MATERIAL

DEFORMATION
PROCESSES
(PE 319)
Dr. Gayatri Paul
Department of Production and Industrial Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology Mesra
Engineered Products in Our Lifestyle
Products are manufactured and assembled from different components
Few
Components
Many
Components

Thin
Products

Thick

Simple shapes

Complex
shapes
Critical
applications
Routine
applications
Manufacturing Processes
Case Study – Automobile
 Material Deformation Processes
Material deformation processes transform solid materials from one shape
into another. The initial shape is usually simple (e.g., a billet or sheet blank)
and is plastically deformed between tools, or dies, to obtain the desired final
geometry and tolerances with required properties (Altan, 1983)

Altan, T. 1983. Metal Forming—Fundamentals and Applications. Metals Park, Ohio: ASM International. https://www.cornellforge.com/blog/the-different-forging-processes/
https://stampingsimulation.com/complete-introduction-sheet-metal-forming-benefits/ http://courses.washington.edu/me355b/notes/bulk_deformation.pdf
 Deformation Processes

Deformation Process 1. Process involves conservation of mass

2. Material undergoes severe plastic deformation
3. Part geometry is of moderate complexity
Metalworking Process 4. Production volumes are large
5. Metallurgical properties and integrity are extremely important
Metal Forming Process 6. Deformation energy required for shape change is much less

❑ Temporary deformation of a
material's shape that is self-
reversing after removing the
Elastic force or load.
Deformation ❑ Elastic deformation alters the
shape of a material upon the
application of a force within
its elastic limit

❑ Permanent deformation
where material changes shape
when load is applied and does
Plastic not regain its original shape
Deformation when the load is removed
❑ The polycrystalline materials
with equiaxed grains become
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
YKpvYF0hVDE&ab_channel=Don% deformed and elongated
27tMemorise
Classification of Metal Forming Processes

Metal Forming Processes Hot Working

Temperature Warm Working

Cold Working

Bulk Metal Forming

Workpiece
Configuration
Sheet Metal Forming

Direct Compression
Type Processes
Indirect Compression
Type Processes
Tension Type
Applied Force
Processes

Bending Processes

Shearing Processes
 CLASSIFICATION OF
METAL FORMING
PROCESSES – EFFECT OF
TEMPERATURE
Dr. Gayatri Paul
Department of Production and Industrial Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology Mesra
Effect of Temperature on Metalworking

❑ Temperature is important as lower forces are required at higher working

temperatures
❑ In general, an increase in temperature is related to a decrease in strength,
increase in ductility, and decrease in the rate of strain hardening
❑ At higher temperatures deformation is faster because the bond between
the atoms of the metal grains is reduced
❑ The plastic deformation of materials strongly depend on recovery,
recrystallization and grain growth – the three stages of annealing
❑ During recrystallization, the dislocations in the material move to the grain
boundaries or move to the surface and leave the material strain free

Temperature Ranges in Metal Forming

Category Temperature Range (in K)
Cold Working T  0.3 Tm
Warm Working 0.3 Tm  T  0.5Tm
Hot Working T  0.5 Tm
where Tm is the melting temperature in absolute scale (K)
Types of Metal Forming Processes (Temperature)

Hot Working: The metal forming process where plastic deformation takes
place above the recrystallization temperature

Cold Working: The metal forming process where plastic deformation takes
place below the recrystallization temperature

Warm Working: The metal

forming process where plastic
deformation takes place above
the room temperature and
below the recrystallization
temperature

Recrystallization Temperature:
The temperature in absolute
scale at which 50% of the metal
recrystallizes in one hour is
defined as the recrystallization
temperature
Annealing – Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth

Plastic deformation of a polycrystalline metal under cold working conditions

leads to changes in microstructure and properties that include (1) Change in
grain shape, (2) Strain hardening and (3) Increase in dislocation density

The properties may be restored and reverted back to the original state by
annealing treatment which includes 3 steps – recovery, recrystallization
and grain growth

Recovery is the annihilation of

the point imperfection and
dislocations without movement of
the grain boundaries

Recrystallization is the
nucleation and growth of new,
strain-free crystals from the cold
worked metal
Grain Growth is the increase in
the average size of the grains
following recrystallization
Hot Working
Hot-working is defined as deformation under conditions of temperature
and strain rate such that recovery processes take place simultaneously with
the deformation

➢ Deformation takes place at temperature

above the recrystallization temperature
➢ In hot-working the strain hardening
and distorted grain structure produced
by deformation are very rapidly
eliminated by the formation of new
strain-free grains as the result of
recrystallization
➢ Very large deformations are possible in
hot-working because the recovery
processes keep pace with the
deformation.
➢ Energy required for deformation is
generally much less for hot-working
than for cold-working
Advantages and Disadvantages of Hot Working
Advantages
Disadvantages
➢ Workpiece shape can be
significantly altered ➢ Lower dimensional accuracy
of the produced part is
➢ Lower forces and working achievable
power is required
➢ Higher total energy is
➢ Metals that usually fracture in required (due to thermal
cold working can be deformed energy required to heat the
by hot working processes part)
➢ Strength properties of the ➢ Surface oxidation of the part
part produced is usually takes place leading to scale
isotropic formation
➢ No strengthening of part ➢ Poorer surface finish is
occurs from work hardening obtained
➢ Porosity is eliminated and ➢ Tool life is shorter
grain structure is refined
Warm Working

Warm-working is defined as cold working of materials above room

temperature but below recrystallization temperature

Advantages
➢ Forces and power required to deform
are lower in comparison to cold working
➢ More intricate work geometries are
possible
➢ Need for annealing may be reduced or
eliminated
➢ Increased material ductility in
comparison to cold working
➢ Less scaling and decarburization
➢ Better dimensional precision and
smoother surfaces than hot working

Constant velocity joints

Cold Working

Cold-working is defined as deformation under conditions where recovery

processes are not effective and strain hardening occurs

➢ Deformation takes place at temperature

below the recrystallization temperature
➢ In cold-working the strain hardening is
not relieved and so the flow stress keeps
on increasing with deformation
➢ Total deformation which is possible
without causing fracture is less for cold
working unless the strain hardening is
relieved by annealing
➢ Most cold-working operations at usually
carried out at slightly above or at room
temperature
➢ Important for mass production
➢ Minimum machining operations
required
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cold Working

