forms and levels of sophistication. One way to categorize
the equipment and materials is to separate thermal detectors from quantum (photon) detectors.
The basic distinction between the two is that thermal detectors depend on a two-step process. The
absorption of thermal energy in these detectors raises the temperature of the device, which in turn
changes some temperature-dependent parameter, such as electrical conductivity. Quantum devices
detect photons from infrared radiation. Quantum detectors are much more sensitive but require
cooling to operate properly.

Response time – The time it takes for an instrument output signal or display to respond to a
temperature step change at the target; expressed in seconds. (typically, to 95 percent of the final
value and approximately equal to 5 time constants)
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Time constant – The time it takes for any sensing element to respond to 63.2 percent of a step
change at the target being sensed. In infrared sensing and thermography, the time constant of a
detector is a limiting factor in instrument performance, as it relates to response time.

Sensitivity- Minimum resolvable temperature difference.

CONTACT THERMAL DEVICES

The most commonly used contact thermal devices include bimetallic thermometers,
thermochromic liquid crystals, thermocouples, resistance thermometers, thermistors and heat flux
indicators.

Bimetallic thermometer
Bimetallic thermometers are sensors constructed of dissimilar metallic strips bonded together.
Typically, different iron nickel alloys are used. The strips differ in temperature coefficient of
expansion such that temperature changes result in predictable bending of the assembly. Arranged
in a spiral or helical configuration, one end of the bimetallic element is fixed and the other end is
attached to a pointer. Properly calibrated, the angular position of the pointer can be made to
indicate temperature on a scale.

Thermochromic liquid crystals

Thermochromic liquid crystals (also called cholesterol crystals) change color with temperature.
Coatings made of liquid crystals are commonly used as temperature threshold indicators.
Depending on the mixture, a coating applied to a surface will change color predictably when the
surface exceeds a threshold temperature. The color change may be reversible or irreversible, and
the sensing range for most mixtures is limited to a narrow temperature span. Typically, a set of
liquid crystal markers provides selection of transition temperatures. This allows the user to select
the appropriate marker for the desired temperature.

Thermocouples
In 1921, Thomas Seebeck discovered that when two different metals were joined at both ends, an
electrical current was generated when one of the junctions was held at a constant temperature and
the other junction was heated or cooled. The effect became known as the Seebeck effect.

Thermocouples are contact temperature sensors based on the thermoelectric effect, or Seebeck
effect. Thomas Seebeck discovered that, when two dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and
these ends are at different temperatures, a predictable direct current will flow through the circuit.
The thermoelectric coefficient determines the relationship between this current and the
temperature difference between the two junctions. This coefficient is known for each type of
thermocouple. To configure a thermometer, the circuit is broken and the open-circuit voltage is
measured by a volt meter.

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Resistance thermometers
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are contact sensors that measure temperature by a
predictable change in resistance as a function of temperature. Platinum is the most popular
resistance temperature detector material because of its excellent stability and its linear response to
temperature change. Other materials used include nickel, copper, tungsten and iridium. In
operation, the resistance temperature detector may be placed in a bridge circuit such that the
bridge output voltage is a measure of the resistance and hence the temperature at the resistance
temperature detector. A more accurate measurement may be achieved by using a constant current
source and a digital volt meter (DVM), such that the digital volt meter reading is proportional to
the resistance temperature detector resistance and hence the temperature at the resistance
temperature detector.

Thermistors
Thermistors are also sensors that measure temperature by a predictable change in resistance as a
function of temperature. Thermistors are made of semiconductor materials. Whereas resistance
temperature detectors are low impedance devices, thermistors are high impedance devices.
Thermistors, typically, are more sensitive to temperature changes than resistance temperature
detectors but thermistors are not as stable.

NONCONTACT THERMAL DETECTORS

Pyrometers
Pyrometer (fire measuring) devices read temperatures by measuring the intensity of IR radiation
emitted from an object. All objects above absolute zero temperature (0°K) radiate and absorb
thermal energy. Narrow-band pyrometers typically operate in accordance with Planck’s law and
broad-band pyrometers operate in accordance with the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Noncontacting
pyrometers have a broad price range with models incorporating blackbody correction
commanding the highest prices. The radio pyrometer is commonly operated above 300 ºC

Thermopile
Melloni soon used the thermocouple technology to produce a device called the thermopile. A
thermopile is made of thermocouple junction pairs connected electrically in series. The absorption
of thermal radiation by one of the thermocouple junctions, called the active junction, increases its
temperature. The differential temperature between the active junction and a reference junction
kept at a fixed temperature produces an electromotive force directly proportional to the
differential temperature created. This effect is called a thermoelectric effect. Melloni was able to
show that a person 30 feet away could be detected by focusing his or her thermal energy on the
thermopile. Thermopile detectors are used today for spectrometers, process temperature
monitoring, fire and flame detection, presence monitor, and a number of other non-contact
temperature measurement devices. A device similar to the thermopile measured a change in
electrical resistance rather than a voltage change. This device was named the bolometer, and it
was shown that it could detect over 1000 feet away.

HEAT FLUX INDICATORS

Heat flux indicators are heat flow meters and are used to measure rates in conduction, convection,
radiation and phase change systems such as building walls, boiler tubes and air conditioning
ducts. A typical heat flux indicator consists of a sensitive thermopile, composed of many fine
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gage thermocouples connected in series on opposite sides of flat core with known and stable
thermal resistance. The entire assembly is covered with protective material. The voltage generated
across the thermopile is calibrated to be a measure of the steady state heat flux through the device.
Transient heat flux can be related to the transient thermopile output and the geometry of the
device.

THE NATURE OF HEAT FLOW

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Large amounts of heat are emitted by exothermic reactions and absorbed by endothermic
reactions. Examples of exothermic and endothermic reactions are given below.

Exothermic Reactions
Steel Mills: Deoxidation carried out in a steel mill ladle is exothermic and raises the temperature
of the liquid steel, but the liquid steel loses heat by radiation at the top surface of the ladle and by
heat transfer through the ladle lining and shell. Just holding the steel in the ladle can also lower
the temperature of the steel as much as 2°C per minute.

Molybdenum Processing: Multiple hearth furnaces are used to convert MoS2 into molybdic oxide
for commercial uses. Molybdenite concentrate is fed into the top of the first furnace against a
current of heater air and gases blown from the bottom. Each hearth has four air-cooled arms
rotated by an air-cooled shaft. The arms rake the material from the sides to the center of the
roaster where the material drops to the next hearth. In the first hearth the concentrate is preheated
and flotation reagents ignite, initiating the exothermic reaction that transforms MoS2 to MoO3.
The exothermic reaction continues and intensifies in the following hearths. Temperature is
controlled by the adjustment of oxygen and water sprays to cool the furnaces as necessary.

Endothermic Reactions
Many endothermic reactions are relatively easy to control. However, condensation
polymerization requires careful temperature control and heat dissipation.

Condensation Polymerization: Condensation polymerization is an endothermic process that

requires an addition of significant heat from an external source. The chemical reactor used must
supply the necessary heat to maintain a satisfactory production rate of polymer. Reactor design
also needs to take into account the need for removal or recycling of solvents and catalysts.

Mixing of Solutions: Most simple molecules mix with a small endothermic heat of solution.
Endothermic heats of mixing typically show that the volume of the mixed liquids increases
slightly after mixing, whereas exothermic heats of mixing tend to contract the volume of the
mixed liquids slightly.

Calcination: Calcination, in which solid material is heated to drive off either carbon dioxide or
chemically combined water, is an endothermic reaction.

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LINE SCANNERS
Line scanners are divided into online process control devices and special purpose scanners.

Online Process Control Devices

Online (monitoring and control) line scanners are high speed, online commercial line scanners
that develop high resolution thermal maps by scanning normal to the motion of a moving target
such as paper web or a strip steel process. The vast majority of commercial infrared line scanners
are in this configuration. The output signal information is in a real time computer compatible
format and can be used to monitor, control or predict the behaviour of the target.

Like the online point sensors, these line scanners are usually permanently installed where they
monitor the temperature profile at one site of the process, remaining there for the life of the
instrument or the process. Likewise, they are usually fitted with environmental housing and preset
emissivity compensation sets. The best applications for this scanner are in online, real time
process monitoring and control applications where they are integrated with the process host
computer system. It is not unusual to find line scanners at multiple locations in a process with all
of them linked to the host computer.

In 1990s, infrared line scanners based on linear focal plane array came into use. This type of
instrument frequently uses an uncooled array of thermal detectors (radiation thermopiles). This
scanner has no moving parts. The linear array is oriented perpendicular to a process or a target
moving at a uniform rate. The scanner output may be used to develop a thermogram, or the data
for each pixel can be fed directly to a host computer and used to monitor and control the process.
Instruments of this type have been used to monitor moving railroad cars for overheated wheels
and break assemblies.

Special purpose scanners

Special purpose configurations of line scanners include one type of portable line scanners and a
number of aerial mappers that scan a line normal to the motion of the aircraft and develop a
thermal strip map.

INFRARED IMAGING DEVICES

Two main image processing exist: (a) direct image formation with a detector array or pyroelectric
detector or infrared film. (b) Electro mechanical scanning of the scene with a single detector.

A class of detectors lend themselves without mechanical scanning

operations to imaging applications – that is, to the production of an array of
points (also called picture elements, or pixels) in either one dimension, as in
a line array, or in two dimensions, as in television image generation.

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INTERPRETATION
Most thermal imagers produce a video output in which white indicates areas of maximum
radiated energy and black indicates areas of lower radiation. The gray scale image contains the
maximum amount of information. However, in order to ease general interpretation and facilitate
subsequent presentation, the thermal image can be artificially colorized. This is achieved by
allocating desired colors to blocks of grey levels to produce the familiar colorized images. This
enables easier image interpretation to the untrained observer. Additionally, by choosing the
correct colorization palette the image may be enhanced to show particular energy levels in detail.
Many thermal imaging applications are qualitative in nature. The inspection simply involves
comparing the temperatures at various locations within the field of view. The effects of the sun,
shadows, moisture and subsurface detail must all be taken into account when interpreting the
image, but this type of inspection is straightforward. However, great care must be exercised when
using an infrared imager to make quantitative temperature measurements. As mentioned
previously, the amount of infrared radiation emitted from a surface depends partly upon the
emissivity of that surface. Accurate assessment of surface emissivity is required to acquire
meaningful quantitative results.

ADVANTAGES OF THERMAL TESTING

Testing of metallic and non-metallic material
High inspection speed
High temperature testing possible
Non-contact of test object (no couplant required like in ultrasonic testing)
Recording of inspection data possible
May be used with other NDT methods
Immediate indication
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DISADVANTAGES OF THERMAL TESTING

High level of noise and hence difficulty in interpreting the data
Sophisticated computer-based data processing system is necessary

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CHAPTER – 4

LEAK TESTING

Leak Testing (LT) is the branch of nondestructive testing that concerns the escape or entry of
liquids or gases from pressurized or into evacuated components or systems intended to hold these
liquids. Leaking fluids (liquid or gas) can penetrate from inside a component or assembly to the
outside, or vice versa, as a result of a pressure differential between the two regions or as a result
of permeation through a somewhat extended barrier.

Other nondestructive test methods, such as radiography, ultrasound, magnetic particle and
penetrant testing, are usually performed on raw materials or welds to ensure structural integrity.
Leak testing is frequently performed on a finished assembly to ensure the leak tightness as a
finished product. The technique does not necessarily ensure structural integrity except to the
extent that atmospheric pressure exerts force

LT is done:
to prevent the loss of costly materials or energy.
to prevent contamination of the environment.
to ensure component or system reliability.
to prevent contamination and hazard
to distinguish between reliable and non reliable components

GAS
Volume, temperature and pressure are three essential parameters involved in the dynamics of
gases. Ideal gas is gas that obeys the laws of thermodynamics for ideal gases. Ideal gas is also
called perfect gas.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature compensation for pressure change is calculated in terms of absolute temperature,
degrees Rankin (°R) or degrees Kelvin (K), depending on whether temperature is measured in
terms of degrees Fahrenheit (°F) or degrees Celsius (°C).

°R = 460 + ºF

K = 273 + ºC

ºC = K - 273

°C = (5/9) (°F − 32)

Zero Kelvin is best defined as the temperature at which a gas exerts zero pressure.

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PRESSURE
Pressure is an important consideration because it is used to define the quality of a vacuum; the
driving force across a boundary. It is part of the leakage rate term and is used in many basic
calculations. The standard unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa). The pascal is equal to one newton
per square meter. The SI unit of pressure is Pa.

Pressure is best defined as force per unit area.

P = F/A

1 atmospheric (atm.) pressure =1 std. pressure = 14.7 psi = 101 kPa

As the elevation above sea level increases, the barometric pressure decreases.

Absolute pressure can be defined as gage pressure plus barometric pressure.

Pa = Pg + 101 kPa
where Pa = absolute pressure [kPa]
Pg = gage pressure [kPa]

The term used to indicate pressure above the zero value corresponding to a perfect vacuum is
absolute pressure.

The pressure of a gas relative to a vacuum and independent of atmosphere pressure is absolute
pressure.

GAS LAWS
Boyles Law
At constant temperature, a fixed mass of gas occupies a volume inversely proportional to the
pressure exerted on it.
P α 1/V at constant temperature
P V = constant (at constant absolute temperature)
P1 V1 = P2 V2 (when T1 = T2 )
P1 / P2 = V2 / V1 (when T1 = T2 )
where V1 and V2 are the initial and final volumes
P1 and P2 are the initial and final absolute pressures

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Charles's Law
At constant pressure, the volume occupied by a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature (kelvin) of the gas.

V α T at constant absolute pressure

V/T = constant (at constant absolute pressure)
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2 (when P1 = P2 )
where T1 and T2 are the initial and final absolute temperatures

Universal/general gas law

PV=nRT
P1 /T1 = P2 /T2 (when V1 = V2 )
P1 T2 = P2 T1 (when V1 = V2 )
where V = volume of an ideal gas
P = absolute pressure [kPa]
T = absolute temperature [K]
. n = Universal gas constant

Avogadro's Law
Avogadro's law states that equal volumes of any gas at the same temperature and pressure contain
the same number of molecules.

Dalton's law of Partial Pressure

Dalton's law states that the pressure a gas exerts is not affected by the presence of other gases in
the same chamber. The total pressure is the sum of all the individual gases in the vessel.

The total pressure is the sum of partial pressures (P1 , P2 …) of all the individual gases in the
vessel.
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 +... + Pn

TERMINOLOGY
The following terms must be understood in their strict definitions within the field of leak testing:

Atmospheric pressure: Ambient pressure caused by the weight of the earth's atmosphere.
Barometric pressure: Ambient pressure caused by the weight of the earth's atmosphere.
Conductance: Flow characteristics of a tube, manifold or leak path expressed in m3s-1.
Detector probe test: Pressure leak test in which the leakage of a component, pressurized with a
tracer rich mixture, is detected by scanning the test object boundary surface with a detector probe
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connected to an electronic leak detector. Leakage tracer gas is pulled from the leak through the
probe inlet to the sensing element to cause a visible or audible signal on the indicator of the leak
test instrument.

Leak: an actual through-wall discontinuity or passage through which a fluid flows or permeates; a leak is
simply a special type of flaw. The physical hole is represented by the word leak

Leakage: The fluid that has flowed through a leak.

Leak rate: The amount of fluid passing through the leak per unit of time under a given set of conditions;
properly expressed in units of quantity or mass per unit of time.

Mean free path: Average distance a gas molecule travels between successive collisions with
other molecules in the gas or vapor state

Minimum detectable leak: The smallest hole or discrete passage that can be detected.
Minimum detectable leak rate: The smallest detectable fluid flow rate.
Out gassing: The spontaneous evolution of gas and vapor from materials in a vacuum as pressure
is reduced is called outgassing. Out gassing is more in aluminium.

Pressure differential: Difference in pressure between two sides of a pressure boundary.

Probe: In leak testing, the physical means for sensing a gaseous leak, typically a tube having a
fine opening at one end, used for directing or collecting a stream of tracer gas. Detector probes are
used for pressure testing and tracer probes are used for vacuum testing.

Response time: The time for a leak detection system to yield a signal output equal to 63% of
maximum signal obtained when helium is applied indefinitely to the system inlet.

Sensitivity of leak test: Smallest leakage rate that an instrument, technique or system can detect
under specified conditions (implies minimum detectable leakage rate).

Standard leak: Device that permits a tracer gas to be introduced into a leak detector or a leak
testing system at a known rate to facilitate tune up and calibration of the leak detector or test
system.

Tracer probe test: Leak test in which a tracer gas is applied by means of a probe to an accessible
test surface on an evacuated test object so that the area covered by the tracer gas is localized. A
leak detector in the line to the vacuum pump enables individual leaks to be located when they
admit tracer gas.

Thermocouple: A sensor that can be used to measure dry bulb temperature in pressure change
measurement test systems which consist of a bimetallic junction that produces an electromotive
force (emf) that varies with temperature.

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Measurement of leakage
A leak is measured by how much leakage it will pass under a given set of conditions. Because leakage will
vary with conditions, it is necessary to state both the leak rate and the prevailing conditions to define a leak
properly. At a given temperature, the product of the pressure and the volume of a given quantity of gas is
proportional to its mass. Therefore, leak rate is often expressed as the product of some measure of pressure
and volume per unit of time- for example, atmospheric cubic centimeters per second (atm. cm 3/s).

The two most commonly used units of leakage rate with pressure systems are standard cubic centimeters per
second (std. cm 3/s) and its equivalent, standard atmosphere cubic centimeters per second (atm. cm 3/s). The
recent adoption of the Systems International Units (SI) system of units has resulted in a new measure of
leakage, pascal cubic meters per second (Pa m3/s). The term used for leak rate is standard atmosphere cubic
centimeter per second. The standard conditions are defined as standard atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa and
standard temperature is 20 ºC.

Leak location
If leak location is the purpose of the test, methods that include the use of probes or portable detectors are
necessary so that the surface of the test vessel can be scanned. In vacuum systems, tracer gas can be sprayed
over the vessel surface and its entry point detected by observing the leak detector reaction as the tracer-gas
spray is moved along the surface.

GAS FLOW MODES

Characteristics of gas flow through a leak path are a function of the type of gas, quantity of gas,
pressure and size and shape of the path. The amount of leakage determines the mode of flow. The
mode of flow may be molecular, viscous or transitional, and viscous may be further subdivided
into either laminar or turbulent flow. Some study of these modes is important for understanding
flow mechanisms occurring through a leak path. Simplified descriptions follow. Sometimes gas
may escape by permeation.

Viscous flow
Viscous flow occurs when the mean free path of the gas is smaller than the cross-sectional
dimension of the leak. In viscous flow, the leakage (flow) is proportional to the difference of the
square of the pressures.

Leak rate is directly proportional to the difference in the squares of pressure drop and inversely
proportional to viscosity.

Poiseuille's law
Leak rate (Q)
Q = K Pa (P1 - P2 ) / n
= K (P1 2 - P2 2) / 2 n

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where K = constant
P1 = pressure upstream
P2 = pressure downstream
Pa = (P1 + P2 ) /2
n = gas viscosity

Q2 = Q1 (P3 2 – P4 2) / (P1 2 – P2 2) [when n1 = n2 ]

Laminar flow is one of two classes of viscous flow; the other is turbulent flow.
Laminar flow occurs when the velocity distribution of the fluid in the cross section of the passage or orifice is
parabolic. The gas flows smoothly with greatest velocity at the center of tube. Turbulent flow, the
other form of viscous flow, is rarely encountered in leak testing for small leaks.

Transitional flow
Transitional flow occurs when the mean free path of the gas is approximately equal to the cross-
sectional dimension of the leak. The conditions for transitional flow are between those for laminar
and molecular flow.

The theory of gas flow in this transition region is not well developed. When there is uncertainty
about the flow mode, the following guides are suggested.
If pressure is increased, treat as laminar.
If pressure is decreased, treat as molecular.
If gas is changed, treat as molecular

Molecular flow
Molecular flow occurs when the mean free path of the gas is greater than the longest cross-
sectional dimension of the leak. The mean free path is the average distance that a molecule will
travel before colliding with another molecule. It is an inverse linear function of the pressure. In
molecular flow, the leakage (flow) is proportional to the difference in the pressures. Molecular flow
is a frequent occurrence in vacuum testing. In the molecular mode, helium will flow through a leak at
a faster rate than air.

Leak rate is directly proportional to the pressure drop.

Leak rate (Q)
Q = (Pinlet – Poutlet ) / ( T √M)
where K = constant
Pinlet = pressure inlet
Poutlet = pressure outlet
T = absolute temperature
M = molecular weight of gas

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Permeation
Permeation is the passage of gas through a solid material, such as rubber. If there is no leak path, the gas
works its way through a solid material, such as helium leaking out of a rubber balloon overnight.
This process involves diffusion through a solid and may involve other phenomena, such as absorption,
dissociation, migration, and desorption.

VACUUM PUMPS
Rotary pump
The rotary oil sealed pump is the most common for bringing a system from atmospheric pressure
down to a few millipascal. Oil is used as the pump sealant for the sliding spring loaded vanes that
sweep the gas from the vacuum chamber and exhaust it to the atmosphere. Improvements in the
oil have allowed faster pumping speeds, and now a shaft can directly drive these pumps from an
electric motor. Contamination of the pump oil is a critical factor in limiting the ultimate pressure
that can be attained. Pumps can be designed to provide a ballast gas to remove moisture
contamination from the oil.

Diffusion pumps
Diffusion pumps are used to obtain vacuums where the pressure is below 0.1 Pa. They operate by
heating pump oil to its boiling point, creating a vapor stream. The stream is directed away from
the vacuum chamber through three or four stages so that the oil molecules sweep gas from the
chamber to the exhaust. The cooled walls of the pump condense the vapors so they flow into the
heater and are continually recycled. Because they have several stages, different pumps sweep
chamber gas to a higher pressure until it is exhausted into a forepump.

