WORD LIST FOR LEVEL

B2
 This publication has made use of the English Vocabulary Profile. This resource is
based on extensive research using the Cambridge Learner Corpus and is part of the
English Profile programme, which aims to provide evidence about language use that
helps to produce better language teaching materials.
See http://www.englishprofile.org/ for more information.

Compiled electronically by Efthimios Mavrogeorgiadis.

http://www.toe.gr/
 Abbreviations

!
Culturally Sensitive Word

+ two objects
A verb that has two objects.

C
Countable noun: a noun that has both singular and plural forms.

C usually no plural or U
Countable noun which usually has no plural or uncountable noun.

I
Intransitive verb: a verb that has no object.

T
Transitive verb: a verb that has an object.

U
Uncountable noun: noun with no plural form. Cannot be used with 'a', 'an', or 'one'.

UK
British English

US
American English

abbreviation
A short form of a word or phrase.

adjective
A word that describes a noun or pronoun.

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adverb
A word that describes or gives more information about a verb, adjective or other
adverb.

approving
Used in a positive way, to show that you have a good opinion of someone or
something.

auxiliary verb
The verbs 'be', 'have' and 'do' when combined with other verbs to make different
forms.

before noun
An adjective that always comes before a noun.

conjunction
A word used to join parts of a phrase or sentence.

determiner
Word used before noun or adj to show which person or thing is being referred to.

disapproving
Used in a negative way, to show that you have a bad opinion of someone or
something.

exclamation
A word or phrase that you say loudly or suddenly to express strong feelings.

formal
Used in serious writing, or for communicating with people in a serious or polite way.

informal
Used in relaxed situations, for example with friends and family. Used more in speech.

literary
Used in books and poems, and not in ordinary conversation.

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modal verb
Verb such as can, might, must. With another verb, shows an idea such as possibility.

noun
A word that refers to a person, place, idea, event or thing.

often passive
In a passive verb/sentence, the subject does not do the action but is affected by it.

often plural
Refers to more than one person or thing.

phrasal verb
Verb with an adverb or preposition, with meaning different from meaning of its parts.

plural
Refers to more than one person or thing.

preposition
Word used before noun, pronoun or -ing form of verb to show place, direction, etc.

pronoun
A word used instead of a noun, which has usually already been talked about.

specialized
Used in connection with a particular area of work or study.

symbol
A sign, shape or object used to represent something else.

verb
A word that describes an action, condition or experience.

written abbreviation
A short form of a word or phrase only used in writing

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6
 A

abandon /əˈbæn.dən/

Word family:
Verbs: abandon
Adjectives: abandoned

VERB [T]

LEAVE

to leave someone or something somewhere, sometimes not returning to get them

Dictionary examples:
They were forced to abandon the car.
As a baby, he'd been abandoned by his mother.
We were sinking fast, and the captain gave the order to abandon ship.

Learner example:
I lived with my mother and brother but my father was never there. I knew that he had abandoned
us for another woman.

abandoned /əˈbæn.dənd/

Word family:
Verbs: abandon
Adjectives: abandoned

ADJECTIVE

EMPTY

left empty or not working

Dictionary example:
an abandoned factory/village

Learner example:
Arriving [at] an altitude of 2000m, people can visit the abandoned salt-mines.

LEFT SOMEWHERE

having been left somewhere, intentionally

Dictionary example:
An abandoned baby was found in a box on the hospital steps.

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 Learner example:
Please, just have a look [at] your wife Margaret and her eyes will tell you that she is this
abandoned princess of your childhood fairy-tale.

abolish /əˈbɒl.ɪʃ/

VERB [T]

to officially end something, especially a law or system

Dictionary examples:
I think bullfighting should be abolished.
National Service was abolished in Britain in 1962.

Learner example:
Therefore, I suggest you should not change or abolish any event for any reason.

about /əˈbaʊt/

ADVERB

DIRECTION

to or in different parts of a place, often without purpose or order

Dictionary example:
They heard someone moving/walking about outside.

absence /ˈæb.sənts/

Word family:
Nouns: absence
Adjectives: absent

NOUN

NOT PRESENT

[C or U] when someone is not where they are usually expected to be

Dictionary examples:
A new manager was appointed during/in her absence.
She has had repeated absences from work this year.

Learner example:
Thank you very much for letting me stay in your flat during your absence on holiday.

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 NOT EXISTING

[U] when something does not exist

Dictionary example:
He drew attention to the absence of concrete evidence against the defendant.

Learner example:
The biggest difference the absence of TV made in my life was that I actually started living.

absolute /ˈæb.sə.luːt/

Word family:
Adjectives: absolute
Adverbs: absolutely

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

complete and definite

Dictionary examples:
absolute control
He's an absolute idiot!
That's absolute rubbish!

Learner example:
I have no experience [of] surfing - I am an absolute beginner with high motivation.

absorb /əbˈzɔːb/

VERB [T]

TAKE IN

to take something in, especially gradually

Dictionary examples:
Plants absorb carbon dioxide.
The drug is quickly absorbed into the bloodstream.

Learner example:
Everything is getting intermingled and absorbed into the system, making life terribly efficient,
quick and easy.

be absorbed in sth
to give all your attention to something that you are doing
Dictionary example:
Simon was so absorbed in his computer game that he didn't notice me come in.

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 Learner example:
We hadn't noticed them at first because we were absorbed in [listening to the] birds singing.

abstract /ˈæb.strækt/

ADJECTIVE

IDEAS

relating to ideas and not real things

Dictionary examples:
abstract ideas
Truth and beauty are abstract concepts.

Learner example:
Reading improve[s] your ability to imagine and your abstract thinking skills.

ART

Abstract art involves shapes and colours and not images of real things or people.
Dictionary example:
abstract paintings/sculpture

Learner example:
What kind of material will you use for this painting? Will it be a realistic picture or an abstract one?

absurd /əbˈzɜːd/

ADJECTIVE

very silly
Dictionary examples:
What an absurd explanation!
Don't be so absurd! Of course I want you to come.
It's an absurd situation - neither of them will talk to the other.

Learner example:
[In your article,] some performers are called 'second-rate', which, in my view, is absurd when
talking about such famous groups as 'Snakes' and 'KGB'.

abuse /əˈbjuːs/

Word family:
Nouns: abuse
Adjectives: abusive

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NOUN

BAD TREATMENT

! [C or U] bad or cruel treatment of people or animals

Dictionary examples:
sexual/psychological/mental abuse
The rescued dogs had been victims of physical abuse.

Learner example:
The one side opposes this treatment as an abuse of living creatures while the other side denies
any suffering and points at the values of zoos for people.

WRONG USE

! [C or U] the use of a substance in an unsuitable and harmful way or for the wrong
purpose
Dictionary examples:
Drug and alcohol abuse contributed to his early death.
This program tries to address problems that lead to substance abuse.

Learner example:
Get information about the [effect]s of drug abuse and make your generation a better one.

academic /ˌæk.əˈdem.ɪk/

ADJECTIVE

EDUCATION

relating to schools, colleges and universities, or to subjects which involve thinking

and studying and not technical or practical skills
Dictionary examples:
academic subjects/qualifications/books
academic standards

Learner example:
As a member of our academic community, I'm very glad to hear that our college will have a
surplus in its annual budget.

accent /ˈæk.sənt/

NOUN [C]

MARK

a mark written or printed over a letter to show you how to pronounce it

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 Dictionary example:
There's an acute accent on the 'e' of 'café'.

accept /əkˈsept/

Word family:
Nouns: acceptance
Verbs: accept
Adjectives: acceptable, unacceptable, accepted

VERB

ADMIT

[T] to admit that something is true, often something unpleasant

Dictionary examples:
He refuses to accept that he's made a mistake.
I can't accept that there's nothing we can do.

Learner example:
David told her that the reason [for] his failure was her, because she used to press him a lot and
she couldn't accept that he wanted to be an actor.

ALLOW TO JOIN

[T] to allow someone to join an organization or become part of a group

Dictionary examples:
She's been accepted by two universities.
He was accepted as a full member of the society.
His fellow workers refused to accept him.

Learner example:
When I returned home I check[ed] my mail and I ha[d] a new message from my uncle, saying that
the university have accepted me.

accept responsibility/blame
to admit that you caused something bad that happened
Dictionary example:
I accept full responsibility for the failure of the plan.

access /ˈæk.ses/

Word family:
Nouns: access
Verbs: access
Adjectives: accessible

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VERB [T]

to find or see information, especially using a computer

Dictionary example:
You can access the files over the Internet.

Learner example:
We have more time to stay together at home, because we can access [the] internet at home.

accessible /əkˈses.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: access
Verbs: access
Adjectives: accessible

ADJECTIVE

REACH

able to be reached or easily got

Dictionary example:
The resort is easily accessible by road, rail and air.

Learner example:
It is very accessible because it is situated in the centre.

accidental /ˌæk.sɪˈden.təl/

Word family:
Nouns: accident
Adjectives: accidental
Adverbs: accidentally

ADJECTIVE

happening by chance
Dictionary examples:
accidental damage
The archeological site was located after the accidental discovery of bones in a field.

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 accidentally /ˌæk.sɪˈden.təl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: accident
Adjectives: accidental
Adverbs: accidentally

ADVERB

by chance or by mistake
Dictionary example:
She accidentally knocked over a glass of water.

Learner example:
I accidentally broke one of your vases - the most beautiful one.

according to /əˈkɔː.dɪŋˌtuː/

PREPOSITION

METHOD

in a way that agrees with

Dictionary example:
Students are all put in different groups according to their ability.

Learner example:
The job included organizing suitable activities according to their age, capability and wishes.

account /əˈkaʊnt/

Word family:
Nouns: account, accountant

NOUN

REPORT

[C] a written or spoken description of something that has happened

Dictionary examples:
She gave a thrilling account of her life in the jungle.
The documents provide a detailed account of the town's early history.

Learner example:
I would be very interested [in participating] and [writing] the accounts of our journeys.

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 take account of sth
to consider something when judging a situation
Dictionary example:
A good architect takes account of the building's surroundings.

Learner example:
I hope you will take account of our request.

take into account sth

to consider something when judging a situation
Dictionary example:
I think you have to take into account the fact that he's a good deal younger than the rest of us.

Learner example:
Taking into account all these arguments, I also think, like many people, that keeping animals in
zoos is cruel and unnecessary.

on account of sth
because of something
Dictionary example:
He doesn't eat any dairy products on account of the diet he is following.

Learner example:
On account of its location, it is always busy.

accuracy /ˈæk.jʊ.rə.si/

Word family:
Nouns: accuracy, inaccuracy
Adjectives: accurate, inaccurate
Adverbs: accurately

NOUN [U]

how correct or exact something is

Dictionary example:
We can predict changes with a surprising degree of accuracy.

Learner example:
I was very disappointed to observe your lack of accuracy in the description of this wonderful
event.

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 accuse /əˈkjuːz/

Word family:
Nouns: accusation
Verbs: accuse

VERB [T]

to say that someone has done something bad

Dictionary examples:
He's been accused of robbery/murder.
Are you accusing me of lying?

Learner example:
They were accused of vandalism.

ache /eɪk/

VERB [I]

to have a continuous pain that is unpleasant but not strong

Dictionary examples:
My head/tooth/back aches.
I ache/I'm aching all over.

Learner example:
After a[n] hour of horseback riding your muscles can really ache.

acid /ˈæs.ɪd/

NOUN [C or U]

a liquid substance which can react chemically with and sometimes dissolve other
materials
Dictionary examples:
hydrochloric/fatty acid
Vinegar is an acid.

Learner example:
We saw a little black dragon with scales like iron charging [at] us and spitting acid.

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 acquire /əˈkwaɪər/

VERB [T]

GET

FORMAL to get something

Dictionary examples:
He acquired the firm in 1978.
I seem to have acquired two copies of this book.

Learner example:
I would like to join the club because I will be able to acquire more stamps for my collection.

LEARN

to learn something
Dictionary example:
to acquire knowledge/skills

Learner example:
I have already acquired experience in the Tourism Field, working as a guard in a summer camp in
Florida in 1997.

act /ækt/

Word family:
Nouns: act, action, actor
Verbs: act

VERB

DO SOMETHING

[I] to do something, especially in order to solve a problem

Dictionary examples:
She acted without thinking.
We have to act now to stop the spread of this disease.

Learner example:
We can make the village much more attractive than it has ever been. If we act together as a group,
things will be easier.

NOUN

THING DONE

[C] something that someone does

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 Dictionary examples:
an act of aggression/kindness/terrorism
a kind/thoughtless/selfish act
The simple act of telling someone about a problem can help.

Learner example:
I think that reading is a[n] act of intel[l]igence because animals can't read, while watching T.V. is
only an act of having fun!!!

action /ˈæk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: act, action, actor
Verbs: act

NOUN

DO

[C or U] something that you do

Dictionary examples:
We must take action before the problem gets worse.
She has to accept the consequences of her actions.
What do you think is the best course of action?

Learner example:
I decided to take action on my own.

active /ˈæk.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: activity
Adjectives: active
Adverbs: actively

ADJECTIVE

INVOLVED

very involved in an organization or planned activity

Dictionary examples:
He played an active role in the campaign.
Both of his parents were politically active.
Enemy forces remain active in the mountainous areas around the city.

Learner example:
I have always been very active in different organizations, sports as well as c[h]arity.

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 actively /ˈæk.tɪv.li/

Word family:
Nouns: activity
Adjectives: active
Adverbs: actively

ADVERB

in a way that involves positive action

Dictionary examples:
He's very actively involved in the local Labour Party.
I've been actively looking for a job for six months.

Learner example:
There's statistic[al] evidence that maths can train a brain to study actively.

activity /ækˈtɪv.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: activity
Adjectives: active
Adverbs: actively

NOUN

WORK

[C or U] the work of a group or organization to achieve an aim

Dictionary examples:
He was found guilty of terrorist activity.
criminal activities

Learner example:
But Rollo was also a good man, so when a policeman, called Calloway, informed him about
[Harry's] illegal activity, he turned against him.

