Volume 7, Issue 3, March – 2022 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165

Applications of Geophysical Methods for Subsurface

Geological and Geotechnical Assessment - An Overview
Srinaiah J*., Senthil P., D.V. Sarwade and Hari Dev
Central Soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi

Abstract:- The Geophysical methods involve seismic reflection and electrical resistivity geophysical
investigations on the surface with the aim to delineate methods were common and used in pre-feasibility
subsurface details. This is achieved by measuring certain applications (E Martinho and A Dionísio, 2014). The
physical properties and interpreting them in terms of geophysical methods can be used in different stages such as
subsurface geological features. A number of geophysical feasibility, design, construction and post-construction.
methods like Seismic refraction, Seismic reflection, Choice and selection of available geophysical methods is
Seismic tomography, Multi-Channel Analysis of Surface based the stage of applications, objective and based on
waves (MASW), Ground Penetration Radar (GPR), advantage and limitations of each methods (CSMRS Booklet,
Resistivity, Self-Potential (SP), Magnetic, Gravity and 1992).
Well Logging methods are available. These methods can
be employed to solve various geotechnical engineering In this paper, an attempt has been made to summarize
problems such as Subsurface characterization, the different geophysical methods used in geotechnical
Engineering properties, Highway subsidence, Ground applications, their principle, its applications and limitations
water delineation, Health study of dams, Phreatic surface for better understanding.
determination, Seepage detection and Locating buried
manmade objects. The present paper discusses about II. SEISMIC METHODS
different available geophysical methods, its applications
and limitations. Many-a- time’s single geophysical Seismic methods involve measuring the propagation of
methods may not yield the desired result due to their seismic waves through earth materials.
limitations. In such cases two or more methods can be
integrated for better understanding of subsurface.  Seismic Refraction Method
Seismic refraction involves measuring the travel time of
Keywords:- Site Characterization, Geophysical Methods, the component of seismic energy which travels down to the
Geological Assessment Geotechnical Engineering Problems. top of rock (or other distinct density contrast), is refracted
along the top of rock, and returns to the surface as a head
I. INTRODUCTION wave along a wave front. The waves which return from the
top of rock are refracted waves, and for geophones at a
The geophysical methods have been applied and distance from the shot point, always represent the first arrival
accepted for geotechnical engineering problems since of seismic energy. Seismic refraction is generally applicable
decades. Obviously, the focus has been on geotechnical only where the seismic velocities of layers increase with
projects using geophysical methods to investigate the depth. Therefore, where higher velocity layers may overlie
complex subsurface as a base for large engineering structures lower velocity layers, seismic refraction may yield incorrect
such as dams, bridges and buildings. The review focuses results (IS 15681: 2006). In addition, since seismic refraction
mostly on all geophysical methods for geotechnical requires geophone arrays with lengths of approximately 4 to
engineering application and limitations. Recently several 5 times the depth to the density contrast of interest (e.g. the
modern geophysical methods have been adopted for top of bedrock), seismic refraction is commonly limited to
geotechnical investigation in various fields. They help to mapping layers only where they occur at depths less than 50
improve the quality of imaging the subsurface geological m. Greater depths are possible, but the required array lengths
layers and detect even small variations in subsurface features may exceed site dimensions, and the shot energy required to
(Anderson, N.L., 2006). Use of integrated Seismic transmit seismic arrivals for the required distances may
Refraction Survey, Electrical Resistivity Survey and Ground necessitate the use of very large explosive charges. Seismic
Penetrating Radar (GPR) methods for selection of bridge refraction surveys very important role in geotechnical
alignment amongst two alternatives. Earlier, conventional engineering applications (Romero-Ruiz et al., 2019).