Disadvantages
Advantages ➢ Higher forces are required to
➢ Better accuracy, closer initiate and complete the
tolerances deformation

➢ Superior surface finish ➢ Heavier and more powerful

equipment and stronger
➢ Strain hardening increases tooling are essential
strength and hardness
➢ Surfaces of starting raw
➢ Contamination problems are material should be free of
minimized scale and dirt
➢ No heating of work is ➢ Ductility is lost and the part
required becomes brittle
➢ Lower total energy input is ➢ Strain hardening limits and
necessary controls the amount of
deformation
Amount of Cold Work
Quantitative measure of the amount of cold work is estimated
from the reduction in area
𝑨𝒐 − 𝑨𝒅
%𝑪𝑾 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑨𝒐
Where 𝑨𝒐 is the original cross sectional area before cold work and 𝑨𝒅
is the cross sectional area after deformation
%CW is just another measure of the degree of plastic deformation, in
addition to strain
Strain hardening = Work
hardening = Cold Working
Ductile metals become stronger when they
are deformed plastically at temperatures
well below the melting point.
The reason for strain hardening is the
increase of dislocation density with plastic
deformation.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
METAL FORMING
PROCESSES – WORKPIECE
CONFIGURATION
Dr. Gayatri Paul
Department of Production and Industrial Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology Mesra
Classification – Workpiece configuration

Bulk Metal Forming

❑ It refers to the metal forming processes which result in significant
change in shape via plastic deformation in metallic workpieces
❑ The raw materials utilized possess low surface area to volume ratio
❑ Nature of forces applied may be compressive, tensile, shear or a
combination of these
❑ The operation takes place mostly in forming presses with the help of a
set of tool and die.
❑ Bulk forming processes include rolling, forging, extrusion and drawing
❑ Raw materials are usually plates, slabs, billet, rods, etc.
Sheet Metal Forming
❑ It refers to the metal forming processes which involve significant
modification in the geometry of the workpiece by the application of force
❑ The raw materials utilized possess high surface area to volume ratio
❑ It involves the application of shear or tensile forces predominantly
❑ The forming operations are carried out using pneumatic or hydraulic
presses using tool and punches
❑ Sheet metal forming operations include bending, drawing, shearing,
blanking and punching
❑ Raw materials are mostly metal sheets, coils, strips, etc.
 Bulk Metal Forming
Bulk Deformation Processes accomplish significant shape change in metal parts
whose initial form is bulk rather than sheet. The starting forms include cylindrical bars
and billets, rectangular billets and slabs, and similar elementary geometries. The bulk
deformation processes refine the starting shapes, sometimes improving mechanical
properties, and always adding commercial value.
Forging: The Rolling: In this Extrusion: In this, Wire or rod
workpiece is process, the workpiece the workpiece is drawing: Similar to
compressed between in the form of slab or compressed or extrusion, except that
two dies containing plate is compressed pushed into the die the workpiece is
shaped contours. between two rotating opening to take the pulled through the
The die shapes are rolls in the thickness shape of the die die opening to take
imparted into the direction, so that the hole as its cross the cross-section.
final part. thickness is reduced. section.
Forging
❑ Forging is the process by which a metallic part is deformed to a final shape with the
application of pressure and with or without the application of heat.
❑ It is the working of a metal by hammering or pressing.
❑ It is the oldest form of metal forming process having its origin with the traditional
blacksmith
❑ The workpiece is compressed between two dies containing shaped contours. The
die shapes are imparted into the final part.
❑ Forging machines are capable of making small parts (connecting rods) and very
heavy and large parts (turbine shaft)
Classification of forging processes

Temperature Equipment Process

Hot Forging Forging Hammer Open Die Forging
Refers to blanks processed Delivers rapid The workpiece is
above the recrystallization impact blows compressed
temperature. Characteristics repeatedly to the between two flat
are high dies facilitating
metal workpiece to
lateral flow of
plasticity achieve the material without
and low desired final constraint
deformation shape
resistance. Impression Die Forging
Warm Forging The workpiece is compressed
Forging Press
between two dies with a cavity
Forgings processed around Subjects the raw or impression that
the recrystallization material to a slow speed is imparted to the
temperature. compressive workpiece. Excess
force applied remains as flash.
Cold Forging gradually. The
presses are
Flashless Forging
Refers to blanks processed
below the recrystallization driven by The initial volume
temperature. Characteristics hydraulic, of the workpiece is
are dimensional accuracy, pneumatic carefully taken so
good working conditions and or crank that no excess
high production efficiency power flash is produced.
Open Die Forging
❑ An example of open die forging is compression of workpiece between two flat die halves which is like the
compression test. This also known as upsetting. Here height decreases and diameter increases.
Ideal frictionless
❑ Under ideal conditions, where there is no friction between the billet condition
and die surfaces, homogeneous deformation occurs. In this, the
diameter increases uniformly throughout its height.
Barreling due to
❑ In actual forging operation, the deformation will not be homogeneous friction
as bulging occurs towards the sides because of the presence of
friction at the die-billet interface. This is known as barreling.