Turbomolecular pumps
The turbomolecular pump is a high speed mechanical machine that removes gas from a vacuum
chamber and discharges the gas into a forepump. The blades rotate at speeds of 100 to700 m/ s,
corresponding to the thermal motion of gas molecules. Several stages of blades strike and drive
the molecules toward the discharge port and can achieve a very high compression ratio. This
creates a high vacuum in the range of 1.0 to 0.1 µPa when discharging into a forepump in the
pressure range of 1.3 Pa to 1.3 mPa. Turbomolecular pumps can be built with bearings that do not
require lubrication, thus providing an oil free vacuum.

Cryogenic pumps
In cryogenic pump liquid nitrogen cold traps are used to stop migration of pump oil vapor and
remove water vapor from the high vacuum chambers of some mass spectrometer leak testers. The
cold trap is not often used because it is not needed in most turbo pumped machines. However, it
has a high pumping capacity for water vapor, the most common condensable, of 152 m3/s per
square meter of exposed surface area. A cold trap freezes moisture and essentially removes it
from the high vacuum system. After a period of time, usually one week, the cold trap must be
removed from the system so that the trapped gases can escape. High maintenance for the cold trap
is a distinct drawback; it has to be cleaned and filled with liquid nitrogen on a regular basis.

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VACUUM GAGES
Various types of gages are required to measure pressure from atmospheric down to 10 µPa. The
actual force exerted by the gas is used in the higher pressure region. At lower pressures, some
property of the gas, such as thermal conductivity or ionization, is used to measure pressure.

LEAK TESTING TECHNIQUES

BUBBLE LEAK TESTING
A simple method for leak testing small vessels pressurized with any gas is to submerge them in a liquid and
observe bubbles. If the test vessel is sealed at atmospheric pressure, a pressure differential can be obtained by
pumping a partial vacuum over the liquid or by heating the liquid. The sensitivity of this test is increased by
reducing the pressure above the liquid, the liquid density, the depth of immersion in the liquid, and the
surface tension of the liquid.

Oils are a more sensitive medium than ordinary water. Therefore, it is common practice to test electric
components in a bath of hot fluorocarbon. When testing by reducing the pressure above the liquid, several
precautions must be observed, particularly if the reduced pressure brings the liquid close to its boiling point.
If the liquid begins to boil, a false leak indication will be given. The test vessel must be thoroughly cleaned to
increase surface wetting, to prevent bubbles from clinging to its surface, and to prevent contamination of the
fluid. If water is used, it must be distilled or deionized and should be handled with minimal sloshing to reduce
the absorbed-gas content. A small amount of wetting agent is normally added to water to reduce surface
tension.

Bubble-forming solutions can be applied to the surface of a pressurized vessel if it is too large or unwieldy to
submerge. However, care must be taken to ensure that no bubbles are formed by the process itself. Spraying
the bubble solution is not recommended; it should be flowed onto the surface. A sensitivity of about 10-4 std.
cm3/s is possible with this method, if care is taken. Sensitivity may drop to about 10-3 std. cm3/s with an
untrained worker or to 10-2 std. cm3/s if soap and water is used.

A hole or crack through the test boundary is the basic type of true defect that would be indicated
during a bubble leak test by a continuous flow of bubbles.

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Vacuum box leak testing: Technique of bubble testing where a vacuum box is used to create a
pressure differential across a boundary. A viewing window allows observation of bubble
formation.

In vacuum box technique, amount of pressure differential created with the box can directly affect
the sensitivity of any vacuum box bubble test.

Advantages
Bubble leak testing has the obvious advantages of being relatively simple, rapid, and inexpensive.

It is a fairly sensitive leak detection technique and enables the observer to locate the exit points of
leaks very accurately. The point of exit may not be directly opposite the entry point of the leak,
especially in welds or castings.

Very large leaks can be detected readily. It provides very rapid responses even for small leaks.
It is not necessary to move a probe or sniffer from point to point.

In immersion bubble tests, the entire pressurized components can often be examined

Simultaneously for leaks on exposed surfaces visible to the observer. The test components may
have to be turned over to expose to view the underside, so that leaks from this area can be seen. .

All leaks are revealed independently in immersion bubble leak testing .If desired, large leaks can
be first detected with rapid bubble test methods and the leaks can be sealed before refined leak
test apparatus is used to detect smaller leaks. This method enables the observer to distinguish real
from virtual leaks.

It is not necessary that all connection pipes and valves be free from leaks.

Bubble testing is satisfactory for detecting gross leakage.

Inert probing gasses and test liquids used in bubble tests are fairly safe in a combustible
atmosphere and this depends upon selection of proper tracer gas and test liquids.

The required level of operator training and skill is minimal, as compared with other methods of
leak testing.

Limitations
Contamination of test specimen surfaces
Improper temperatures of test specimen surfaces
Contaminated or foaming test liquids
Excessive vacuum over surface of test liquids
Low surface tension of test liquids leading to clogging of leaks.
Prior use of cleaning liquids that clog leaks
Air dissolved in test liquids or out-gassing from corroded test surfaces, causing spurious bubble
formations.
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Leaks with directional flow characteristics, intermittent or very slow leakage, or porosity leaks.

HALOGEN DIODE DETECTOR LEAK TESTING

Halogen tracer gases
Leak testing with halogen vapour tracer gases utilizes leak detectors that respond to most of the
gaseous compounds that contain halogens such as chlorine, fluorine, bromine, or iodine. The
elemental halogen gases are not commonly used as tracers since they are toxic, and typical
halogen vapor detectors do not respond sensitively to these elemental gases. Preferred halogen
tracer gases are non toxic chemical compounds such as the common refrigerant gases and other
leak testing tracers. For example, Refrigerant-12 (commonly designated simply as R-12) is
dichlorodifluoromethane. In addition to being a refrigerant, this gas is an excellent halogen tracer
gas since it is inert, non toxic liquid at moderate pressures, and readily available in convenient
small and large containers.

In halogen diode detector testing, a leak detector is used that responds to most
gases containing chlorine, fluorine, bromine, or iodine. Therefore, one of these
halogen-compound gases is used as a tracer gas. When a vessel is pressurized with
such a tracer gas, or a mixture of a halogen compound and air or nitrogen, the
sniffing probe of the leak detector is used to locate the leak.

The leak detector sensing element operates

on the principle of ion emission from a hot
plate to a collector. Positive-ion emission
increases with an increase in the amount of
halogen-compound gases present. The ion
current is amplified to give an electrical leak
signal. The sensitivity of halogen detectors
operating at atmospheric pressure is about
10-6 std. cm3/s, but this will vary depending
on the specific gas that is being used.

Calibration
Standard leaks with refrigerant reservoirs are used to calibrate halogen diode leak detectors.
Appropriate standard leak setting is required to obtain various test sensitivities with known
volumes of halogens. When a reservoir-type standard leak is being recharged with halogen-rich
refrigerant, personnel should wear safety glasses with side shields to protect their eyes. As the
surrounding temperature increases, the maximum pressure attainable from a halogen-rich
refrigerant bottle also increases. If the indicated leak rate continues to go up after the increase
valve is closed, the increase valve is defective or not firmly closed. If the decrease valve is opened
when the increase valve is not fully closed, refrigerant will vent from the standard reservoir,
requiring refilling or recharging of the reservoir.

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PRESSURE CHANGE TEST

Leak testing using the pressure change technique is accomplished by observing the pressure
change in a vessel as a function of time; it may be either an increase or decrease in pressure. This
technique is only suitable for leakage measurement and can be used on small or large systems. A
vessel may either be pressurized or evacuated to create a pressure drop across the containing
surface. A pressure change with time indicates a leakage that may be calculated.

Leak rate of gas Q = V ( ΔP/ t)

where V = volume of the system
ΔP = pressure change
t = elapsed time

A pressurized system experiences explosive forces that must not exceed structural capability. Test
pressures should not exceed the working pressure of a system, and should be controlled by
pressure regulators, pressure relief valves and accurate, well maintained calibrated pressure gages
carefully matched to pressure range. If higher test pressures are needed, special safety analysis
must be performed to ensure safe operation.

In lieu of air, nitrogen gas would be the best choice as the pressurizing medium for a pressure
change measurement test.

For the flow measurement technique of pressure change measurement testing, the type of flow
measurement usually encountered that directly represents a leakage rate is mass flow.

MASS SPECTROMETER LEAK TESTING

Mass spectrometer is basically a device for sorting charged particles. The sample gas enters the analyzer,
where its molecules are bombarded by a stream of electrons emitted by a filament. The bombarded
molecules lose an electron and become positively charged ions, which an electrostatically accelerated to a
high velocity. Because the analyzer lies in a magnetic field perpendicular to the ion path, the ions travel in
distinct, curved paths according to their mass. The radii of these paths are determined by ion mass, the
magnitude of initial acceleration and the strength of the magnetic field. With a constant magnetic field, any
group of ions having the same mass can be made to travel the specific radius necessary to strike the ion
collector. The positive charge of the ions is imparted to the target, or collector, and the resulting current flow
is proportional to the quantity of the ions of that particular mass.

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Specialized mass
spectrometers are available,
such as residual-gas
analyzers, partial pressure
analyzers, and helium mass
spectrometers, which have
been tuned to respond only
to certain ranges of atomic
mass units. In particular, the
helium mass spectrometer is
constructed so that it does
not scan but is tuned to the
helium peak. It will detect
only helium; all other
molecules passing through
the detector tube will miss
the target or collector
because of their differences
in mass or momentum from
helium. The theoretical
sensitivity of the helium
mass spectrometer is about
10-10 std. cm3/s; the sensitivity, of the residual-gas analyzer is about one order of magnitude less.

Because mass spectrometers must operate in a vacuum, they are ideally suited to the leak testing of vacuum
systems. They can also be adapted to testing systems pressurized with a tracer gas by using either a detector
probe or enclosure to collect the leakage while monitoring with the mass spectrometer. When used to test a
pressure system, the mass spectrometer is much less sensitive and the minimum detectable leak rate is
approximately 10-6 std. cm3/s.

Helium tracer gas

Helium is used as the tracer gas because it is inert, nontoxic, a small molecule, has low
concentration in the atmosphere, nonflammable, and is relatively inexpensive.

Partial Pressure of tracer gas (Ptracer-gas)

Ptracer-gas = [ Ptotal /100 ] Ctracer-gas
where Ctracer-gas = Tracer gas concentration [%]

Calibration
In helium and halogen leak testing, the leak standards for calibrating measurements are important.
For helium leak testing, standards can be obtained over the full range of testing from 10-11 to 10-3
Pa m3 s-1. For halogen leak testing, standards can be obtained over the range from 10-8 to 10-3 Pa
m3 s-1. Helium leak standards provide a constant rate of leakage with an accuracy of about 15%
for up to several years, depending on the size of the leak rate. With a leakage rate of 10-8 Pa m3s-1,
only a few cubic centimeters of helium will be lost in a year, illustrating what little loss in
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sensitivity will be experienced in a year for the smaller leaks. Leak standards with yearly
calibration provide very reliable sources of calibration for helium mass spectrometers in the field.
Reservoir leak standards come in convenient sizes and are rugged enough for manual handling
and coupling to a mass spectrometer or test object.

In mass spectrometer pumping speed and conductance are different functions with the same unit
of measurement.

When performing a mass spectrometer leak detection test of an ultra high vacuum system a
preliminary hydrostatic test should not be performed since hydrostatic testing would result in a
decrease in test sensitivity.

The helium mass spectrometer detector probe pressure test technique is a qualitative test.
Increasing the detector probe speed over the area being examined will result in a decrease in test
sensitivity

TYPES OF LEAKS
There are two basic types of leaks; real leaks and virtual leaks.

A real leak is an essentially localized leak, that is, a discrete passage through which may flow (crudely, a
hole). Such a leak may take the form of a tube, a crack, an orifice, or the like. As with flaws, all leaks are not
the same.
This process involves diffusion through the solid and may also involve various surface phenomena such as
absorption, dissociation, migration, and description of gas molecules.

Virtual leaks involve the gradual desorption of gases from surfaces or escape of gases from nearly sealed
components within a vacuum system.

INTERPRETATION
Determination of the significance of test indications from the standpoint of their relevance or
irrelevance. The determination of the cause of an indication or the evaluation of the significance
of discontinuities from the standpoint of whether they are detrimental or inconsequential.

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CHAPTER – 5
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

INTRODUCTION
Magnetic particle testing (MT) is a nondestructive testing method used for defect detection. MT is
fast and relatively easy to apply, and part surface preparation is not as critical as it is for some
other NDT methods such as PT. MT is a nondestructive testing (NDT) method for detecting
discontinuities that are primarily linear and located at or near the surface of ferromagnetic
components and structures. MT is governed by the laws of magnetism and is therefore restricted
to the inspection of materials that can support magnetic flux line. Metals can be classified as
ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, or diamagnetic.

Ferromagnetic metals are those strongly attracted to a magnet and can become easily
magnetized. Examples include iron, nickel, and cobalt.

Paramagnetic metals such as austenitic stainless steel are very weakly attracted by
magnetic forces of attraction and cannot be magnetized.

Diamagnetic metals are very slightly repelled by a magnet and cannot be magnetized.
Examples include bismuth, gold, and antimony.

Only those metals classified as ferromagnetic can be effectively inspected by MT. In order
to understand MT, one should have a basic understanding of magnetism and electromagnetism.

PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETISM
Polarity
Many of the basic principles of magnetism can be deduced by simple observation of the behavior
of a magnetized rod and its interaction with ferromagnetic materials, including other magnetized
rods. If the rod is suspended at its center, it will eventually align itself with the Earth’s magnetic
field so that one ends points to geographic north and other end to the south. If the north-pointing
end is identified, it will be found that it is always this end that points north. By convention, this
end of the rod is called the “north-seeking pole,” usually abbreviated as “north pole,” and the
other end is called “south pole,”

Magnetic forces
When the north pole of one magnetized rod is placed close to the south pole of another, it will be
observed that they attract one another. The closer they come together, the stronger the force of
attraction. Conversely, if two north poles or two south poles are placed close together, they will
repel each other. This can be summarized as like poles repel, unlike poles attract. One way of
defining the phenomenon of magnetism could be: a mechanical force of attraction or repulsion
that one body has upon another, especially those that are ferromagnetic.

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Magnetic Field
The simple observation of attracting and repelling indicate that some force field surrounds the
magnetized rod. Although invisible, this force field is clearly three-dimensional because the
attraction or repulsion can be experienced all round the rod. A two-dimensional slice through this
field can be made visible by placing a sheet of plain white paper over a bar magnet and sprinkling
ferromagnetic particles onto it. The particles will collect around the lines of force in the magnetic
field, producing an image.

This image is called a “magnetograph” and the lines of force are referred to as lines of “magnetic
flux”. Lines of magnetic flux will flow in unbroken paths that don not cross each other. Each line
of force forms a closed loop that flows through and around the magnet. The word “flow” suggests
some sort of direction of movement and by convention this direction is said to be the direction
that would be taken by a unit north pole placed at the north pole of a bar magnet. A unit north
pole is an imaginary concept of a particle with no corresponding south pole. Such a particle would
be repelled by the north pole of magnet and attracted to the south pole. In other words, magnetic
flow from is north pole to its south pole through the air around the magnet and in order to
complete the magnetic circuit, flow will be from the south pole to the north pole within the
magnet.

Flux density
The flowing force of magnetism is called “magnetic flux.” The magnetograph image does not
show the direction of flux flow, but it can be seen from the magnetograph that the area of
maximum flux concentration (flux density) is at the poles. Flux density is defined as the “number
of lines of force per unit area.” The unit area referred to is a slice taken perpendicular to the lines
of force. Flux density is measured in Gauss or Tesla, the Tesla being the current unit, and flux
density is given the symbol B.

Magnetizing force
The total number of lines of force making up a magnetic field determines the strength of the force
of attraction or repulsion that can be exerted by the magnet and is known as the “magnetizing
force” and given the symbol “H.”

Magnetic permeability
A German physicist, Wilhelm Weber, postulated a theory about the material’s ability to generate
or concentrate a magnetic flux field. This theory became known as the magnetic domain theory
and relies on an assumption that a magnetic domain is the smallest independent particle within a
material that still exhibits a north and south pole (i.e., it has polarity).

In a non-magnetized material, these magnetic domains are arranged in a random (haphazard)

direction such that their magnetic fields cancel each other out when considering the total magnetic
field exhibited by the material.

When a magnetic force is applied to the material, the domains will tend to align themselves with
the magnetizing force so that the domains’ north poles point in one direction while the south poles

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point in the opposite direction. The material will now exhibit an overall polarity, which equates to
the sum of all of the magnetic domains combined.

The ease with each the domains align themselves is called permeability, which is expressed with
symbol μ (mu). Materials in which the domains align easily under low magnetizing forces are said
to have high permeability.

Permeability in magnetic theory can be compared with “conductivity” in electrical theory.

Relative permeability can then be compared with the IACS (International Annealed Copper
Standard) conductivity scale, in which all conductive materials have their conductivity expressed
as a percentage of that of copper. Ferromagnetic materials will have relative permeability values
far in excess of one, which is the base value for a vacuum (sometimes referred to as “unity”).
They can have values of several hundred times a vacuum’s permeability

Paramagnetic materials in which the domains resist alignment even under high magnetizing
forces are said to have low permeability. Paramagnetic materials will have a relative permeability
value of slightly greater than 1; for example, 1.003 for some stainless steels.

The third class of metals consists of the diamagnetic materials. The magnetic domains of
diamagnetic materials will rotate to positions that are 900 to the direction of the applied
magnetizing force, and will create a very slight repulsion to the magnetizing force.

Diamagnetic materials will have a relative permeability value slightly less than one; for example,
0.9996. Paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials are usually referred to as “nonmagnetic” because
of their slight or absence of reaction to a magnet.

Magnetic reluctance
“Reluctance” in a magnetic circuit is the equivalent of resistance in an electrical circuit. The
magnetic flux will always follow the path of least magnetic reluctance, which is usually through a
ferromagnetic material.

Magnetic saturation
The lines of force in a magnetic field repel adjacent lines flowing in the same direction. As the
flux density increases, the force of repulsion increases. For a given material there is a maximum
value for flux density that can be sustained. Upon reaching this value, the material is said to be
“saturated.” As the flux density increases towards saturation, the reluctance of the material also
increases and the permeability decreases towards that of a vacuum. At saturation, any further
increase in magnetizing force finds that the path of least reluctance is now through the air
surrounding the material and the excess flux extends out into the air.

Hysteresis
The residual magnetism is indicated by the flux density value at a magnetizing force of zero. It
can be seen in Figure that once the virgin curve has been used to produce saturation, the graph
continues to follow the “S” shaped hysteresis loop and will never turns to zero, due to the residual
magnetism. This condition will remain until the material is demagnetized.
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FIGURE Hysteresis curve- completed hysteresis loop

From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be
determined.

1. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation

induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain
amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving
saturation. (The value of B at point b on the hysteresis curve.)

2. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that remains in a
material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity
are the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the
level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing
force did not reach the saturation level.

3. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a
magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point c on
the hysteresis curve.)

4. Permeability, - A property of a material that describes the ease with which a magnetic
flux is established in the component.

5. Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of

a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.

Longitudinal magnetic field

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To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to understand that the
orientation between the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is very important. There are two
general types of magnetic fields that can be established within a component.
A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run
parallel to the long axis of the part. Longitudinal magnetization
of a component can be accomplished using the longitudinal field
set up by a coil or solenoid. It can also be accomplished using
permanent magnets or electromagnets.

Circular magnetic field

A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run
circumferentially around the perimeter of a part. A circular
magnetic field is induced in an article by either passing current
through the component or by passing current through a conductor
surrounded by the component.

DETECTION OF DISCONTINUITIES
Distorted Fields
The lines of force in the internal field of a magnetized material will tend to distribute themselves
evenly through the material, provided that the material is homogenous. The presence of a
discontinuity presents an interruption to the field and an increase in reluctance. The lines of force
prefer the path of least reluctance and will therefore redistribute themselves in the material by
bending around the discontinuity. The field becomes “distorted” by the discontinuity.

Leakage Fields
As a discontinuity gets larger, the remaining metal path
in the part becomes more restricted and the magnetic
flux approaches saturation for that part of the material.
Some of the magnetic lines of force then find that a path
through air or across the discontinuity presents a
lower reluctance than the remaining metal. As a result,
some flux lines “break out” of the surface of the metal
into the air. This is called a “leakage field.” It is
interesting to note that a leakage field may exist both at the near surface and also at a remote or
hidden surface.

In order to create a leakage field, the discontinuity must interrupt the lines of force in the material.
A narrow discontinuity oriented parallel to the flux lines will not create a leakage field. In order to
produce a leakage field, a discontinuity must interrupt the field usually considered to be within
450 to the perpendicular.

It follows that in order to detect a discontinuity with any orientation, the part must be magnetized
in a least two directions, 900 to one another.

The visual impact of indications is also assisted by the addition of a coating to the particles to

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provide a greater contrast with the test surface. This results in a significant increase in visibility
or sensitivity. The coatings fall into two distinct groups, color contrast and fluorescent.

DEMAGNETIZATION
Demagnetization of the test part is sometimes necessary before, during, and at the end of an
inspection, for a variety of reason. The principal reasons are described below.

Before and during the test

If the test part has been left with a residual field in a different direction to the field about to be
applied, the resulting field will be the vector sum of the residual magnetism and the newly applied
field. The direction of the resulting field will therefore not be precisely in the direction intended;
therefore, sensitivity may be reduced. Demagnetization is recommended in this case.

After the test

A residual field in a component being returned to service may have a detrimental effect on future
operations of the part or nearby equipment. In an aircraft or ship, a compass may be affected.
High-speed rotating parts may induce eddy currents in nearby structures, causing a braking effect
on the part and heating of the surface. If the part is to be welded after inspection, the residual
field may deflect the weld arc and make it difficult to control the weld deposit.