MOVEMENT

[U] when a lot of things are happening or people are moving around

Dictionary examples:
Ministers are concerned by the low level of economic activity.
There was a lot of activity the other side of the room.

Learner example:
Technical progress and industrial activity are causing a lot of problems.

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 actual /ˈæk.tʃu.əl/

Word family:
Adjectives: actual
Adverbs: actually

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

REAL

real, not guessed or imagined

Dictionary examples:
We had estimated about 300 visitors, but the actual number was much higher.
The exams are in July, but the actual results don't appear until September.

Learner example:
In my opinion, Burgers' Bush, Safari & Zoo in Arnhem has found the perfect solution. The actual
zoo is rather small but each animal has a lot of space for running or wandering around.

in actual fact
used to emphasize what is really true, or to give more information
Dictionary example:
I thought she was Portuguese, but in actual fact she's Brazilian.

Learner example:
Nowadays almost all people own a car and in actual fact more and more people have been facing
death as a consequence of careless driving.

actually /ˈæk.tʃu.ə.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: actual
Adverbs: actually

ADVERB

OPPOSITE

used when you are correcting someone, disagreeing with someone, or saying no to
a request
Dictionary examples:
Actually, Gavin, it was Tuesday of last week, not Wednesday.
"You didn't tell me about needing the car." "Actually, I did."
"Do you mind if I smoke?" "Actually, I'd rather you didn't."

Learner example:
Actually, TORRENTS was [the] second group [at the festival]. I think you probably missed the first
performance [in] which KING CUP sang.

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 adapt /əˈdæpt/

Word family:
Nouns: adaptation
Verbs: adapt

VERB

CHANGE BEHAVIOUR

[I] to change your behaviour so that it is suitable for a new situation

Dictionary example:
It takes time to adapt to a new working environment.

Learner example:
I and my parents easily adapted to London, [and] to English people.

CHANGE SOMETHING

[T] to change something so that it is suitable for a different use or situation

Dictionary examples:
Many software companies have adapted popular programs to the new operating system.
Davies is busy adapting Brinkworth's latest novel for television.

Learner example:
In my opinion, as the town is not so big it will be enough to adapt the two areas outside the town
walls and to use them for car parking.

add /æd/

Word family:
Nouns: addition
Verbs: add
Adjectives: additional
Adverbs: additionally

VERB

add to sth PHRASAL VERB

to make a feeling or quality more extreme

Dictionary example:
Her colleagues' laughter only added to her embarrassment.

Learner example:
To add to the bitterness, I had my right hand broken.

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 addict /ˈæd.ɪkt/

Word family:
Nouns: addict, addiction
Adjectives: addicted, addictive

NOUN [C]

! a person who cannot stop doing or using something, especially something

harmful
Dictionary examples:
a drug/heroin addict
a gambling addict
I'm a chocolate/shopping addict.

Learner example:
I like TV, I watch it but luckily I haven't become a TV addict yet.

addicted /əˈdɪk.tɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: addict, addiction
Adjectives: addicted, addictive

ADJECTIVE

DRUGS

not able to stop taking a drug

Dictionary example:
He later became addicted to heroin.

Learner example:
One day my uncle called and told me a story of a boy who was addicted to drugs.

LIKING

liking something very much

Dictionary example:
He's addicted to chocolate/football.

Learner example:
However, I believe that some people are addicted to computer games and that is not good.

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 addiction /əˈdɪk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: addict, addiction
Adjectives: addicted, addictive

NOUN [C or U]

! when you cannot stop doing or taking something because you are addicted to it

Dictionary examples:
drug addiction
an addiction to alcohol
His addiction to computer games means he is spending far too much time indoors.

Learner example:
Sending text messages is an addiction which every teenager is obsessed with.

addition /əˈdɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: addition
Verbs: add
Adjectives: additional
Adverbs: additionally

NOUN

NEW THING

[C] a new or extra thing which is added to something

Dictionary example:
Defender Matt Smith is the latest addition to the team.

Learner example:
There is only one more thing missing: it would be great if there was popcorn provided. I am sure
that would be a good addition for everyone.

NUMBERS/AMOUNTS

[U] the process of adding numbers or amounts together in order to get a total

Dictionary example:
Twice a week the children are tested in basic mathematical skills such as addition and subtraction.

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 additional /əˈdɪʃ.ən.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: addition
Verbs: add
Adjectives: additional
Adverbs: additionally

ADJECTIVE

extra
Dictionary examples:
additional costs/problems
There will be an extra charge for any additional passengers.

Learner example:
I do have some additional questions for you.

additionally /əˈdɪʃ.ən.əl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: addition
Verbs: add
Adjectives: additional
Adverbs: additionally

ADVERB

in addition
Dictionary example:
Additionally, we request a deposit of $200 in advance.

Learner example:
Additionally, I am very interested in helping an organization that's trying to protect [the]
environment.

adequate /ˈæd.ə.kwət/

Word family:
Adjectives: adequate, inadequate
Adverbs: adequately

ADJECTIVE

ENOUGH

enough

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 Dictionary examples:
I didn't have adequate time to prepare.
Will future oil supplies be adequate to meet world needs?

Learner example:
I hope the information I gave is adequate.

GOOD ENOUGH

good enough, but not very good

Dictionary examples:
The sound quality isn't brilliant but it's adequate for everyday use.
The council's provision for the elderly is barely adequate.

Learner example:
In my opinion, animals should only be kept in a zoo that provide[s] adequate living conditions and
sufficient room.

adequately /ˈæd.ə.kwət.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: adequate, inadequate
Adverbs: adequately

ADVERB

in an adequate way
Dictionary example:
While some patients can be adequately cared for at home, others are best served by care in a
hospital.

adjust /əˈdʒʌst/

Word family:
Nouns: adjustment
Verbs: adjust, readjust

VERB

CHANGE

[T] to change something slightly so that it works better, fits better, or is more
suitable
Dictionary examples:
If the chair is too high you can adjust it to suit you.
As a teacher you have to adjust your methods to suit the needs of different children.

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 Learner example:
I had to clean the lenses, prepare the tapes, and adjust the sound.

CHANGE BEHAVIOUR

[I] to change the way you behave or think in order to suit a new situation

Dictionary example:
They found it hard to adjust to life in a new country.

Learner example:
People will be able to adjust and change with the times.

adjustment /əˈdʒʌst.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: adjustment
Verbs: adjust, readjust

NOUN [C or U]

a small change that you make to something so that it works better, fits better, or
is more suitable
Dictionary examples:
We've made a few adjustments to the schedule.
I have a few minor adjustments to make.

Learner example:
I have some questions and a minor adjustment to make.

admiration /ˌæd.məˈreɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: admiration
Verbs: admire

NOUN [U]

when you admire someone or something

Dictionary examples:
My admiration for that woman grows daily.
She gazed in admiration at his broad, muscular shoulders.

Learner example:
All over the world there are so many people who deserve admiration.

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 admire /ədˈmaɪər/

Word family:
Nouns: admiration
Verbs: admire

VERB [T]

RESPECT

to respect or approve of someone or something

Dictionary examples:
I admired him for his determination.
I really admire people who can work in such difficult conditions.

Learner example:
The person I admire most, however, is my father.

admission /ədˈmɪʃ.ən/

NOUN

PERMISSION

[C or U] when someone is given permission to enter somewhere or to become a

member of a club, university, etc.
Dictionary example:
She's applied for admission to law school.

Learner example:
I was wondering whether you could send me some information [about] the rules of admission to
the club.

admittedly /ədˈmɪt.ɪd.li/

Word family:
Verbs: admit
Adverbs: admittedly

ADVERB

used when you are agreeing that something is true although you do not want to
Dictionary example:
Admittedly, I could have tried harder but I still don't think all this criticism is fair.

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 Learner example:
Admittedly, using your car is more convenient and easier [than] using public transport but in my
opinion, the advantages of using public transport outweigh the disadvantages it can cause.

adopt /əˈdɒpt/

Word family:
Nouns: adoption
Verbs: adopt
Adjectives: adopted

VERB

TAKE CHILD

[I or T] to legally become the parents of someone else's child

Dictionary examples:
They've adopted a baby girl.
She had the child adopted.

Learner example:
She isn't my biological mother, she adopted me when I was a baby.

START

[T] to accept or start to use something new

Dictionary examples:
We've adopted a new approach to the problem.
The new tax would force companies to adopt energy-saving measures.
He's adopted a remarkably light-hearted attitude towards the situation.

Learner example:
I believe that we must continue to adopt his ideas.

adopted /əˈdɒp.tɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: adoption
Verbs: adopt
Adjectives: adopted

ADJECTIVE

legally taken by another family to be looked after as their own child

Dictionary example:
They've got two adopted children and one of their own.

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 adoption /əˈdɒp.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: adoption
Verbs: adopt
Adjectives: adopted

NOUN [C or U]

the process of legally becoming the parents of someone else's child

Dictionary example:
She couldn't have children, so they were considering adoption.

advance /ədˈvɑːnts/

Word family:
Nouns: advance
Adjectives: advanced

NOUN

PROGRESS

[C or U] new discoveries and inventions

Dictionary examples:
technological/scientific advances
Our lives have been improved by the many recent advances in computer technology.
the advance of modern medicine

Learner example:
I guess science is about solving our daily problems with technological advances.

advantage /ədˈvɑːn.tɪdʒ/

Word family:
Nouns: advantage, disadvantage
Adjectives: disadvantaged

NOUN

take advantage of sb/sth

to treat someone or something badly in order to get what you want
Dictionary example:
I think she takes advantage of his good nature.

Learner example:
There will always be the threat of those men who take advantage of animals' inferior status.

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 SUCCESS

[C or U] something that will help you to succeed

Dictionary example:
These new routes will give the airline the advantage over its competitors.

adventurous /ədˈven.tʃər.əs/

Word family:
Nouns: adventure
Adjectives: adventurous

ADJECTIVE

willing to try new and often difficult or dangerous things

Dictionary examples:
I'm trying to be more adventurous with my cooking.
She led an adventurous life.

Learner example:
I think it's better for us to sleep in tents because it'll be more adventurous than staying in rooms.

advertising /ˈæd.və.taɪ.zɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: advertisement, advertising
Verbs: advertise

NOUN [U]

the business of trying to persuade people to buy products or services

Dictionary examples:
Fiona works in advertising.
the advertising industry

Learner example:
Some weeks ago, she was hired by a famous advertising company, widely known for its ironic ads.

affair /əˈfeər/

NOUN

RELATIONSHIP

[C] a sexual relationship, especially a secret one

30
 Dictionary examples:
She's having an affair with a married man.
The book doesn't make any mention of his love affairs.

Learner example:
I met a very handsome man and my husband had a little love affair with a very pretty girl there,
but we forgave each other.

SITUATION

[C] a situation or set of related events, especially bad ones

Dictionary examples:
The government's handling of the affair has been widely criticized.
He refused to discuss his financial affairs.

Learner example:
To make matters worse, people gossiped about me and tried to find out more and more about my
private affairs, which made me feel embarrassed.

affect /əˈfekt/

Word family:
Verbs: affect
Adjectives: unaffected

VERB [T]

CAUSE CHANGE

to have an influence on someone or something, or to cause them to change

Dictionary examples:
The divorce affected every aspect of her life.
Both buildings were badly affected by the fire.

Learner example:
The telephone is a very important invention, which has affected our lives.

CAUSE EMOTION

[OFTEN PASSIVE] to cause a strong emotion, especially sadness

Dictionary example:
I was deeply affected by the film.

Learner example:
When the fo[u]rth song, 'Rebel[l]ion' started, I was deeply affected by the r[h]ythm.

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 affection /əˈfek.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: affection
Adjectives: affectionate

NOUN [C or U]

a feeling of liking or loving a person or place

Dictionary examples:
He had a deep affection for his aunt.
She felt no affection for the child.

Learner example:
In addition she loves me very much and she offers a lot of affection to me when I face a difficult
situation with my job.

after /ˈɑːf.tər/

PREPOSITION

BECAUSE OF

because of something that happened

Dictionary example:
I'll never trust her again after what she did to me.

Learner example:
I really needed those days after what I've been through this spring.

again /əˈgeɪn/

ADVERB

all over again

repeated from the beginning
Dictionary example:
We had to start all over again.

Learner example:
After that I went back to my home in Ribeirao Preto to begin my routine all over again.

yet again
again after something has happened or been done many times before

32
 Dictionary example:
The bus was late yet again.

Learner example:
Tom, thank you so much yet again for your interest. This talk is very important to me and to count
on you is an honour for our college.

against /əˈgentst/

PREPOSITION

NOT AGREE

disagreeing with a plan or activity

Dictionary examples:
She spoke against the decision to close the college.
Are you for or against the proposal?

Learner example:
It is very hard to keep [a] dog because it makes too much noise and so my Mum is against it.

against the law

forbidden by a law
Dictionary example:
It's against the law to leave a young child alone in the house.

Learner example:
Until that moment, Mary thought [he]r uncle and his friends were smugglers and were doing
things against the law.

agent /ˈeɪ.dʒənt/

Word family:
Nouns: agency, agent

NOUN [C]

BUSINESS

someone whose job is to deal with business for someone else

Dictionary example:
Please contact our agent in Spain for further information.

Learner example:
I hope the agent will sell it soon.

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 SECRET INFORMATION

someone who tries to find out secret information, especially about another country
Dictionary example:
a secret agent

Learner example:
She interrupted and told the man that she was a secret agent.

aggressive /əˈgres.ɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: aggression
Adjectives: aggressive
Adverbs: aggressively

ADJECTIVE

VIOLENT

behaving in an angry and violent way towards another person

Dictionary examples:
aggressive behaviour
If I criticize him, he gets aggressive and starts shouting.