Operations ❑ Edging ❑ Fullering ❑ Swaging

❑ Edging The ends of the bar are The cross-sectional area The cross sectional area of the
reduces as metal flows bar is reduced using concave
❑ Fullering shaped using edging dies.
outward, away from center. dies.
❑ Drawing
❑ Swaging
❑ Piercing
❑ Punching

Advantages Limitations
❑ High strength product having varied sizes ❑ Simple shapes only & close tolerances difficult
❑ Simple, inexpensive dies ❑ Low production rate & high skill required
Open Die Forging – Demonstration and Examples

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YobXFODkp50&ab_channel=MechanicsTips
Impression (or Closed) Die Forging

❑ Workpiece is deformed between two die halves which carry the impressions of the
desired final shape
❑ Workpiece deformed under
high pressure in a closed
cavity Starting Upper Die
workpiece Flash
❑ Precision forgings with
Lower Die
close dimensional
tolerances can be produced
❑ Large production runs generally justify the cost of the expensive dies
❑ Sequential steps involved in Impression Die Forging

Fullering Edging
Billet

Blocking
Finished product

Trimming Finishing
Flash and Flash Gutter
❑ It is important to use enough metal for complete filling of the die.
❑ During fullering and edging, as it is difficult to measure the exact volume, some
excess metal is used.
❑ This excess metal which during the finishing step is squeezed out of the die cavities
is referred to as flash. Flash
Top Die
❑ In order to prevent the
formation of a very wide Flash
flash, a ridge – known as Land
flash gutter – is provided. Flash Component
Gutter
Ejector Pin

Purposes of using Flash

✓ Acts as a ‘safety valve’ which regulates the flow of metal in the cavity
✓ Increases the flow resistance of the system to enable complete filling of the cavity
Closed Die Forging – Demonstration and Examples

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YobXFODkp50&ab_channel=MechanicsTips
Rolling

Rolling is a metal forming

process in which the
thickness of the work is
reduced by compressive
forces exerted by two rolls
rotating in opposite
direction.

❑ Most rolling processes are very capital intensive, requiring massive

pieces of equipment, called rolling mills, to perform them.
❑ The high investment cost requires the mills to be used for production in
large quantities of standard items such as sheets and plates.
❑ Most rolling is carried out by hot working, called hot rolling, owing to
the large amount of deformation required.
❑ Hot ingot is soaked in the furnace (soaking pits) and moved to rolling
mills where it is rolled into blooms, billets or slabs
Intermediate Shapes in Rolling
Bloom
❑ A bloom has a square or rectangular cross section, with a thickness
greater than 150 mm and a width no greater than twice the thickness.
❑ Blooms are rolled into structural shapes like rails for railroad tracks.
Billet
❑ A billet is usually smaller than a bloom and has a square or circular cross
section with dimensions 40 mm on a side or more.
❑ Billets are rolled into bars, rods. They become raw materials for
machining, wire drawing, forging, extrusion etc.
Slab
❑ A slab is a rectangular solid where the width is greater than twice the
thickness.
❑ Slabs can be further rolled to produce plate, sheet, and strip.
Plates and Sheets
❑ Hot rolled plates are generally used in shipbuilding, bridges, boilers,
welded structures for various heavy machines, and many other products.
❑ Plates have thickness greater than 6 mm while sheet and strip ranges
from 6 mm to 0.1 mm
Various Finished and Semi-finished Shapes
Basic Rolling Process
❑ Metal is passed between two rolls that rotate in opposite directions, the gap
between the rolls being somewhat less than the thickness of the entering metal.
❑ As the rolls rotate with a surface velocity that exceeds the speed of the incoming
metal, friction along the contact interface acts to propel the metal forward.
❑ The metal is then squeezed and elongates to compensate for the decrease in
thickness or cross-sectional area.
❑ The amount of deformation that can be achieved in a single pass between a given
pair of rolls depends on the friction conditions along the interface.
➢ Hot rolling is carried out above
the recrystallization
temperature
➢ New strain free recrystallized
grains results from hot rolling
due to dynamic
recrystallization
➢ In dynamic recrystallization,
recrystallization occurs during
the simultaneous application of
elevated temperature and
deformation
Hot and Cold Rolling Processes
Hot Rolling Cold Rolling
The material to be rolled is above its re- The material to be rolled is below its
crystallization temperature. recrystallization temperature.
The roll radius is larger than used in cold rolling. The roll radius is smaller.
Heavy reduction in area of the work-piece can be The heavy reduction area is not possible.
obtained.
Hot rolling results in; refined grain size, Cold rolling results in; increased hardness
removed blow holes, toughness and strength generates cracks, reduced ductility, increased
increases. A fiber-like structure is obtained. tensile strength and yield strength of steel.
Surface finish is not good due to metal oxides Smooth and oxide-free surface finish is
and scale formed. obtained.
Close dimensional tolerance cannot be achieved. Close tolerance (0.002 mm) can be achieved.
Coefficient of friction between the rolls and Coefficient of friction between the rolls and
workpiece is higher. workpiece is comparatively lower
Generally hot Cold rolled metal
rolled metal does shows work
not show work hardening effect.
hardening effect.
Rolling Mill Configurations

❑ Early reductions, often called primary, roughing, or

breakdown passes, usually employ a two- or three-high
configuration with rolls 60 to 140 cm in diameter
❑ Two high rolling mill consists of two rolls rotating in opposite
directions. They can be either non-reversing or reversing

❑ Three high rolling mill: In this ❑ Four high rolling mill: This consists of two
case, there are three rolls one small rolls for thickness reduction and two large
above the other. backing rolls to support the small rolls.
❑ At a time, for single pass, two ❑ The small rolls will reduce the roll force
rolls will be used. The roll required as the roll-sheet contact area will be
direction will not be changed reduced.
in this case. ❑ The large backing rolls
are required to reduce
the elastic deflection of
small rolls when sheet
passes between them.
❑ Used in the hot rolling
of wide plate and
sheets.
Rolling Mill Configurations
❑ Cluster mill: In a cluster mill, the roll in contact with the work can be as small as 6
mm in diameter.
❑ Foil is almost always rolled on cluster mills because the small thickness requires
small-diameter rolls.
❑ To counter the need for even smaller rolls, some foils are
produced by pack rolling, a process where two or more
layers of metal are rolled simultaneously as a means of
providing a thicker input material.