Demagnetization process
In order to effectively demagnetize a part, two requirements must be met:

1. The polarity must be successively reversed

2. The field strength (flux density) must be decreased

This means that each successive current application will be in the opposite direction to the
previously applied force and will be at a lower level. It should be below the saturation point, but
must be above that required to produce a higher flux field than retained. This will produce
successively lower residual fields at each application until an acceptably low field exists. It
should be noted that although total demagnetization will not result, the field can be brought to an
acceptable level.

These two requirements can be met using a reversing DC field; however, AC is preferred, due to
its inherent reversing nature. The most satisfactory method of demagnetization using AC is to
gradually reduce the applied current to zero or, more commonly, to pass the test part through an
AC demagnetizer.

One way to completely demagnetize is by heating the part to a temperature above its curie point
and allowing it to cool without any magnetizing force acting upon it. If this can be accomplished,
the residual field will be totally removed and the part will be totally demagnetized. The curie
points for steels range from 720 ºC (1296 ºF) to 800 ºC (1440 ºF). For most NDT applications
however, this approach is not practical.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC YOKE
Even greater portability can be achieved by using an electromagnetic yoke, which is referred to as
an AC yoke or contour probe. This unit can be used with AC and is also available in a battery
pack version, which further increases its portability by eliminating the need for an AC power
source. Many yokes have articulated legs to facilitate various inspection profiles. These yokes
produce only longitudinal magnetization and repositioning is required to achieve flux line
orientation in at least two 90º opposing directions.

FIGURE AC yoke

BLACK LIGHTS
The use of fluorescent particles requires a black light. One type of black light contains a regulated
current ballast transformer to limit the current drawn by the arc in the mercury vapor bulb. The
light produced may also contain some white light and harmful UV radiation. It is therefore
essential that a correct black light filter be used. This filter will allow the relatively harmless
portion of the ultraviolet spectrum to pass through with a center wavelength of 365 nanometers
(nm). The condition of the filter must be regularly checked to ensure that white light or harmful
UV is not present.

AC OR DC (HWDC OR FWDC) MAGNETIZING CURRENT

Use AC for surface discontinuities or those that would be expected during in-service inspection.
Use DC for deeper penetration possibly to detect defects that are slightly subsurface
discontinuities.

CONTINUOUS OR RESIDUAL
Use the residual technique for inspection of highly retentive materials, especially where large
batches are to be inspected. Use the continuous technique for all other applications, especially
where higher sensitivity is required.

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WET OR DRY PARTICLE APPLICATION

Wet particles have better mobility, but generally lower permeability. Use wet for small surface
discontinuities or service-induced discontinuities. Use dry for slightly subsurface discontinuity
detection.

COLOR CONTRAST OR FLUORESCENT PARTICLES

Color contrast does not require a darkened viewing area or black light illumination, how-ever; the
sensitivity will be lower than that of fluorescent particles. Use color contrast for field inspections
where highest sensitivity is not required. Use fluorescent where maximum sensitivity is essential.

CLASSIFICATION OF INDICATIONS
Indications once detected, the indications should be classified as whether “false”, or “non -
relevant,” or “relevant” before evaluation.

False indications
False indications can be produced by improper handling and do not relate to the part’s condition
or use. An example is “magnetic writing”. This is typically produced by the formation of
indications at local poles that are created when the part comes in contact with another magnetized
part prior to or during inspection. This can be eliminated by demagnetization and repeating the
inspection.

Magnetic writing is most likely to occur when using the residual method, through poor handling
that allows the individual parts to touch. The continuous technique may require the
demagnetization of parts before the next inspection to preclude the possibility of magnetized
components touching. This type of false indication can be eliminated through careful handling.

Other sources of false indications may be caused through the use of excessively high magnetized
currents or inadequate precleaning of the parts to remove oil, grease, corrosion products, and
other surface contaminants.

Non-relevant indications
These are the result of flux leakage due to geometrical or permeability changes in the part.
Examples of geometric causes include splines, thread roots, gear teeth, keyways, or abrupt section
changes. A concern with these conditions is that they may also be stress risers and could be the
origin for fatigue-induced cracks. These conditions are therefore some of the most critical; the
possibility that one of these non-relevant indications can conceal a crack must be considered.
Other potential sources of non-relevant indications include localized permeability changes in the
part, which may be due to localized heat treatment or variation in hardness, and may also occur at
the fusion zone of a weld.

Relevant indications
These are produced by flux leakages due to discontinuities in the part. When these discontinuities
are not in compliance with a code, they are classified as rejectable. If they meet the acceptance
criteria they are considered to be acceptable discontinuities. Discontinuities that do not permit the
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part to be used for its original purpose or can potentially cause the part or fail are classified as
defects.

Visual appearance
Generally speaking, surface discontinuities will provide sharp distinct indications, which
resemble very closely the shape and size of the discontinuity producing the leakage field.

It is not feasible to describe every possible type of discontinuity and its appearance when using
the MT method.

Subsurface discontinuities will produce weaker, diffuse, and broad indications, which become
less well defined as their depth below the surface increases.

ADVANTAGES OF MT
The following are the advantages of magnetic particle testing as compared to alternative NDT
methods.

1. Test results are virtually instantaneous (Immediate results), in that indications will form
within one or two seconds of particle application. No developing or processing times are
involved.
2. Permanent records of indications can be produced using photography, magnetic rubber, or
transparent tape techniques.
3. MT can be applied “in-situ,” without the need for an AC power supply, by using permanent
magnets or battery-powered yokes.
4. Indications are easy to interpret.
5. The indications formed by the particles closely represent the shape and type of the
discontinuity.
6. Training and experience requirements prior to becoming certified are significantly less
stringent than for UT, RT, or ET since MT is a relatively simple process.
7. MT equipment can be much less expensive than other NDT equipment. Depending on the
degree of automation or scale of operation, it may also be more economical than many other
NDT methods.
8. Virtually any size or shape of component can be inspected.
9. Inspections can be performed during all stages of manufacturing.
10. Test part surface preparation is not critical as like with penetrant testing.
11. MT can be used to inspect through metallic and nonmetallic coatings or plating with some
techniques. It should be noted, however, that a reduction in sensitivity will occur as the
thickness of the coating increases. Maximum coating thickness should be established through
qualification tests or stipulated in customer specifications or code requirements.
12. There are no known personnel hazards associated with the process because the magnetic
fields generated are of short duration; however, the usual electric shock, manual lifting, and
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chemical (petroleum distillate) precautions apply. Additionally, the parts may become heated
during the process if high-amperage current is applied for an extended period.
13. Many parts can be inspected simultaneously if using the residual magnetism technique.
14. Portable

15. MT can be automated for certain production line applications

LIMITATIONS OF MT
The following are limitations of magnetic particle testing as compared to other NDT methods.

1. It is only effective for the examination of ferromagnetic materials.

2. Discontinuity detection is limited to those at or near the surface.
3. Demagnetization may be required before, between, and after inspections.
4. Discontinuities will be detected when their major axis interrupts the primary flux lines. This
necessitates inspection in more than one direction to assure discontinuity detection regardless
of orientation.
5. Some magnetic particle testing techniques may cause damage to the part as a result of arcing
or localized overheating of the parts (for example, when using DC prods).
6. Paint and/or coating removal is necessary from localized areas on the part to facilitate good
electrical contact when using direct magnetization techniques.
7. Uniform, predictable flux flow through the parts being tested may not be possible due to
complex shapes.
8. No Permanent Record

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CHAPTER – 6
NEUTRON RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

INTRODUCTION
A neutron is an uncharged particle with a mass slightly greater than a proton. The neutron’s
energy is expressed in electron volts (eV). One of its unique properties in neutron radiography is
that it is electrically neutral, resulting in negligible electrostatic interaction with the atom’s
electrons. In many ways, gamma radiation and neutron radiation complement each other. Heavy,
dense objects absorb gamma radiation and neutron radiation is absorbed by lighter rare earth
elements.

Neutron cross section is the term used to describe the neutron absorbing power of a material. It is
expressed in area units or capture cross sections, such as a barn (b), which is equal to 10-24
2
cm /nucleus. The absorption of the neutrons in an object depends on its neutron cross section, the
quantity of nuclides it contains, and its thickness. Most hydrocarbon foams, formed in
petrochemical reactors, are transparent to gamma radiation, but readily absorb thermal neutrons.
The same is true of most plastic materials. Gamma ray penetration is limited in steel and lead, but
neutron radiography can inspect large, thick heavy metals and discriminate between neighboring
elements such as boron (B) and carbon.

PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
Material containing hydrogen atoms (hydrogenous material) has a high macroscopic scattering
cross section. These materials are commonly used in fast neutron detectors. The term high
macroscopic cross section means that the material has a high linear attenuation coefficient for
neutrons.

Accelerators, radioactive sources, and reactors produce fast neutrons with energies above 10,000
eV. Boral shutters are used to turn the neutron beam of a nuclear reactor on and off. When a fast
neutron strikes a nucleus, inelastic scattering or capture of the radiated neutron occurs. Because of
the collision, the neutron is slowed down, loses energy, and changes direction. Fast neutrons can
be slowed down (moderated) or captured by paraffin, water, graphite, and most plastics
(moderators). Water is a good moderator and is used in light water moderated reactors to slow
down neutrons. Plastics produce high attenuation of thermal neutrons by scattering. Thermal
neutrons, relatively free of high-energy components, are produced by moderation with water,
paraffin, or graphite. A thermal neutron is a neutron whose energy is the same as a gas molecule
at room temperature or about 0.026 eV; the thermal neutron energy range is 0–0.3eV.

The penetrating ability of a thermal neutron beam is dependent on the attenuation characteristics
of the material being penetrated. Neutron beams contain ionizing (gamma) and neutron particle
radiation. Increasing neutron energy increases neutron penetration, but the energy of thermal
neutrons decreases as their temperature decreases.

There is no relationship between the thermal neutron mass absorption coefficient of a material
and its atomic number. Neutrons can easily penetrate lead, but are heavily moderated by paraffin.
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Boron has the largest mass absorption coefficient for thermal neutrons and lead is a poor neutron
absorber. Rare earths are frequently used in neutron radiography because they have large neutron
absorption cross sections. The rare earths are chemically similar, make up about one-sixth of all
naturally occurring elements, and occupy one position (lanthanides) in the periodic chart.

NEUTRONS CLASSIFICTIONBASED ON ENERGY

Cold < 0.01 eV

Thermal 0.01 eV – 0.3 eV
Epi-thermal 0.3 eV – 102 eV
Fast 0.1 MeV - 20 MeV
Relativistic >20 MeV

NEUTRON PRODUCTION
Neutrons are obtained from following methods/sources.
252
Radioactive sources [Cf ]
Accelerators
Nuclear reactors
topic source [Californium -
RADIOACTIVE SOURCES
As with other radioactive isotopes, the half-life of a neutron source is the time required for one
half of the atoms in the isotope to disintegrate. Californium-252 is popular source because of their
portability. Californium-252 is a spontaneous fission source with a half-life of 2.65 y. The best
source of high-intensity thermal neutrons is a nuclear reactor because high-quality neutron
radiographs are produced with core fluxes ranging from 1 x1012 to 5 x 1014 n/cm2/s. The unit of
intensity of neutron radiation is n/cm2/s (neutrons/cm2/s). Material that has been exposed to
thermal neutron beams may continue to be radioactive after the neutron bombardment has ceased;
however, the level of radioactivity will be very low.

RADIATION DETECTION IMAGING

When neutrons bombard objects, they can become radioactive and emit gamma radiation. In
neutron radiography, some imaging screens can retain their radioactivity and indirectly transfer
the test object image to the radiographic film. This method is known as the “transfer,” “indirect,”
or “indirect transfer” method of radiation detection imaging. This method has the advantage that it
is not sensitive to other sources of gamma radiation. Disadvantages of the indirect transfer method
of imaging are that it is time consuming, requires many imaging foils, provides lower resolution
than the direct method, and is more costly.

Direct conversion screens immediately emit g-rays and conversion electrons to produce the test
object image on the radiographic film. Direct conversion screens do not retain their radioactivity
for any significant period of time.

Five important neutron radiographic parameters that can be controlled to optimize results are:
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1. Neutron energy
2. Exposure time
3. Film type
4. L/D ratio (source-to-target distance divided by beam diameter)
5. Type of conversion screen

Desirable features for neutron radiography include low gamma radiation intensity, relatively low
fast neutron intensity, and low angular divergence of the neutron beam. Low angular beam
divergence improves the resolution capabilities of the systems when radiographing thicker test
objects. Real-time imaging of thermal neutrons can be achieved using zinc sulfide and lithium
fluoride detectors.

CONVERSION SCREENS
Conversion screens convert neutron energy into ionizing radiation (conversion electrons), which
can be captured as an image on radiographic films. The choice of conversion screen is dependent
on the energy of the neutrons in the neutron beam. As the effective energy of radiation from the
conversion screen increases, radiographic definition decreases. Gadolinium and cadmium have
high thermal neutron cross-sections that drop off rapidly at high energies. Common conversion
screen materials are dysprosium (Dy), gadolinium (Gd), and indium (In). One characteristic of a
good converter screen, such as boron (B), lithium (Li), or Gd is that they do not become very
radioactive, but they emit ionizing radiation as soon as they absorb neutrons. Gadolinium is the
most commonly used converter material.

DIRECT METHOD
Gadolinium conversion screens emit gamma-rays and conversion electrons. High quality direct
neutron radiographs are obtained with Gd imaging screens. These screens provide the best
resolution and greatest contrast when used with direct neutron radiography. With direct neutron
radiography using Gd screens, electrons cause X-ray film darkening. Filtering reduces unwanted
gray background. Gadolinium has high neutron absorption per unit thickness; Gd screens can
resolve high-contrast images separated by as little as 0.0004 in. Gadolinium, B, and Li conversion
screens can be used in combination with fluoroscopic screens for TV and optical imaging
systems.

The main disadvantage of Gd screens is that they are expensive because they are produced by
vacuum vapor deposition techniques. Gadolinium screens are frequently mounted in rigid vacuum
cassettes to assure positive film–to–conversion foil contact. Identification labels of neutron
absorbing cadmium or gadolinium are attached to the cassettes for film identification purposes.
Neutron converter screens should be visibly inspected for flaws and dirt every time they are used.
Dust or lint between the film and Gd screen will appear as a flaw on the radiograph. For best
results, test objects should be mounted on aluminum backing material.

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INDIRECT METHOD [TRANSFER METHOD]

Dysprosium and indium screens are used for the indirect method because these screens have
reasonably long radioactive half-lives. These screens are used in highly radioactive areas to
reduce film fogging. With fast films, the minimum thermal neutron flux that can be used by Dy
screens is 104 n/cm2/s. Medium-energy epithermal neutrons and In screens are used to obtain
improved penetration and resolution when radiographing highly radioactive 6 mm-diameter, 28%
plutonium/enriched uranium fuel pellets. When long exposures with low-energy beams are
acceptable, the track-etch neutron imaging method is used.

Dysprosium conversion screens emit high-energy betas, low-energy gammas, and internal
conversion electrons. After being exposed to a neutron beam, a Dy conversion screen will retain
about one-eighth of its original activation after 6.9 h.

FLUORESCENT SCREENS
When fluorescent screens are used in neutron radiographic imaging, reciprocity law failure often
occurs because less energy is deposited in the film grain. Failure of the reciprocity law means that
the efficiency of the emulsion is dependent on light intensity. The reciprocity law failure can be
partially alleviated by using scintillator converters at low temperature. Scintillator screens can be
used when 0.002-in. resolution is acceptable. Neutron sensitive scintillators provide lower quality
radiographs with shorter exposure times. LiF, ZnS(Ag) neutron scintillators emit blue light when
used with fluorescent screens and provide a good match with the spectral response of most
industrial X-ray films.

NEUTRON RADIOGRAPHIC PROCESS

Radiographs are photographic images produced when neutrons pass through a test object into the
film. The transmission of neutrons by a material varies exponentially with material thickness.
Exposure time is a linear function of thermal neutron flux intensity. In order to minimize shadow
formation, the axis of the neutron beam should be perpendicular to the film. Filters such as
bismuth may be used to improve the neutron-to-gamma ratio. Gamma radiation is an unwanted
by-product of neutron generation.
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The ability to detect a small discontinuity or flaw is a measure of radiographic sensitivity.

Graininess of the film, unsharpness of the flaw image, and contrast of the flaw image affect
radiographic sensitivity. ASTM standard E-545-99 defines what constitutes an acceptable neutron
radiographic sensitivity and specifies the number of sensitivity indicators.

Radiographic definition is the sharpness of the outline of the image of the radiograph. Large focal
spot, poor film–screen contact, or bad geometry can cause poor definition or radiographic
unsharpness. The accidental movement of the test part or film during exposure, or the use of too
small a source-film distance, will result in radiographic unsharpness. Flaw images close to the
source side of the specimen become less clearly defined as the thickness of the part increases.
Unsharpness of a radiograph is directly proportional to the size of the source and inversely
proportional to the source-to-test part distance. In order to decrease geometric unsharpness, the
neutron source should be as small as possible.

In direct neutron radiography, higher resolution can be achieved by increasing the L/D ratio of the
collimation system (Fig. 2). The L/D ratio is the distance from the source to the test piece (L)
divided by the beam diameter (D). If the L/D ratio for a given neutron beam is 250 and the test
part is 0.250 in. thick, the geometric unsharpness of the object will be 0.001 in. In cases where it
is necessary to increase neutron beam intensity, the L/D ratio must be lowered.

Beam collimation is used to focus the neutron energy for improving radiographic resolution and
image sharpness. One type of neutron beam collimator is the divergent beam collimator. With this
type of collimator, image magnification occurs as the distance between the test piece and
detector increases.

The advantages of the divergent beam collimator are that it is simple to manufacture, it has
minimum neutron reflections, and there are no dividing slats that could possibly cause lines to
show on a radiograph. Its disadvantage is that a very large collimator is required to achieve
satisfactory L/D ratios.

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Fig. 2 Schematic setup for neutron radiography

Radiographic contrast, the difference between the densities of two areas of a radiograph, is
dependent on the thickness differences of the specimen, neutron energy, and the intensity and
distribution of scattered radiation. In neutron radiography, radiographic contrast is a function of
the gradient of the characteristic curve of the film and neutron energy. The contrast observed for a
radiographic image is greater when the film density gradient is maximized.

When hydrogenous objects are being radiographed, placing a neutron absorbing collimator
between the object and film can reduce scattering. Radiographic contrast is only slightly affected
by beam collimation. Test parts of uniform thickness and compression have low subject contrast.
Films having wide exposure latitude also have low contrast. Contrast enhancement can be
achieved by using photographic techniques with X-ray duplicating
film

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
The main reason for using neutron radiography instead of X radiography is the ability to make
images of objects and materials that are transparent to X-rays. Placing image-quality indicators
(IQI) or penetrameters on the source side of the cassette determines the adequacy or quality of the
neutron radiographic technique. Image-quality indicators are considered standard test pieces; they
are made of the same material as the test piece being radiographed.

ASTM beam-purity indicators indicate contrast. Some causes of poor definition of flaws are poor
geometry, improper contact between the film and conversion screen, and film graininess. The
lower limit of detectability for microporosity in material is dependent on the L/D ratio of the
neutron beam and the graininess of the film.

The best method for determining how resolution affects the ability to interpret radiographs of
parts is by comparing radiographs of parts having known defects. Comparison standards are best
for establishing image-object relationships. The range of densities that are satisfactory for
interpretation of results is a measure of the latitude of a radiograph.

Neutron radiographs can be used to detect the presence of an explosive in a metal container,
detect oils and lubricants in metal systems, and determine the hydrogen content of metals. It also
can be used to determine the integrity of thin plastic parts inside lead housings.

One specific application of neutron radiography is the detection of cracks in small plutonium pins.
Dark, intermittent, or continuous lines appear on the radiograph of a part that contains a crack.
Unwanted inclusions in a part can appear as either light or dark spots depending on relative
neutron absorption of the part and defect.

Cold neutrons, neutrons that have an energy level less than that of thermal neutrons, are used for
the detection of small amounts of explosives in steel. One characteristic of cold neutrons is that

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they are scattered less and absorbed more than thermal neutrons. This characteristic tends to
produce a radiograph with good contrast in this application.

Scattered radiation from a wall or floor undercuts the specimen and adversely affects film quality.
When it is noted that an image of the back of the cassette is superimposed on the image of the
part, the most likely cause of the double exposure is backscatter radiation. A mask of cadmium,
cut to the shape of the part, can be used to minimize the effects of scattered neutron

ADVANTAGES OF NR
Permanent record
Little surface preparation
Defect identification
No material type limitation
Not so reliant upon operator skill
Thin/thick materials

DISADVANTAGES OF NR
Expensive consumables
Bulky equipment
Harmful radiation
Defect require significant depth in relation to the radiation beam
Slow results
Very little indication of depths
Access to both sides required

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CHAPTER – 7

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING

Liquid Penetrant Inspection is a nondestructive method of revealing discontinuities that are open
to the surfaces of solid and essentially non-porous materials. Indications of a wide spectrum of
flaw sizes can be found regardless of the configuration of the work piece and regardless of flaw
orientations.

Liquid penetrants seep into various types of minute surface openings by capillary action.
Because of this, the process is well suited to the detection of all types of surface cracks, laps,
porosity, shrinkage areas, laminations and similar discontinuities .It is extensively used for the
inspection of wrought and cast products of both ferrous and non ferrous metals, powder
metallurgy parts, ceramics, plastics and glass objects.

In practice the liquid penetrant process is relatively simple to utilize and control. The equipment
used in liquid penetrant inspection can vary from an arrangement of simple tanks containing
penetrant, emulsifier, and developer to sophisticated computer controlled automated processing
and inspection systems. Establishing procedures and standards for the inspection for specific
parts or products is critical for optimum end results.