Learner example:
At such moments he became angry and aggressive.

aggressively /əˈgres.ɪv.li/

Word family:
Nouns: aggression
Adjectives: aggressive
Adverbs: aggressively

ADVERB

in an aggressive way
Dictionary examples:
Small children often behave aggressively.
They played more aggressively in the second half.

34
 agree /əˈgriː/

Word family:
Nouns: agreement, disagreement
Verbs: agree, disagree

VERB

SAY YES

[I] to say you will do something that someone asks you to

Dictionary examples:
She agreed to help him.
The bank has agreed to lend me £5000.

Learner example:
When I came home, I told my mother everything and she agreed to put him up.

agreement /əˈgriː.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: agreement, disagreement
Verbs: agree, disagree

NOUN

DECISION

[C] a promise or decision made between two or more groups or people

Dictionary examples:
an agreement with the company
an agreement between both parties
It was difficult to reach an agreement.
The government has signed an international agreement on climate change.
They have broken the agreement on human rights.

Learner example:
There was an attempt to cut down on using and producing sprays which destroy the ozon[e] layer
[and] an international agreement was signed.

SAME OPINION

[U] when people have the same opinion or have made the same decision

Dictionary examples:
Are we all in agreement?
There was broad agreement about/on what to do.

Learner example:
With your agreement we could change the programme.

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 agriculture /ˈæg.rɪ.kʌl.tʃər/

NOUN [U]

farming
Dictionary examples:
Agriculture is still largely based on traditional methods in some countries.
The area depends on agriculture for most of its income.

Learner example:
People who live in big cities suffer from air pollu[t]ion and noise, and vill[a]gers suffer from
chemicals us[ed] for agriculture.

ahead /əˈhed/

ADVERB

MORE POINTS

having more points than someone else in a competition

Dictionary example:
Barcelona was ahead after ten minutes.

aim /eɪm/

VERB

be aimed at sb
to be intended to influence or affect a particular person or group
Dictionary example:
These advertisements are specifically aimed at young people.

Learner example:
PIAZZA is too modern and is aimed at the young.

air /eər/

NOUN

the air
the space above and around things

36
 Dictionary example:
He kicked the ball high in the air.

Learner example:
It was an old painting. In it, a man was holding his axe up in the air and was ready to hit a tree.

aircraft /ˈeə.krɑːft/ (PLURAL aircraft)

NOUN [C]

any vehicle, with or without an engine, which can fly, such as a plane or helicopter
Dictionary example:
military/commercial aircraft

Learner example:
They have all [the] Swedish aircraft that have ever be[en] buil[t].

alike /əˈlaɪk/

ADVERB

SIMILAR

in a similar way
Dictionary examples:
We think alike.
My father treated us all alike.

BOTH

used after referring to two groups of people or things to show that both groups
are included
Dictionary example:
Friends and family alike were shocked by the news of her death.

Learner example:
It was indeed a great treat for old and young alike.

all /ɔːl/

DETERMINER; PRONOUN

in all
used to show the total amount of something

37
 Dictionary example:
Some of the children came, so there were 15 of us in all.

Learner example:
Secondly, even though most people like[d] [the] group RADIANT, they [only] played for 35 minutes
in all.

all of a sudden
suddenly and unexpectedly
Dictionary example:
All of a sudden, he came bursting in through the door.

Learner example:
All of a sudden, a weird creature popped into his dream.

all over again

repeated from the beginning
Dictionary example:
We had to start all over again.

Learner example:
After that I went back to my home in Ribeirao Preto to begin my routine all over again.

ADVERB

all along
from the beginning of a period of time
Dictionary example:
I knew all along that it was a mistake.

Learner example:
In the future the key word for fashion will be comfort as this is basically what everyone has been
wanting all along.

all in all
considering everything
Dictionary example:
All in all, it was a great holiday.

Learner example:
All in all, nobody cares about air pollution and the environment in general.

all over the place

in or to many different places
Dictionary example:
There were dirty dishes all over the place.

38
 Learner example:
I am thinking of dog-dirt on the pavements, cans all over the place, [and] a lot of disgusting
paintings on the walls in the public toilets, the underground and so on.

alone /əˈləʊn/

ADJECTIVE; ADVERB

leave sb alone
to stop talking to someone or annoying them
Dictionary example:
Leave him alone, he's tired.

Learner example:
"Leave me alone, you monster," I said in panic.

along /əˈlɒŋ/

PREPOSITION

PARTICULAR PLACE

at a particular place on a road, river, etc.

Dictionary example:
Somewhere along this road there's a garage.

Learner example:
She told me [that] along the road there are several places to visit, like a castle which is open [to
the] public.

ADVERB

all along
from the beginning of a period of time
Dictionary example:
I knew all along that it was a mistake.

Learner example:
In the future the key word for fashion will be comfort as this is basically what everyone has been
wanting all along.

along with sb/sth

in addition to someone or something else
Dictionary example:
California along with Florida is probably the most popular American holiday destination.

39
 Learner example:
I speak foreign languages (English, French and Italian) along with Greek.

alphabetical /ˌæl.fəˈbet.ɪ.kəl/

Word family:
Nouns: alphabet
Adjectives: alphabetical

ADJECTIVE

arranged in the same order as the letters of the alphabet

Dictionary examples:
an alphabetical list
The names are published in alphabetical order.

Learner example:
She looked again at the strange words and then she understood. Each letter ha[d] been replaced
by the next one in the alphabetical order.

alter /ˈɒl.tər/

Word family:
Nouns: alteration
Verbs: alter

VERB [I or T]

to change, or to make someone or something change

Dictionary examples:
We've had to alter some of our plans.
Giving up our car has altered our lifestyle a lot.

Learner example:
To go to the show, we need to alter the programme.

alternative /ɔːlˈtɜː.nə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: alternative
Verbs: alternate
Adjectives: alternative
Adverbs: alternatively

NOUN [C]

one of two or more things that you can choose between

40
 Dictionary examples:
It's a low-fat alternative to butter.
I'm afraid I have no alternative but to ask you to leave.

Learner example:
Another alternative is to go up the mountain by chairlifts or funicular-railway.

ADJECTIVE

DIFFERENT PLAN

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] An alternative plan, method, etc. is one that you can use if you
do not want to use another one.
Dictionary example:
We can make alternative arrangements if necessary.

Learner example:
[The new direct coach service] is an alternative way [of getting to Lampton].

NOT USUAL

different to what is usual or traditional

Dictionary example:
an alternative lifestyle

Learner example:
I wonder if you've ever heard of "alternative music"?

alternatively /ɔːlˈtɜː.nə.tɪv.li/

Word family:
Nouns: alternative
Verbs: alternate
Adjectives: alternative
Adverbs: alternatively

ADVERB

used to suggest another possibility

Dictionary example:
We could go to the Indian restaurant, or alternatively, we could try that new Italian place.

Learner example:
Alternatively, I suggest that you should invite a famous writer.

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 altogether /ˌɔːl.təˈgeð.ər/

ADVERB

COMPLETELY

completely
Dictionary examples:
She wrote less and less often, and eventually she stopped altogether.
I'm not altogether sure about the idea.

Learner example:
I don't altogether agree with this fact.

GENERALLY

when you consider everything

Dictionary example:
Altogether, I'd say the party was a great success.

Learner example:
Altogether, I believe that the most cruel creature on earth is the human being.

aluminium /ˌæl.jʊˈmɪn.i.əm/

NOUN [U]

a light, silver-coloured metal used for making containers, cooking equipment and
aircraft parts
Dictionary examples:
Cover the fish with aluminium foil and cook over a low heat.
We take all our aluminium cans for recycling.

Learner example:
[In the future,] jewellery will be made of metals which [occur] naturally and [which are] cheap now
but will be extremely expensive 100 years from now, such as aluminium and zinc.

always /ˈɔːl.weɪz/

ADVERB

MANY TIMES

again and again, often in an annoying way

Dictionary example:
He's always losing his keys.

42
 Learner example:
I am always trying to convince my friend Maria of these dangers.

amazement /əˈmeɪz.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: amazement
Adjectives: amazed, amazing
Adverbs: amazingly

NOUN [U]

extreme surprise
Dictionary examples:
She stared in amazement.
To my amazement, he ate the whole lot.

Learner example:
Then, to her amazement, she saw him with another girl.

ambassador /æmˈbæs.ə.dər/

NOUN [C]

the main official sent by a government of a country to represent it in another

country
Dictionary examples:
Britain's ambassador in Moscow has refused to comment.
She's a former ambassador to the United States.

Learner example:
On the first floor [is] the "star'' of the museum: a splendid grand piano built in 1893, which was
offered by the Queen to the French ambassador in 1895.

ambition /æmˈbɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: ambition
Adjectives: ambitious

NOUN

STRONG FEELING

[U] a strong feeling that you want to be successful or powerful

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 Dictionary example:
My sister always had more ambition than I did.

Learner example:
Love, hate, ambition and fear [of] losing are the main subjects for Orson Well[e]s and Tim Burton,
the directors [of these two films].

ambitious /æmˈbɪʃ.əs/

Word family:
Nouns: ambition
Adjectives: ambitious

ADJECTIVE

PERSON

wanting to be successful or powerful

Dictionary examples:
an ambitious young lawyer
He's very ambitious for his children.

Learner example:
I chose Omar because I find him very talented and ambitious.

PLAN

If a plan or idea is ambitious, it will need a lot of work and will be difficult to
achieve.
Dictionary examples:
This is our most ambitious project so far.
She has some ambitious plans for her business.

Learner example:
If we a[c]complish these ambitious plans, we can even run for the 2006 Winter Olympic Games.

among /əˈmʌŋ/ (ALSO amongst)

PREPOSITION

among other things

used to say that there are other details or examples in addition to the ones you are
mentioning
Dictionary example:
It's worth visiting the museum while you're here. There's an exhibition about Darwin and a good
collection of paintings, among other things.

44
 Learner example:
To go by tram or bus is a waste of time and travel[l]ing by car is - among other things - a waste
of money.

among the best/worst/biggest, etc.

one of the most extreme examples of a particular type
Dictionary example:
He is among the top five tennis players in the country.

Learner example:
It was among the worst zoos I have ever seen.

amongst /əˈmʌŋst/

PREPOSITION FORMAL

among
Dictionary example:
There is a need to raise skill levels both amongst those in work and those seeking work.

Learner example:
He was no longer a man amongst others but a man with a free soul...

amuse /əˈmjuːz/

Word family:
Nouns: amusement
Verbs: amuse
Adjectives: amused, amusing

VERB [T]

MAKE LAUGH

to make someone laugh or smile

Dictionary examples:
The video clips on that website always amuse me.
I think it amuses him to see people make fools of themselves.

Learner example:
"The Blind Owl" - his masterpiece - is a surrealistic novella which has amused critics and ordinary
readers for years.

KEEP INTERESTED

to keep someone interested and help them to have an enjoyable time

45
 Dictionary example:
I bought a book of crosswords to amuse myself while I was on the train.

Learner example:
Another idea is to call a well-known band to amuse all the young people.

amused /əˈmjuːzd/

Word family:
Nouns: amusement
Verbs: amuse
Adjectives: amused, amusing

ADJECTIVE

FUNNY

showing that you think something is funny

Dictionary examples:
an amused smile
She was very amused by/at your comments.

Learner example:
When the taxi arrived, he was so amused about the news tha[t] an old woman took it.

keep sb amused
to keep someone interested and help them to have an enjoyable time
Dictionary example:
How do you keep an 8-year-old boy amused?

Learner example:
I could keep them amused with my funny stories.

amusement /əˈmjuːz.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: amusement
Verbs: amuse
Adjectives: amused, amusing

NOUN

FEELING

[U] the feeling that you have when something makes you smile or laugh

Dictionary examples:
She looked at him with great amusement.
Carl came last in the race, much to my amusement.

46
 Learner example:
Each ma[de] the other one laugh. We had great fun. [It was] a day with so much amusement, with
my best friend John.

ENTERTAINMENT

[C or U] an enjoyable way of spending your time

Dictionary example:
I play the piano, but just for my own amusement.

Learner example:
In particular, computer games are a kind of amusement, for them and for everyone.

analyse /ˈæn.əl.aɪz/

Word family:
Nouns: analysis, analyst
Verbs: analyse
Adjectives: analytical

VERB [T]

to examine the details of something carefully, in order to understand or explain it

Dictionary examples:
Researchers analysed the purchases of 6300 households.
Water samples taken from streams were analysed for contamination by chemicals.

Learner example:
He told me how we can analyse movies.

analysis /əˈnæl.ə.sɪs/ (PLURAL analyses)

Word family:
Nouns: analysis, analyst
Verbs: analyse
Adjectives: analytical

NOUN [C or U]

the process of analysing something

Dictionary examples:
Chemical analysis revealed a high content of copper.
I was interested in Clare's analysis of the situation.

Learner example:
I would not do my school projects without using a computer, because I have to do some statistical
analysis.

47
 analyst /ˈæn.ə.lɪst/

Word family:
Nouns: analysis, analyst
Verbs: analyse
Adjectives: analytical

NOUN [C]

someone whose job is to study or examine something in detail

Dictionary example:
a financial/political/systems analyst

Learner example:
As you know I got promotion as a project analyst recently.

ancestor /ˈænˌses.tər/

NOUN [C]

a relative who lived a long time ago

Dictionary example:
My ancestors came from Ireland.

Learner example:
We are living in a technologically advanced world where we are surrounded by all sorts of devices,
which would seem fantastic to our ancestors.

anger /ˈæŋ.gər/

Word family:
Nouns: anger
Adjectives: angry
Adverbs: angrily

NOUN [U]

a strong feeling against someone who has behaved badly, making you want to
shout at them or hurt them
Dictionary examples:
I think he feels a lot of anger towards his father who treated him very badly as a child.
The people showed no surprise or anger at their treatment.

Learner example:
Trisha, who had invited us there, looked like she was about to explode with anger or burst into
tears.