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Volume 7, Issue 3, March – 2022 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
Application of Seismic Refraction method for Geotechnical Engineering studies
S. No Primary application Secondary application
1 Mapping lithology (< 50 m depth) Mapping lithology (> 50 m depth)
2 Construction material surveys Mapping ground water cones of depression
3 Determining volume of organic materials in filled in lakes or Mapping bed rock topography (>50 m depth)
karst features.
4 Mapping bed rock topography (<50 m depth) Mapping sub-bedrock structure
5 Delineating steeply dipping geological contacts (< 50 m depth) Delineating steeply dipping geological contacts
(> 50 m depth)
6 Identifying regions of potential weakness (shear zones and Identifying regions of potential weakness
faults < 50 m depth (shear zones and faults > 50 m depth
7 Identifying near surface karstic sinkholes and the lateral extent Mapping air-filled cavities, tunnels ( >50 m
of their chaotic, brecciated and otherwise disrupted ground depth)
8 Estimating rippability Mapping filled cavities, tunnels
9 Foundation integrity studies Mapping archeological sites (buried Ferro-
magnetic, nonmagnetic excavation, burials, etc.)
10 Dam-site integrity studies Mapping locating landfills
11 Determining in situ dynamic rock properties Mapping major discontinuities orientation (near
(Young’s modulus and Poisson ratio) surface bedrock)
12 Mapping abandoned in-filled open-pit mines and quarries (<50 Landslide site evaluation
m depth)

 Seismic Reflection Method to detect features in the subsurface along the particular survey
Seismic reflection involves imaging the sub-surface line. 3D seismic exploration involves using a grid of surface
layers using artificially generated seismic waves. Typically, receivers to detect the reflected seismic energy generated by
small dynamite explosions or vibratory sources are used to each seismic source. 3D seismic data yields a much more
generate seismic waves at or near the surface. Receiving extensive and higher-resolution image of the subsurface than
devices (geophones) are placed on the surface to detect the 2D seismic data. This makes 3D seismic more attractive in
seismic energy that originates from the seismic source, which terms of being able to contribute significantly to the structural
travels down into the earth and gets partially reflected back to and Stratigraphy understanding of a mine and oil & gas area.
the surface at each geological boundary. 2D seismic The shallow seismic reflection method has been found a
exploration involves acquiring seismic data along a single significant range of from engineering to ground water
line of receivers. The resultant 2D seismic image can be used exploration and geotechnical studies (Sharma PV, 1986)

Application of Seismic Refection method for Geotechnical Engineering studies

S. No Primary application Secondary application
1 Mapping lithology (> 50 m depth) Mapping lithology (< 50 m depth)
2 Determining volume of organic materials in filled in lakes or Mapping ground water cones of depression
karst features
3 Mapping bed rock topography (>50 m depth) Identifying regions of potential weakness
(shear zones and faults < 50 m depth)
4 Mapping sub-bedrock structure Mapping air-filled cavities, tunnels (<50 m
depth)
5 Delineating steeply dipping geological contracts (> 50 m depth) Detecting abandoned mines shafts
6 Identifying near surface karstic sinkholes and the lateral extent
of their chaotic, brecciated and otherwise disrupted ground
7 Mapping air-filled cavities, tunnels (>50 m depth)
8 Mapping filled cavities, tunnels
9 Mapping abandoned in-filled open-pit mines and quarries (>50
m depth)
10 Mapping abandoned underground mines (>50 m depth)

 Cross- hole seismic tomography (CST) seismic tomography consists of knowledge of a subject
Seismic tomography can be defined as the medium through seismic rays to consequently plot a map of
determination of the spatial variation of acoustic velocity seismic wave propagation velocities. The method has proven
from external measurement of a parameter that is influenced to be useful for solution with high resolution P-and S-wave
by that property by way of a line integral relationship (De velocity data for wide range of geotechnical engineering
Benedetto, et al., 2012). CST method is performed by applications. In the cross- hole tomography, the source and
lowering source & receiver in two different boreholes and receivers operate closely to the investigated structure and are
generating both P-waves and S-waves. The objective of a not distorted by traveling through highly heterogeneous and