The liquid penetrant method does not depend on ferromagnetism (as does, for example, magnetic
particle inspection), and the arrangements of the discontinuities is not a factor. The penetrant
method is effective not only for detecting surface flaws in non magnetic metals but also for
revealing surface flaws in a variety of other non magnetic materials. Liquid penetrant inspection
is also used to inspection items made form Ferro-magnetic steels; generally, its sensitivity is
greater than that of the magnetic particle inspection.

The major limitation of liquid penetrant inspection is that it can detect only imperfections that
are open to the surface; some other method must be used for detecting subsurface flaws. Another
factor that can limit the use of liquid penetrants is surface roughness or porosity. Such surfaces
produce excessive background and interfere with inspection.

PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
Liquid penetrant inspection depends mainly on a penetrants effectively wetting the surface of a
solid work piece or specimen, flowing over that surface to form a continues and reasonably
uniform coating, and them migrating into cavities that are open to the surface. The cavities of
interest are usually exceedingly small, often invisible to the unaided eye. The ability of a given
liquid to flow over a surface and enter surface cavities depends principally on the following:

Cleanliness of the surface.

Configuration of the cavity.

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Cleanliness of the cavity.

Size of surface opening of the cavity.
Surface tension of the liquid.
Ability of the liquid o wet the surface.
Contact angle of the liquid.

The cohesive forces between molecules of a liquid cause surface tension. An example of the
influence of surface tension is the tendency of free liquid, such as a droplet of water to contract
into a sphere. In such a droplet, surface tension is counter balanced by the internal hydrostatic
pressure of the liquid. When the liquid comes into contact with a solid surface, the cohesive
force responsible for surface tension competes with the adhesive force between the molecules of
the liquid and the solid surface.

The density of the liquid and to the radius of the capillary tube. It the capillary tube is closed, a
wetting liquid will still rise in the tube; however, there will be extra pressure resulting from the
air and vapor compressed in the closed end of the tube, and the capillary rise will not be as great.

These examples of surface wetting and capillary rise illustrate the basic physical principles by
which penetrant enters fine surface discontinuities even though the practical circumstances
encountered in the use of liquid penetrants are more complex than these examples may suggest.
Cracks, for example, are not capillary tubes, but simulate the basic interaction between a liquid
and a solid surface, which is responsible for the migration of penetrants into fine surface cracks.

The viscosity of the liquid is not a factor in the basic equation of capillary rise. Viscosity is
related to the rate at which liquid will flow under some applied unbalanced stress; in itself,
viscosity has negligible effect on penetrating ability. In general, however, very viscous liquids
are unsuitable as penetrants because they do not flow rapidly enough over the surface of the
work piece; consequently, they require excessively long periods of time to migrate into fine
flaws.

Another necessary property of a penetrant is its capability of dissolving an adequate amount of

suitable fluorescent or visible -dye compounds. Finally, the penetrant liquid must be removable
with a suitable solvent/remover or emulsifier without precipitating the dye.

Just as it is important that a penetrant enter surface flaws, it is also important that the penetrant
be retained in the flaws and emerges from the flaw after the superficial coating is removed from
the surface and the developer is applied. It is apparently a paradox that the same interaction
between a liquid and a surface that causes the liquid to enter a fine opening is also responsible
for its emergence from that opening. Once the surface has been freed of excess penetrant it
becomes accessible to the entrapped liquid, which, under the effect of the adhesive forces
between liquid and solids, spreads over the newly cleaned surface until an. equilibrium
distribution is attained.

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Although in the some cases the amount of penetrant in a surface bead at equilibrium is sufficient
to be detected visually, sensitivity is vastly increased by the use of a developer, of which there are
several types available. When applied, a developer forms a fine surface film, that is, a sponge like
system of very fine, random capillary paths. If the penetrants contact the powder, the powder then
competes with the freshly cleaned surface of the work piece for the penetrant as it flows out of the
defect. If the developer is properly designed, it readily adsorbs the penetrant from the flaw. The
penetrant continues to migrate by capillary action, spreading through the developer until
equilibrium is reached. The visibility of the entrapped penetrant within the flaw is greatly
increased by the spreading or enlargement of the indication.

Penentrant types
Because of the vast differences among the applications for penetrate inspection, it has been
necessary to define and develop the two types of penetrants (type -I, fluorescent, and type II,
visible).

Surface condition of the work piece being inspected.

Characteristics of the flaws to be detected
Time and place of inspection
Size of the work piece
Sensitivity required

Dwell time (or) Penetration time

The period of time during which the penetrate is permitted to remain on the specimen is a
vital part of the test. This time is often referred to as penetration time or dwell time. Normally this
time is dependent on the nature of discontinuities, which are of most importance.

Excess penetrant removal

When removal of the penetrant from the defect due to over-washing of the part is a concern, a
post emulsifiable penetrant system can be used. Post emulsifiable penetrants require a separate
emulsifier to break the penetrant down and make it water washable. Most penetrant inspection
specifications classify penetrant systems into four methods of excess penetrant removal. These
are listed below:

Method A: Water-Washable
Method B: Post Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
Method C: Solvent Removable
Method D: Post Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic

Emulsifiers
Types of emulsifier are:
Hydrophilic emulsifiers
Lipophilic emulsifiers.

Hydrophilic emulsifiers are made of a non-ionic substances concentrate, which may be in the
form of dry powder or concentrated liquid. They must be dissolved or diluted in water carefully as

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per manufacturer’s recommendations. Concentration may usually vary from 5 to 50 percent

emulsifier in water. Hydrophilic or water based emulsifiers are dependent on detergent or
dissolving action. So they need a force full water spray to strip away the excess surface penetrant.

Lipophilic emulsifiers are oil-based. Their action is chiefly by diffusion of the surface
penetrant. The diffusion rate varies depending on the viscosity of the emulsifier.

Water washable penetrant (Method A)

It is designated so that the penetrant is directly water washable from the surface of the work piece;
it does not requ.re a separate emulsification step, as does the post emulsifiable penetrant methods.
It can be used to process work pieces quickly and efficiently. It is important, however that the
washing operation to carefully controlled because water washable penetrants are susceptible to
over washing.

Post-emulsifiable penetrants (methods B and D)

They are designated to ensure the detection of minute flaws in some materials. These penetrants
are not directly water washable. Because of this characteristic, the danger of over washing the
penetrant out of the flaws is reduced. The difference between the water washable and post
emulsifiable method lies in the use of an emulsifier prior to final rinsing. The emulsifier makes
the residual surface penetrant soluble in water so that the excess surface penetrant can be removed
by the water rinse. Therefore the emulsification time must be carefully controlled so that the
surface penetrant becomes water-soluble but the penetrant in the flaws does not.

Solvent removable penetrant (method C)

It is available for use when it is necessary to inspect only a localized area of a work piece or to
inspect a work piece at the site rather than on a production inspection basis. Normally the same
type of solvent is used for pre cleaning and for removing excess penetrant. This penetrant process
is convenient and broadens the range of applications of penetrant inspections. However because
the solvent removable method is labor intensive, it is not practical for many production
applications. When properly conducted and when used in the appropriate applications, the solvent
removable method can be one of the most sensitive penetrant methods available.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS

Regardless of the type of penetrant used, that is, fluorescent (type I) or visible (type II), penetrant
inspection requires at least five essential steps, as follows.

Pre cleaning or Surface preparation

All surfaces to be inspected, whether localized or the entire work piece must be thoroughly
cleaned and completely dried before being subjected to penetrant inspection. Flaws exposed to the
surface must be free from oil, water, or other contaminants if they are to be detected.

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Penetrant application
After the work piece has been cleaned,
penetrant is applied in a suitable manner so
as to form a film of the penetrant over the
surface. The film should remain on the
surface long enough to allow maximum
penetration of the penetrant into any surface
openings that are present.

Removal of excess penetrant

Excess penetrant must be removed from the surface; the removal method is determined by the
type of penetrant used. Some penetrants can be simply ./ashed away with water: others require the
use of emulsifiers (lipophilic or hydrophllic) or solvent/remover. Uniform removable of excess
surface penetrant is necessary for effective inspection, but over removable must be avoided.

Developer application
Depending on the form of developing agent to be used, the work piece is dried either before or
directly after application of the developer. The developer forms a film over the surface. It acts as a
blotter to assist the natural seepage of the penetrant out of surface openings and to spread it at the
edges so as to enhance the penetrant indication. Development time is about 7 to 30 minutes

Inspection
After it is sufficiently developed, the surface is visually examined for indications of penetrant
bleed back from surface openings. This examination must be performed in a suitable inspection
environment. Visible penetrant inspection is performed in good white light. When fluorescent
penetrant is used, inspection is performed in a suitably darkened area using black (ultraviolet)
light, which causes the penetrant to fluorescent brilliantly.

MATERIALS USED IN PT
In addition to the penetrants themselves, liquids such as emulsifiers, solvent/cleaners and
removers, and developers are required for conducting liquid penterant inspection.

PENETRANTS
There are two basic types of penetrants:

Florescent, type I
Visible, type II

Each type is available for any one of the four methods (water washable, post emulsifiable
lipophilic, and post emulsifiable hydrophilic, and solvent removable) mentioned in the section
"Penetrant Methods".

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Fluorescent penetrant
Fluorescent penetrant utilizes penetrants that are usually green in color and fluoresce brilliantly
under ultraviolet light. The sensitivity of a fluorescent penetrant depends on its ability to form
indications that appear as small sources of light in the dark area. Type I penetrants are available in
different sensitivity levels classified as follows

Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity

Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
Level 3 - High Sensitivity
Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity

Type II, visible penetrant

Employs a penetrant that is usually red in color and produces vivid red indications in contrast to
the light back ground of the applied developer under white light The visible penetrant indications
must be viewed under adequate white light The sensitivity of visible penetrants is regarded as
Level and adequate for many applications.
I

Penetrant selection and use

Depend on the criticality of the inspection, the condition of the work piece surface, the type of
processing, and the desired sensitivity.

Method A, Water Washable penetrants

They are designated for the removal of excess surface penetrant by water rinsing directly after a
suitable penetration (dwell) time. The emulsifier is in corporate into the water washable penetrant.
When this type of penetrant is used, it is extremely important that the removal of excess surface
penetrant be properly controlled to prevent over washing, which can cause the penetrant to be
washed out of the flaws.

Methods B and D, lipophilic and hydrophilic post emulisifiable penetrants

This type of penetrant is in soluble in water and therefore not removable by water rinsing alone. It
is designated to be selectively removed from the surface of the work piece by the use of a separate
emulsifier. The emulsifier properly applied and left for a suitable emulsification time, combines
with the excess surface penetrant to form a water washable surface mixture that can be rinsed
from the surface of the work piece. The penetrant that remains within the flaw is not subject to
over washing. However, proper emulsification time must be established experimentally and
maintained to ensure that over emulsification, which result in the loss of flaws, does not occur.

Method C, solvent removable penetrants

They are removed by wiping with clean, line-free material until most traces of the penetrants have
been removed The remaining traces are removed by wiping with clean, lint free material lightly
moistened with solvent. This type of penetrant is primarily used where portability is required and
for the inspection of localized areas. To minimize the possibility of removing the penetrants from
discontinuities, the use of excessive amounts of solvent must be avoided.

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EMULSIFIERS
Emulsifiers are liquids used to render excess penetrant on the surface on work piece water
washable. There are two methods used in the post emulsifiable method: method B, lipophilic, and
method D, hydrophilic. Both can act over a range of duration from a few seconds to several
minutes, depending on the viscosity, concentration, method of application and chemical
composition of the emulsifier, as well as on the roughness of the work piece surface. The length
of time on emulsifier should remain in contact with the penetrant depends on the type of
emulsifier employed and the roughness of the work piece surface.

SOLVENT CLEANER /REMOVERS

Solvent cleaner /removers differ from emulsifiers in that they remove excess surface penetrant
through direct solvent action. There two basic types of solvent removers: flammable and none.
Flammable cleaners are essentially free of halogens but are potential fire hazards. Non-flammable
cleaners are widely used. However they do contain halogenated solvents which may render them
unsuitable for some applications.

Excess surface penetrant is removed by wiping, using lint free cloths slightly moistened with
solvent cleaner /remover. It is not recommended that excess surface penetrant be removed by
flooding the surface with solvent cleaner/remover, because the solvent will dissolve the penetrant
with in the defect and indications will not be produced.

DEVELOPERS
The purpose of developer is to increase the brightness intensity of fluorescent indications and the
visible contrast of visible penetrant indications. The developer also provides a blotting action,
which serves to draw penetrant from within the flaw to the surface, spreading the penetrant and
enlarging the appearance of the flaw.

The developer is a critical part of the inspection process; borderline indications that might
otherwise be missed can be made visible by the developer. In all applications of liquid penetrant
inspection, use of a developer is desirable because it decreases inspection time by hastening the
appearance of indications.

Properties of developers
To carry out its functions to the fullest possible extent, a developer must have the following
properties or characteristics (rarely are all these characteristics present to optimum degrees in any
given material or formulation, but all must be considered in selecting a developer):

The developer must be adsorptive to maximize blotting.

It must have fine grain size and a particle shape that will disperse and expose the penetrant at
a flaw to produce strong and sharply
Defined indications of flaws
It must be capable of providing a contrast background for Indications when color contrast
penetrants are used
It must be easy to apply
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It must form a thin, uniform coating over a surface

It must be easily wetted by the penetrant at the flaw
It must be non-fluorescent if used with fluorescent penetrants
It must be easy to remove after completion of inspection
It must not contain ingredients harmful or toxic to the operator

Developer forms
The AMS 2644 and MIL-I-25135 classify developers into six standard forms. These forms are
listed below:

Form a - Dry Powder

Form b - Water Soluble
Form c - Water Suspendible
Form d - Nonaqueous Type 1 -Fluorescent (Solvent Based)
Form e - Nonaqueous Type 2 -Visible Dye (Solvent Based)
Form f - Special Applications

The characteristics of each form are discussed below.

Dry powder developers (form a)

They are widely used with fluorescent penetrants, but should not be used with visible dye-
penetrants because they DO NOTproduce a satisfactory contrast coating on the surface of the work
piece. Ideally, dry powder developers should be light and fluffy to allow FOR ease of application
and should cling to dry surfaces in a fine film. The adherence the powder should not be
OF

excessive, as the amount of black light available to energize fluorescent indications will be
reduced.

For purpose of storage and handling as well as applications, powders should not be hygroscopic,
and they should remain dry. If they pick up moisture when stored in areas of high humidity, they
will lose their ability to flow and dust easily, and they may agglomerate, pack or lump in
containers or in developer chambers.

For reasons of safety, dry powder developers should be handled with care. Like any other dust
material, it can dry the skin and irritate the lining the air passage, causes irritation. If an
OF

operator will be working continuously at a developer station, rubber gloves and respirators may
be desirable.

Water- soluble developers (form b)

They can be used for both fluorescent and visible postemulsifiable or solvent removable
penetrants. Water soluble developers are not recommended for use with water washable
penetrants, because of the potential to wash the penetrant from within the flaw if the developer is
not very carefully controlled. Water-soluble developers are supplied as a dry powder concentrate,
which is then dispersed in water in recommended proportions, usually from 0.12 to 0.24 kg/L.
The bath concentration is monitored for specific gravity with the appropriate hydrometer.
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Water-suspendible developers (form c)

They can be used with either fluorescent or visible postemulsifiable or solvent removable
penetrants. With fluorescent penetrant, the dried coating of developer must not fluorescence, nor
may it absorb or filter out the black light used for inspection.

Nonaqueous Type 1 -Fluorescent (Solvent Based) ( form d)

This form of developer produces a coating on the surface of the part. This coating yields the
maximum color contrast with the use of black light.

Nonaqueous Type 2 -Visible Dye (Solvent Based) ( form e)

This form of developer produces a white coating on the surface of the part. This coating yields
the maximum white color contrast with the red visible penetrant indication.

Special applications (form f)

The film-type developer, as the name implies, forms a plastic film over the penetrated area as it
dries. It is normally spray applied, as with the non-aqueous wet type, and the solvent carrier acts
to draw penetrant into the developer film. As the film dries, the exposed penetrant indications set
in a pattern indicative of the discontinuities in the surface being inspected. This film provides a
permanent record of the discontinuity pattern and can be peeled from the surface and retained for
reference. Resolution of the film-type developer is of a high order, but its use is somewhat
restricted to special applications because of the labor involved in stripping the film from test
parts.

EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
The equipment used in the penetrant inspection process varies from spray or aerosol cans to
complex, automated, computer driven processing systems. Some of the more generally used
types of equipment are described below.

Portable equipment
For occasional inspections, especially in the field, where equipment portability is necessary,
minimal kits for either visible or fluorescent penetrant inspection are commercially available.
(Generally, portable penetrant applications are limited to localized areas or spot inspections
rather than entire part surfaces) Such a kit for visible penetrant inspection work includes a pre
cleaner, a penetrant and a penetrant remover and developer, all in pressurized spray cans.
Penetrant removal requires wiping with lint free cloths or paper towels.

Stationary inspection equipment

The type of equipment most frequently used in fixed installations consists of a series of modular
sub units. Each sub unit performs a special task. The drain and dwell stations are actually roller
top benches that hold the parts during the processing cycle. The usual arrangement is to position a
drain or dwell stations following each of the dip tanks, the wash station, and the drying oven.

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Penetrant station
The principal requirement of a penetrant station is that it provides a means for coating work
pieces with penetrant either all over, for small work pieces, or over small areas of large work
pieces when only local inspection is required. Small work pieces are easily coated by dipping
them into a reservoir of penetrant. This may be done individually or in batches in a wire basket.

The penetrant container should be equipped with an easily removable cover to reduce evaporation
when not in use. A drain cock should also be provided to facilitate draining of the tank for
cleaning. Containers for usually made of steel, but stainless steels containers should be used with
water-base penetrants.

Emulsifier station
The emulsifier liquid is contained in a tank of sufficient size and depth to permit immersion of the
work pieces, either individually or in batches. Covers are sometimes are provided to reduce
evaporation and drain valves are supplied for clean out when both has become contaminated.
Suitable drain racks are also a cart of this station and are used to permit excess emulsifier to drain
back into the tank.

If large work pieces must be coated with emulsifier, methods must be devised to achieve the
fastest possible coverage. Multiple spraying or copious flowing of emulsifier from troughs or
perforated pipes can be used on some type of automatic equipment.

Pre and post rinse station

The water rinsing (washing) of small work pieces is frequently done by hand, either individually
or in batches in wire baskets. The work pieces are held in the wash tank and cleaned with a hand
held spray using water at tap pressure and temperature. The wash trough or sing should be large
enough and deep enough so that work pieces can be easily turned to clean all surfaces. Splash
shields should separate the rinse station from preceding stations. Rinse stations are always
equipped with at least one ultra violet light so that the progress of removal of fluorescent
penetrant can be easily done.

Drying station
There circulating hot air drier is the one of the most important equipment components. The drier
must be large enough to easily handle the type and number of work pieces being inspected. Heat
input, airflow, and the rate of movement of work pieces through the drier, as well as temperature
control, are all factors that must be balanced. The drier may of the cabinet type, or it may be
designed so that the work pieces pass through on a conveyor. If conveyor operation is used, the
speed must be considered with the required drying cycle.

Electric resistance elements are frequently used as sources of heat, but gas, hot water and steam
are also be used. Heat I put is controlled by suitably located thermostats and is determined by
work piece size and composition, and of movement.
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Developer station
The type and location of the developer station depend on whether dry or wet developer is to be
used. For dry developer, the developer station is downstream from the drier, but for wet developer
it immediately precedes the drier. The dry developer station usually consists of a simple bin
containing the powder.

Dried work pieces are dipped into the powder, and the excess powder is shaken off. Larger work
pieces may not be easily immersed in the powder, so a scoop is usually provided for throwing
powder over the surfaces, after which the waste is shaken off. The developer bin should be
equipped with an easily removable cover to protect the developer from dust and dirt when not in
use.

Wet developer, when used is contained in tank similar to that used for penetrant or emulsifier.
The tank should be deep enough to permit work pieces to be submerged in the developer. There
should also be a rack or conveyor on which parts can rest after dipping. This will permit excess
developer to run back into the tank. Suspendible developer baths settle out when not in use,
therefore a paddle for stirring should be provided. In automatic units, special methods of applying
developer are required. Flow on methods is frequently used. This technique requires a nozzle
arrangement that permits the work pieces to be covered thoroughly and quickly.

PRE CLEANING
Regardless of the penetrant chosen, adequate pre cleaning of work pieces prior to penetrant
inspection is absolutely necessary for accurate results.

Without adequate removal of surface contamination, relevant indications may be missed because:

The penetrant does not enter the flaw.

The penetrant loses its ability to identify the flaw because it reacts with something already on
it.
The surface immediately surrounding the flaw retains enough penetrant to mask the true
appearance of the flaw.

Cleaning methods
They are generally classified as chemical, mechanical, solvent, or any combination of these.

Chemical cleaning methods include alkaline or acid cleaning, pickling or chemical etching, and
molten salt bath cleaning. Mechanical cleaning methods include tumbling, wet blasting, dry
abrasive blasting, wire brushing, and high-pressure water or steam cleaning. Mechanical cleaning
methods should be used with care because they often mask flaws by smearing adjacent metal over
them or by filling them with abrasive material.

Solvent cleaning methods include vapor degreasing, solvent spraying, solvent wiping, and
ultrasonic immersion using solvents. Probably the most common method is vapor degreasing.
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However ultrasonic immersion is by far the most effective means of ensuring clean parts, but it
can be a very expensive capital equipment investment.

INSPECTION AND EVALUATION

After the penetrant process is completed, inspection and evaluation of the work piece begin.

Inspection tools
An inspector must have tools that are capable of providing the required accuracy. These tools
usually include suitable measuring devices, a flash light, small quantities of solvent small
quantities of dry developers or aerosol cans of non aqueous wet developers, pocket magnifiers
ranging from 3 to 10X, and a suitable black light for fluorescent penetrants or sufficient white
light for visible penetrants. Photographic standards or work pieces that have specific known flaws
are sometimes used as inspection aids.