48
 animal /ˈæn.ɪ.məl/

NOUN [C]

NOT A PLANT

anything that lives and moves, including people, birds, etc.

Dictionary example:
Are humans the only animals to use language?

Learner example:
I think the human is [an] animal that want[s] to [do] amusing things.

annually /ˈæn.ju.ə.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: annual
Adverbs: annually

ADVERB

once every year

Dictionary example:
Your starting salary is £28,000 per year and will be reviewed annually.

Learner example:
Dear Mr Benson, I am writing with regard to your letter, in which you asked me to give you some
pieces of advice for the special events which take place in the College annually.

anxiety /æŋˈzaɪ.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: anxiety
Adjectives: anxious
Adverbs: anxiously

NOUN [U]

the feeling of being very worried

Dictionary examples:
Children normally feel a lot of anxiety about their first day at school.
That explains his anxiety over his health.

Learner example:
On the other hand, if we consider this statement in general, we could infer that [the] teenage
[years are] quite a good time in a person's life, as there is no stress or anxiety that is usually
encountered later on in life.

49
 anxious /ˈæŋk.ʃəs/

Word family:
Nouns: anxiety
Adjectives: anxious
Adverbs: anxiously

ADJECTIVE

EAGER

wanting to do something or wanting something to happen

Dictionary examples:
I'm anxious to hear her news.
I'm anxious that we get there on time because I don't think there'll be many seats left.

Learner example:
I am very anxious [for you] to tell me what type of competition you managed to win.

anxiously /ˈæŋk.ʃəs.li/

Word family:
Nouns: anxiety
Adjectives: anxious
Adverbs: anxiously

ADVERB

in an anxious way
Dictionary example:
We waited anxiously by the phone.

Learner example:
I am waiting for your reply anxiously.

anyhow /ˈeniː.haʊ/

ADVERB

DESPITE

despite that
Dictionary example:
He hates carrots but he ate them anyhow.

Learner example:
It wasn't a great support, but anyhow I consider my choice to be the best I could have [made].

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 EARLIER SUBJECT

used when you are returning to an earlier subject

Dictionary example:
Anyhow, as I said, I'll be away next week.

Learner example:
After that we drove for about one hour before we had to take a lunch break. It was still very hot
when we continued our trip and we had to stop once more. Anyhow, we [got] to Munich the same
day, where we stayed for two days.

MORE IMPORTANTLY

used to give a more important reason for something that you are saying
Dictionary example:
I don't need a car and I can't afford one anyhow.

Learner example:
We both thought that it was a good idea to have that stop-over at your place as it was on our
route to Norway anyhow.

anything /ˈen.i.θɪŋ/

PRONOUN

or anything
used to talk or ask about things of a similar type
Dictionary examples:
Do you want a drink or anything?
Did you do any sightseeing or anything?

anything like
used in questions and negatives to mean 'at all similar to'
Dictionary example:
Does he look anything like his brother?

Learner example:
Even in my dreams I haven't seen anything like it.

anywhere /ˈen.i.weər/

ADVERB

not/never get anywhere

INFORMAL to not make any progress

51
 Dictionary example:
I tried discussing the problem with her but I didn't get anywhere.

Learner example:
If we think about making an effort and changing our daily routine at once, we will never get
anywhere because a drastic change usually does not last.

apart /əˈpɑːt/

ADVERB

RELATIONSHIP

If two people are apart, they are not in the same place together.
Dictionary example:
By this time my parents were living apart.

Learner example:
I'll always remember those two days which we spent together after such a long time living apart.

INTO PIECES

into separate, smaller pieces

Dictionary examples:
I took the motor apart to see how it worked.
My jacket is so old, it's coming apart.

apostrophe /əˈpɒs.trə.fi/

NOUN [C]

the punctuation mark ' that shows when a letter or a number has been left out, or
is used before or after 's' to show possession
Dictionary examples:
I'm Ian.
She was born in '65.
Helen's laugh
Charles' cooking
a baby's hand
babies' hands

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 apparent /əˈpær.ənt/

Word family:
Adjectives: apparent
Adverbs: apparently

ADJECTIVE

OBVIOUS

obvious or easy to notice

Dictionary examples:
Her unhappiness was apparent to everyone.
It was becoming increasingly apparent that he could no longer look after himself.
I was on the metro this morning when for no apparent reason the man opposite suddenly
screamed.

Learner example:
This was my Dad, always doing weird things for no apparent reason.

apparently /əˈpær.ənt.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: apparent
Adverbs: apparently

ADVERB

AS HEARD/READ

used to say you have read or been told something although you are not certain it
is true
Dictionary examples:
Apparently it's going to rain today.
Apparently he's had enough of England and is going back to Australia.

Learner example:
Apparently he was planning to visit me and su[r]prise me for my birthday, w[h]ich was the
following day.

SEEMS TRUE

used to say that something seems to be true, although it is not certain

Dictionary examples:
There were two apparently unrelated deaths.
An eighty-year-old woman was badly hurt in what the police describe as an apparently random
attack.

53
 Learner example:
People found it important and still do but apparently, today, we don't appreciate reading as much
as our ancestors.

appeal /əˈpiːl/

NOUN

QUALITY

[U] the quality in someone or something that makes them attractive or interesting

Dictionary examples:
sex appeal
Spielberg films have a wide appeal.
Parties on river-boats have lost their appeal since one sank last year.

Learner example:
In my opinion, computer games are so popular because the games have developed their graphics
and they have more appeal to youngsters.

VERB [I]

ATTRACT

to attract or interest someone

Dictionary examples:
Cycling has never really appealed to me.
It's a programme designed to appeal mainly to 16 to 25 year-olds.

Learner example:
In addition, books appeal to our imagination.

appear /əˈpɪər/

Word family:
Nouns: appearance, disappearance
Verbs: appear, disappear

VERB [I]

it appears (that)
used to say that something seems to be true
Dictionary example:
It appears that she left the party alone.

Learner example:
It appears that people are more aware about clothes and also work.

54
 BECOME AVAILABLE

to start to exist or become available

Dictionary examples:
Laptop computers first appeared in the 1980s.
The story appeared in all the major newspapers.

Learner example:
In almost every city fast-food restaurants [have] appear[ed], which have a big group of fans.

appearance /əˈpɪə.rənts/

Word family:
Nouns: appearance, disappearance
Verbs: appear, disappear

NOUN

IN PUBLIC

[C] when someone appears in public, on television, in a film, etc.

Dictionary examples:
It was his first appearance on television/television appearance as president.
She made two appearances during her visit.
She will be making a public appearance, signing copies of her latest novel.

Learner example:
You probably know him, because he [made] an appearance [i]n the film "Bad Boys."

BECOMING AVAILABLE

[NO PLURAL] when something starts to exist or becomes available

Dictionary example:
The appearance of new products on the market has increased competition.

Learner example:
The appearance of the car has facilitated our lives.

application /ˌæp.lɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: application
Verbs: apply

NOUN

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

[C] a piece of computer software designed for a particular purpose

55
 Dictionary example:
Typical examples of software applications are spreadsheets, media players and database
applications.

Learner example:
I am [an] exp[e]rienced user of [the] Internet and know all application programs for Windows '95
(Word, Excel, PowerPoint, PinPoint etc.).

apply /əˈplaɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: application
Verbs: apply

VERB

AFFECT

[I] to relate to a particular person or situation

Dictionary examples:
That bit of the form is for UK citizens - it doesn't apply to you.
He seems to think that the normal rules of behaviour don't apply to him.
Those were old regulations - they don't apply any more.

Learner example:
The same doesn't apply to a teenager who lives in illness and poverty and whose family and
friends constantly mistreat him.

appreciate /əˈpriː.ʃi.eɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: appreciation
Verbs: appreciate

VERB [T]

VALUE

to understand how good something or someone is and be able to enjoy them

Dictionary examples:
There's no point buying him expensive wines - he doesn't appreciate them.
I don't think you appreciate how much time I spent preparing this meal.

Learner example:
It's like wine, it's impossible to drink a glass of wine quickly, you can't appreciate it.

would appreciate
used when you are politely requesting something

56
 Dictionary example:
I would appreciate it if you could let me know in advance whether or not you will be coming.

Learner example:
I would really appreciate a positive answer from your side.

I/We appreciate...
used when you are thanking someone or showing that you are grateful
Dictionary examples:
Thanks for all the help you gave us last weekend. We really appreciate it.
I appreciate your making the effort to come.

Learner example:
Thanks for your congratulations. I really appreciate it.

appreciation /əˌpriː.ʃiˈeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: appreciation
Verbs: appreciate

NOUN [U]

when you understand how good something or someone is and are able to enjoy
them
Dictionary examples:
You've done so much to help us so, to show our appreciation, we've bought you a little gift.
The crowd cheered in appreciation.
Children rarely show any appreciation of/for what their parents do for them.
My appreciation of art has increased as I've got older.

Learner example:
To show our appreciation, we would also like to invite you to dinner afterwards at the Red Baron.

approach /əˈprəʊtʃ/

VERB

DEAL WITH

[T] to deal with something

Dictionary example:
I'm not sure how to approach the problem.

Learner example:
This is the right way to approach the issue.

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NOUN

METHOD

[C] a way of doing something

Dictionary examples:
In Sweden they have a different approach to the problem.
I thought we'd adopt/take a new approach.

Learner example:
This will show the contrast in teaching methods, different approaches to students and [the]
techniques used by different teachers.

COMING CLOSER

[U] when something or someone gets nearer in distance or time

Dictionary examples:
The siren signalled the approach of an ambulance.
Please fasten your seat belts, the plane is now making its final approach (in)to Heathrow Airport.

appropriate /əˈprəʊ.pri.ət/

Word family:
Adjectives: appropriate, inappropriate
Adverbs: appropriately, inappropriately

ADJECTIVE

suitable or right for a particular situation or occasion

Dictionary examples:
Is this film appropriate for small children?
I didn't think his comments were very appropriate at the time.

Learner example:
I will explain why I am an appropriate person for this job.

appropriately /əˈprəʊ.pri.ət.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: appropriate, inappropriate
Adverbs: appropriately, inappropriately

ADVERB

in a way that is appropriate

Dictionary example:
She didn't think we were appropriately dressed for a wedding.

58
 Learner example:
I enjoyed reading it and I think it appropriately describes the atmosphere of that lovely town.

approval /əˈpruː.vəl/

Word family:
Nouns: approval, disapproval
Verbs: approve, disapprove

NOUN [U]

GOOD OPINION

when you have a positive opinion of someone or something

Dictionary examples:
He showed his approval by smiling broadly.
Sam always tried hard to win his father's approval.
Does the wine meet with your approval?

Learner example:
I hope this meets [with] your approval and I am looking forward to hearing from you as soon as
possible.

PERMISSION

official permission
Dictionary examples:
The project has now received approval from the government.
The teacher gave the student a nod of approval.

Learner example:
Besides the questionable approval given by governmental authorities, the situation might be
useful to us.

approve /əˈpruːv/

Word family:
Nouns: approval, disapproval
Verbs: approve, disapprove

VERB

GOOD OPINION

[I] to think that something is good or right

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 Dictionary examples:
She doesn't approve of my friends.
He doesn't approve of smoking.
The head of department seems to approve of what I am doing.

Learner example:
Woods didn't approve of the government's attitude to them.

approximate /əˈprɒk.sɪ.mət/

Word family:
Adjectives: approximate
Adverbs: approximately

ADJECTIVE

not completely accurate but close

Dictionary examples:
The train's approximate time of arrival is 10.30.
Can you give me an approximate idea of the numbers involved?

Learner example:
The approximate figure is about 5000 people.

area /ˈeə.ri.ə/

NOUN [C]

SUBJECT

a part of a subject or activity

Dictionary examples:
Marketing is Paul's area.
Software is not really my area of expertise.

Learner example:
I am a 30-year-old Swedish male with a diploma in gardening. I have 6 years experience of the
area since I have been employed by a Swedish fruit supplier.

argue /ˈɑːg.juː/

Word family:
Nouns: argument
Verbs: argue

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VERB

GIVE REASONS

[I or T] to give reasons to support or oppose an idea, action, etc.

Dictionary examples:
The minister argued for/in favour of making cuts in military spending.
She argued against tax cuts.
The minister argued that cuts in military spending were needed.

Learner example:
It is often argued that family life is not important.

argument /ˈɑːg.jʊ.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: argument
Verbs: argue

NOUN [C]

REASON

a reason or reasons why you support or oppose an idea, action, etc.

Dictionary examples:
There are many arguments for and against nuclear energy.
I don't think that's a very strong/powerful argument.

Learner example:
An argument in favour of this statement is that shopping is very tiring.

armed /ɑːmd/

ADJECTIVE

WEAPONS

! using or carrying weapons

Dictionary examples:
an armed robbery
armed conflict
armed guards/police

Learner example:
I could clearly understand that the two armed men would catch us within [a] few minutes.

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 around /əˈraʊnd/

ADVERB

be around
If someone is around, they are present in a place.
Dictionary examples:
Will you be around next week?
Roger isn't around at the moment - can I help instead?

Learner example:
It was dark and not a soul was around.

arrange /əˈreɪndʒ/

Word family:
Nouns: arrangement
Verbs: arrange, rearrange

VERB

PUT IN POSITION

[T] to put objects in a particular order or position

Dictionary examples:
She arranged her birthday cards along the shelf.
Who arranged these flowers so beautifully?
His books are neatly arranged in alphabetical order.

Learner example:
Before the pop concert [started], I arranged the seats and carried some musical instruments.

arrangement /əˈreɪndʒ.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: arrangement
Verbs: arrange, rearrange

NOUN

AGREEMENT

[C or U] an agreement between two people or groups

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 Dictionary examples:
We had an arrangement that he would clean the house and I would cook.
I'm sure we can come to an arrangement.
You can only withdraw money from this account by (prior) arrangement with the bank.