❑ Tandem rolling mill: When the volume of a product justifies the investment, rolling
may be performed on a continuous or tandem rolling mill.
❑ Billets, blooms, or slabs are heated and fed through an integrated series of non-
reversing rolling mill stands.
❑ This consists of series of rolling stations of the order of 8 to 10. In each station,
thickness reduction is given to the sheet.
❑ With each rolling station, the work velocity increases.
❑ Utilized in industries
which results in reduction
in floor space, shorter
manufacturing lead time.
Extrusion

❑ Extrusion is a bulk forming process in which the work metal is forced or

compressed to flow through a die hole to produce a desired cross-
sectional shape. Example: squeezing toothpaste from a toothpaste tube.
❑ Although extrusion may be performed either hot or cold, hot extrusion is
commonly employed for many metals to reduce the forces required,
eliminate cold-working effects, and reduce directional properties.
➢ In the case of metals, a
common arrangement is to
have a heated billet placed
inside a confining chamber.
➢ A ram advances from one
end, causing the billet to
first upset and conform to
the confining chamber.
➢ As the ram continues to
advance, the pressure
builds until the material
flows plastically through the
die and extrudes.
Advantages and Types of Extrusion

Advantages of Extrusion
1. A variety of shapes are possible, especially with hot extrusion;
2. Grain structure and strength properties are enhanced in cold and warm
extrusion;
3. Fairly close tolerances are possible, especially in cold extrusion; and
4. In some extrusion operations, little or no wasted material is created.

Types of Extrusion

Extrusion

Direction of Working
Process Type
Movement Temperature

Direct Extrusion Hot Extrusion Continuous

Indirect Extrusion Cold Extrusion Discrete

Direct or Forward Extrusion

❑ A metal billet is first loaded into a container having die holes. A ram
compresses the material, forcing it to flow through the die holes.
❑ Some extra portion of the billet will be present at the end of the process
that cannot be extruded and is called butt. It is separated from the
product by cutting it just beyond the exit of the die

➢ In direct extrusion, a significant

amount of friction exists between
the billet surface and the container
walls, as the billet is forced to slide
toward the die opening. Because of
the presence of friction, a
substantial increase in the ram
force is required.
➢ The starting billet in direct
extrusion is usually round in cross
section, but the final shape is Hollow sections Semi-hollow
determined by the shape of the die produced by sections produced
opening. direct extrusion by direct extrusion
Indirect or Backward Extrusion

The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the
container. As the ram penetrates into the work, the metal is forced to flow
through the clearance in a direction opposite to the motion of the ram.
❑ Since the billet is not forced to move Solid cross-
relative to the container, there is no section forming
friction at the container walls, and
the ram force is therefore lower than
in direct extrusion.
❑ Limitations of indirect extrusion are
imposed by the lower rigidity of the
hollow ram and the difficulty in
supporting the extruded product as Hollow cross-
it exits the die section forming
❑ Indirect extrusion can produce
hollow (tubular) cross sections
where the ram is pressed into the
billet, forcing the material to flow
around the ram and take a cup
shape
Hot and Cold Extrusion
Hot Extrusion Cold Extrusion
Hot extrusion involves prior heating of Cold extrusion involves extrusion of a
the billet to a temperature above its part below recrystallization
recrystallization temperature temperature
Low forces are required High ram forces are required
Product is free from strain hardening Strain hardening is observed in the
finished product
Surface finish is not good due to metal Smooth and oxide-free surface finish is
oxides and scale formed. obtained.
Dimensional tolerance not as superior Good control over dimensional
in comparable to cold extrusion tolerance – no machining or very little
machining is required
Continuous and Discrete Extrusion

Continuous Extrusion
➢ A true continuous process operates in steady state mode for an indefinite
period of time.
➢ Some extrusion operations approach this ideal by producing very long
sections in one cycle, but these operations are ultimately limited by the
size of the starting billet that can be loaded into the extrusion container.
➢ These processes are more accurately described as semi-continuous
operations.
➢ In nearly all cases, the long section is cut into smaller lengths in a
subsequent sawing or shearing operation.

Discrete Extrusion
➢ In a discrete extrusion operation, a single part is produced in each
extrusion cycle.
➢ Impact extrusion is an example of the discrete processing case
Drawing

Drawing is an operation in which the cross section of a bar, rod, or wire is

reduced by pulling it through a die opening.

❑ Although the presence of tensile stresses ➢ Bar drawing is the

is obvious in drawing, compression also term used for large
plays a significant role because the metal diameter bar (<30 mm)
is squeezed down as it passes through the and rod stock
die opening. ➢ Wire drawing applies
❑ For this reason, the deformation that to small diameter stock.
occurs in drawing is sometimes referred Wire sizes down to 0.03
to as indirect compression. mm are possible in wire
drawing.
➢ Although the mechanics
of the process are the
same for the two cases,
the methods, equipment,
and even the terminology
are somewhat different.
Drawing Processes
❑ Tube drawing can be used to produce
high-quality tubing where the product
requires the smooth surfaces, thin walls,
accurate dimensions, and added strength
(from the strain hardening) that are
characteristic of cold forming.
❑ Internal mandrels are often used to control
the inside diameter of tubes, which range
from about 12 to 250 mm in diameter
➢ Bar drawing is generally done
as a single stage operation, in
which stock is pulled through
one die opening.
➢ The inlet bars are straight and
not in the form of coil, which
limits the length of the work
that can be drawn.
➢ This necessitates a batch type
operation.
Drawing Processes
❑ Wire drawing is essentially the same
process as bar drawing except that it
involves smaller-diameter material.
❑ Because the material can now be coiled, the
process can be conducted in a continuous
manner on rotating draw blocks
❑ Lubrication boxes often precede the individual dies to help reduce friction
drag and wear of the dies.
❑ Because the tensile load is applied to the already reduced product, the
amount of reduction is severely limited.
❑ Multiple draws are usually required to affect any significant change in size.

In a drawing operation, the change in size of the work is usually given by the
area reduction, defined as follows: 𝒓 = 𝑨𝟎 − 𝑨𝒇 Τ𝑨𝟎 where r = area
reduction in drawing; A0 = original area of work, mm2 and Af = final area, mm2
In bar drawing, the term draft is used to denote the before and after
difference in size of the processed work. The draft is simply the difference
between original and final stock diameters: 𝒅 = 𝑫𝟎 − 𝑫𝒇 , where d = draft,
mm; Do = original diameter of work, mm; and Df = final work diameter, mm
 Sheet Metal Forming
Sheet metal forming includes cutting and forming operations performed on
relatively thin sheets of metal. Typical sheet-metal thicknesses are between 0.4 mm
and 6 mm. Sheetmetal parts are generally characterized by high strength, good
dimensional accuracy, good surface finish, and relatively low cost. Sheet-metal
processing is usually performed under cold working conditions.