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 Volume 7, Issue 3, March – 2022 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
attenuated near subsurface layers (Mikhail Lebedev, and in terms of acoustic velocity is a function of elastic moduli
Kirill Dorokhin, 2013). These methods involve measuring the and density (IS 13372 (Part 2): 1992).
travel times and amplitudes of seismic energy P and S waves

Application of Cross hole Seismic tomography method

for Geotechnical Engineering studies
S. No Primary application Secondary application
1 Mapping lithology with high resolution Mapping abandoned underground mines
2 Foundation integrity studies with high resolution Detecting abandoned mines shafts
3 Mapping bed rock topography with high resolution Mapping fracture orientation (near surface bedrock)
4 Identifying regions of potential weakness Locating buries drums, pipelines, and other Ferro-
(shear zones and faults up to 100 m depth) magnetic, nonmagnetic objects
5 Mapping filled cavities, tunnels with high resolution Estimating in situ rock properties (Saturation, porosity,
permeability)
6 Dam-site integrity studies with high resolution Mapping abandoned in-filled open-pit mines and quarries
7 Determining in situ dynamic rock properties -
(Young’s modulus and Poisson ratio)

 Multi-Channel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW)

The multi-channel analysis of surface waves (MASW) The application of this technique includes Soil-bed rock
method was first introduced into geo-technical and mapping, seismic site characterization and evaluation of
geophysical community by (Momayez, et al., 2013) although bearing capacity, compaction, grouting and also the efficacy
earlier development versions came out several years prior. of any ground improvement method. Equipment for MASW
Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) method includes multichannel analysis seismograph (24-channel or
gives the shear velocity (Vs) in the depth range of 0 to 30 m. higher), 4.5 Hz geophones, cable with takeout at 5 m spacing,
It involves measurement of arrival times of seismic surface power source can be 12V car battery and seismic source can
waves generated from seismic sources at predetermined be sledge hammer or weight drop. Interpretation of the data
pattern and analyses the propagation velocities. Interpretation requires software and trained person to generate shear wave
of data requires software’s to produce profile of Vs variations velocity profiles (Alex Varughese, et al., 2017).
in 1D/2D/3D.

Application of MASW method for Geotechnical Engineering studies

S. No Primary application Secondary application
1 Seismic Site Characterization Detection and monitoring of areas of insufficiently dense subbase
2 Foundation integrity studies (<30 m ) Mapping abandoned in-filled open-pit mines and quarries
3 Dam-site integrity studies (<30 m ) Landslide site evaluation
4 Evaluation of ground improvement methods Mapping archeological sites ( buried Ferro-magnetic objects)
such as compacting, grouting etc.
5 Bed rock mapping (<30 m) Determining in situ dynamic rock properties (Young’s modulus
and Poisson ratio) – with P-wave data

III. ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD- GROUND in the laboratory or in-situ. A typical GPR unit consists of a
PENETRATION RADAR (GPR) transmitting and receiving antenna, where the transmitting
antenna generates an EM pulse that travels into the subsurface
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a high resolution and then reflects off an interface or scatters off point sources
electromagnetic methods that is designed primarily to (both caused by a contrast in relative permittivity). This
investigate the shallow subsurface of the earth, building reflected/scattered energy then travels back to the surface,
material, and road and bridges (Baker, G.S., et al., 2007). where it is recorded by the receiving antenna. The time it
Senthil et.al., 2021 has presented comprehensive study on takes for the wave to travel down to an interface and back up
different applications of GPR such as utility detection, bed to the surface is called the travel time, and it is used to
rock delineation and dam health investigations. GPR utilizes determine the in-situ propagation velocity of the subsurface
propagating EM waves that respond to changes in the material. The velocity (distance/travel time) for an EM wave
electromagnetic properties of the shallow subsurface. The in Earth’s atmosphere at or near sea level is 0.33 m/ns.
propagation velocity of EM waves, which is the principal Because the relative permittivity of all earth materials is
controlling factor on the generation of reflections, is greater than the permittivity of air, the velocity of an EM
determined by the relative permittivity contrast between the wave in all earth materials will be less than the EM
background material and the target (or the contrast between propagation velocity in air - typical materials range between
layers). Relative permittivity is defined as the ability of a 0.05 and 0.15 m/ns.
material to store and then permit the passage of EM energy
when a field is imposed on the material and can be measured