A typical inspection begins with an overall examination to determine that the work piece has been
properly processed and is in satisfactory condition of inspection. Inspection should not begin until
the wet developer is completely dry. If developer films are too thick, if penetrant bleed out
appears excessive or if the penetrant background is excessive, the work piece should be cleaned
and reprocessed. When the inspector is satisfied that the work piece is inspectable, it is examined
according to a specified plan to be sure no area have been missed. An experienced inspector can
readily determine which indications are within acceptable limits and which ones are not. The
inspector then measures all other indications. If the length or diameter of an indication exceeds
allowable limits, it must be evaluated. One of the most common and accurate ways of measuring
indications is to lay a flat gage of the maximum acceptable dimension of discontinuity over the
indication. If the indications are not completely covered by the gage, it is not acceptable.

Evaluation
Each indication that is not acceptable should be evaluated. It may actually be unacceptable, it may
be worse than it appears, it may be false, or it may be real, but nonrelevant, or it may actually be
acceptable upon closer examinations.

Disposition of unacceptable work pieces

A travel ticket will usually accompany each work piece or lot of work pieces. Provision should be
made on this ticket to indicate the future handling of unacceptable material that is, scrapping,
rework, and repair or review board action. There is often room on such tickets for a brief
description of the indication. More often, indications are identified directly on the work piece by
circling them with some type of marking that is harmless to the material and not easily removed
by accident, bur removable when desired.

Reworking an unacceptable flaw is often allowable to some specified limit, indications can be
removed by sanding, grinding, chipping or machining. Repair welding is sometimes needed in
this case, the indications should be removed as in reworking before it is repair welded, or welding
may move the flaw to new location. In addition it is imperative that all entrapped penetrant be
A

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removed prior to repair welding, because entrapped penetrant is likely to initiate a new flaw.
Verification that the indication and the entrapped penetrant have been removed is required.

LIMITATIONS OF PT
Penetrant inspection is applicable to all solid, homogeneous materials including metals
and alloys, ceramics and cermets, and organic resins (plastics), if the defects reach the surface of
the part. Liquid penetrant inspection cannot detect subsurface discontinuities that are not open to
the exposed surfaces of test parts. In addition, liquid penetrant test indications do not reveal the
depths of discontinuities.

Where depth information is required, it is some-times feasible to locate surface

discontinuities by means of penetrant tests and then to evaluate discontinuity depths or sizes by
means of other nondestructive tests such as eddy current, ultrasonic, or penetrating radiation tests.
Liquid penetrant can not reveal the location or provide indications of discontinuities that are filled
with foreign substances that seal the internal defect cavities so as to totally block the entry of
penetrating liquids.

Limitations of penetrant inspection on smeared metal surfaces

Liquid penetrant can not reveal the location or provide indications of discontinuities on
surfaces that have been peened or smeared over by mechanical treatments. Operations such as
shot peening, machine honing, dry abrasive blasting, buffing, power wire brushing, or sanding
will smear or peen surface layers of metals and shut the openings to discontinuities. Therefore,
specifications require pre -penetrant etch, water rinse or drying operations prior to penetrant
application.

If etching cannot or will not be done prior to the normally scheduled penetrant inspection,
then inspection must be done prior to the fore mentioned mechanical operations.

Limitations of PT of porous materials

Penetrant inspection is difficult or impractical on excessively porous test materials with
interconnected porosity networks. Its use on such porous materials would typically result in an
overall color or fluorescence that could mask indications of individual discontinuities.
Difficulties can also be encountered when test object surfaces are rough. These tend to trap
penetrants so that removal of background color or fluorescence is difficult or time consuming.
(Special penetrant materials and processing techniques that reduce these undesirable background
effects have been developed).

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PT

Advantages
Simple to use
Inexpensive, low cost
Quick results
Can be used on any non-porous material
Suitable for all metals
Portability
Low operator skill required

Disadvantages
Surface breaking defect only
Little indication of depth
Cannot be used on porous material
Penetrant may contaminate component
Surface preparation critical
Requires ‘clean’ work area
Post cleaning required
Potentially hazardous chemicals
No permanent record

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CHAPTER – 8

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
X-rays and gamma rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are waveforms as are
light rays, microwaves, and radio wave, but X-rays and gamma rays cannot been seen, felt, or
heard. They possess no charge and no mass and, therefore, are not influenced by electrical and
magnetic fields and will always travel in straight lines. They can be characterized by frequency,
wavelength, and velocity. However, they act somewhat like a particle at times in that they occur
as small "packets" of energy and are referred to as "photon."

RADIOACTIVITY
In 1896, the French physicist Henry Becquerel, quite by accident, discovered radioactivity
of uranium salts by observing their effect on a piece of unexposed photographic film.

Atoms, in general, are stable i.e. no change takes place in the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus. Atoms having more neutrons or protons than required for stability
become unstable. There are certain atoms like that of tritium, uranium etc., which are not stable.
Such atoms tend to become stable by throwing out excess particles or energy in the form of alpha,
beta or gamma radiation. This process of spontaneous disintegration of unstable atoms is called
radioactivity. The unstable atom is said to be radioactive. As a result of the radioactive
disintegration, there is a change in the number of protons of the atom and hence, the original
atom, after emitting radiation, becomes a different element.

TYPES OF RADIATION
In simple terminology, radiation may be defined as emission of energy from a source.
Radiation emitted by the nucleus of radioactive atoms is termed as nuclear or ionizing radiation.
The three main types of radiation emitted by radioactive atoms are alpha, beta and gamma rays.

ISOTOPES
Atoms having the same number of protons but different number of neutrons in their nuclei are
called as isotopes. Thus hydrogen, deuterium and tritium are isotopes of hydrogen having one
proton each but zero, one and two neutrons respectively. The various isotopes of an element have
the same chemical properties but different physical and nuclear properties.

RATE OF DECAY
Different unstable nuclides decay at different rates. It is not possible to forecast the
behavior of an individual unstable atom. However, if we consider a sample, containing a very
large number of identical unstable atoms, the problem becomes one of statistics and can be treated
with precision.

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In a sample containing a large number of identical radioactive atoms, the number of

disintegrations per second (called the activity of the sample) at any given time is a constant
fraction of the number of radioactive atoms present in that sample at that time.

The rate decay may also be characterized by the ‘Half life’, which the time is taken for the
number of radioactive atoms to be reduced to half of the original number.
–λt
At = Ao e

where At = Activity at time ‘t’

Ao = Activity initially present (original activity)

e = constant = 2.718

Half life = T ½ = 0.693/λ

UNIT OF ACTIVITY
Curie : The quantity of a radioactive nuclide which is disintegrating at the rate of 3.7 x
10
10 atoms per second.

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq.

SI unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq).

GAMMA-RAY SOURCES
Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic waves of relatively short wavelength that are
emitted during the radioactive decay of both naturally occurring and artificially produced unstable
isotopes. In all respects other than their origin, X-rays and γ -rays are identical. Unlike the broad-
spectrum radiation produced by an X-ray tube, γ-ray sources emit one or more discrete
wavelengths of radiation, each having its own characteristics photon energy. The two most
common radioactive isotopes used in radiography are iridium-192 and cobalt-60. Ytterbium-169
has also gained a measure of acceptability in the radiography of thin materials and small tubes,
especially boiler tubes in power plants.

Cobalt-60
It is a hard gray magnetic material having a melting point of 1480 °C and a density of 8.9 g/cm3.
It is somewhat similar in physical properties to iron and occurs as a single isotope Co-59 which is
transformed into Co-60 after neutron capture. The isotope decays with a half life of 5.3 years by
emission of soft beta rays and two hard gamma rays (1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV). The relatively
high slow neutron capture cross section of 24 barns makes Co-60 one of the most readily
available.

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Co-60 is used for inspection of iron, copper and other medium weight metals whose thickness are
greater than 2.5 cm. It can also be used to radiograph thinner sections of heavy materials such as
tantalum or uranium. The isotope is particularly useful to those who normally work with 250 kVp
X-rays and who have occasional demands to investigate sections thicker than 5 cm. Co-60 is
radiographically equivalent to a 3 MeV X-ray generator though it is not a so intense source. It
can be used to make good radiographs through at least 20 cm of steel.

Iridium-192
3
This isotope belonging to the platinum family, and having a density of 22.4 gm/cm is
produced by the neutron irradiation of natural iridium in the atomic pile. It is a very hard and
brittle white metal having a half life of 74.3 days. Ir-191 on activation by the (n, γ) reaction
produces two isotopes Ir-192 with a half life of 74.3 days and Ir-194 with a half life of 19 hours.
It is usual to allow the source to decay for several days before measurement, so as to eliminate the
short lived isotope.

Ir-192 decays chiefly by beta emission to platinum-192 (Pt-192) but, there is also a second
decay process by electron capture to osmium-192 (Os-192). Both Pt-192 and Os-192 products are
stable. The gamma ray spectrum is quite complex containing at least 24 spectrum lines. This is
principally used for the radiography of steel up to 100 mm. The sources used for the industrial
radiography are generally between 500 mCi and 50 Ci in strength, but higher strength up to 100
Ci is available. A 30 Ci source can be as small as 2 mm x 2 mm. Its relatively low energies
ranging from 0.2-0.7 MeV permits the use of lead shields weighing less than 50 kg for source
strengths of 2000-4000 GBq making the isotope ideal for field work where portability and small
size is at premium.

Characteristics of gamma radiations

Because gamma radiation is produced by the radioactive decay of unstable atomic nuclei, there is
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a continuous reduction in the intensity of emitted radiation with time as more and more unstable
nuclei transform to stable nuclei. This reduction follows a logarithmic law, and each radioactive
isotope has a characteristic half-life, or amount of time that it takes for the intensity of emitted
radiation to be reduced by one-half.

The unit of source activity is becquerel (Bq) or curies (Ci). If the source activity is known at any
given time, a table of radioactive decay factors for the specific radioactive isotope (or the
corresponding logarithmic decay formula) can be used to calculate source activity at any
subsequent time. Then, radiation intensity, which is usually measured in roentgens per hour, can
be found by multiplying source activity by the specific y-ray constant. The difference between
calculated radiation output and effective radiation output is the result of self-absorption within the
radioactive mass, in which y-rays resulting from decay of atoms in the center of the mass are
partly absorbed by the mass itself before they can escape.

Specific activity, commonly expressed as becquerels per gram (Bq/g), is a characteristic of

radioactive sources that expresses their degree of concentration. A source that has a high specific
activity will be smaller than another source of the same isotope and activity that has a lower
specific activity.

Gamma ray sources are housed in protective containers made of lead, depleted uranium, or other
dense materials that absorb the gamma rays, thus providing protection from exposure to the
radiation.

X-RAYS AND GAMMA-RAYS

Two types of electromagnetic radiation are used in radiographic inspection: X-rays and γ-
rays. X-rays and γ-rays differ from other types of electromagnetic radiation (such as
visible light, microwaves and radio waves) only in their t wavelengths, although there is
not always a distinct transition from one type of electromagnetic radiation to another.
Only X-rays and γ-rays, because of their relatively short wavelengths (high energies),
have the capability of penetrating opaque materials to reveal internal flaws.

X-rays and γ-rays are physically indistinguishable; they differ only in the manner in which
they are produced. X-rays result from the interaction between a rapidly moving stream of
electrons and atoms in a solid target material, while /-rays are emitted during the
radioactive decay of unstable atomic nuclei.

Gamma ray emission

Gamma rays are generated during the radioactive decay of both naturally occurring and
artificially produced unstable isotopes. In all respects other than their origin, γ -rays and x-
rays are identical. Unlike the broad-spectrum radiation produced by X-ray sources, γ -ray
sources emit one or more discrete wavelengths of radiation, each having its own
characteristic photon energy (or wave length).

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Production of X-Rays
When X-rays are produced from the collision of fast moving electrons with a target
material, two types of X-ray is generated when the electrons are rapidly decelerated during
collisions with atoms in the target material. These X-rays have a broad spectrum of many
wavelengths (or energies) and are referred to as continuous X-rays or by the German word
bremsstrahlung, which means braking radiation.

X-RAY TUBES
X-ray tubes are electronic devices that covert electrical energy into X-rays. Typically, an X-ray
tube consists of a cathode structure containing a filament and an anode structure containing a
target-all within an evacuated chamber or envelope. A low-voltage power supply, usually
controlled by a rheostat, generates the electric current that heats the filament to incandescence.

This incandescence of the filament produces an electron cloud, which is directed to the anode by a
focusing system and accelerated to the anode by the high voltage, applied between the cathode
and the anode. When the accelerated electrons impinge on the target immediately beneath the
focal spot, the electrons are slowed and absorbed, and both bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-
rays are produced. Most of the energy in the impinging electron beam is transformed into heat,
which must be dissipated.

X-ray spectrum
The energy of X-rays from a radiographic X-ray tube is not a single-wave-length beam, but rather
a spectrum of wavelengths somewhat analogous to white light. The lower limit of wavelengths,
λmin, in nanometers, at which there is an abrupt ending of the spectrum, is inversely proportional
to tube voltage.

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Radiation intensity
Radiation intensity of an X-ray tube varies with tube voltage (accelerating potential), tube current
(number of electrons impinging on the target per unit time), and physical features of the
individual equipment. Because of the last factor, the output of an individual source also varies
with position in the radiation beam, position usually being expressed as the angle relative to the
central axis of the beam and effect of tube voltage. Both the mean photon energy and the output
of an X-ray source are altered by changes in tube voltage.

The reciprocity law

This law is valid for any medium which responds solely on the amount of radiation impinging on
the test piece, regardless of the rate of impingement (radiation intensity). For example, the
reciprocity law is valid for most film and paper radiography and most xero-radiography but not
for fluoroscopic screens or radiometric detectors, both of which respond to radiation intensity
rather than to total amount of radiation.

Inherent filtration
In the radiography (film or real-time) of thin or lightweight materials, which requires low-energy
radiation, filtration by the glass walls of the X-ray tube becomes a problem. The glass walls of an
ordinary x-ray tube absorb 95% of a 30 kV X-ray beam.

High energy X-ray machines

Above about 400 kV, the conventional design of an X-ray tube and its high-voltage iron-core
transformer becomes cumbersome and large. Therefore high voltage machines are used to
produce high energy X-rays. High-energy X-rays include:
Linear accelerators
Betatrons
Van de Graff generators

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INTERACTION OF X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS

Theoretically, there are four possible interactions between a photon (quantum) of electromagnetic
radiation and material.

Photoelectric effect
It is an interaction with orbit electrons in which a photon of
electromagnetic radiation is consumed in breaking the bond
between an orbital electron and its atom. Energy in excess of
the bond strength imparts kinetic energy to the electron.

Compton scattering
It is a form of direct interaction between an incident photon and an orbital electron in which the
electron is ejected from the atom and only a portion of the
kinetic energy of the photon is consumed. The photon is
scattered in coherently, emerging in a direction that is different
from the direction of I incident radiation and emerging with
reduced energy and a correspondingly lower wavelength.

Pair production
It is an absorption process that creates two 0.5 MeV photons of scattered radiation for each
photon of energy incident radiation consumed; a small amount of scattered radiation of lower
energy also accompanies pair production.
In pair production, a photon of incident electromagnetic radiation is consumed in creating an
electron-positron pair.
The positron created by pair production is destroyed by
interaction with another electron after a very short life. This
destruction produces electromagnetic radiation, mainly in the
form of two photons that travel in opposite directions, each
photon having energy of about 0.5 photon having energy of
about 0.5 MeV.

Total absorption
Thus, the total absorption co-efficient of a given material can be obtained as
µ= µPE + µComp + µPP

where µPE , µComp and µPP are absorption co-efficient for photoelectric, Compton
scattering and pair production processes respectively.

PRINCIPLE OF RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

Radiography is the general term given to material inspection methods that based on the
differential absorption of penetrating radiation-either electromagnetic radiation of very
short wavelength or particulate radiation-by the part or test-piece (object) being inspected.
Because of differences in density and variations in thickness of the part or differences in
absorption characteristics caused by variations in composition, different portions of a test-
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piece absorb different amounts of penetrating radiations. These variations in the

absorption of the penetrating radiation can be monitored by detecting the unabsorbed
radiation that passes through the test-piece.

RADIOGRAPHY
Radiography is used to detect the features of a component or assembly that exhibit a
difference in thickness or physical density as compared to surrounding material. Large
differences are more easily detected than small [ones. In general, radiography can detect
only those features that have an (appreciable thickness in a direction parallel to the
radiation beam. This means (that that the ability of the process to detect planar
discontinuities such as cracks depends on proper orientation of the test-piece during
inspection. Discontinuities such as voids and inclusions, which have measurable thickness
in all directions, can be detected as long as they are not too small in relation to section
thickness. In general, features that exhibit a 1% or more (difference in absorption
compared to the surrounding material can be detected.

Three basic elements of radiography include a radiation source, the test-piece or object
being evaluated, and a sensing material. Radiation from the source is absorbed by the test-
piece as the radiation passes through it; the flaw and surrounding material absorb different
amounts of radiation. Thus, the intensity of radiation that impinges on the sensing material
in the area beneath the flaw is different from the amount that impinges on adjacent areas.
This produces an image, or shadow, of the flaw on the sensing material.

PRINCIPLES OF SHADOW FORMATION

The image formed on a radiograph is similar to the shadow cast on a screen of an opaque object
placed in a beam of light. Although the radiation used in -radiography penetrates an opaque object
whereas light does not, the geometric laws of shadow formation are basically the same. X-rays, y-
rays, and light all travel in straight lines.

RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY
The quality of radiographs is affected by many variables, and image quality is measured with
image-quality indicators known as pentameters. These devices are thin specimens made of the
same material as the test-piece; they are described in more details in the section "Identification
Markers and Pentameters (Image-Quality Indicators)".

Image quality is governed by image contrast and resolution, which are also sometimes referred to
as radiographic definition.

Radiographic sensitivity which should be distinguished from image quality generally refers to the
size of the smallest detail that can be seen on a radiograph or to the ease with which the images of
small details can be detected.

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Radiographic contrast
Refers to the amount of contrast observed on as radiograph, and it is affected by subject contrast
and the contrast sensitivity of the image-detecting system.

Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities transmitted by various portions of a test-piece.
It depends on the thickness, shape, and composition of the test-piece; the intensity of the scattered
radiation; and the spectrum of the incident radiation. It does not depend on the detector, the
source strength, or the source-to-detector distance. However, it may depend on the test-piece-to-
detector distance because the intensity of scattered radiation (from within the test-piece)
impinging upon a detector.

In a general, a radiograph should be made with the lowest-energy radiation that will transmit
adequate radiation intensities to the detector, because long wavelengths tend to improve contrast.
However, radiation energies that are too low produce excessive amounts of scattered radiations
that washes out fine detail.

Radiographic definition
Refers to the sharpness of a radiograph.

Film unsharpness
Film unsharpness specifies the spatial resolution of the film and must not be confused with film
graininess.

Film unsharpness depends not only on the film grain size and the development process but also on
the energy of the radiation and the thickness and material the screens.

GEOMETRIC UNHAPPINESS
Conventional X-ray tubes have focal spots between 2 mm x 2 mm (0.08 in. x 0.08 in.) and 5 mm
x 5 mm (0.2 x 0.2 in.) in size, while micro focus x-ray systems have focal-spot sizes as small as 5
µm (0.2 mil). Even high-energy sources have focal spots of appreciable size, although seldom
exceeding 2 mm (0.08 in.) in diameter. Gamma ray sources vary widely in size, depending on
source length and specific activity, but are seldom less than about 2.5 mm (0.1 in.) in diameter.
Radiographic definition varies according to the geometric relationships among source size,
source-to-object distance, and object-to-image distance. Mathematically, the geometric
unsharpness, Ug, is determined from the laws of similar triangles and can be expressed as:

Ug = [f t / d] = [f t / SOD]
where f = focal spot size or source size (diameter)
t = object thickness + film-to-object distance (FOD)
= film-to-discontinuity distance
d = SOD = source-to-object distance = SFD − object thickness

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= source-to-discontinuity distance

The size of the penumbra, or the geometric unsharpness can be reduced by lengthening the
source-to-object distance, by reducing the size of the focal spot or by reducing the object-to-
image distance.

Intensifying and filtration screens

Screens are used to improve image contrast, particularly when the radiation intensity is low or
when the radiation energy is high.

GEOMETRIC MAGNIFICATION (M)

The shadow of the object (test piece) is always farther from the source than the object itself.
Therefore the dimensions of the shadow are always greater than the corresponding dimensions of
the object.

M = (SOD + FOD) / SOD = SFD / SOD

where FOD = Film-to-Object Distance

SOD = Source-to-Object Distance
SFD = Source-to-Film Distance or Source-to-Image Distance

Variations in the position of a given object relative to the source and recording surface affect
image size. For example, when the source-to-image distance is decreased without changing the
distance of the object from the image, the size of the image is increased.

IMAGE QUALITY
The quality of radiographs is affected by many variables, and image quality is measured with
image-quality indicators known as pentameters. These devices are thin specimens made of the
same material as the test-piece; they are described in more details in the section "Identification
Markers and Pentameters (Image-Quality Indicators)".

SCATTERED RADIATION
When a beam of X-rays or gamma rays strikes a test-piece, secondary radiation is scattered in all
directions. This causes a haze over all or part of the image, thus reducing contrast and visibility of
detail.

Internal scatter occurs within the test piece being radiographed. Internal scatter is fairly uniform
throughout a test-piece of uniform thickness, cut adversely affects definition by diffusing or
obscuring the outline of the mage.

Side scatter consists of secondary radiation generated by walls, internal holes in the test-piece, or
objects near the test-piece. This radiation may pass through the test-piece and may obscure the
image of the test-piece.
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Backscatter consists of rays that are generated from the floor, wall or table or from any other
object that is located on the opposite side of the imaging surface from the test-piece and source.
Backscatter increases the background noise and therefore reduces contrast and definition in the
recorded image.

RECORDING MEDIA
By definition, a radiographic recording medium provides a permanent visible image of the
shadow produced by the penetrating radiation. Permanent images are recorded on X-ray film.