Learner example:
I didn't know if you would be in the house or not so you need to contact him for a new
arrangement [on] this telephone number 333-30.30.

POSITION

[C] a group of objects in a particular order or position

Dictionary example:
a flower arrangement

Learner example:
Dear Mrs. Anderson, I have learned from a friend that your club gives advanced courses in flower
arrangement.

arrest /əˈrest/

NOUN [C or U]

when the police take someone away to ask them about a crime which they might
have committed
Dictionary examples:
Police made twenty arrests at yesterday's demonstration.
She was stopped outside the shop and placed/put under arrest.

Learner example:
When I came around, Mr Smith was under arrest and fortunately, thing[s] finished well for me.

arrogant /ˈær.ə.gənt/

ADJECTIVE

believing that you are better or more important than other people
Dictionary example:
I found him arrogant and rude.

Learner example:
Chubby, arrogant and filthy were the words that described him best. Every time they met, a bitter
feeling of hatre[d] bloomed in her throat.

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 arrow /ˈær.əʊ/

NOUN [C]

SYMBOL

a symbol used on a sign, on a computer, etc. to show direction

Dictionary example:
I followed the arrows to the car park.

Learner example:
I followed its arrow and believe it or not I found mum!

WEAPON

a weapon that is like a long thin stick with a sharp point at one end and often
feathers at the other, shot from a bow
Dictionary example:
Robin Hood asked to be buried where his arrow landed.

Learner example:
The museum has many old axes, crossbows, bows and arrows.

art /ɑːt/

Word family:
Nouns: art, artist
Adjectives: artistic

NOUN

arts
creative areas including painting, drama, dance, music, etc.
Dictionary examples:
fine/decorative arts
She's doing a course in the performing arts.

Learner example:
You can enjoy both traditional and contemporary performing arts in Osaka.

artificial /ˌɑː.tɪˈfɪʃ.əl/

Word family:
Adjectives: artificial
Adverbs: artificially

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ADJECTIVE

NOT NATURAL

not natural, but made by people

Dictionary examples:
an artificial flower/lake
artificial flavourings

Learner example:
First, most shop[p]ing centres use artificial illumination, which is bad for our health.

artificially /ˌɑː.tɪˈfɪʃ.əl.i/

Word family:
Adjectives: artificial
Adverbs: artificially

ADVERB

in an artificial way
Dictionary example:
Most mushrooms sold in supermarkets have been grown artificially in manure.

Learner example:
Zoos are part of nature, despite the fact that they are created artificially.

artistic /ɑːˈtɪs.tɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: art, artist
Adjectives: artistic

ADJECTIVE

CREATIVE ABILITY

showing skill and imagination in creating things, especially in painting, drawing,

etc.
Dictionary examples:
Both children are very artistic.
artistic talent

Learner example:
If the museum is a place were they can say how they feel, or express it in an abstract or artistic
way, they will start to like it.

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 RELATING TO ART

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] relating to any form of art, including painting, literature, theatre,
music, etc.
Dictionary examples:
the artistic director of the theatre
a work of artistic merit

Learner example:
That would be perfect to improve the artistic and cultural life of Turin.

as /æz/

ADVERB; PREPOSITION

as for
used at the beginning of a sentence to introduce a slightly different subject, but
one that is connected in some way
Dictionary example:
I was pleased about the news. As for Emily, well, who cares what she thinks?

Learner example:
As for Chris, he agreed with me to do fifty kilometres on Saturday and stay at the Lakeside Inn.

as a result of sth
because of something
Dictionary example:
Unemployment has risen as a result of the credit crunch.

Learner example:
[O]n more than one oc[c]asion I missed the new releases or arrived late, as a result of trusting the
[cinema's] website.

as a whole
when considered as a group and not in parts
Dictionary example:
The population as a whole is getting healthier.

Learner example:
To sum up, I can say that the greatest ever invention is the invention of computers, that has
affected both indivi[d]uals and society as a whole.

as a matter of fact
used to give more information, or to correct something that has been said

66
 Dictionary examples:
John plays golf professionally. As a matter of fact, he has just won a big competition.
"So you're from Cambridge?" "No, as a matter of fact, I'm from Bristol."

Learner example:
I think it would be better to choose somewhere outdoors. As a matter of fact, I prefer the open air
and the sunlight!

as follows
used to introduce a list or description
Dictionary example:
The main reasons are as follows.

Learner example:
The summary of relevant points and recommendations are as follows: 1. Both of them are located
in the centre of town.

as if/as though
used to describe how a situation seems to be
Dictionary examples:
It looks as if it might rain.
It was as though we had known each other for years.

Learner example:
Everything was so familiar, as though he [had] never left the place.

as far as sb is concerned
used to show what someone thinks about something
Dictionary examples:
As far as I'm concerned, feng shui is a load of rubbish.
As far as our customers are concerned, price is the main consideration.

Learner example:
As far as Laura was concerned, he was the most disgusting man in the world.

as far as sth is concerned

used to tell someone what you are talking about
Dictionary example:
As far as money is concerned, we're doing very well.

Learner example:
First of all, I think the Majestic Hotel would be the right location, but I have doubts as far as the
costs are concerned.

as far as I know
used to say that you think something is true, but cannot be sure
Dictionary example:
As far as I know, he's never been in trouble with the police.

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 Learner example:
As far as I know, accommodation at Camp California is in tents or log cabins.

ashamed /əˈʃeɪmd/

Word family:
Nouns: shame
Adjectives: ashamed, shameful

ADJECTIVE [NEVER BEFORE NOUN]

be ashamed of sb
to be angry and disappointed with a family member or friend because they have
behaved badly
Dictionary example:
My brother was so rude to Jane - I was ashamed of him.

Learner example:
I was very ashamed of them. [They] came from [my] own country.

aside /əˈsaɪd/

ADVERB

MOVE TO SIDE

on or to one side
Dictionary examples:
Stand aside, please, and let these people pass.
He pulled the curtain aside.
I gave her a plate of food but she pushed it aside.
She took me aside to tell me the news.

Learner example:
I saw an old man slowly pull it aside and peep out, looking [at] the street with his eyes wide open.

SAVE

If you put or set something aside, you do not use it now, but keep it to use later.
Dictionary example:
We've put some money aside for the holiday.

Learner example:
I had put some money aside for a month, thinking about the discount.

aside from sth

except for

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 Dictionary example:
This document needs finishing, but aside from that I think everything is done.

Learner example:
Secondly, it is unfair to say the other performers were second-rate aside from the 'Torrents', since
they all sang and played very well.

ask /ɑːsk/

VERB

Don't ask!
INFORMAL said when someone asks you about an experience that was very bad
Dictionary example:
"How was the meeting?" "Don't ask!"

Learner example:
Don't ask me how the concert was!

Don't ask me
INFORMAL used to tell someone that you do not know the answer to a question and
that you are surprised they have asked you
Dictionary example:
"So why would she leave such a good job?" "Don't ask me!"

aspect /ˈæs.pekt/

NOUN [C]

one part of a situation, problem, subject, etc.

Dictionary examples:
Which aspects of the job do you most enjoy?
That's the most worrying aspect of the situation.

Learner example:
Every aspect of our daily life is influenced by technology.

assess /əˈses/

Word family:
Nouns: assessment
Verbs: assess

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VERB [T]

to make a judgement about the quality, size or value, etc. of something

Dictionary examples:
Examinations are a way of assessing a student's ability.
They assessed the cost of the flood damage at £1500.
We need to assess whether the project is worth doing.

Learner example:
The aim of this report is to compare and assess the architecture, food and service of two
restaurants in my area.

assessment /əˈses.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: assessment
Verbs: assess

NOUN [C or U]

when you make a judgement about the quality, size or value, etc. of something
Dictionary example:
That's a fair assessment of the situation.

Learner example:
Secondly, I was a little bit upset about your assessment of [the] other performers because they
showed us their great musical talents.

assist /əˈsɪst/

Word family:
Nouns: assistance, assistant
Verbs: assist

VERB [I or T]

to help
Dictionary examples:
The army arrived to assist in the search.
You will be expected to assist the editor with the selection of illustrations for the book.

Learner example:
However, I used to assist my brother, who is a photographer.

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 assistance /əˈsɪs.tənts/

Word family:
Nouns: assistance, assistant
Verbs: assist

NOUN [U]

help
Dictionary examples:
Can I be of any assistance, madam?
Teachers can't give pupils any assistance in exams.

Learner example:
Thank you for your assistance.

associate /əˈsəʊ.si.eɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: association
Verbs: associate

VERB

be associated with sth

to be related to something or caused by something
Dictionary example:
There are many risks associated with smoking.

Learner example:
Undoubtedly there are both positive and negative points associated with this topic.

association /əˌsəʊ.siˈeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: association
Verbs: associate

NOUN

[C] an organization of people with the same interests or with a particular purpose

Dictionary example:
The Football Association

Learner example:
I am a member of the local Kung-Fu Association.

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 assume /əˈsjuːm/

Word family:
Nouns: assumption
Verbs: assume

VERB [T]

to think that something is true, without question or proof

Dictionary examples:
I assumed (that) you knew each other because you went to the same school.
I invited her just assuming she would want to come.

Learner example:
The police assumed he was lying so they put him [in] jail.

assure /əˈʃʊər/

Word family:
Nouns: assurance, reassurance, self-assurance
Verbs: assure, reassure
Adjectives: reassuring, self-assured

VERB [T]

SAY WITH CERTAINTY

to tell someone confidently that something is true, especially so that they do not
worry
Dictionary example:
She assured him (that) the car would be ready the next day.

Learner example:
If you decide to live in the capital, I can assure you there are plenty of sports facilities here, such
as tennis courts, basketball courts, football fields, swimming centres and many more.

astonished /əˈstɒn.ɪʃt/

Word family:
Nouns: astonishment
Adjectives: astonished, astonishing

ADJECTIVE

very surprised

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 Dictionary examples:
I was astonished to see Miriam there.
They looked astonished when I announced I was pregnant.
The doctors were astonished at the speed of her recovery.

Learner example:
She was astonished when she saw what [wa]s in front of her.

astonishing /əˈstɒn.ɪ.ʃɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: astonishment
Adjectives: astonished, astonishing

ADJECTIVE

very surprising
Dictionary examples:
Her first novel enjoyed an astonishing level of success.
It's astonishing to think that only a few years ago Communism dominated eastern Europe.

Learner example:
The colour of the sea was astonishing and the mountains were so magical!

astonishment /əˈstɒn.ɪʃ.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: astonishment
Adjectives: astonished, astonishing

NOUN [U]

very great surprise

Dictionary examples:
To my astonishment, she started laughing.
She gasped in astonishment.

Learner example:
To our astonishment, we were in front of a small house which seemed to have been built centuries
ago.

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 at /æt/

PREPOSITION

at least
used to reduce the effect of a statement
Dictionary example:
I've met the President - at least, he shook my hand once.

Learner example:
But after years of developing my slalom, I wanted to learn something new, [s]o, I started Hot-
Dogging. Hot-Dog is great fun. At least, people say so.

AMOUNT

used to show a price, temperature, rate, speed, etc.

Dictionary example:
He was driving at 120 mph when the police spotted him.

at all costs
If something must be done at all costs, it is very important that it is done.
Dictionary example:
We have to succeed at all costs.

Learner example:
One thing was sure: he was convinced [he had] to save Anne's life at all costs.

at sb's disposal
available for you to use at any time
Dictionary example:
We will have a car at our disposal for the whole trip.

Learner example:
But on Wednesday morning I'm at your disposal.

at fault
responsible for something bad that has happened
Dictionary example:
I was at fault and I would like to apologize.

Learner example:
I really felt at fault.

at risk
being in a situation where something bad is likely to happen

74
 Dictionary examples:
All houses within 100 metres of the seas are at risk of flooding.
Releasing these prisoners puts the public at risk.

Learner example:
Lives are at risk!

athletic /æθˈlet.ɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: athlete, athletics
Adjectives: athletic

ADJECTIVE

strong, healthy and good at sports

Dictionary example:
She looks very athletic.

Learner example:
Furthermore, I am not only very athletic, but also really sociable and outgoing.

atmosphere /ˈæt.mə.sfɪər/

NOUN

the atmosphere
the mixture of gases around the Earth
Dictionary example:
These factories are releasing toxic gases into the atmosphere.

Learner example:
I'm against cars because their CO2 emissions destroy the atmosphere.

AIR INSIDE

[NO PLURAL] the air inside a room or other place

Dictionary example:
The atmosphere in the room was so stuffy I could hardly breathe.

Learner example:
The atmosphere in the halls also became hot and humid, thus making the whole experience rather
unpleasant.

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 atom /ˈæt.əm/

Word family:
Nouns: atom
Adjectives: atomic

NOUN [C]

the smallest unit that an element can be divided into

Dictionary example:
A molecule of carbon dioxide (CO2) has one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms.

Learner example:
Anyway, the manager of that cent[er] called me in order to inform me that I would [be doing]
research on nuclear power and atoms.

atomic /əˈtɒm.ɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: atom
Adjectives: atomic

ADJECTIVE

using the energy that is created when an atom is divided

Dictionary example:
atomic energy/power

Learner example:
There are lots more dangerous things in the world, like radioactive pol[l]ution or atomic bombs.

attached /əˈtætʃt/

Word family:
Nouns: attachment
Verbs: attach
Adjectives: attached

ADJECTIVE

CONNECTED TO

joined or connected to another thing

Dictionary example:
Please fill out the attached form.

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 Learner example:
As I am an athletic swimmer and a good surfer too, my choice from your attached list is naturally
swimming and surfing.

attachment /əˈtætʃ.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: attachment
Verbs: attach
Adjectives: attached

NOUN

EQUIPMENT

[C] an extra piece of equipment that can be added to a machine

Dictionary example:
This food processor has a special attachment for grinding coffee.