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Although the propagation velocity of an EM wave is penetration depth. Electrical conductivity also affects the
dependent on the relative permittivity of the material, the propagation of EM waves. Materials with a high electrical
amplitude and attenuation of a propagating wave is dependent conductivity tend to attenuate EM signals; therefore, highly
on the magnetic permeability and the electrical conductivity conductive materials will produce poor GPR data and/or
of the material. Magnetic permeability is the ability of the reduce penetration depth. GPR method explanation of the
material to become magnetized when an EM field is imposed critical variables, parameters, and principle equations that
on the material. As magnetic permeability increases, dictate how EM waves behave and respond to changes in
amplitude attenuation increases; therefore, increased subsurface electromagnetic properties (Dobrin, B.M., et al.,
magnetic permeability results in poorer data quality and/or 1988).

Application of GPR method for Geotechnical Engineering studies

S. No Primary application Secondary application
1 Locating underground utilities such as drums, pipelines, and other Ferro- Mapping water-filled cavities, tunnels
magnetic objects
2 Mapping archeological sites ( buried Ferro-magnetic, nonmagnetic Landslide site evaluation
excavation objects)
3 Detection of voids beneath pavement Mapping abandoned in-filled open-pit
4 Detection and delimitation of zones of relatively thin subgrade base mines and quarries
course material
5 Detection of bodies of subgrade in which moisture content is
anomalously high as a precursor to development of pitting and potholes
6 Bed rock delineation depth <30 m
7 Foundation integrity studies depth <30 m
8 Dam-site integrity studies depth <30 m

IV. ELECTRICAL METHOD resistivity method the current is driven through the ground
using a pair of electrodes and the resulting distribution of the
The electrical methods are used to decipher the potential in the ground is mapped by using another pair of
subsurface information using variation in resistivity values of electrodes connected to sensitive voltmeter. From the
different litho-units. magnitude of the current applied and from the knowledge of
the current electrode separation it is possible to calculate the
 Electrical Resistivity method/ Resistivity Imaging potential distribution and also the path of the current flow if
Electrical resistivity is a fundamental property of a the underground were homogeneous (Birendra Pratap et al.
material that measure how strongly it resists electric current. 2014). In highly conductive material, the resistivity method
The principle of resistivity method is measuring subsurface investigation depth is limited (IS 15736: 2007).
variation in electrical resistivity (Reynolds, J.M., 2011). In

Application of Resistivity method for Geotechnical Engineering studies

S. No Primary application Secondary application
1 Mapping the ground water aquifer layers Mapping lithology (< 100 m depth)
2 Determining volume of organic materials in filled in lakes or Estimation clay minerals
karst features
3 Determining water depths (including bridge scour) Subsurface fluid flow
4 Mapping ground water cones of depression Mapping bed rock topography (up to100 m depth)
5 Mapping contaminate in the ground Identifying near surface karstic sinkholes and the
lateral extent of their chaotic, brecciated and
otherwise disrupted ground
6 Mapping crop land salination and desalination over time Mapping filled cavities, tunnels
7 Delineating steeply dipping geological contacts (< 100 m Dam-site integrity studies
depth)
8 Identifying regions of potential weakness (shear zones and Mapping locating landfills
faults < 100 m depth
9 Mapping salinity ingression in coastal areas Mapping abandoned in-filled open-pit mines and
quarries
10 Landslide site evaluation Mapping abandoned underground mines & shafts
11 Estimating in situ rock properties (Saturation, porosity,
permeability)