X-ray film consists of a thin, transparent plastic support called a film base, which is usually
coated on both sides (but occasionally on one side only) with an emulsion consisting mainly of
grains of silver bromide dispersed in gelatin. These grains are very sensitive to electromagnetic
radiation, especially X-rays, gamma rays, and visible light.

Film processing
Recording media provide a permanent image that is related to the variations in the intensity of the
unabsorbed radiation and the time of exposure. With a recording medium such as film, for
example, an invisible latent image is formed in the areas exposed to radiation. These exposed
areas become dark when the film is processed (that is developed, rinsed, fixed, washed and dried),
with the degree of darkening (the photographic density) depending on the amount of exposure to
radiation.

Characteristics curves
The relation between the exposure applied to a given type of radiographic film and the resulting
density is expressed in a curve known as the characteristic curve of that particular type of film.
Other names for this curve are the H and D curve, D log E curve. Such curves are determined by
applying a series of known exposures to the film and after processing the film according to a
standard procedure, reading the resulting densities. The curve is generated by plotting density
against the logarithm of relative exposure.

INTENSIFYING SCREENS
When screens are excited by X-ray or gamma -ray radiation, it produces electrons. The
number of electrons emitted is directly proportional to the photon energy of the radiation
that passes through the test-piece and reaches the screens.

Lead screens
It is the combination of filtration and intensification that makes lead screens the most widely used
in industrial radiography. Lead absorbs radiation to a greater extent than most other materials,
with the amount of absorption depending largely on the penetrating quality of the radiation
(photon energy or wavelength). Low-energy radiation is absorbed more by a lead screen
than high-energy radiation. Because scattered radiation from a test-piece is always of a
lower energy than the incident beam passing through a test-piece, a lead screen will
absorb a relatively high percentage of unwanted scattered radiation, but will absorb a
somewhat lower percentage of the image-forming radiation. This effect is known as
filtration, and lead screen are sometimes referred to as lead-filter screen.
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Fluorescent intensifying screens

The efficiency of film and paper radiography can be improved by fluorescent
intensifying screens, which emit radiation in the ultraviolet, blue, or green portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. These screens are called fluorescent intensifying screens
because they fluoresce, or produce light, when excited by X-rays or gamma rays. Certain
compounds, such as calcium tungstate or barium lead sulfate, often containing trace
elements of some other chemical or phosphor, have the property of emitting light
immediately upon excitation by short-wavelength radiation. Crystals of these chemicals
are finely powdered, mixed with a binder, and coated on some mildly flexible support
such as cardboard or plastic to make a fluorescent screen. A thin, tough, transparent
overcoat is applied to the sensitized surface of the screen to prevent damage to the
crystals during use.

Disadvantages
The main reason for using fluorescent intensifying screen in industrial radiography is to
reduce exposure times. However, in comparison with lead screens, fluorescent screens
have the following disadvantages. First, the screen light reaches the film as cones of
light from each fluorescing crystal. Because this tends to blur the image, radiographic
definition using lead screens is superior. As in real-time radiography, inherent
unsharpness in a fluorescent screen often overshadows any effect of geometric
unsharpness.

Fluorometallic screens
Fluorometallic screens consist basically of lead screens place on either side of a
fluorescent screen/ film combination. The theory behind combining lead preferentially
absorbs scattered radiation (which fluorescent screen next to the film intensifies the
radiation beam to shorten the exposure.

FILM TYPES AND SELECTION

The selection of radiographic film for a particular application is generally a compromise
between the desired quality of the radiograph and the cost of exposure time. This
comprise occurs because slower films generally provide a higher film gradient and a
lower level of graininess and fog.

Film types
The classification of radiographic film is complicated, as evidenced by changes in
ASTM standard practice E 94.

Film selection
Film selection for radiography is a comprise between the economics of exposure (film
speed and latitude) and the quality desired in the radiograph. In general fine-grain, high-
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gradient films produce the highest-quality radiographs. However, because of the low
speed typically associated with these films, high-intensity radiation or long exposure
times are needed.

Exposure factors
The exposure time in film radiography depends mainly on film speed, the intensity of
radiation at the film surface, the characteristics of any screen used, and the desired level
of photographic density. In practice, the energy of the radiation is first chosen to be
sufficiently penetrating for the type of material and thickness to be inspected. The film
type and the desired photographic density are then selected according to the sensitivity
requirements.

Exposure charts for X-ray machines

A starting point must be determined for the calculations described in the discussions
above. The starting point is ordinarily derived from exposure charts. Equipment
manufacturers usually publish exposure charts for each type of x-ray generator that they
manufacture. These published charts, however, are only approximations; each particular
unit and each installation is unique. Radiographic density is affected by such factors as
radiation spectrum, film processing, setup technique, amount and type of filtration,
screens and scattered radiation.

INSPECTION OF TUBULAR SECTIONS

Although film radiography is not well suited to the inspection of continuously produced tubular
products such as tubing and pipe, the method is suited to the inspection of tubular sections in a
wide variety of products and assemblies.

Double-wall, double-image technique

Double-wall, single-image technique
Single-wall, single-image technique

Double-wall, double-image technique

It is mainly applicable to sections with an outside diameter of no more than 90 mm (3.5 in.). This
technique produces a radiograph in which the images of both walls of a tubular section are
superimposed on one another. The beam of radiation is directed towards one side of the section,
and the radiation conversion medium surface is placed on the opposite side, usually tangent to the
section.

Double-wall, single-image technique

It is mainly applicable to hollow cylinders and tubular sections exceeding 90 mm (3.5
in.) in outside diameters. This technique produces a radiographic image of only the
section of the wall that is closest to the imaging plane, although the radiation penetrates
both walls. The source is positioned relatively close to the section, so that blurring
caused by geometric unsharpness in the image of the cylinder wall closest to the source
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makes the image completely undistinguishable. Only the image of the wall section
closest to the detector is sharply defined.

Single-wall, single-image technique

It is an alternative to either of the double-wall techniques and can be used only, when the
interior of a section is accessible. With this technique, the radiation source can be placed
outside the cylinder and the radiation source inside. In both setups, only a single wall is
radiographed. A significant advantage of the single-wall technique is that it is more
sensitive than double-wall techniques because any flaw that may be present occupies a
greater percentage of the penetrated thickness.

Identification markers
It is important to relate a particular radiographic image to the direction of the radiation
beam used to generate that image. Furthermore, it is important that any permanent record
of inspection be traceable to the particular test-piece that was inspected or to the
production lot represented by that test-piece. Identification markers are used for these
purposes.

Identification markers are made of lead or lead alloy and are usually in the form of a
coded series of letters and numbers. The markers are placed on the test-piece or on the
film adjacent to the test-piece during setup.

PENETRAMETERS (IMAGE-QUALITY INDICATORS)

Penetrameters, or image-quality indications, are of known, size, and shape and have the
same attenuation characteristics as the material in the test-piece. They are placed on the
test-piece or on a block of identical material during setup and are radiographed at the
same time as the test-piece.

Material used for penetrameters is the same as that of the test-piece or has the same
absorption characteristics.
In use, the penetrameter is normally placed directly on the surface of the test-piece
that faces the source.
Image-quality levels are usually expressed as the size of the smallest penetrameter
feature (such as hole size or wire size) that is clearly visible in the processed image.
A penetrameter is never used as a size standard against which flaw sizes are compared.

Plaque-type penetrameters
Consist of strips of material of uniform thickness with holes drilled through them. There
are two general types of plaque penetrameters specified by ASTM and the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) rectangular plaque penetrameters and circular
plaque penetrameters. In the United States of America the penetrameter design specified
in ASTM E 747 is widely used.

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Wire-type penetrameters
They are widely used in Europe. The ISO design of wire-type penetrameters has a group
(typically seven) of straight 30 mm (1.2 in.) wires made of the same material as the test-
piece. The diameters of the seven wires are sized in a geometric progression from a
range of 21 wire sizes with a numbered geometric progression of diameters ranging from
wire number 1 (0.032 mm. Or 0.00126 in. in diameter) to wire number 21 (3.20 mm, or
0.126 in. in diameter).

The ISO standard is similar to the standard of Deutsche Industries Norm (Din 54109)
which consists of sixteen wire sizes. However, the wire numbers in the DIN standard are
the reverse of the ISO standard are the reverse of the ISO standard; in the DIN standard,
wire diameters decrease in geometric progression from wire number 1 (which has a 3.20
mm, or 0.126 in., diameter) to wire number 16 (which has a 0.10 mm, or 0.004 in.,
diameter).

FILM VIEWER
Various types of illuminators are commercially available however the most suitable illuminator is
the one which has high intensity light source sufficient to penetrate film density up to 4, with
provision for intensity control and mechanical arrangement for masking of the lighted area.

INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHS
Proper identification of both the radiograph and the test-piece, clarity of the
penetrameter, suitability of radiographic techniques, adequacy of coverage, and the
techniques of image processing in real-time A qualified interpreter must:
Define the quality of the radiographic image, which includes a critical analysis of the
radiographic procedure and the image-developing procedure.
Analyze the image to determine the nature and extent of any abnormal condition in
the test-piece.
Evaluate the test-piece by comparing interpreted information with standards or specifications
Report inspection results accurately, clearly and within proper administration channels.

Proper identification of both the radiograph and test-piece is an absolute necessity for correlation
of the radiograph with the corresponding test-piece. Identification includes both identification of
the test-piece and identification of the view or area of coverage. Poor quality film radiographs are
usually re-shot.

RADIATION SAFETY
The principles of radiation safety have evolved from experience in health physics, which is the
study of the biological effects of ionizing radiation.

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Radiation Units: Ordinarily, X-rays and γ -ray radiation is measured in terms of ionizing effect
on a given quantity of atoms. The roentgen is a unit derived on this basis for X-rays and γ-rays.
However, even though the amount of X-rays and γ-ray exposure can be quantified in the roentgen
unit, the effects of radiation on the human body also depends on the amount of energy absorbed
and the type of radiation.

The Specification of radiation in rem is equal to the product of the rad and a factor known as the
relative biological effectiveness (RBE). One rad represents the absorption of 100 ergs of energy
per gram of irradiated material; it applies to any form of any form of penetrating radiation.

Because 1R (which applies only to the ionizing effect of x-rays and γ -rays) corresponds to the
absorption of only about 83 ergs per gram of air, the unit of 1 R can be considered equal to 0.01
Gy (1 rad) for radiation-safety measurements.

Maximum permissible dose

Current practice as per ICRP the maximum permissible dose is 20 mSv/y (2 Rem/y) for all
persons over the age of 18. The total amount of radiation absorbed by any individual should never
exceed his continually increasing accumulated permissible dose

Radiation Protection
The two main factors in radiation protection are controlling radiation exposure and licensing the
facility.

The best protection is afforded by distance because radiation intensity decreases in proportion to
the square of the distance from the source. As long as personnel stay far enough away from the
source while an exposure is being made, portable sources can be used with adequate safety.

Radiation monitoring
Every safety program must be controlled to ensure that both the facility itself and all personnel
subject to radiation exposure are monitored. Facility monitoring is generally accomplished by
periodically taking readings of radiation leakage during the operation of each source under
maximum exposure conditions.

ADVANTAGES OF RT
Permanent record of test
Little surface preparation
Defect identification
Subsurface defects detectable
No material type limitation
Not so reliant upon operator skill
Thin/thick materials
No power required for RT using gamma rays

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DISADVANTAGES OF RT
Expensive consumables
High cost equipment
Bulky equipment
Harmful radiation
Defect require significant depth in relation to the radiation beam
Slow results
Very little indication of depths
Access to both sides required

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CHAPTER – 9
ULTRASONIC TESTING
INTRODUCTION
Ultrasonic Inspection is one of the NDT methods to find out the condition of elastic materials
(metals and few non - metals) by means of injecting mechanical vibrations into the materials. This
method is capable of detecting surface, subsurface and internal discontinuities on materials.
Ultrasonic waves are the sound waves having the frequency of above 20,000 Hz which is
inaudible to the human ears. Ultrasonic waves are sent through materials by means of transducers
and if there is any discontinuity in the path of its propagation, the material would change or
modify the waves that can be viewed in the form of indication, through testing system. The
ultrasonic method is used on processed materials, finished components and for in-service
inspection on parts and assemblies.

PRINCIPLE OF UT
UT is based on the principle of reflection of ultrasound at the interfaces.

PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

Sound is a form of energy which is produced by means of mechanical vibrations. It needs a
medium for propagation. The displacement of particles from its mean position is called vibration.
All vibrating bodies follow simple harmonic motion.

Amplitude: The maximum displacement of the vibrating body is called amplitude of oscillation.

Period (t)
It is the time taken by the vibrating body to complete one cycle. It is measured in seconds.

Node
A point, line, or surface of a vibrating body marked by absolute or relative freedom from
vibratory motion is referred to as a node

Frequency (f)
The number of complete waves which pass a given point in a given period of time is called as
frequency of a wave motion.

It is number of cycles or oscillations made per second. It is the reciprocal of t. f = 1/t

If a source makes 20 oscillations per second, then the source is said to be vibrating at a frequency
of 20 cycles per second (or) the frequency of the source is 20 Hertz.

Hertz (Hz) is the SI unit for frequency.

If the vibrating source is having a frequency of 4 MHz, it is understood that the source is
producing 4 x 106 oscillations in one second.
Audible sound: The frequency of the sound is below 20,000 Hz.
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Ultrasonic wave: The frequency is ultrasonic wave is above 20,000 Hz (20 kHz) and we cannot
hear it by ear.

Wave length (λ)

The shape of the wave is sinusoidal. λ is equal to the distance from crest to crest or trough to
trough of a wave. The SI unit of wave length is m (meter).

λ = v/ f

where v = Sound velocity [km/s]

f = Frequency [MHz]
λ = Wave length [mm]

This means that ultrasonic waves must be used in a frequency range between about 0.5 MHz and
25 MHz and that the resulting wave length is in mm. With lower frequencies, the interaction
effect of the waves with internal flaws would be so small that detection becomes questionable.
Both test methods, radiography and ultrasonic testing, are the most frequently used methods of
testing different test pieces for internal flaws, partly covering the application range and partly
extending it.

Velocity (v)
This can be defined as the distance a wave will propagate through a medium in a given time.

The velocity of propagation at a particular temperature depends upon the elasticity and density of
the medium. At normal temperature, the medium is supposed to have a particular density with
particular elastic properties. Hence velocity remains constant for a particular material and varies
between materials to materials.

Its unit is m / s
Velocity = Distance/Time
Velocity = Frequency x Wavelength
v= f λ

WAVE MODES
On the basis of the mode of particle displacement, ultrasonic waves are classified in to four types
of waves.
1. Longitudinal waves
2. Transverse waves
3. Surface waves
4. Lamb waves

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LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Longitudinal waves are the waves in which the particle motion is in the same direction of wave
propagation.

The other names of the wave are compressional, plane, dilatational (straight beam) and pressure
waves.

Properties of Longitudinal waves

1. This wave is the most easily generated and detected.
2. It travels through all media (i.e.) solids, liquids and gases.
3. Longitudinal waves have the highest velocity compared to other type of waves.
4. Almost all of the sound energy used in ultrasonic inspection originates as longitudinal
waves and may be converted in to other mode for special test applications.
5. As longitudinal waves propagate, compression and rarefaction occur alternatively. Heat
is produced during compression and heat is dissipated at the time of rarefaction.
6. Defect depth is a straight calculation.

Production of Longitudinal Waves

Longitudinal waves are generated in a probe to which a piezo-electric element or crystal is fitted
with. On excitation of the crystal, ultrasonic longitudinal waves are produced.

Applications
Longitudinal waves are used for detecting the discontinuities that are parallel to the material
surface, like lamination, delamination, crack etc in plates

TRANSVERSE WAVES
Transverse waves are the waves in which the particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of
the propagation. The other names of these waves are shear wave or torsional (angle beam) waves.

Properties of transverse waves

1. Transverse waves cannot be supported by the elastic collision of adjacent molecular or
atomic particles and hence the velocity of transverse waves is usually approximately half
of the longitudinal waves.
2. Transverse waves do not propagate through liquids and gases because the attraction
between the atoms or molecules is small, due to its large mean - path (the distance
between the atoms or molecules). In other words, the liquids and gases do not possess
modulus of elasticity (forces of attraction between the molecules are so small). Hence,
these waves are rapidly attenuated.
3. As the velocity of transverse waves is less, the wave length for a given frequency is also
less. Hence, smaller the wave length, larger the detectability of finer discontinuities,
compared to longitudinal waves for the same frequency.

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Note: Transmission of transverse waves through a material can be illustrated by the movement of
rope or string as it is shaken. Each particle in the rope moves only up and down but the
waves move along the rope from the excitation point.

Production of transverse waves

The shear waves are produced within the material by means of refraction at the interface between
the Perspex and material under inspection.

Applications
Shear wave probes are used mainly to find out the defects in weldments and also cracks in
components.

SURFACE WAVES
Here the particle vibration generally follows an elliptical orbit (Fig. 1.3). This wave was first
explained by Lord Rayleigh. The other name for the surface waves is Rayleigh waves.

Surface wave velocity = 0.9 x VT

Where VT = Velocity of transverse waves.

Properties of surface waves

1. These waves travel along the flat or curved surface of relatively thick solid specimens
but get reflected when it meets a sharp edge like a crack or a notch.
2. It won’t exist in solid immersed in liquid, but exist only in thin film.
3. The surface waves suffer very less attenuation compared to longitudinal or transverse
waves.
4. The maximum depth of penetration is one wave length beneath the surface of the
material. At this depth, the wave energy is about 4% of wave energy at the surface.
5. For the prorogation of surface waves, the materials should be free from oil, grease and
loose scales. Even the finger damped in oil can easily absorb the energy and prevent its
prorogation.
Production of surface waves
1. By means of `y' cut quartz crystal with liquid contact.
2. Conversion of longitudinal wave via plastic wedge.
Applications
Surface cracks, the thickness of plating or hardened surface can be detected with surface wave
probes.

PLATE WAVES
Particle vibration in plate waves is very complex, throughout the thickness of the material.

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The other names of the plate waves are Lamb or guided waves. Though plate waves exist in many
complex modes of particle movement, these can be divided in to 2 basic types, the symmetrical or
dilatational and the other is asymmetrical or bending waves.

In symmetrical plate waves, there is longitudinal particle displacement along the neutral axis of
the plate and an elliptical particle displacement on each surface.

In asymmetrical plate waves, there is transverse particle displacement along the neutral axis of the
plate and elliptical particle displacement on each surface.

Properties of plate waves

1. Plate waves are produced in thin sheets (whose thickness is equal to or less than 3 wave
lengths) when sending beam by angle probe at particular angle.

2. Lamb waves have a velocity of propagation dependent upon the operating frequency,
sample thickness and elastic module. They are dispersive (i.e.) velocity changes with
frequency.
Production of plate waves
This is produced by means of shear waves reflected at a particular angle and the vibrations that
occur within the material cause it to flex (i.e.) the wave totally saturates the thickness of the
material.

Applications
These waves are used for testing of thin plates, for lamination and for debonding in cladded
materials.

PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

The theory of ultrasonic propagation is exactly the same as that of audible sound. It obeys the
principle of optics. Ultrasonic waves can penetrate through several meters in to the material.

The waves would undergo:

(1) Reflection (2) Refraction (3) Interference (4) Diffraction (5) Focusing.

Reflection
Reflection of ultrasonic waves occurs when they encounter or fall at the boundary of two
dissimilar materials.

If the incident waves are perpendicular to the material interface, the reflected waves are redirected
back towards the source from which they were sent.
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The amount of reflection depends upon the difference in acoustic properties of two materials and
angle of incidence. This method by which discontinuities in the material noted is called
`Reflection-Technique'.

Acoustic impedance
It is defined as the resistance offered by a material to the passage of sound waves.

The specific acoustic impedance is the product of the wave velocity and the density of the
material through which it is passing.

Z=ρ v

Where Z = Acoustic impedance

ρ = the density of the material

v = velocity in the particular medium

Air has very low impedance where as water; steel and aluminum have higher acoustic impedance.

Impedance ratio
Impedance ratio between two materials is the acoustical impedance of one material divided by the
acoustical impedance of the other material. When ultrasonic beam is passing through material one
to material two, the impedance ratio is the impedance of the second material divided by the
impedance of the first material.

As the ratio increases, more of the original energy is reflected. As air has small impedance, the
impedance ratio between air and liquid or solid materials is very high. Hence, most of the
ultrasonic waves would be reflected at any interface between air and other materials.

Energy reflection coefficient

The degree to which a perpendicular wave is reflected from the interface is given by the energy
reflection coefficient. The ratio of the reflected acoustic energy to that which is incident upon the
interface is given by

R=

Where, R is the coefficient of energy reflection for normal incidence. ( Z 2 − Z1 ) 2

( Z 2 + Z1 ) 2
Z1 is the acoustic impedance for the first material.
Z2 is the acoustic impedance for the second material.

REFRACTION
When a sound wave encounters an interface of two dissimilar materials, at an angle other than
perpendicular, (or) say at oblique incidence, reflections occur at an angle equal to the incident
angle which is measured from the normal or perpendicular axis. If the sound energy is transmitted
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beyond the interface, the transmitted wave may be divided into two types of wave modes.

1. Refracted longitudinal waves.

2. Refracted mode converted transverse waves.

In any case, the waves generated in the steel will be refracted in accordance with Snell's Law,
whether they are longitudinal or transverse waves.

The above phenomena may affect the entire beam or only a portion of beam and the sum total of
changes that occur at the interface depend upon the angle of incidence and the velocity of
ultrasonic waves.

Snell's Law
The general law that explains wave behavior at an interface is known as Snell's Law. Although
originally derived for light waves and ultrasonic waves, it is applied to much other type of waves.

According to Snell's Law, the ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the since of the angle of
reflection or refraction equals the ratio of the corresponding wave velocities.