COMPUTING

[C] a computer file which is sent together with an email message

Dictionary examples:
I'll email my report to you as an attachment.
I wasn't able to open that attachment.

attempt /əˈtempt/

NOUN [C]

when you try to do something

Dictionary examples:
This is my second attempt at the exam.
They closed the road in an attempt to reduce traffic in the city.
He made no attempt to be sociable.

Learner example:
I made several attempts to make him change his mind, but I failed.

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 attention /əˈten.tʃən/

NOUN [U]

attract/get (sb's) attention

to make someone notice you
Dictionary example:
I waved at her to get her attention.

Learner example:
The bank is near the school, so the lady was trying to get people's attention while the others
[robbed] the bank.

draw (sb's) attention to sth/sb

to make someone notice something or someone
Dictionary examples:
If I could just draw your attention to the second paragraph.
She's always drawing attention to herself.

Learner example:
The purpose of his report is to draw attention to videos in English.

attract /əˈtrækt/

Word family:
Nouns: attraction
Verbs: attract
Adjectives: attractive, unattractive

VERB

be attracted to sb
to like someone, often sexually, because of the way they look or behave
Dictionary example:
I was attracted to him straight away.

Learner example:
She was really attracted to him.

attractive /əˈtræk.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: attraction
Verbs: attract
Adjectives: attractive, unattractive

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ADJECTIVE

INTERESTING

interesting or useful
Dictionary examples:
an attractive offer/idea
We want to make the club attractive to a wider range of people.

Learner example:
In fact, all of my work-mates make fun of me when I talk about my collection of stamps. I want to
demonstrate [to] them that it is a very attractive hobby.

aubergine /ˈəʊ.bə.ʒiːn/

NOUN [C or U]

an oval, purple vegetable that is white inside

Dictionary example:
The dish is made with aubergines and cheese.

audience /ˈɔː.di.ənts/

NOUN

TYPE

[C+ SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERB] the type of people who watch a particular TV show, read
a particular book, etc.
Dictionary example:
This magazine is aimed at a teenage/young audience.

Learner example:
The above-mentioned restaurants are totally different from each other and suit completely
different customers. Pasta+, to begin with, is best suited [to a] younger audience.

authority /ɔːˈθɒr.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: authority
Verbs: authorize

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NOUN

POWER

[U] the power to make decisions or to control other people

Dictionary examples:
The United Nations has used its authority to restore peace in the area.
We need to get the support of someone in authority.
They have the authority to examine the company's records.
The problem is that teachers feel they no longer have authority over their pupils.

Learner example:
Their parents have lost almost all their authority.

automatic /ˌɔː.təˈmæt.ɪk/

Word family:
Adjectives: automatic
Adverbs: automatically

ADJECTIVE

MACHINE

An automatic machine works by itself or with little human control.

Dictionary example:
automatic doors

Learner example:
It has both manual and automatic functions so it has a lot of possibilities.

automatically /ˌɔː.təˈmæt.ɪ.kli/

Word family:
Adjectives: automatic
Adverbs: automatically

ADVERB

MACHINE

If a machine does something automatically, it does it independently, without

human control.
Dictionary example:
The camera adjusts the shutter speed automatically.

Learner example:
[The] television will be automatically switched on in time for [the] breakfast news.

80
 PERSON

If you do something automatically, you do it without thinking about it.

Dictionary example:
I automatically put my hand out to catch it.

Learner example:
There was a strange envelope between the others, so automatically, she picked it up and [looked
at] the stamp. The letter came from Australia.

availability /əˌveɪ.ləˈbɪl.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: availability
Adjectives: available, unavailable

NOUN [U]

when something or someone is available

Dictionary example:
I checked the availability of flights online and there's plenty of choice.

Learner example:
Therefore, it is essential that you take account of my availability when booking the trip.

average /ˈæv.ər.ɪdʒ/

ADJECTIVE

USUAL

typical and usual

Dictionary examples:
The average person in the street is a lot better off than they were forty years ago.
a student of average ability

Learner example:
This makes people beli[e]ve that a lot of the food we eat is fast-food, but it's not true at all, in fact
it's a very small part of our average diet.

NOUN

on average
usually, or based on an average
Dictionary example:
Female workers earn, on average, a third less than men.

81
 Learner example:
On average, our pupils are 16 years old and they join actively in all the events we organise.

avoid /əˈvɔɪd/

Word family:
Verbs: avoid
Adjectives: unavoidable
Adverbs: unavoidably

VERB [T]

PREVENT

to prevent something from happening

Dictionary examples:
I left the pub to avoid a fight.
Unnecessary paperwork should be avoided at all costs.
The plane narrowly avoided disaster when one of the engines failed on take-off.

Learner example:
I think that all these problems could have been avoided and that asking [for] my money back is
the best way of forgetting that evening.

avoid doing sth

to intentionally not do something
Dictionary example:
She managed to avoid answering my question.

Learner example:
The writer avoided d[e]scribing personal thoughts.

award /əˈwɔːd/

VERB [T OFTEN PASSIVE]

to give money or a prize following an official decision

Dictionary examples:
He was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics.
The university has awarded her a $500 travel grant.

Learner example:
As you will see, I was awarded a grade A.

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NOUN [C]

PRIZE

a prize given to someone for something they have achieved

Dictionary examples:
the Academy Award for Best Director
Both films have received/won several awards.

Learner example:
He became world-famous when he won the Oscar award for best song last year.

aware /əˈweər/

Word family:
Nouns: awareness, self-awareness
Adjectives: aware

ADJECTIVE [NEVER BEFORE NOUN]

knowing that something exists, or having knowledge or experience of a particular

thing
Dictionary examples:
Were you aware of the risks at the time?
I wasn't even aware that he was ill.
She was well aware that he was married.
I suddenly became aware of him looking at me.

Learner example:
First of all, we aren't aware of the necessity of learning such things as biology or maths.

away /əˈweɪ/

ADVERB

GRADUALLY

gradually disappearing until mostly or completely gone

Dictionary examples:
All the snow had melted away.
The music faded away as the procession moved slowly up the street.

Learner example:
I always feel so fatigued at the end of the day but after a mile, the aches of the day seem to fade
away.

83
 awful /ˈɔː.fəl/

ADJECTIVE

an awful lot (of sth)

INFORMAL a very large amount
Dictionary example:
It cost an awful lot of money.

Learner example:
First of all, I want to highlight that we see an awful lot of mobile phone[s] in our daily life.

awkward /ˈɔː.kwəd/

ADJECTIVE

DIFFICULT

difficult or causing problems or embarrassment

Dictionary examples:
an awkward customer
Some of the questions were rather awkward.
My car's quite awkward to drive.
They'd chosen an awkward time to call as I'd just got into the bath.
She's put me in quite an awkward position/situation.
There was an awkward silence.

Learner example:
Not a movement, not a voice, just an awkward silence.

84
 B

back /bæk/

Word family:
Nouns: backing
Verbs: back

ADVERB

STATE

to the state something or someone was in before

Dictionary examples:
It's not badly broken - I'm sure we can put it back together again.
Hopefully things will get back to normal soon.
I was woken by a thunderstorm, and I couldn't get back to sleep.

Learner example:
My life was back to normal.

EARLIER

at or to an earlier time
Dictionary examples:
We first met back in 1971.
This tradition dates back to the 16th century.

Learner example:
All in all, it is difficult to get bored in Moscow, where you can see buildings which date back to
centur[i]es ago.

AWAY FROM

in a direction away from something

Dictionary examples:
He pulled back the curtain.
The house is set back from the road.

Learner example:
The action of the book takes place in a lonely inn standing back from the road.

85
VERB

back up sb or back sb up PHRASAL VERB

SUPPORT

to support or help someone

Dictionary example:
My family backed me up in my fight for compensation.

Learner example:
These courses seem to have been popular perhaps because the teacher of these courses was there
to back up and help the students.

back up (sth) or back (sth) up PHRASAL VERB

to make an extra copy of something that is held on your computer

Dictionary example:
Always back up any music you download in case your computer crashes.

background /ˈbæk.graʊnd/

NOUN

SOUND

[NO PLURAL] sounds that you can hear that are not the main sounds that you are
listening to
Dictionary examples:
background music/noise
If you listen carefully to this piece of music, you can hear a flute in the background.

Learner example:
The exotic food together with oriental music in the background makes you dream of exotic
places.

PICTURE

[C or U] the things that can be seen behind the main things or people in a picture

Dictionary examples:
gold stars on a black background
The artist himself did not paint the backgrounds to his pictures - they were done by his pupils.
He has photographed her against lots of different backgrounds.

Learner example:
I think it would make the background of the picture colourful and interesting.

86
 SITUATION

[U NO PLURAL] the situation that an event happens in, or things which have happened
in the past which affect it
Dictionary examples:
These decisions have had to be taken against a background of high unemployment.
Can you give me some background on the situation?

Learner example:
The background of the story is life in a small town in one of the southern states of the USA in the
early 1930s.

backup (ALSO back-up) /ˈbæk.ʌp/

NOUN

EXTRA HELP

[C or U] extra help, support or equipment which is available if you need it

Dictionary example:
Medical staff are on call to provide backup in case of an emergency.

Learner example:
I'm sure that most business people have battery back-up and a very good knowledge of when the
laptop battery needs to recharge.

COPY

[C] a copy of information that is held on a computer, which is stored separately

from the computer
Dictionary examples:
Before we leave work each day, we make a backup of all the records we have entered into the
computer that day.
The department's backup disks are all stored in a different building.

Learner example:
Seems he had made a copy in a special file in a back-up memory.

bad /bæd/

Word family:
Adjectives: bad
Adverbs: badly

87
ADJECTIVE (worse, worst)

NOT FRESH

Bad food is not fresh and cannot be eaten.

Dictionary example:
I think this milk is bad.

Learner example:
My surprise was when I opened the fridge and all the food smelt bad, so I couldn't eat [anything].

badge /bædʒ/

NOUN [C]

a piece of metal, plastic, etc., with words or a picture on it which you wear on your
clothes
Dictionary example:
Everyone at the conference wore a badge with their name on.

Learner example:
Then I saw the badge he was wearing.

badly /ˈbæd.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: bad
Adverbs: badly

ADVERB (worse, worst)

UNPLEASANT

in an unpleasant way
Dictionary example:
I thought he was treated very badly.

Learner example:
In the past, zoos treated animals quite badly.

bad-tempered /ˌbædˈtemp.əd/

ADJECTIVE

describes a person who becomes angry and annoyed easily

88
 Dictionary example:
She's very bad-tempered in the mornings!

Learner example:
It would be possible too that you lost your temper and became a bad-tempered man.

bakery /ˈbeɪ.kə.ri/

Word family:
Nouns: baker, bakery
Verbs: bake

NOUN [C]

a place where bread, cakes, etc. are made or sold

Dictionary example:
I buy all our bread in the local bakery.

Learner example:
The best bakery was [on] the other side of town.

balance /ˈbæl.ənts/

Word family:
Nouns: balance
Verbs: balance
Adjectives: balanced, unbalanced

NOUN

WEIGHT

[U] when the weight of someone or something is spread in such a way that they do
not fall over
Dictionary examples:
I lost my balance and fell off the bike.
She had to hold onto the railings to keep her balance.

Learner example:
I began to go downstairs to the kitchen, [with] two hands on the wall to keep my balance.

EQUAL IMPORTANCE

[U NO PLURAL] when the correct amount of importance is given to each thing so that a
situation is successful

89
 Dictionary examples:
We must try to get a balance between police powers and the protection of citizens.
He was concerned that taking on three more men could upset the gender balance in the
department.

Learner example:
It is not easy to find [the] right balance in our lives.

MONEY

[C] the amount of money that you still have to pay, or that you have left to use

Dictionary example:
I always pay off the balance on my credit card.

Learner example:
Sometimes you [are] surprise[d] when you check the balance of your bank account and then need
to cut down your expenses for 2 months.

on balance
used to give your opinion after you have considered all the facts about something
Dictionary example:
On balance, I'd prefer to come straight home.

Learner example:
On balance, no matter how important or useful computers may be, they will never replace the
pleasure of re-reading familiar pages of your favourite books.

VERB

NOT FALLING

[I or T] to be in a position where you will not fall to either side, or to put something
in this position
Dictionary examples:
She was trying to balance a book on her head.
The flamingoes balanced gracefully on one leg.

Learner example:
If you have to take many things with you, it will be better to carry th[em] in your car, [rather] than
balanc[ing] them on your bicycle.

EQUAL IMPORTANCE

[T] to give several things equal amounts of importance, time or money so that a
situation is successful
Dictionary example:
I struggle to balance work and family commitments.

Learner example:
In life we need to balance all the areas included in human behavio[u]r.

90
 balanced /ˈbæl.əntst/

Word family:
Nouns: balance
Verbs: balance
Adjectives: balanced, unbalanced

ADJECTIVE

a balanced diet/meal
a healthy mixture of different types of food
Dictionary example:
If you have a balanced diet, you are getting all the vitamins you need.

Learner example:
It is very important to have a balanced diet.

FAIR

considering all the facts in a fair way

Dictionary example:
The news programme prided itself on its balanced reporting.

Learner example:
Your report contained several mistakes and it did not [give a] balanced view.

ban /bæn/

VERB [T USUALLY PASSIVE] (-nn-)

to forbid something, especially officially
Dictionary examples:
The film was banned in several countries.
She was banned from driving for two years.

Learner example:
Personally, I think that driving private cars in the main parts of cities should be banned.

NOUN [C]

an official order that prevents something from happening

Dictionary example:
There should be a ban on talking loudly in cinemas.

91
 bang /bæŋ/

VERB

[I or T] to make a sudden loud noise or to cause something to do this

Dictionary examples:
She banged her fist angrily on the table.
Outside a door was banging in the wind.
He could hear someone banging at the door.

Learner example:
One Friday afternoon I was putting away clothes and shoes in the little room which is under the
stairs, when my little son, Tom (who was just eighteen months old) banged the door [shut] behind
me.