Cutting: Cutting of Bending: Bending is Deep Drawing: Others: classified into

sheet metal is defined as the Operation used to make operations performed
achieved by a straining of the metal cup-shaped, box by (a) metal tooling
shearing action around a straight axis. shaped, or other and (b) flexible
between two sharp Metal on the inside of complex-curved parts. tooling.
cutting edges. The the neutral plane is It is performed by Examples: (a) lancing,
three methods to cut compressed, while placing a piece of sheet coining, etc. (b) Guerin
metal by shearing are that on the outside of metal over a die cavity process, hydroforming.
shearing, blanking, the neutral plane is and then pushing the
and punching. stretched. metal into the opening
with a punch.
Shearing
Punch

Die
Cutting Operations
Cutting of sheet metal involves the mechanical cutting of materials without the
formation of chips or the use of burning or melting

(2) punch begins to (3) punch compresses (4) fracture is

(1) just before the
push into work, and penetrates into initiated at the
punch contacts
causing plastic the work causing a opposing cutting
the work
deformation smooth cut surface edges that separate
Sheared edges of the work the sheet
Rollover: depression made by the punch in the work prior to
cutting where plastic deformation takes place
Burnish: results from penetration of the punch into the work
before fracture began
Fractured zone: rough surface of the cut edge, where the
punch caused fracture of the metal
Burr: sharp corner on the edge caused during final separation
of the two pieces
Types of Cutting Operations
❑ Shearing is a sheet-metal cutting
operation along a straight line between
two cutting edges.
❑ Shearing is typically used to cut large
sheets into smaller sections for
subsequent pressworking operations.
❑ Performed on a machine called a power
shears or squaring shears.
❑ The upper blade of the power shears is often inclined, to reduce the cutting force

❑ Blanking involves cutting of the sheet ❑ Punching is similar to blanking

metal along a closed outline in a single except that it produces a hole, and
step to separate the piece from the the separated piece is scrap, called
surrounding stock. the slug.
❑ The part that is cut out is the desired ❑ The remaining stock is the desired
product in the operation and is called part.
the blank.
Other Cutting Processes
Cutoff is a Parting
shearing operation involves
in which blanks are cutting a sheet-
separated from a metal strip by a
sheet-metal strip punch with two
by cutting the cutting edges
opposite sides of that match the
the part in opposite sides
sequence of the blank

Slotting is the term Perforating involves

used for a punching the simultaneous
operation that cuts out punching of a pattern
an elongated or of holes in sheet metal
rectangular hole

Notching involves cutting out a portion of

metal from the side of the sheet or strip. Semi-
notching removes a portion of metal from the
interior of the sheet. Semi-notching creates
part of the blank outline, while punching and
slotting create holes in the blank.
Bending Operations

❑ Bending is defined as the straining of the metal around a straight axis. Metal on
the inside of the neutral plane is compressed, while that on the outside of the
neutral plane is stretched.
❑ The metal is plastically deformed so that the bend takes a permanent set upon
removal of the stresses that caused it.
❑ Bending produces little or no change in the thickness of the sheet metal.

V-bending: the sheet metal is bent between a V-

shaped punch and die. Included angles ranging
from very obtuse to very acute can be made with
V-dies. V-bending is generally used for low
production operations. The associated V-dies are
relatively simple and inexpensive.

Edge bending: involves cantilever loading of

the sheet metal. A pressure pad is used to apply
a force to hold the base of the part against the
die, while the punch forces the part to yield and
bend over the edge of the die. Wiping dies are
more complicated and costly than V-dies and
are generally used for high-production work.
Other Bending Processes
Flanging is a bending operation in which the edge of a sheet-metal part is bent at a 90
angle (usually) to form a rim or flange. It is often used to strengthen or stiffen sheet
metal. The flange can be formed over a straight bend axis, as illustrated in (a), or it can
involve some stretching or shrinking of the metal, as in (b) and (c)

Hemming involves Seaming is a related

bending the edge of the operation in which
sheet over on itself, in two sheet-metal edges
more than one bending are assembled.
step. This is often done to
eliminate the sharp edge Curling, also called
on the piece, to increase beading, forms the
stiffness, and to improve edges of the part into
appearance. a roll or curl.
Deep Drawing

❑ Drawing is a sheet-metal-forming operation used to make cup-shaped,

box-shaped, or other complex-curved and concave parts.
❑ It is performed by placing a piece of sheet metal over a die cavity and then
pushing the metal into the opening with a punch.

Common parts made by drawing

include beverage cans, ammunition
shells, sinks, cooking pots, and
automobile body panels.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
FORMING PROCESSES
– APPLIED FORCES

Dr. Gayatri Paul

Department of Production and Industrial Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology Mesra
Classification of State of Stress

Tensile and Compressive Stresses

 Classification of Forming Processes – Applied Force

Direct Compression
Forging, Rolling
Type Processes
Metal Forming Processes

Indirect Compression Extrusion, Wire

(Applied Force)

Type Processes Drawing

Tension Type
Stretch Forming
Processes

V-bending, Edge
Bending Processes
Bending

Shearing Processes Blanking, Piercing

Direct Compression Processes

❑ Force is applied to the

surface of the workpiece and
metal flows at right angles to
the direction of compression
Forging
Rolling
Direct Compression Processes
In these processes the plastic state is reached by application of uni-axial or
multi-axial compressive forces
In rolling, besides the compression by In direct extrusion in the metal is
rolls, the friction between the work compressed in a container, generally
metal and surfaces of rolls also gives a cylinder, and made to flow though a
rise to compressive forces in the small opening in the die. The force
longitudinal and lateral directions. applied by press ram and the
Thus, there are compressive forces constraint of cylinder walls produce
two directions though of different compressive forces all around on the
magnitudes at different locations and work piece.
in different directions.
Direct Compression Processes

Similarly, in open die forging in, the In closed die forging, the compressive
metal body is pressed between two forces act from all the directions
flat or curved dies, while the friction leading to a case of triaxial
between metal and dies gives rise to compression
compressive forces in the lateral
directions.
Indirect Compression Processes
❑ The primary applied forces are mainly tensile but the indirect compressive
forces developed by the reaction of the workpiece with the die reach high
values.
❑ So the metal flows under the action of combined stress state which include
high compressive forces in at least one principal directions.