Sin α V1
=
Sin β V2

Where α = angle of incidence

β = angle of reflection or refraction
V1 = velocity of longitudinal wave in 1st medium
V2 = velocity of longitudinal wave in 2nd medium

CRITICAL ANGLES
When the angle of incidence is small, between two dissimilar media (having different velocities),
the sound waves undergo refraction and mode conversion at its boundary, in addition to
reflection, as a result of which refracted longitudinal and refracted mode converted transverse
ways are produced in the second medium.

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First Critical Angle

If the angle of incidence is increased to a certain value, correspondingly, the angle of refracted
longitudinal wave is increased When it is equal to 90° to the plane of boundary (in accordance
with Snell's Law) the longitudinal waves disappears from the second medium and hence only
transverse wave exists in the second medium.

For e.g. when the incident angle in the Perspex becomes 27.6°, the refracted longitudinal wave in
steel reaches 90° and total reflection takes place. At this angle, only transverse wave exists in
steel, (i.e.) in the 2nd medium. And if we calculate the angle of the refracted transverse wave in
the steel, at this first critical angle, we get the refracted transverse angle at 33°. So we use angle
beam of 35° as minimum.

Second Critical Angle

Second critical angle for the interface of two media with dissimilar velocities is the incident angle
at which the refracted, mode converted transverse wave angle becomes 90°, (i.e.) equals to the
plane of boundary as in the case of first critical angle. But in this case surface wave is produced at
the boundary.

This phenomenon occurs when the wave velocity in the second medium is greater than the first
medium.

The second critical angle is reached when the incident angle becomes 57.2°. In Perspex at this
angle, transverse wave is converted into surface waves.

Since surface waves occur at a refracted angle of 90°, the upper limit for transverse wave probes
is 80°.

DIFFRACTION
When the ultrasonic beam impinges on the flat interface, which is large in comparison to the
incident beam's dimensions, the beam is reflected or refracted plane wave.

But, if the beam encounters a point reflector, which is small in comparison to its wave length, the
reflected wave is reradiated as spherical wave front.

Thus, when a plane wave encounters the edges of reflective interface, say for instance, near the tip
of the fatigue crack, specular reflections occur along the flat surface of the crack and cylindrical
wavelets are launched from the edges. Since the waves are coherent, (i.e.) the same frequency
(wave length) and in phase, their redirection into the path of subsequent advancing plane waves
results in incident and reflected (scattered) waves interfering (i.e.) forming regions of
reinforcement (constructive interference) and cancellation (Destructive interference).

This "interfering" behavior is characteristic of continuous waves (or pulses from "ringing"
ultrasonic transducers) and when applied to edges and apertures serving as sources of sound
beams is known as "Wave Diffraction". It is the fundamental basis for concepts such as
transducer beam spread (directivity), near field, wave length-limited flaw detection sensitivity and

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assists in the sizing of discontinuities using dual transducer (crack-tip diffraction) techniques.

NEAR FIELD
The face of an ultrasonic transducer crystal usually doesn't vibrate uniformly under the influence
of an impressed electrical voltage. But the crystal face vibrates in a complex manner which can be
described as a mosaic of tiny, individual crystals, each vibrating in the same direction but slightly
out of phase with its neighbors.

Each element in the mosaic acts like a point - (Huygens) source, and radiates a spherical wave
outward from the plane of the crystal face. Near the face of the crystal, the composite sound beam
propagates chiefly as a plane wave, though the spherical waves emanating from the periphery of
the crystal face produce short-range ultrasonic beams referred to as side lobes. Because of the
interference effects, as these spherical waves encounter one another in the region near the crystal
phase a spatial pattern of acoustic - pressure maximums and minimums is set up in the composite
beams. The region in which these maximums and minimum occur is known as the Near Field
(Fresnel field) of the sound beam.

Along the central axis of the composite sound beam, the series of acoustic -pressure maximums
and minimums become broader and more widely spaced as the distance from the crystal face, `d'
increases. Where `d' becomes equal to N (with N denoting the length of the near field), the
acoustic pressure reaches a final maximum and decreases approximately exponentially with
increasing distance.

The length of the near field is determined by the size of the radiating crystal and the wave length
of the ultrasonic wave.

For a circular radiating crystal, of dia. D, the length of the near field is

N = (D2 - λ2)/4λ.

When the wave length is small with respect to crystal dia. the near field length can be
approximated by

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N = D2/4 λ.

The effects of near field

1. In the Near Field, the intensity is not uniform and hence maxima / minima are noted;
hence exact size of the defects cannot be noted.

2. Discontinuity size estimation is possible at a distance of 0.7 N or greater where N is the

Near Field length.

3. The intensity of sound is maximum at the end of the near field as the sound converges
just like the lens in optics (i.e.) the energy gets concentrated in the limited area.

FAR-FIELD
It is the region that extends from the end of the near field. Fraunhofer diffraction causes the beam
to spread at the end of the near field and continues until the ultrasound is attenuated. This area
exhibits a relatively constant drop in ultrasound intensities over its entire length due to the
attenuation characteristics of the material being inspected. This permits a predictable amplitude
response from a discontinuity as a function discontinuity depth and a reflective surface.

Up to the end of the near field from the transducer, the sound converges and divergence takes
place from the start of the far field. The sound intensity not only decreases with the distance but
also across the beam. The sound intensity is maximum in the centre of the beam and diminishes
toward the outer edges. A discontinuity will produce maximum amplitude indication when
positioned in the axis of the beam.

The testing sensitivity continuously decreases with the distance from the probe. Flaws of same
magnitude would receive different intensities with the increase in the path length. This result in
smaller amplitude for the echoes located at further distances. Nevertheless, the size of the defect
can be estimated to nearest approximation.

Beam-Spread Angle
This differs from one transducer to another. For a particular transducer of diameter and frequency,
the beam spread angle or half angle of beam divergence (Half cone angle) is given by

Sin θ/2 = 1.22 λ/D = 1.22 v /(f D)

where θ/2 = Half angle of beam divergence

D = Diameter of the Transducer
λ = being the wave length

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Attenuation
Sound waves decrease in intensity as they travel away from their source due to

1. Scattering
2. Absorption
3. Geometrical spreading
4. Dispersion, Diffraction etc.

Of the above, the main factors contributing loss of energy are Scattering and absorption.

Scattering
Scattering of an ultrasonic wave occurs because most materials are not truly homogeneous.
Crystal discontinuities like grain boundaries, twin boundaries and minute non - metallic
inclusions tend to deflect small amounts of ultrasonic energy out of the main ultrasonic beam.
Also especially in mixed microstructure or anisotropic materials, mode conversion at crystalline
boundaries tend to occur because of slight differences in acoustic velocity and acoustic impedance
across the boundaries.

Absorption
Sound waves in some materials are absorbed by the process of mechanical hysteresis, internal
friction or other energy loss mechanisms. These processes occur in non elastic materials such as
plastics, rubber, lead and non-rigid coupling materials. Absorption of ultrasonic energy occurs
mainly by conversion of mechanical energy in to heat.

As the mechanical wave attempts to propagate through such materials, part of its energy is given
up in the form of heat and it is not recoverable. Absorption is usually the reason that testing of
soft and pliable materials is limited to relatively thin sections.

PROBES/ TRANSDUCERS/ SEARCH UNITS

Transducers
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of returned
mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing. Production
and detection of ultrasonic waves for inspection are accomplished with the aid of transducer
element acting through a couplant. The transducer element is contained within a device known as
search unit or probe. The active element in a search unit is piezo electric crystal.

Piezoelectric transducers
The active element is the heart of the transducer as it converts the electrical energy to acoustic
energy, and vice versa. The active element is basically a piece polarized material (i.e. some parts
of the molecule are positively charged, while other parts of the molecule are negatively charged)
with electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces. When an electric field is applied across the
material, the polarized molecules will align themselves with the electric field, resulting in induced
dipoles within the molecular or crystal structure of the material. This alignment of molecules will
cause the material to change dimensions. This phenomenon is known as electrostriction. In
addition, a permanently-polarized material such as quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3) will

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produce an electric field when the material changes dimensions as a result of an imposed
mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect.

When a pressure is applied to a crystal, electric charge is developed. When an electrical field is
applied, the crystal mechanically deforms (i.e.) changes shape, piezo electric crystals exhibit
various deformation modes; thickness expansion is the principal mode used in transducer for
ultrasonic Inspection.

The three most common types of piezo electric materials used for ultrasonic test units are Quartz,
Lithium Sulphate and Polarized Ceramics, such as Barium Titanate, Lead Zirconate Titanate and
Lead Metaniobate.

Lithium Sulphate: Lithium sulphate is another type of material used in the construction of
transducer elements. These are crystals grown from solution. It is a natural piezo electric material,
as is quartz. It is highly soluble in water and slightly prone to aging. It is the best receiver.

Curie temperature
It is the temperature at which the piezo electric element loses its property.

In addition to quartz, Lithium Sulphate and Ceramic materials, transducers prepared from other
piezo-electric materials, usually synthetic crystals, have been used. The most common of these
are Rochelle salt, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate.

The efficacy of a transducer is described by 3 terms

1. Sensitivity: The ability to detect small discontinuities.

2. Resolution: The ability to separate the sound reflections from two discontinues close
together in depth or time.
3. Efficiency: The capacity of energy conversion.

There are two types of Transducers which are generally used in ultrasonic testing.
(a) Normal beam transducer

(b) Angle beam transducer

Normal probe (Single crystal)

A Normal beam transducer is one which generates longitudinal waves and transmits them into a
specimen in a direction normal to the plane of the surface to which the transducer is applied. The
piezo electric element or crystal is used as both transmitter and receiver. The piezo electric plate
is coated with metals like silver, aluminum and gold. These are deposited primarily for applying
electric potential and also for physical protection. The leads are connected by soldering or through
springs which do not damage the plating. When the straight beam unit is faced with a wear plate,
an electrode on the front face of the crystal provides for an internal ground.

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If the probe has to be used for direct contact, the crystal can be protected from wear and tear by
the use of suitable protective covers, except in the quartz crystal.

Normal beam transducers can also incorporate detachable Perspex delay blocks. The Lucite
serves to increase near surface resolution. The dead zone of the sound beam will be in the lucite
instead of in the material that is being examined. These blocks also can be made from temperature
- resistant materials, which make them ideal for testing materials at elevated temperatures. The
block must be coupled to the transducer by the use of a suitable couplant. High temperature
resistant couplants are also available of the inspection of hot materials.

Dual element Transducers (Dual probe)

In this, the dual element transducers are kept separate; two single transducers mounted in the
same housing for pitch and - catch method. In the dual element search unit, one transducer is
acting as transmitter and the other acts as a receiver. They may be mounted side by side for
straight beam testing; but mounted stacked or tandem for angle beam testing. In all cases, the
crystals are separated by a sound barrier to block cross talk.

The TR probe

If you want to obtain a similarly good near resolution with straight-beam scanning you should use
a TR probe.

This technique uses two crystal elements which are acoustically and electrically separated from
each other in the same housing. In addition to this, both elements are stuck to a relatively long
delay path (made of perspex) and are slightly inclined towards each other. Connection of the TR
probe on the instrument is made in the TR or dual mode, i.e. one element is connected to the
transmitter and the other with the input of the receiver amplifier.

Angle beam Transducer

An angle beam testing, the longitudinal wave is converted to a transverse wave by means of an
angle Perspex wedge, between the crystal and the wedge. Various wedge materials have been
used, the most successful being methacrylate resin. Angle beam transducers can be constructed in
two ways. The perspex wedge can be an integral part of the transducer, or can be detachable. All
perspex wedges are geometrically constructed to provide two functions.

Probes whose beams enter at an angle are called angle-beam probes because they transmit and
receive the sound waves at an angle to the surface of the test object.

The position and the angle of the transducer mounting on the wheel axle may be constructed to
project straight beams.

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A-Scan
A-scan information represents the material condition through which the sound beam is passing. The
fundamental A-scan display, although highly informative regarding material homogeneity, does not
yield information regarding the spatial distribution of ultrasonic wave reflectors until it is connected
with scanning mechanism that can supply the physical location of the transducer in conjunction with
the reflector data obtained with A-Scan unit.

B-Scan
When cross-sectional information is recorded using a rectilinear B-Scan system, it is the time of
arrival of pulse (vertical direction) plotted as a function of the transducer position (horizontal
direction) that is displayed. Circular objects are often displayed using a curvilinear coordinate system
which displays time of pulse arrival in the radial direction (Measured from the transducer) and with
transducer location following the surface contours of the test object.

C-Scan
When plan views of objects are needed, C-Scan system is used and it is particularly effective for flat
materials including comb panels, rolled products, and adhesively bonded or laminated composites.
The C-Scan is developed using a raster scan pattern (X verses Y) over the test part surface. The
presence of questionable conditions is detected by gating signals falling within the thickness of the
part (or monitoring loss of transmission) as a function of location. C-Scanning systems use either
storage oscilloscopes or other recording devices, coupled to automatic scanning systems which
represent a "plan" (i.e.) map, view of the past, similar to the view produced in radiography.

UT TECHNIQUES

Two major modes of coupling ultrasound into test parts used in UT are contact and immersion.

Pulse - echo techniques

Pulse - echo techniques may use either single or double straight beam transducers. The single unit
straight beam transducers in use with the signal unit the transducers act as both the transmitter and
receiver projecting a pulsed beam of longitudinal waves in to the specimen and receiving reflections
from the back surface and from any discontinuity lying in the beam path. The double transducer or
dual element transducer unit is useful when the test surface is rough or when the specimen shape is
irregular and the back surface is not parallel with the front surface. One transducer transmits and the
other receives. In this case, the receiver will receive discontinuity reflections and may receive back
surface reflections.

A typical UT inspection Pulse - echo system consists of several functional units, such as the
pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can
produce high voltage electrical pulse. Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high
frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials
in the form of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the
energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into
electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected
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signal strength is displayed versus the time from signal generation to when a echo was received.
Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance that the signal traveled. From the signal,
information about the reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be
gained.

Through - transmission technique

Two transducers are used in the through transmission technique with one on each side of the test
specimen. One transducer acts as transmitter and the other as a receiver. The transmitter transducer
projects a sound beam in to the material. The beam travel through the material to the opposite surface
and the sound is picked up at the opposite surface by the receiving transducer. Any discontinuities in
the path of the sound beam can cause a reduction in the amount of sound energy, reacting in the
receiver unit. For best result, in this technique, the transmitter utilizes a crystal that is the best
available generator of acoustic energy, and the receiver utilizes a crystal that is the best available
receiver of acoustic energy

Immersion techniques
The immersion method of coupling ultrasound to test parts permits a wide variety of test conditions
to be used without the need for custom-designed transducer assemblies, and with consistent coupling
characteristics, allowing for imaging for test parts with regular shapes such as plate, rod, cylinder,
pipe and simple forging sand assemblies (honey comb panels).

STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS

Many of the standards and specifications for ultrasonic inspection require the use of standard
reference blocks, which may be prepared from various alloys, may contain holes, slots or notches
of several sizes and shapes. The characteristics of ultrasonic beam in a test piece are affected by
the following variables and these should be considered when selecting standard reference blocks.

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1. Nature of the test piece

2. Alloy type
3. Grain size
4. Effects of thermal or mechanical processing
5. Distance amplitude effects
6. Flaw size
7. Direction of the ultrasonic beam

Three types of standard reference blocks are used in general for calibration or reference.

1. Area amplitude blocks

2. Distance amplitude blocks
3. IIW Blocks (International Institute of Welding)
These blocks must be prepared from material with the same or similar alloy content, heat
treatment and amount of hot or cold working as the material to be inspected, to ensure equal sonic
velocity, attenuation and acoustic impedance in both the reference standard and the test piece. If
the blocks of identical material not available, the difference between material in the test piece and
the material used in the standard reference blocks must be determined experimentally.

Area Amplitude Blocks [Alcoa Series A]

Metal distance is the distance from the top surface of the block to the flat bottom hole. The metal
distance is the same for all the blocks in an Area Amplitude set (i.e.) 3". But the size of the flat
bottom hole is different.

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
Ultrasonic inspection is carried out on plates, weldments, forgings, castings etc in accordance with
the code requirements. These requirements and performance tolerances vary from one code to
another, but their basic intent remains the same, to assure accurate and linear data presentation.
Tolerance specified in this lesson generally reflects the requirements of ASME Sec V which is
guidance and it may or may not satisfy a particular code requirements.

Linearity
Prior to carry out any ultrasonic inspection, system performance or instrument's linearity is to be
checked, at the beginning of each period of extended use or on periodic basis. Linearity can be best
defined as the signals occurring after equal time interval (e.g. multiple echoes from back wall) should
appear with equal spacing from CRT.

Horizontal linearity
The horizontal linearity of an instrument can be determined by placing a straight beam transducer on
a suitable calibration block and adjusting delay and sweep controls to display multiple echo patterns.
Instrument reject control should be off for all linearity checks. The echoes should be then adjusted as
close as possible to their respective scale divisions.

The relationship between the displayed thickness and the true material thickness is used to verify
horizontal linearity.

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Vertical linearity

The vertical linearity of an instrument can be assured by displaying two indications (1st and 2nd
BWE) on X-axis. This can be accomplished by coupling a straight beam transducer on calibration
block to get echoes near mid position on X-axis. The echoes should be adjusted 100% and 50% full
screen height by use of the instrument gain control.

Defect Sizing
It is understood that the echo height seen on the screen is reflected energy. The echo height to be
representative of area of reflector, the centre of the reflector should be on beam axis lying
perpendicular such as FBH.

The Natural reflector in a material is unlikely to be a nature of FBH, so when a defect is sized it
should be clearly understood that it is Equivalent Flaw size (EFS) and not Actual Flaw size.

Defects can be said to be small or large. Large reflector is the one whose diameter is greater than the
beam cross section at the testing range. Small reflector is encircled at the testing range by the beam
cross section.

INTERPRETATION OF SIGNALS
The interpretation of ultrasonic pulses received from test part reflective surfaces can be very
complex, depending upon the geometry of the test piece and the wave mode/scan approach being
used. The most reliable measure available from an A Scan system is the time of arrival of acoustic
pulses, due to its lack of ambiguity when testing line-grained, homogeneous materials. In contact
testing of materials with known and constant sound wave velocities, the time of arrival is directly
proportional to the distance between the contact surface and the reflector. The precise time of
arrival is usually determined by when the pulse initially departs from the screen baseline. Systems
using threshold devices to trigger delay time monitors can be in error, depending upon the slope
of the pulses rise tune and the level to which the threshold device is set.

ADVANTAGES OF UT
Rapid results
Both surface and sub-surface flaw detection
Safe
Capable of measuring the depth of defects
May be battery powered
Portable

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DISADVANTAGES OF UT
Trained and skilled operator required
Requires high operator skill
Good surface finish of the test part required
Specific nature of defect identification
Couplant may contaminate the test object
No permanent record

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CHAPTER – 10

VIBRATION ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION
Vibration analysis is widely used in predictive maintenance programs involving pumps, motors,
gearboxes, turbines, fans, and compressors, as well as all types of vehicles, heavy machinery,
bridges, and civil engineering structures. Excessive vibration of equipment under load can be
caused by wear, corrosion, or even forces of nature, and is a major cause of equipment or
structure failure. In many cases, excessive vibration causes excessive noise.

Vibration and sound measurements are used to determine absolute bearing vibration, general
bearing condition and relative shaft vibration.

Perhaps one of our earliest encounters with vibration and sound was in an elementary school
music class when the teacher showed us a set of tuning forks and struck them one at a time on a
solid object. Each tuning fork produced a different tone as it vibrated at its natural or resonant
frequency. By touching both tines of the fork, the teacher dampened the vibration and stopped the
sound. We learned that sound and vibration are closely related.

Vibration testing is the shaking or shocking of a component or assembly to see how well it will
stand up to everyday use and abuse. Vibration analysis is a broad subject involving many
techniques. Applications include the testing of airplanes, appliances, bridges, buildings, circuit
boards, computers, instruments, rotating equipment, spacecraft, satellites, and vehicles.
Equipment used in vibration testing includes climate-controlled chambers, controllers, data
analyzers, instruments, sensors, and impulse and vibration exciters.

In general, we must shake the structure and sense the amplitude and frequencies of vibration.
With heavy rotating equipment like engines, motors, turbines, and compressors, we want the main
rotor to turn smoothly and quietly. When you listen to vibrations in bearing housings, you may
hear periodic thumping sounds instead of a smooth whirling sound, indicating potential bearing
problems.

Vibration analysis is an important consideration in many industries. Automobiles are protected

against shock, vibration, wind, and rain by their structural design, pneumatic tires, gaskets, shock
absorbers, motor mounts, springs, and protective finishes. Military equipment and components
must be “hardened” or protected against shock, vibration, dust, sand storms, high temperatures,
and moisture. Individual components and complete assemblies are often tested using “shakers” or
“shaker tables” capable of generating variable but controlled shock and vibration loads. Shakers
can be mechanically, electrohydraulically, or electromagnetically driven over frequency ranges of
10 to 55 Hz, 0 to 500 Hz, and 5 to 2 kHz, respectively. Mechanical shakers are the easiest to
maintain and the least expensive, but they cannot produce random vibrations. Electromagnetic
shakers produce the purest sine waves, but they are more difficult to maintain and the most
expensive. Mechanical shakers are limited to a stroke of about 0.1 in., whereas the other shakers

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have stroke ranges of several inches. Reaction masses are typically used with both mechanical
and electrohydraulic shakers, but not electromagnetic shakers.

PRINCIPLES/THEORY
Modes of Vibration
Almost everything from relatively simple molecules to some of the world’s largest buildings
vibrates at what is known as fundamental or resonant frequencies. The vibration of a string fixed
at both ends is a simple transverse mode. The fixed ends of the string are nodes and the
wavelength and frequency of the string for the fundamental and first two harmonic modes of
vibration are given by:

λ = 2 L; f1 = v / 2 L (fundamental mode)
λ = L; f2 = v / L (1st harmonic)
λ = 2 L/ 3; f3 = 3 v/ 2 L (2nd harmonic)

where λ = wavelength of the string

f = frequency of the string
v = velocity of the string

An infinite number of harmonics, odd and even, can be developed for a vibrating string. The
nodes and antinodes of vibrating strings are opposite to those of air columns.