NOUN [C]

a sudden loud noise

Dictionary example:
The window slammed shut with a loud bang.

Learner example:
I was reading when I suddenly h[e]ard a big bang.

bank /bæŋk/

Word family:
Nouns: bank, banker, banking

NOUN [C]

RIVER

sloping raised land, especially along the sides of a river

Dictionary examples:
By the time we reached the opposite bank, the boat was sinking fast.
These flowers generally grow on river banks and near streams.

Learner example:
One bank of the river is stony, the other is sandy.

banker /ˈbæŋ.kər/

Word family:
Nouns: bank, banker, banking

92
NOUN [C]

someone with an important position in a bank

Dictionary example:
She was a successful banker by the time she was forty.

banking /ˈbæŋ.kɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: bank, banker, banking

NOUN [U]

the business of operating a bank

Dictionary example:
international banking

Learner example:
I want to specialize in finance and banking.

bar /bɑːr/

NOUN [C]

LONG PIECE

a straight stick made of metal

Dictionary example:
The gorilla rattled the bars of its cage.

Learner example:
When they looked into the lake, they saw a long bar of gold.

behind bars
in prison
Dictionary example:
He will spend the rest of his life behind bars.

Learner example:
In the darkness, Lew Kuan Yee had sworn revenge against Michael, the detective who had sent
him behind bars.

93
 bare /beər/

ADJECTIVE

NO CLOTHES

not covered by clothes

Dictionary examples:
a bare chest
bare arms/feet/legs

Learner example:
Most people had more essential needs to satisfy than their looks, but there were also women who
painted tight-patterns on their bare legs to create a bit of post-war glamour.

NOT COVERED

not covered by anything

Dictionary example:
There's no carpet in the room, just bare floorboards.

Learner example:
Mary must move to an unattractive site on the bare and wild moorland, called Jamaica Inn.

barely /ˈbeə.li/

ADVERB

only just
Dictionary examples:
They have barely enough to pay the rent this month.
She was barely fifteen when she won her first championship.

Learner example:
His father replied in a voice barely above a whisper.

bargain /ˈbɑː.gɪn/

NOUN [C]

CHEAP

something that is on sale for less than its usual price or its real value
Dictionary examples:
This coat was half-price - a real bargain.
The airline regularly offers last-minute bookings at bargain prices.

94
 Learner example:
And it was a real bargain.

bark /bɑːk/

VERB

DOG

[I] If a dog barks, it makes loud, short sounds.

Dictionary example:
They heard a dog barking outside.

Learner example:
He barks whenever there is a stranger in our house.

barrier /ˈbær.i.ər/

NOUN [C]

FENCE

a type of fence that stops people from going into an area

Dictionary example:
Barriers have been erected all along the route the Pope will take.

Learner example:
Only these people can open the barrier with their keys.

PREVENTING

something that prevents people from doing what they want to do

Dictionary examples:
Despite the language barrier, they soon became good friends.
Shyness is one of the biggest barriers to making friends.
We have to work at breaking down barriers between the two communities.

Learner example:
I think I could be good at this job because I could plan safety programmes in case of an
emergency and the language barrier would not be a problem if a spectator or a sportsman ask[ed]
me [for] information.

95
 base /beɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: base, basics, basis
Adjectives: basic
Adverbs: basically

NOUN [C]

BOTTOM

the bottom part of something, or the part something rests on

Dictionary examples:
a crystal glass with a heavy base
At the base of the cliff was a rocky beach.

MILITARY

a place where people in the armed forces live

Dictionary examples:
an American Air Force base
an old army/naval/military base

Learner example:
During the day you can visit all of our museums or schools or even the air force base, which is
open from 9 o'clock.

VERB

be based at/in/etc.
to have a particular town or area, etc. as the main place where you live and work,
or where you do business from
Dictionary example:
He was based in Birmingham during the war.

Learner example:
The shop is based in London.

basement /ˈbeɪs.mənt/

NOUN [C]

a room or set of rooms that is below ground level in a building

Dictionary example:
a basement flat

Learner example:
There is also a swimming pool in the basement.

96
 basically /ˈbeɪ.sɪk.li/

Word family:
Nouns: base, basics, basis
Adjectives: basic
Adverbs: basically

ADVERB

SIMPLY

used to introduce a short explanation about something

Dictionary example:
Basically, what he's saying is that we need more time.

Learner example:
Basically, we spend half our leisure time being stuck to a screen and leading [a] so-called co[u]ch
potato lifestyle.

basics /ˈbeɪ.sɪks/

Word family:
Nouns: base, basics, basis
Adjectives: basic
Adverbs: basically

NOUN [PLURAL]

the basics
the most important facts, skills, or needs
Dictionary example:
I really must learn the basics of first aid.

Learner example:
Last year, I chose to take groups on sailing and diving trips because I already knew the basics of
sailing and diving.

basis /ˈbeɪ.sɪs/ (PLURAL bases)

Word family:
Nouns: base, basics, basis
Adjectives: basic
Adverbs: basically

97
NOUN [C]

on a daily/monthly/regular, etc. basis

how often something happens or is done
Dictionary example:
Meetings are held on a weekly basis.

Learner example:
In order for the transport facilities such as bus stops or underground stations to improve,
policemen should be assigned to guard them and cleaners should be assigned to clean them on a
daily basis.

METHOD

a way or method of doing something

Dictionary examples:
Most of our staff work for us on a voluntary basis.
I'm hoping she'll join us on a permanent basis.

Learner example:
On the other hand, the job advert is not very precise about the salary you can earn on a full-time
basis.

battle /ˈbæt.l
̩/

NOUN

PROBLEMS/ILLNESS

[C] a fight against something that is very difficult, or that is hurting or destroying
you
Dictionary example:
a long battle against cancer

Learner example:
His life was a hard battle, trying to break through.

beam /biːm/

NOUN [C]

a line of light shining from something

Dictionary example:
a laser beam

98
 Learner example:
I was beginning to feel rather impa[t]ient when a door opened letting a beam of light come into
the dark room.

bear /beər/

Word family:
Verbs: bear
Adjectives: unbearable

VERB (bore, borne)

ACCEPT

[T] to accept someone or something unpleasant

Dictionary examples:
I like her but I can't bear her friends.
I can't bear being bored.
He couldn't bear to see the dog in pain.
How can you bear to talk to him?

Learner example:
And I'd like to stay in a log cabin because I can't bear sleeping in a tent.

bear (sb/sth) in mind

to remember to consider someone or something that may be useful in the future
Dictionary example:
Thank you for your advice, I'll bear it in mind.

Learner example:
It would be a great opportunity, bearing in mind that we are majoring in fashion journalism.

beat /biːt/

VERB (beat, beaten)

HIT

[T] to hit a person or animal repeatedly

Dictionary examples:
They saw him beating his dog with a stick.
She was beaten to death.

Learner example:
He began to drink, and when he was drunk, he beat Kelly.

99
NOUN [C]

REGULAR SOUND

a regular movement or sound, especially that made by your heart

Dictionary examples:
I put my head on his chest but I could feel no heart beat.
My heart missed a beat when she said, "Yes, I'll marry you".

Learner example:
She started to exhale after a moment, counting the beats of her heart.

MUSIC

the main rhythm of a piece of music

Dictionary examples:
The guitar comes in on the third beat.
He tapped his foot to the beat of the music.

Learner example:
They play rock with a very good beat.

beg /beg/ (-gg-)

VERB [I or T]

STRONG REQUEST

to make a very strong and urgent request

Dictionary examples:
They begged for mercy.
"Please, please forgive me!" she begged (him).
He begged her to stay.

Learner example:
But before she left I begged her not to tell anybody.

VERY POOR

to ask someone for food or money, because you do not have any
Dictionary examples:
There are more and more homeless people begging on the streets these days.
She had to beg for money and food for her children.

Learner example:
He had [a] shabby coat, old shoes and he was begging for money.

100
 begin /bɪˈgɪn/

Word family:
Nouns: beginner, beginning
Verbs: begin

VERB (beginning, began, begun)

to begin with
used to give the first important reason for something
Dictionary example:
To begin with, we can't afford to move.

Learner example:
To begin with, it doesn't pollute and I think it's time we started thinking about [the] environment.

behalf /bɪˈhɑːf/

NOUN

on behalf of sb or on sb's behalf

If you do something on behalf of someone, you do it for them or instead of them.
Dictionary examples:
On behalf of the entire company, I would like to thank you for all your work.
Unfortunately, George cannot be with us today so I am pleased to accept this award on his behalf.

Learner example:
I am writing on behalf of our college English club members to welcome you [to] our city.

behind /bəˈhaɪnd/

PREPOSITION

behind bars
in prison
Dictionary example:
He will spend the rest of his life behind bars.

Learner example:
In the darkness, Lew Kuan Yee had sworn revenge against Michael, the detective who had sent
him behind bars.

101
 belief /bɪˈliːf/

Word family:
Nouns: belief
Verbs: believe
Adjectives: unbelievable

NOUN

TRUE

[U NO PLURAL] when you believe that something is true or real

Dictionary examples:
a common/popular/widely-held belief
He called at her house in the belief that she would lend him the money.
It is my firm/strong belief that the public have a right to know.
She took this medicine in the mistaken belief that it would cure her.

Learner example:
At this time, tango was considered an immoral type of music; but Carlos Gardel changed this
belief, [and] people from all over the world loved him.

IDEA

[C or U] an idea that you are certain is true

Dictionary example:
All non-violent religious and political beliefs should be respected equally.

Learner example:
We get to know the beliefs, superstitions or the principles of other religious denominations.

believe /bɪˈliːv/

Word family:
Nouns: belief
Verbs: believe
Adjectives: unbelievable

VERB [T]

believe in sth/doing sth PHRASAL VERB

to be confident that something is effective and right

Dictionary example:
He believes in saying what he thinks.

Learner example:
Nowadays I don't believe in changing your decision.

102
 bell /bel/

NOUN [C]

METAL OBJECT

a hollow, metal object, shaped like a cup, that makes a ringing sound when you hit
it
Dictionary example:
the sound of church bells ringing

Learner example:
At the begin[n]ing I was very excited, living in an old house, not too far from the city (you could
still hear the church bells chiming) but far enough [away] to live your own life without nosy
neighbours.

belong /bɪˈlɒŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: belongings
Verbs: belong

VERB [I]

RIGHT PLACE

If something belongs somewhere, that is the place it should be in.

Dictionary examples:
This table belongs in the sitting room.
These papers belong with the others.

Learner example:
I can understand people wh[o] say that animals belong in nature.

HAPPY SOMEWHERE

to feel happy or comfortable in a situation

Dictionary example:
I spent two years in Oxford but I never felt that I belonged there.

belongings /bɪˈlɒŋ.ɪŋz/

Word family:
Nouns: belongings
Verbs: belong

103
NOUN [PLURAL]

the things that a person owns, especially those which can be carried
Dictionary example:
I put a few personal belongings in a bag and left the house for the last time.

Learner example:
Five different kings have lived there with their families and it is possible to see several of their
personal belongings.

bench /bentʃ/

NOUN [C]

a long seat for two or more people, usually made of wood or metal
Dictionary example:
a park bench

Learner example:
At 1 p.m. Paul was sitting on a bench and waiting for Julia.

bend /bend/

VERB [I or T] (bent, bent)

BODY

to move your body or part of your body so that it is not straight

Dictionary examples:
Bend your knees when lifting heavy objects.
She bent down to pick up the pen.
Now, bend forwards/over and touch your toes!

Learner example:
My friend was bending over the table laughing hysterically.

CURVE

to (cause to) curve

Dictionary examples:
The road bends to the left after the first set of traffic lights.
The trees were bending in the wind.

Learner example:
I saw fir trees bending in half and 500-year-old oaks shedding their leaves.

104
NOUN [C]

CURVED PART

a curved part of something

Dictionary examples:
There's a bend in the pipe so you can't see from one end to the other.
There's a sharp bend in the road.

Learner example:
The other car disappeared around a sharp bend and when we came round it, we saw that the car
had stopped in the middle of the road.

beneath /bɪˈniːθ/

PREPOSITION

UNDER

under something, or in a lower position than something

Dictionary examples:
Jeremy hid the letter beneath a pile of papers.
After weeks at sea, it was wonderful to feel firm ground beneath our feet once more.

Learner example:
She could feel the train coming because the ground beneath her feet was moving.

beneficial /ˌben.əˈfɪʃ.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: benefit
Verbs: benefit
Adjectives: beneficial

ADJECTIVE

helpful, useful or good

Dictionary examples:
The improvement in sales figures had a beneficial effect on the company as a whole.
Exercise is beneficial to almost everyone.

Learner example:
To sum up, team sports are beneficial to children so if the schools they attend do not have any,
they should take up [something].

105
 benefit /ˈben.ɪ.fɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: benefit
Verbs: benefit
Adjectives: beneficial

VERB (-t-)
[I or T] to be helped by something or to help someone

Dictionary examples:
I feel that I have benefited greatly from her experience.
How can we benefit those who most need our help?

Learner example:
I am sure that the café would benefit a great deal from a non-smoking-area.

berry /ˈber.i/

NOUN [C]

a small round fruit on particular plants and trees

Dictionary example:
I usually scatter a few berries on my muesli.

Learner example:
Every day we were swimming, fishing, picking mushro[om]s and berries, hunting and making fires
to prepare food.

best /best/

NOUN

make the best of sth

to try to be positive about a situation you do not like but cannot change
Dictionary example:
Our hotel room is rather small, but we'll just have to make the best of it.

Learner example:
Unfortunately I don't have very much spare time so we will have to arrange it carefully in order to
make the best of your time in London.

106
 bestseller /ˌbestˈsel.ər/

NOUN [C]

a very popular book that many people have bought

Dictionary example:
His latest book is likely to be another bestseller.