Indirect Extrusion

Deep drawing
Wire drawing

Biaxial compression Triaxial Flange of blank: State 5

and tension compression Wall of cup: State 1
Tension Type, Bending and Shearing Processes
Based on the type of force applied on to the work piece
Tension Type Processes
❑ Process in which metal sheet is wrapped to the contour
of a die under the application of tensile forces
❑ Example is stretch forming Stretch Forming

Bending Processes
❑ Involve bending movements to the metal sheet
❑ Usually it refers to deformation about one axis
❑ Not much significant change in surface area
Bending

Shearing Processes
❑ Involve application of shearing forces of sufficient
magnitude to rupture the metal in the plane of shear
❑ It is a process which cuts stock without the
formation of chips or the use of burning or melting
Shearing
❑ Examples are blanking, piercing, trimming
Thermomechanical Treatments

❑ Thermomechanical treatments can be defined as treatments whereby

plastic deformation is introduced into the heat-treatment cycle of a metal
in such a way as to modify the normal processes that occur during heat
treatment and thereby obtain improved properties.
❑ The improved properties are generally higher strength, but may well be
improved toughness or fatigue properties or greater creep resistance.

❑ Plastic deformation produces various crystal defects like vacancies,

dislocations, sub-grain boundaries, stacking faults
❑ The defects affect the phase transformations in metal and alloys
providing nucleation sites and aiding the diffusion process
❑ In thermomechanical treatment, phase transformation should occur
under conditions of increased lattice defects
❑ Thermomechanical treatments are overlapping of heat treatments and
deformation processes, either simultaneously or with a time gap
❑ TMT applicable to both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys
Classification of TMT in Steels
❑ Depending on the deformation temperature, TMT of steels are high
temperature thermomechanical treatment (HTMT) and low
temperature thermomechanical treatment (LTMT)
❑ HTMT involves deformation of austenite at a temperature above
recrystallization temperature
❑ In HTMT, recrystallization eliminates the strain hardening effect inducing
strengthening effect
❑ About 20-30% reduction in area in applied followed by immediate
quenching
❑ Results in better ductility and impact strength

❑ LTMT is a process in which austenite is

cooled below recrystallization temperature
and deformation is applied at this
temperature
❑ Area reduction can be in the range of 80-90%
❑ Results in very high strengths and lower
ductility
TMT – Controlled Rolling

Controlled rolling consists of heating the steel above the upper critical
temperature to form stable austenite, which is rolled to produce fine grains of
ferrite during cooling.

➢ Factors affecting
controlled rolling are
heating temperatures,
percentage of reduction,
time between rolling
passes, start and end of
rolling
➢ In order have maximum
strengthening, heavy
deformation and low
finishing temperature
are chosen
➢ The process is employed
for high strength low
alloy steels
TMT – Ausforming

➢ In ausforming, the steel is heated above the upper critical temperature to

form stable austenite
➢ The austenite is supercooled to a temperature below recrystallization
temperature
➢ The supercooled austenite is deformed heavily
➢ Quenching is carried out to obtain complete martensitic structure

➢ No phase transformation should take

place during deformation
➢ Preferably, deformation should take
place at a constant temperature
➢ Ausforming results in higher tensile
strength, yield strength and ductility
than hardened and tempered steel
➢ Longer incubation periods for pearlitic
and bainitic regions are essential
➢ Applications are in punches, dies,
cutting tools, aircraft landing gears.
TMT – Isoforming

➢ The isoforming process consists of deforming steel below the lower

critical temperature during transformation
➢ Transformation product may be fine pearlite or bainite depending on the
prevailing conditions
➢ Isoforming = isothermal transformation + deformation

➢ Steel heated to above A3

➢ Quenched immediately to the vicinity
of the nose of the TTT curve
➢ Simultaneous deformation is applied
➢ After transformation, steel is quenched
➢ Larger the deformation or lower the
deforming temperature, the greater is
the level of strength developed in steel
➢ Isoforming results in improved and
uniform mechanical properties as
compared to hardened and tempered
steels
 ADVANCED
DEFORMATION
PROCESSES

Dr. Gayatri Paul

Department of Production and Industrial Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology Mesra
Emerging Advanced Deformation Processes

➢Isothermal forging
➢Water hammer forging
➢Liquid metal forging (squeeze casting)
➢Continuous extrusion (conform extrusion)
➢Hydro–static extrusion
➢Hydro–dynamic wire drawing
➢Spray forming
➢Explosive forming
Isothermal Forging

❑ Isothermal forging is a hot-forging operation in

which the workpiece is maintained at or near its
starting elevated temperature during deformation
❑ Usually the forging dies are heated to the same
elevated temperature of the workpiece
❑ By avoiding chill (thermal gradient) of the
workpiece on contact with the cold die surfaces as
in conventional forging, the metal flows more
readily
❑ The force required to perform the process is
reduced.
❑ As forces exerted by the die form the work,
cooling of the work piece between the mold work
interface is eliminated, and thus flow
characteristics of the metal are greatly improved
❑ The process is sometimes carried out in a vacuum
to avoid rapid oxidation of the die material
Isothermal Forging
❑ Heat transfer from the workpiece to the die surfaces causes thermal
gradients in the workpiece. The cooler areas at the die surfaces undergo
less plastic flow than in the hotter core areas, so that plastic flow is not
uniform. This is termed die chilling.
❑ Die chilling can be eliminated entirely by heating the dies to essentially
the same temperature as the workpiece.
❑ The forging dies are heated using induction heating, infrared heating,
resistance heating