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Volume 7, Issue 3, March – 2022 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
 Self- Potential Method (SP) Magnetization (I) and is proportional to the applied field. I =
S.P. method is also an electrical method and kH
combination with resistivity method used for detecting flow
paths. SP is resistivity method used in combination with k is called the magnetic susceptibility of the substance, I-
resistivity method for detecting sub surface flow paths. SP Magnetization, H- external magnetic field.
method measures the natural ground potentials that are
produced by electrochemical action (Electrons moving in Magnetic method prospecting to variation of magnetic
material) in the surface rocks (Anderson et al., 2006). properties of rocks such as variation in distance to magnetic
body (including relief in basement rocks), difference in
The origin of self – potentials may be from i) magnetic susceptibility (how easily rocks magnetized),
Background potentials, ii) Mineralization potential. The Magnetic susceptibility is very low for most materials; only
background potential may originate in several ways, due to high for ferromagnetic substances, Susceptibility of rocks is
variation in the soil chemistry, variation in electrolytic primarily controlled by the amount of ferromagnetic minerals
connection in the ground water, and other electrochemical in the rock and is extremely variable, difference in natural
phenomena. The potential differences occur naturally within remanent magnetization (Nuraddeen Usman ., et al., 2017).
the Earth and can be measured (Unit is volt). The most The major application of magnetic method is for mineral
accepted theory for sulfides suggests that the portion of the exploration. In geotechnical, the Magnetic method can be
ore body above the water table is being oxidized (losing used for locating underground ferromagnetic, pipelines and
electrons) while the portion below is being reduced, setting mapping archeological sites.
up a flow of electrons from one end of the ore body to the
other. This theory cannot explain anomalies where the ore VI. GRAVITY METHOD
body is completely below the water table, explain why a clay
overburden prevents a self-potential from forming, or explain Gravity method is based on the measurement of
how self-potentials form in poor conductors. The major variation in the gravity field caused by horizontal variation of
advantage of the SP methods is to map the subsurface fluid density within the subsurface. Gravity and magnetics seek
flow such as seepage path in embankment dams, grouting and anomalies caused by changes in physical properties of
contamination flow path etc for geotechnical problems. subsurface rock. Also, both require fundamentally similar
interpretation methods.
 Induced Polarization (IP)
The electrical conduction in most rocks is essentially Gravity prospecting produces two anomalies such as
electrolytic, by transport of ions through interstitial water in negative anomalies in less dense rock such as in sedimentary
pores. However, when a current is passed through a rock basins, batholiths, subduction zones, oceanic ridges and
containing metallic minerals, the ionic conduction is hindered positive anomalies in more dense rock such as ultramafic
to a considerable extent by the mineral grains in which the masses, uplifts of denser rock in structures such as anticlines
current flow is electronic. This leads to an accumulation of or reverse faults (N Ismail ., et al., 2018). The major
ions at the interface between the mineral and solution, application of gravity method is for mineral exploration in
resulting in a growth of electrochemical voltage at the combination with magnetic method. In geotechnical, gravity
metallic grain surface. The process is similar to electrode method used for determining in-situ rock densities and
polarization that occurs at the surface of metal electrodes volume of organic material in filled in lakes or karsted
dipped in an electrolyte. When the externally applied current features.
is switched off, the electrochemical voltage is dissipated, but
does not drop to zero instantaneously. The decay in voltage is VII. WELL LOGGING METHOD
observed to vary with time and can be measured as a fraction
of voltage V that existed when the current was flowing. The Well logging methods are important in engineering site
ratio V/v gives a measure of the concentration of metallic investigation as they permit both detailed qualitative and
minerals in rock in the rock formation (Sharma PV, 1986). IP quantitative evolution of many formation parameter. It
method majorly applied in mineral exploration and records physical properties like caliper, density, resistivity,
geotechnical and environmental problems. self-potential, natural gamma ray, neutron and sonic. With
these logs lithological interpretation and correlation between
V. MAGNETIC METHOD boreholes to borehole is possible. In cased hole the number
and type of logs is restricted. The well logging method gives
Magnetic methods have a long history behind them. 1D borehole wall surficial information. These well logging
Early studies of the magnetism of rocks started with the methods are popular in oil, gas and mineral explorations.
discovery of the magnetite rich rock, and idea that the earth
itself acts as a magnet. The methods of prospecting the study
of the magnetic properties of rocks became increasingly
important. According to Lenz’s law when a substance is
placed in a magnetic field, little extra currents are generated
inside the atoms by a process called induction. These currents
produce a magnetic field opposite in direction to the applied
field. This induced field is called the Intensity of