Resonance
Resonant frequency is a natural frequency of vibration determined by the physical parameters of a
vibrating object. Objects resonate when the frequency of the driving force coincides with the
natural frequency of the driven system. Physically determined natural frequencies apply
universally to the fields of modern physics, mechanics, electricity, and magnetism. Increasing
loads at resonant frequencies can increase stress and even cause catastrophic failures. Soldiers
keeping cadence while marching across a bridge could be an example of this. Some
characteristics of resonance are:
Most objects have multiple resonant frequencies.

Any object composed of an elastic material will vibrate at its own set of natural or resonant
frequencies when disturbed.

It is easy to get an object to vibrate at its resonant frequencies and extremely difficult to get
them to vibrate at other frequencies

SOURCES OF VIBRATION
Rotating equipment, which is subject to excessive vibration and wear, are motors, gearboxes,
pumps, blowers, fans, compressors, and turbines. Individual components within this type of
equipment that are most subject to wear, vibration and noise are bearings, couplings, rotors, gears,
and impellers. Correct alignment and balance of new rotating equipment is a key to preventing

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early component failures. Original equipment manufacturers often supply detailed information on
installation, alignment, and balance of new, heavy industrial equipment.

VIBRATION ANALYSIS METHOD

Noise analysis
Noise analysis is often used to assure environmental compliance with OSHA and local zoning
regulations. Noise detectors can also be used to find and identify the sources of noise and paths of
transmission, and identify radiating surfaces.

Sound level meters (SLMs) are frequently used for noise analysis. The sound level meter
measures the decibel (dB) level of noise and is used to perform octave and 1–3 octave band
analysis. The output of the SLM can be fed into a spectrum analyzer to identify discrete frequency
components in the noise spectrum.

Acoustic intensity testing with two microphones is a preferred noise analysis tool. The dual
microphone system measures sound vectors whose calibration enables rapid determination of
overall radiated sound power levels. Acoustic intensity is a useful tool for positive identification
of individual noise sources.

STRESS ANALYSIS
Strain gauges are frequently used to determine material stress due to static and dynamic loads
coming from internal and external sources, such as mechanical, thermal, and pressure. Strain
gauges are typically bonded or welded to the test surface. A single strain gauge in a 1–4 -bridge
arrangement can be used to measure strain along a single axis.

Rotating Equipment Analysis

Rotating equipment analysis is used to assess the general mechanical health of rotating and
reciprocating machinery. Waterfall plots and order tracking can be used to quantify operational
characteristics and the critical speed of rotating machinery in both the frequency and time
domains. A waterfall plot shows test object vibration frequency on the x-axis, amplitude of
vibration on the y-axis, and time on the z-axis. Another popular presentation, used in conjunction
with order tracking, is to show orders on the x-axis, amplitude on the y-axis, and rpm on the z-
axis. A spectrogram is another method for showing 3D data. It is similar to viewing a waterfall
plot from the top so that color or shades of gray accentuate the amplitude of vibration. Waterfall
analysis is used to examine data trends versus machine shaft speed (rpm) and elapsed time.

Order is an expression that relates a subsynchronous, synchronous, or nonsynchronous frequency

to rotating shaft turning speed (TS).

FAILURE ANALYSIS
Failure analysis attempts to explain what happened to cause an unexpected, premature, or
catastrophic structural failure. All contributing factors must be examined to determine the root
cause. Structures, large and small, fail because of fatigue damage caused by restrained thermal
expansion, repetitively applied external loads or forces, and internal vibration sources. Failure
analysis uses stress analysis and strain gauge testing to determine the stress state in the region of
failure initiation. Based on the material’s properties, it can be determined if the failure was
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initiated by low cycle failure, high cycle failure, or if a crack grew to critical size and
catastrophically failed due to repetitive stress and other factors such as corrosion.

When applied to rotating and reciprocating equipment, failure analysis can be used to identify
contributing premature component failures such as bearing breakage or reduced bearing life.
When combined with strain gauge testing, failure analysis identifies the source of the fatigue
damage that caused a pressure vessel to fail or a fan blade to break. Visual and microscopic
examinations of failed components can also provide valuable insights as to the causes and modes
of failure.

SENSORS
Strain gauges
Strain gauges are frequently used for failure analysis studies that may be run concurrently with
vibration analysis studies. A resistance strain gauge consists of a thin wire that is strain sensitive
and changes dimensions elastically. The gauge is mounted on a backing material that insulates the
wire from the test structure. Strain gauges are calibrated based on a manufacturer’s specified
gauge factor.

Accelerometers
Accelerometers are transducers whose output is an electrical/mechanical signal that is directly
proportional to the received acceleration forces (g). When shock or vibration is transmitted to the
piezoelectric crystals, the accelerometer generates a current pulse or series of pulses proportional
to the applied forces. The current is usually converted to a voltage, amplified, and displayed as a
time waveform (acceleration force vs. time) or processed by a fast Fourier transform (FFT) to
produce a frequency (voltage vs. frequency) display.

Velocity sensors
Velocity sensors are electrodynamic transducers that produce a voltage proportional to the
vibratory velocity induced in a moving coil by a permanent magnet arrangement. The coil is
suspended on two leaf springs and forms a frictionless spring-mass system. When the transducer
is attached to a vibrating component, its coil remains stationary in space at frequencies above the
transducer’s natural frequency while the permanent magnet vibrates with the object, thus
producing an induced voltage in the coil.

The velocity sensor requires no additional power and is therefore considered an active sensor. The
natural frequency varies based on the manufacturer’s model. Below the natural frequency of the
transducer, the electronic frequency response is linearized. Instrument readout is calibrated to
provide a high-accuracy measurement of absolute vibration. Absolute bearing vibrations can be
measured with velocity transducers covering the range of 1.0 to 2000Hz.

Disadvantages of the velocity sensor are its upper limit frequency of 2000 Hz and its
susceptibility to error in the presence of strong magnetic fields.

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Displacement sensors
Noncontacting displacement sensors can be permanently mounted on large machines to
determine:
Relative shaft vibration
Relative shaft displacement
Relative expansion between shaft and housing
Rotational speed, direction, standstill
Eccentricity

CORRECTION METHODS
Alignment and Balance
Correcting the alignment and balance of new rotating equipment produces smooth-running
equipment and extends its life.

Vibration Damping
Damping refers to anything that soaks up energy, reducing the amount of energy converted into
vibratory movement. Motor mounts on an automobile engine would be an example. Critical
damping refers to applying the smallest amount of damping that is required to return a system to
vibration-free equilibrium. The damping factor or damping ratio (z) is the ratio of actual damping
to critical damping.

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CHAPTER – 11

VISUAL TESTING

Visual inspection is a non destructive testing technique that provides a means of detecting and
examining a variety of surface flaws such as corrosion, contamination, surface finish and surface
discontinuities on joints (for example, welds seals, solder connections and adhesive bonds).

PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
Velocity of light
All forms of electromagnetic radiation, including light, travel through a vacuum at the same
velocity, 299,793 km/s (186,282 miles/s). When light travels through any other medium, the
velocity and wavelength is altered. The frequency remains fixed and is independent of the
medium. The difference in the time it takes light to travel through different mediums is
responsible for many of the principles used in optical instruments.

V = fλ/n
where V = velocity of light in the medium
λ = wavelength
f = frequency
n = refractive index of the medium

Light is defined as that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelength s between 380
nm and 770 nm

Reflection
Light is reflected when it strikes a smooth surface. The direction of the reflected beam can be
determined by constructing a line perpendicular to the reflecting surface. The angle of reflection
is the same as the angle of incidence compared to the perpendicular, or normal line.

Refraction
The change in speed that occurs when light passes from one medium to another is responsible for
the bending of light, or refraction, that takes place at an interface.

If light is traveling from medium 1 into medium 2, and angles are measured from the normal to
the interface, the angle of transmission of the light into the second medium is related to the angle
of incidence by Snell's law.

Snell's Law:

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
where θ1 = angle of incident
θ2 = angle of refraction
n1 = refraction index of incident (first) medium
n2 = refraction index of refracted (second) medium
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Color of light
Color of light is determined by its wave length. Most light sources are not monochromatic and are
comprised of many wavelengths. All visible colors can be created by mixing proper amount of the
primary colors. Primary colors are Blue, Green and Red.

The color of objects created by reflected light is created using subtractive primaries. Each
subtractive primary absorbs one of the additive primaries and reflects the other two. The
subtractive primaries are magenta, yellow, and cyan

Contrast
Contrast is a property of the difference between an object and its background of either luminance
or color. Luminance contrast is the difference in reflected light between discontinuity and its
background.

MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT
Radiometry is the measurement of radiant energy including visible light and energy outside the
visible spectrum. The measurement of light properties by visual comparison is known as
photometry.

Most common photometric device is human eye.

LAWS OF PHOTOMETRY
Inverse square law: The illuminance (E) of a point on a surface is directly proportional to the
luminous intensity (I) of the light source and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
(d), from the source to the point.

E = I / d2

Lambert cosine law:- The Illuminance (E) of a surface varies with the Cosine of the angle of
incidence ( θ).

E = I cosθ
where I = source illuminance
E = surface illuminance
θ = angle of incidence

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THE HUMAN EYE

Those components of the eye with the greatest mechanical relationship to vision can be compared
to the parts of a camera. The primary control of the eye’s ability to adapt to different light
conditions is due to the operation of the pupil and the iris.

The pupil is the central aperture of

the eye. Although it appears black
in color, it is transparent to light.
The pupil is contracted and dilated
by the iris to modulate the amount
of light reaching the retina. The
pupil also corrects some of the
chromatic and spherical aberrations
of the retina and increases the depth
of field.

The iris, named for its various flower-like colors, consists of a thin circular curtain and the dilator
and sphincter papillae muscles. These muscles expand and contract the aperture of the pupil. Its
function is comparable to the diaphragm of a camera.

Much of the function of the eye is similar to that of a refracting instrument. The comparison of
the eye to a camera illustrates these functions as well. The majority of the focusing ability of the
eye is provided by the cornea and the crystalline lens with minor assistance from the pupil and the
refractive index of the vitreous humor and aqueous humor. The cornea covers the iris and pupil
and provides about 70 percent of the eye’s refractive ability.

The crystalline lens provides most of the remaining 30 percent of the eye’s refracting power. It is
responsible for the adjustment of focus to maintain a sharp retinal image as the distance between
the eye and the object being viewed changes. By the process of accommodation, the crystalline
lens is allowed to relax to a thinner shape for far vision or it is thickened in order to provide near
vision. This is comparable to the movement of the focusing lenses in a camera.

The retina is a delicate nervous membrane at the back of the eye that converts light into an
electrical signal and transmits theses signals, via the optic nerve, to the brain. The retina faces the
vitreous humor and is backed by the choroids.

The retina is a mosaic of two basic types of photoreceptors: rods, and cones. Rods are sensitive to
blue-green light with peak sensitivity at a wavelength of 498 nm, and are used for vision under
dark or dim conditions. There are three types of cones that give us our basic color vision: L-cones
(red) with a peak sensitivity of 564 nm, M-cones (green) with a peak sensitivity of 533 nm, and S-
cones (blue) with a peak sensitivity of 437 nm.

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Rods and cones are the visual receptors of the retina. Rods are much more numerous in the retina
than cones. When given adequate time, the rods will respond to much lower intensities of light
due to the production of visual purple, or rhodopsin. The rhodopsin is bleached out at very low
light intensities. This bleaching action probably creates visual sensation due to an
electrochemical process. Rods, which are concentrated in the outer portion of the retina, are the
components that create vision at low light levels.

Cones are concentrated at the fovea centralis, where there is almost a complete absence of rods.
There are three types of cones in the retina characterized by the sensitivity of the pigments to a
specific wavelength of light. The peaks of these wavelengths are at 445 nm, 535 nm, and 570 nm
corresponding to blue, green, and yellow respectively.

The fovea centralis is located in the center of the retina and it has approximately 18 times as many
cones as rods. This region of the eye is of primary importance for determining vision acuity and
color vision. The macula, which surrounds the fovea centralis, is a yellow pigmented disk. The
yellow pigment absorbs blue light, which changes the perception of color in the cones of this
central region.

The optic nerve is connected to the retina approximately 3 mm (0.1 in.) away from the body
centerline from the macula. This is the only portion of the retina that has no visual imaging
ability.

The structural components of the eye are the choroids, the sclera, the vitreous humor, and the
aqueous humor. The vitreous humor and the aqueous humor are the liquids that fill the interior
chambers of the eyeball. The aqueous humor is located between the cornea and the iris. The
vitreous humor fills the cavity between the retina and the lens. Both liquids provide support to
the eye’s structure and provide refracting ability. The choroids and sclera form the outer sphere
of the eye. The sclera form the outer sphere of the eye. The sclera is visible as the white portion
of the eyeball.

The six muscles of the eye’s extraoculer system provide the necessary motion for focusing and
tracking ability. These large scale eye movements are divided into version and vergence.
Version is where both eyes move simultaneously in the same direction and vergence is where the
two eyes move in equal and opposite directions.

In addition to the large scale movements, the eye makes constant small movements. These
saccadic movements are high frequency tremors of 10-60 minutes of arc that occur even when the
observer considers the vision to be fixed on an object. Saccadic motion is necessary for the visual
process to continue. If the eye remains stationary, the cones become saturated and lose their
ability to provide an image.

Safety of eyes
Exposure to high frequency visible light at high intensities and long durations that may damage
the retina, and does not elevate retinal temperatures enough to cause thermal hazard is called blue
hazard.

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Prolonged exposure to infrared radiation can cause hyperthermia

Vision acuity
Vision acuity, the ability to discern detail, is a product of the concentration of cones in the fovea
centralis. This high cone concentration extends outward from the center of the eye approximately
2-3 degrees. Vision acuity decreases rapidly as the retinal image of the object is moved away
from the fovea. Visual acuity includes the measurement of resolution acuity, recognition acuity
and temporal resolution.

The standard definition of normal visual acuity (20/20 vision) is the ability to resolve a spatial
pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute of arc. Since one degree contains sixty minutes,
a visual angle of one minute of arc is 1/60 of a degree.

The vision acuity of the inspector may be assessed at both near and far distances. The 20/20
Snellen vision test is performed at 6 m (20 ft) and is the most common far vision acuity test.

As per SNT-TC-1A (2006), for near vision acuity the applicant should be able to read a minimum
of Jaeger No. 2 (J2) at minimum distance of 305 mm (12 inches) and the near vision acuity exam
is to be done annually for those persons working with NDT.

As per cp-189 (2006) for near vision acuity the applicant should be able to read a minimum of
Jaeger No. 1 (J1).

When not clearly defined by code or specification, it is necessary to clearly state the distance to
be used for vision acuity examinations.

ASME codes require 20/20 or 20/30 vision. Aerospace standards require near vision acuity
assessment using a Jaeger No. 1 or No.2 (J1, J2), or equivalent.

VISUAL INSPECTION
Visual inspection is also the most widely used method for detecting and examining the surface
cracks, which are particularly important because of their relationship to structural failure
mechanisms. Even when other non destructive techniques are used to detect surface cracks, visual
inspection often provides a useful supplement. For example, when the eddy current examination
of process tubing is performed to verify and more closely examine the surface disturbance.

Given the wide variety of surface flaws that may be detectable by visual examination, the use of
visual inspection may encompass different techniques, depending on the product and the type of
surface flaw being monitored.

The method of visual inspection involve a wide variety of equipment, ranging from examination
with the naked eye to the use of interference microscopes for measuring the depth of scratches in
the finish of finely polished or lapped surfaces.

Some of the equipment used to aid visual inspection includes:

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Flexible or rigid boroscopes for illuminating and observing internal, closed or otherwise
inaccessible areas
Image sensors for remote sensing or for the development of permanent visual records in the form
of photographs, video tapes or computer enhanced images. Magnifying system for evaluating
surface finish, surface shapes and surface micro structures

BOROSCOPES
A boroscope is a long, tubular optical device that illuminates and allows the inspection of surfaces
inside arrow tubes or difficult to reach chambers. The tube which can be rigid or flexible with
wide varieties of length and diameters provides the necessary optical connection between the
viewing and an objective lens at the distant, or tip of the borescope.

Magnification of a borescope optical system depends on the object lens, middle lens and ocular

Rigid borescopes
Rigid borescopes are generally limited to applications with a straight line path between the
observer and the area to be observed. The sizes range in lengths from 1m and up to few meters
and in diameters from 0.9 to 70 mm. Magnification is usually 3 to 4X, but powers up to 50X are
available. The illumination system is either an incandescent lamp located at the distal end or a
light guide bundle made from optical fibers that conduct light from an external source.

Flexible borescopes
Flexible borescopes are used primarily in applications that do not have a straight passage way to
the point of observation. The two types of flexible boroscopes are flexible fibrescopes and video
scopes with a CCD image sensor at the distal tip.

In flexible boroscope the image remains round and sharp until the tube is bent up to an angle of
45º

Flexible fibrescopes
A typical fiber scope consists of a light guide bundle, an objective lens, interchangeable viewing
heads, and remote controls for articulation of the distal tip. Fibrescopes are available in diameters
from 1.4 mm to 13 mm and in lengths up to 12 m. Special quartz fiberscope is available in lengths
up to 90 m.

The fibers used in the light guide bundle are generally with diameter of 30 µm. The second
optical bundle, called the image guide, is used to carry the image formed by the objective lens
back to the eye piece. The fibers in the image guide must be precisely aligned so that they are in
an identical relative position to each other at their terminations for proper image resolution.

The interchangeable distal tips provide various directions and fields of view on the single
fibrescopes. However, because the tip can be articulated for scanning purposes, distal tips with
either a forward or side viewing direction are usually sufficient.
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Video scopes with CCD probes

It involves the electronic transmission of color or black and white images to a video monitor. The
distal end of electronic videoscopes contains a CCD chip, which consists of thousands of light
sensitive elements arrayed in a pattern of rows and columns. The objective lens focuses the image
of an object on the surface of the CCD chip, where the light is converted to electrons is stored in
each picture element, or pixel, of the CCD device.

Measuring borescopes and fiberscopes

Contain a movable cursor that allows measurements during viewing. When the object under
measurement is in focus, the movable cursor provides a reference for dimensional measurements
in the optical plane of the object. This capability eliminates the need to know the object to lens
distance when determining magnification factors.

Selection of boroscopes
Flexible and rigid boroscopes are available in a wide variety of standard and customized designs,
and several factors can influence the selection of a scale for a particular application. These factors
include focusing, illumination, magnification, working lengths, direction of view and
environment.

Focusing and resolution

If portions of long objects are at different planes, the scope must have sufficient focus adjustment
to achieve an adequate depth of filed. If the scope has a fixed focal length, the object will be in
focus only at a specific lens to object distance.

Illumination
The required intensity of the light source is determined by the reflectivity of the surface, the area
of surface to be illuminated, and the transmission losses over the length of the scope. At working
lengths greater than 6 meter, rigid boroscopes with a lamp at the distal end provide the greatest
amount of illumination over the widest area. However the heat generated by the light source may
deform rubber or plastic materials.

Magnification and field of view

Magnification and field of view are inter-related; as magnification is increased, the field of view
is increased The precise relationship between magnification and field of view is specified by the
manufacturer.

Working length
In addition to the obvious need for a scope of sufficient length, the working length can sometimes
dictate the use of a particular type of scope. For example, a rigid horoscope with a along working
length may be limited by the need for additional supports. In general, videoscopes allow a longer
working length than fiberscopes.

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Direction of view
The selection of viewing direction is influenced by the location of the access port in relation to the
object to be observed. Flexible fiberscopes or videoscopes, because of their articulating tip, are
often adequate with either a side or forward viewing tip.

Circumferential or panoramic heads are designed for the inspection of tubing or other cylindrical
structures. A centrally located mirror permits right angle viewing of an area just scanned by the
panoramic view.

The forward viewing head permits the inspection of the area directly ahead of the viewing head. It
is commonly used when examining facing walls or the bottoms of blind holes and cavities.

Forward - oblique heads bend the viewing direction at an angle to the horoscope axis, permitting
the inspection of comers at the end of a bored hole. The retrospective viewing head bends the
cone of view at a retrospective angle to the horoscope axis, providing a view of the area just
passed by the advancing horoscope. It is especially suited to inspecting the inside neck of
cylinders and bottles.

The angles for the fore-oblique direction of view borescope are 1 − 89º.

A light source that can be used to study fast moving test objects by making them appear to move
slowly is called stroboscope.

Applications
Boroscopes are also extensively used in variety of manufacturing industries to ensure the product
quality of difficult to reach components. Manufactures of hydraulic cylinders, for example, use
boroscopes to examine the interiors of bores for pitting, scoring and tool marks. Aircraft and
aerospace manufacturers also use boroscopes to verify the proper placement and fit of seals,
bonds, gaskets, and sub assemblies in difficult to reach regions.

MAGNIFYING SYSTEMS
In addition to the use of microscopes in the metallographic examination of micro structures,
magnifying systems are also used in visual reference gauging. When tolerances are too tight to
judge by eye alone, optical comparators or tool maker's microscopes are used to achieve
magnifications ranging from 5X to 500X.

A tool maker's microscope consists of a microscope mounted on a base that carries an adjustable
stage, a stage transport mechanism, and supplementary lighting. Micrometers barrels are often
incorporated into the stage transport mechanism to permit precisely controlled movements, and
digital read outs of stage positioning are becoming increasingly available. Various objective
lenses provide magnifications ranging from 10 to 200X.

Optical comparators are magnifying devices that project the silhouette of small parts onto a large
projection screen. The magnified silhouette is then compared against an optical comparators
chart, which is magnified out line drawing of the work piece being gauged. Optical comparators
are available with magnifications ranging from 5 to 500X.
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