❑ Advantages are closer forging ❑ Disadvantages are the

tolerances resulting in reduced requirements for more
machining and material costs, expensive die materials,
❑ A reduction in the number of uniform and controllable die
preforming and blocking heating systems
operations resulting in reduced ❑ An inert atmosphere or vacuum
processing and tooling costs, around the dies and workpiece.
❑ The use of slow ram speeds ❑ Low production rates to permit
resulting in lower forging pressures proper die filling at the low
and the use of smaller machines. forging pressures.
 Isothermal Forging – Applications

High Pressure Compressor (HPC) Discs

Mg-alloy upper
housing

❑ Difficult-to-
machine alloys
❑ Nickel alloys
❑ Titanium alloys
Liquid Metal Forging or Squeeze Casting

❑ Liquid Metal Forging is the combination of casting and forging and

involves solidification of metal under high pressure
❑ The machinery includes a die, punch, and ejector pin.
❑ A molten metal is poured into a preheated lower die, and the upper die is
closed to create the mold cavity after solidification begins
❑ The pressure applied by the upper die in squeeze casting causes the metal
to completely fill the cavity resulting in good surface finish and low
shrinkage.
Liquid Metal Forging – Materials and Parameters

❑ The pressure applied by the punch keeps the entrapped gases in solution,
and the contact under high pressure at the die–metal interface promotes
rapid heat transfer, thus resulting in a fine microstructure with good
mechanical properties.
❑ The required pressures are significantly less than in forging of a solid
metal billet and much finer surface detail can be imparted by the die than
in forging

➢ Squeeze Process Parameters

casting can be ➢ Alloy – Quantity, melting temperature, thermal
used for both conductivity, lubricating conditions, and pressure
ferrous and ➢ Accurate control on melt quantity is essential to
non-ferrous achieve dimensional accuracy
alloys
➢ Operating temperature – too low temperature
➢ Aluminum and causes premature solidification (cold laps) and too
magnesium high temperature causes surface defects
alloys are the ➢ Time delay between pouring the metal and the
most common instant the punch starts
LMF – Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications
Advantages Disadvantages
➢ Offers a broader range of shapes ➢ Costs are very high due to complex
and components than other tooling
manufacturing methods
➢ No flexibility as tooling is dedicated to
➢ Little or no machining required post specific components
casting process
➢ Process needs to be accurately
➢ Low levels of porosity controlled which slows the cycle time
➢ Good surface texture down and increases process costs.
➢ Fine micro-structures with higher ➢ High costs mean high production
strength components volumes are necessary to justify
➢ No waste material, 100% utilization equipment investment

Aluminium alloy parts

Continuous or Conform Extrusion

❑ Conventional extrusion is a discontinuous process, converting

finite-length billets into finite-length products
❑ In continuous or conform extrusion, the pushing force is applied
on the periphery of a continually moving feedstock, rather than
the back
❑ Continuous feedstock is inserted into a grooved wheel and is
driven by surface friction into a chamber created by a mating die
segment.
❑ Upon impacting a protruding abutment, the material upsets to
conform to the chamber, and the increased wall contact further
increases the driving friction.
❑ Upsetting continues until the pressure reaches a value sufficient to
extrude the material through a die opening that has been provided
in either the shoe or abutment.
❑ At this point, the rate of material entering the machine equals the
rate of product emerging, and a steady-state continuous process is
established.
Conform Extrusion – Process
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=teDZpDTTu6Y&ab_channel=HoltonCrest

❑ Because surface friction is the propulsion force, the

feedstock can take a variety of forms, including
solid rod, metal powder.
❑ Metallic and nonmetallic powders can be
intimately mixed and co-extruded.
❑ Polymeric materials and even fiber-reinforced
plastics have been successfully extruded.
❑ The most common feed is coiled Al or Cu rod.
Conform Extrusion – Applications

❑ Continuous extrusion can

produce a large range of
tubes from round to
multivoid and has also now
moved into the fine and
hollow profile markets
❑ Solids – Cable conductor,
Busbar, Lightning
conductor,
Strip, Rods, Superconductor
❑ Tubes – Round refrigeration
multiport, Air conditioning,
Hollow profiles, Shaped
tubes
❑ Profiles – Magnet wire,
Commutator, Heat sinks,
Motors, Switch gear, Custom
profiles
Hydrostatic Extrusion

❑ In hydrostatic extrusion, high-

pressure fluid surrounds the
workpiece and applies the force
necessary to extrude it through
the die
❑ The product emerges into either
atmospheric pressure or a lower-
pressure, fluid-filled chamber.
❑ The pressurized fluid surrounding
the billet prevents any upsetting
❑ No contact between billet and
surrounding chamber –
eliminates the billet-chamber
friction
❑ The pressurized fluid can also
emerge between the billet and the
die, acting in the form of a
lubricant
Hydrostatic Extrusion – Process and Applications

Setup of the process

➢ The billet must first be tapered to
fit through the die opening, thus
creating a seal.
➢ This is done before adding the Zn-Mg alloy
liquid, in order to prevent leaking.
➢ Since the liquid is under great
pressure, this taper must be precise
to create a robust bond.

❑ Hydrostatic extrusion may be

performed at room or elevated
temperatures, depending upon the
manufacturing process.
❑ When performed hot, the liquid will
insulate the work from thermal
gradients between the container
and work material.
Hydrostatic Extrusion – Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
❑ No friction at container-billet interface – ➢ Increased handling for
minimizes force requirements, allowing the injection and removal
higher reduction ratios, faster speeds, & of the fluid for every
lower billet temperatures. extrusion cycle.
❑ Friction of the die can be largely reduced ➢ Decreased control of
by a film of pressurized lubricant at die speed of the billet &
surface and deforming metal. stopping because of
❑ On applying high pressures, the ductility potential stick slip and
of material increases. enormous stored energy
❑ Even flow of material. in the compressed fluid.
❑ Large billets & large cross-sections are ➢ Decreased process
extruded. efficiency in terms of
billet-to-container
❑ Uniform hydrostatic pressure inside the
volume ratio.
container eliminates the requirement of
billets being straightened ➢ Enhanced complications,
when extrusion is done at
❑ No billet residue is left on the walls of
elevated temperatures.
container.
Hydrodynamic Wire Drawing
❑ Hydrodynamic Wire Drawing is the wire drawing process in which
the wire to be drawn is surrounded by a lubricant
❑ When wire surrounded by a lubricant is drawn at high speed through an
orifice whose diameter is slightly larger than that of the incoming wire a
hydrodynamic pressure is established which may reach the flow stress of
the wire.
❑ In this way the diameter may be reduced without its making contact with
the die.