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VIII. SUMMARY Change: Emerging Issues and Challenges, Jointly
published by Springer and Capital Publishing Company,
Several geophysical methods are available to study the ISBN 978-3-319-05968-6, pp 125-37.
sub-surface ground conditions and to locate the buried objects [5]. CSMRS Booklet, 1992; Geophysical Investigation
or geological defects. Each method has its own advantages prepared by Central Soil and Material Research Station
and limitations. The methods can be adopted within the New Delhi.
specified range or natural ground conditions. These methods [6]. De Benedetto, D., A. Cass 37 trignano D. Sollitto, F.
can be integrated to arrive at definite conclusions. In general, Modugno, G. Buttafuoco, G. lopapa, 2012; “Integrating
the methods give qualitative assessment of ground conditions Geophysics and Geospatial methods to map the spatial
which can be confirmed through drilling, pits or trenches. The variation of clay” Geoderma 171-172, 53-63,
geophysical methods can be used to optimize the trial pits, doi:10.1016/j. geoderma2011.05.005.
trenches, drifts and drill holes. Correlation of velocities or [7]. Dobrin, B.M. and Savit, C.H. 1988; Introduction to
resistivity or electromagnetic potential with engineering Geophysical Prospecting. 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill.
properties of natural materials proposed by various Pg. 867
researchers should be used with caution as these give only [8]. E Martinho and A. Dionísio, 2014; Main geophysical
rough idea and gives a range of values. These may not address methods used for non-destructive evaluation in cultural
the variability in ground conditions. These methods can be built heritage: a review. Journal of Geophysics and
employed in site specific problems. In civil engineering Engineering, 11 (2014) 053001 (15pp).
projects and in particular water resources projects involving doi:10.1088/1742-2132/11/5/053001.
large sized structures these methods can be employed during [9]. IS 13372 (Part 2): 1992; Indian Standard Seismic
pre-feasibility stage for qualitative assessment of ground Testing of Rock Mass Code of Practice.
conditions for selection suitable sites. In detailed design and [10]. IS 15736: 2007; Indian Standard Geological
construction stage, these methods can be used to obtain high Exploration by Geophysical Method (Electrical
resolution data for and during post construction stage, it can Resistivity) – Code of Practice.
be used for health assessment and efficacy of repair works. [11]. IS 15681: 2006; Indian Standard Geological
Exploration by Geophysical Method (Seismic
Success of geophysical application lies in the physical Refraction) – Code of Practice.
property contrast between two materials. It may be difficult [12]. Mikhail Lebedev, and Kirill Dorokhin, 2019;
to characterize the materials with one geophysical method in “Application of Cross- Hole Tomography for
complex problems due to less variation in properties. Two Assessment of Soil Stabilization by Grout Injection.
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[13]. Momayez, M., F. Boadu, N. Cassidy,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS D.Jongmans,2013; “Introduction to the JEEG-NSG
Geotechnical Assessment and Geo-Environmental
Authors are grateful to Dr. R. Chitra, Director, Central Engineering Geophysics special issues” Near surface
Soil and Material Research Station New Delhi for constant Geophysics 11 (19994) doi: 10.3997/1873-
encouragement and for permission to publish the paper. 0604.2013049.
[14]. N Ismail, M Yanis, F Abdullah, A Irfansyam, and B S
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