Importance of Lubrication in Wire Drawing

The process of drawing ferrous wire through a reducing die results in the
generation of high temperature, pressure and shear forces within the die,
and, ultimately, massive, permanent deformation of the wire.
❑ Reduced machine downtime to replace worn dies
❑ Reduced drawing forces because there is reduced friction
❑ Reduced surface temperatures for the wire and die
❑ More uniform physical properties of the wire due to more uniform metal
deformation
❑ Reduction in off-specification wire
Hydrodynamic Wire Drawing

Wet wire drawing - As the wire passes

through the liquid lubricant box, its surface
picks up a layer of lubricant, which moves
along with the wire. Because of high
interface pressure between the wire and the
die, only a small fraction of the lubricant
layer can go through the die, the remaining
lubricant coming at high speed with the wire
comes to a stop and possibly flows back

Hydrodynamic lubrication
during wire drawing may be
enhanced by fixing a short tube
length at the entrance to the
die. The clearance between the
tube and the wire is very small,
just sufficient for the fluid film
to get into the tube along with
the wire.
https://wespec.net/wire-drawing-lubricants/
Explosive Forming

❑ Explosive Forming – is a type of high energy rate forming process

where an enormous amount of energy is released at a very high rate to
deform the material
❑ It is a process in which forces produced by explosion of designated
explosives are used to shape a workpiece.
❑ The explosive energy replaces the male part of the tool that is used in
regular forming processes.
❑ The air in the die cavity is then evacuated, an explosive charge is placed at
a certain height, and the charge is detonated
Explosive Forming – Process

The explosive generates a shock wave with a pressure that is sufficient to

form sheet metals. The peak pressure, p, generated in water is given by
the expression
𝑎
∛𝑊
𝑝=𝐾
𝑅
where K is a constant that depends on the type of explosive, such as
21,600 for TNT (trinitrotoluene), W is the weight of the explosive, R is
the distance of the explosive from the sheet-metal surface (called the
standoff), and a is a constant, generally taken to be 1.15
Explosive Forming – Parameters and Applications

Process Parameters
➢ Explosives can be placed at a fixed distance from the workpiece. After
detonation, the explosive forces travel through the intervening medium to
reach the workpiece. This method is called the standoff method.
➢ Alternatively, the explosive can be placed directly on the workpiece. Upon
detonation, explosive forces hit the workpiece directly. This is called the
contact method.

Design Considerations Applications

❑ Section thickness at any ✓ Sheet metal panels
point should be in the ✓ Housings
range of 1 mm to 10mm. ✓ Jet engine parts
❑ Tolerance of 0.25 mm to ✓ Missile nose cones
1mm should be
✓ Ducts
provided.
❑ Surface roughness of
1.575 mm to 12.3 mm
can be achieved.
Explosive Forming – Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
➢ Various conventional forming methods such as stamp forming, press
forming and spin forming can be completed in a single step using
explosive forming
➢ It can efficiently form very large parts and components
➢ It is particularly suitable for short production runs of large parts which
finds applications in aerospace industries
➢ Maintains precise tolerances and close dimensional finish

Disadvantages
❑ Handling explosives requires great
care and safety precautions.
❑ Only viable for low production
volumes.
❑ Extremely skilled labor is required
❑ Due to shock waves and associated
spillage of water, the process needs
to be carried out outdoors
Spray Forming

❑ Spray forming is an advanced materials

processing technology that transforms molten metal
into a near-net-shape solid by depositing atomized
droplets onto a substrate
❑ Powdered material is injected into a plasma torch (a
stream of hot ionized gas with temperatures up to
11,000 C)
❑ The particles melt and are propelled onto a shaped
form or mandrel. Upon impact, the droplets flatten
and undergo rapid solidification to produce a dense,
fine grained product.
❑ Multiple layers can be deposited to build up a
desired size, shape, and thickness.
❑ Due to high adhesion, the mandrel or form is often
removed by machining or chemical etching.
❑ Most applications include fabrication of specialized
products from difficult-to-form or ultra-high-
melting-point materials.
Spray Forming – Principle

The principle of spray

forming consists of
two stages: spray
atomization and
deposition
Spray atomization
is the process by
which the molten
metal exits the furnace
as a thin free-falling
stream and is broken
up into droplets by an
annular array of gas
jets. The droplets then Deposition process is arranged such that the
proceed downwards, droplets strike the substrate whilst in the semi-
accelerated by the gas solid condition, this provides sufficient liquid
jets to impact onto a fraction to 'stick' the solid fraction together.
substrate. Deposition continues, gradually building up a
spray formed billet of metal on the substrate.
Spray Forming – Different Configurations
Spray Forming – Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
➢ It is a flexible process and can be used to manufacture a wide range of
materials, some of which are difficult to produce by other methods
➢ The combination of rapid cooling in the spray and the generation of a
large population of solid nucleants in the impacting spray leads to a fine
equiaxed microstructure, typically in the range 10–100 μm.
➢ Improved microstructure enhance the material strength considerably

Disadvantages
❑ Relatively low process yield with typical losses of ~30%.
❑ Losses occur because of overspray (droplets missing the emerging billet),
splashing of material from the billet surface, and material 'bouncing' off
the semi-solid top surface
❑ Process controlling parameters are large and it is essentially a free-
forming process with many interdependent variables,
❑ It has proved difficult to predict the shape, porosity or deposition rate for
a given alloy.