Learner example:
Maybe your parents could bring me one of the newest bestsellers, which haven't been translated
[in]to Polish yet.

betray /bɪˈtreɪ/

VERB [T]

to behave in a dishonest or cruel way to someone who trusts you

Dictionary examples:
She felt betrayed by her mother's lack of support.
He promised never to betray her.

Learner example:
He couldn't believe that his best friend had betrayed him.

beyond /biˈjɒnd/

PREPOSITION

DISTANCE

on the other side of something

Dictionary example:
In the distance, beyond the river, was a small town.

Learner example:
Suddenly she recognized something red, beyond a tree and covered with some leaves.

TIME

continuing after a particular time or date

Dictionary examples:
Few people live beyond the age of a hundred.
We cannot allow the work to continue beyond the end of the year.

107
 Learner example:
You should take a [break] every two hours because, beyond two hours, your mind cannot record
what you are learning.

beyond my/our, etc. control

not able to be changed by me/us, etc.
Dictionary example:
Tonight's performance has been cancelled due to circumstances beyond our control.

Learner example:
This is a story about an event that turned out to be beyond my control.

bikini /bɪˈkiː.ni/

NOUN [C]

a piece of clothing with two parts that women wear for swimming
Dictionary example:
I packed my bikini for the beach.

Learner example:
Thelma was right: her bikini was really too big for her.

billion /ˈbɪl.jən/

NOUN [C]

the number 1 000 000 000

Dictionary example:
Cosmetics is a billion dollar industry.

Learner example:
There she was, 70m above the sea with a crazy man with a gun behind her and billions of
thoughts in her head.

biological /ˌbaɪ.əˈlɒdʒ.ɪ.kəl/

Word family:
Nouns: biology
Adjectives: biological

ADJECTIVE

connected with the natural processes of living things

108
 Dictionary example:
the biological sciences

Learner example:
Paul always knew that the Watsons weren't his biological parents.

birth /bɜːθ/

NOUN

give birth
When a woman or an animal gives birth, she produces a baby from her body.
Dictionary example:
She gave birth to twins.

Learner example:
The most important person in my life is the person who gave birth to me, my mother.

American/Italian, etc. by birth

born in a particular place or having parents with a particular nationality
Dictionary example:
I grew up in Paris, but I'm Italian by birth.

Learner example:
I am an eighteen year old college student and I am Portuguese by birth.

bit /bɪt/

NOUN [C]

a bit
INFORMAL a short period of time
Dictionary examples:
I'll see you in a bit.
I'm just going out for a bit. See you later.

Learner example:
I had my breakfast, I went to buy the newspaper and then I came back to my house to rest [for] a
bit.

109
 bite /baɪt/

NOUN [C]

FOOD

a piece taken from food when you bite it

Dictionary example:
She took a bite from her pizza.

Learner example:
When Alice [took] a bite out of the cake, something hard touched her teeth.

INJURY

an injury caused when an animal or insect bites you

Dictionary example:
mosquito bites

Learner example:
As far as your question about our sleeping is concerned, I wouldn't mind either staying in rooms
or tents, but since you ask me to express my preference, I would suggest staying in rooms, in
order to avoid insect bites.

bitter /ˈbɪt.ər/

ADJECTIVE

ANGRY

angry and upset because of something bad that has happened that you cannot
forget
Dictionary examples:
I feel very bitter about my childhood and the way I was treated.
She'd suffered terribly over the years but it hadn't made her bitter.

Learner example:
What can be more real that when your lover is gone or taken away your own soul is also alone,
bitter and dark and there is nothing else than feelings of rev[e]nge, anger, frustration and
sadness?

HATE

full of hate or anger

Dictionary example:
a bitter argument/dispute

110
 Learner example:
Every time they met, a bitter feeling of hatre[d] bloomed in her throat.

DISAPPOINTED

making you feel very disappointed

Dictionary examples:
Failing the final exams was a bitter disappointment for me.
She learnt through bitter experience that he was not to be trusted.

Learner example:
Now, I've already recovered from this bitter experience.

COLD

extremely cold
Dictionary example:
a bitter wind

bizarre /bɪˈzɑːr/

ADJECTIVE

very strange and unusual

Dictionary examples:
a bizarre situation
bizarre behaviour

Learner example:
Things are sometimes quite bizarre, aren't they?

blade /bleɪd/

NOUN [C]

the flat part on a knife or similar tool or weapon, with a very thin edge used for
cutting
Dictionary example:
a sword with a steel blade

Learner example:
Suddenly she felt the blade on her neck and she screamed in panic.

111
 blame /bleɪm/

NOUN [U]

when people say or think that someone or something is responsible for something
bad
Dictionary examples:
The manager should take the blame for the team's defeat.
They put the blame on faulty equipment.
His employers have accepted blame for the accident.

Learner example:
She thought that I would blame her so she decided to write me a letter.

blank /blæŋk/

ADJECTIVE

go blank
If your mind goes blank, you suddenly cannot remember or think of something.
Dictionary example:
When she asked me his name, my mind just went blank.

Learner example:
My mind went blank, I couldn't utter a word.

blink /blɪŋk/

VERB

EYES

[I or T] to open and close both of your eyes quickly

Dictionary example:
You've got something in your eye - try blinking a few times.

Learner example:
Her eyes were blinking as she was looking at the bright sunlight outside the window.

112
 block /blɒk/

NOUN [C]

PIECE

a solid piece of hard material, usually in the shape of a square or rectangle

Dictionary example:
a block of ice/stone/wood

Learner example:
It is like an enormous block of stone!

VERB [T]

PREVENT MOVEMENT

to prevent movement through something

Dictionary example:
A fallen tree is blocking the road.

Learner example:
It took over three hours because there was a car accident and the street was blocked for two
hours.

bloody /ˈblʌd.i/

Word family:
Nouns: blood
Verbs: bleed
Adjectives: bloody

ADJECTIVE

COVERED IN BLOOD

covered in blood
Dictionary example:
a bloody nose

Learner example:
The police found a bloody knife [under] his pillow.

113
 blow /bləʊ/

VERB (blew, blown)

blow up sth or blow sth up PHRASAL VERB

to fill something such as a balloon or tyre with air

Dictionary examples:
I spent the whole morning blowing up balloons for Joe's party.
Can you blow the tyre up for me?

Learner example:
I quickly helped others to decorate the hall - we blew up as many balloons as we c[ould] and
sprayed them gold and silver.

blush /blʌʃ/

VERB [I]

to become pink in the face, usually from embarrassment

Dictionary examples:
He blushes every time she speaks to him.
I blush to think what a fool I made of myself.

Learner example:
But there is one special "embarrassing moment" that even today I blush when I think about it.

board /bɔːd/

NOUN

SURFACE

[C] a flat piece of wood, plastic, etc. used for a particular purpose

Dictionary examples:
Cut the vegetables on a chopping board.
an ironing board
There was a 'For Sale' board outside the house.

MEALS

[U] meals that are provided when you stay in a hotel

Dictionary example:
How much is a single room with full/half board?

114
 Learner example:
You are likely to have full board accommodation and a single room.

boast /bəʊst/

VERB

PRIDE

[I or T] to talk with too much pride about what you have done or what you own

Dictionary examples:
He didn't talk about his exam results in case people thought he was boasting.
Parents enjoy boasting about their children's achievements.
They boasted that they had never lost a single game.

Learner example:
Later that evening I went home boasting about my success.

boiling /ˈbɔɪ.lɪŋ/

Word family:
Verbs: boil
Adjectives: boiled, boiling

ADJECTIVE INFORMAL

very hot
Dictionary examples:
It's boiling in this room!
It's boiling hot outside.

Learner example:
I wouldn't like a job like that, especially in the summer, when it's boiling hot.

bold /bəʊld/

Word family:
Adjectives: bold
Adverbs: boldly

ADJECTIVE

BRAVE

not frightened of taking risks

115
 Dictionary examples:
She was a bold and fearless climber.
It was a bold decision to go and live abroad.
The newspaper made the bold move/took the bold step of publishing the names of the men
involved.

Learner example:
That was the punishment for being bold!

boldly /ˈbəʊld.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: bold
Adverbs: boldly

ADVERB

in a way that is brave or very confident

Dictionary example:
The President had already boldly declared victory.

Learner example:
One boldly ventures where none of their family members have been before in search of a better
lifestyle, good weather...

bomber /ˈbɒm.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: bomb, bomber, bombing
Verbs: bomb

NOUN [C]

PERSON

! a person who uses bombs

Dictionary example:
Rajiv Gandhi is believed to have been killed by a suicide bomber.

bombing /ˈbɒm.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: bomb, bomber, bombing
Verbs: bomb

116
NOUN [C or U]

! an attack or several attacks using bombs

Dictionary example:
The city came under heavy bombing.

Learner example:
In fact, despite the number of plane accidents and bombing attempts on aeroplanes, it is the
safe[st] way to travel.

bond /bɒnd/

NOUN [C]

an interest, experience, or feeling that makes people feel connected

Dictionary examples:
the bond between the mother and baby
There is a close/strong bond between the brothers.
We formed a strong bond in this difficult period.
A love of opera created a bond between them.

Learner example:
The strong bond among the family members makes them feel secure and confident.

bonus /ˈbəʊ.nəs/

NOUN [C]

EXTRA THING

another pleasant thing in addition to something you were expecting

Dictionary example:
I love the job, and it's an added bonus that it's so close to home.

Learner example:
Think about this: we will be practising English every day and as a bonus we'll have staff discounts
on books an[d] CDs.

EXTRA MONEY

an extra amount of money that you are given, especially because you have worked
hard
Dictionary example:
a Christmas bonus

Learner example:
My employer said if I pass my exam, he will give me a bonus of fifty pounds.

117
 booklet /ˈbʊk.lət/

NOUN [C]

a small, thin book that contains information

Dictionary example:
The tourist office has booklets about the area.

Learner example:
I w[ould] really appreciate it if you could send me a booklet describing all outdoor and indoor
activities.

bookmark /ˈbʊk.mɑːk/

NOUN [C]

a way of marking an Internet website so that you can find it easily

Dictionary example:
Add this website to your bookmarks.

VERB [T]

to mark an Internet website on your computer so that you can find it easily
Dictionary example:
I've bookmarked the page.

boost /buːst/

NOUN [C USUALLY NO PLURAL]

something that makes you feel more confident and happy, or that helps something
increase or improve
Dictionary examples:
Passing my driving test was such a boost to my confidence.
The lowering of interest rates will give a much-needed boost to the economy.

Learner example:
It really gave us a boost!

VERB [T]

to improve or increase something

118
 Dictionary examples:
The theatre managed to boost its audiences by cutting ticket prices.
Share prices were boosted by reports of the President's recovery.
Getting the job had really boosted her confidence.

Learner example:
It would not only boost my self-confiden[ce] but also look very good on my CV.

bossy /ˈbɒs.i/

Word family:
Nouns: boss
Adjectives: bossy

ADJECTIVE

always telling other people what to do

Dictionary example:
a bossy older sister

Learner example:
Granny is the problem - she's a bit bossy!

bother /ˈbɒð.ər/

Word family:
Verbs: bother
Adjectives: bothered

VERB

WORRY

[T] to make someone feel worried or upset

Dictionary examples:
Does it bother you that he's out so much of the time?
It bothers me that he doesn't seem to notice.
Living on my own has never bothered me.
I don't care if he doesn't come - it doesn't bother me.

Learner example:
Then I want to mention that there is one thing that bothers me a lot.

MAKE AN EFFORT

[I or T] to make the effort to do something

119
 Dictionary examples:
He hasn't even bothered to write.
Don't bother making the bed - I'll do it later.
You'd have found it if you'd bothered looking.
You won't get any credit for doing it, so why bother?

Learner example:
TV is entertaining, and it's all digested for you: you don't need to bother thinking after a long
day's work.

can't be bothered INFORMAL

If you can't be bothered to do something, you are too lazy or tired to do it.
Dictionary example:
I can't be bothered to iron my clothes.

Learner example:
It woke me up but I didn't answer it, [I] couldn't be bothered.

bothered /ˈbɒð.əd/

Word family:
Verbs: bother
Adjectives: bothered

ADJECTIVE [NEVER BEFORE NOUN]

If you are bothered about something, it is important to you and you are worried
about it.
Dictionary examples:
He's very bothered about what people think of him.
They were an hour late and she didn't seem at all bothered.

Learner example:
I'm also bothered about what's going on around me.

bounce /baʊnts/

VERB

MOVE UP

[I or T] to (cause to) move up or away after hitting a surface

Dictionary examples:
The ball bounced off the post and into the net.
She bounced the ball quickly.

120
 bounce along/around/into, etc.
to move somewhere in a happy and energetic way
Dictionary example:
Sarah bounced into the room with a big smile on her face.

Learner example:
Would you like to wear balloon clothes and bounce around the world?

bound /baʊnd/

ADJECTIVE

bound to do sth
certain to do something, or certain to happen
Dictionary examples:
You're bound to feel nervous before your driving test.
If you're stressed for a long period, it's bound to affect your health.

Learner example:
I'm bound to feel nervous.

bow /bəʊ/

NOUN [C]

KNOT

a knot with two curved parts and two loose ends, that is used to tie shoes or as
decoration
Dictionary example:
The present was wrapped in gold paper and tied with a big red bow.

Learner example:
He saw a big black bow [o]n the handle of the door.

WEAPON

a piece of curved wood with string fixed to both ends, used for shooting arrows
Dictionary example:
a bow and arrows

Learner example:
The bow was very beautiful and there were some letters on [it]: Artemis. He could not believe it,
he had the bow of Artemis.

121
 bra /brɑː/

NOUN [C]

a piece of women's underwear that supports the breasts

Learner example:
She knew that I had bought my first bra without having asked her for advice.

bracket /ˈbræk.ɪt/

NOUN

SYMBOL

[C USUALLY PLURAL] either of two symbols put around a word, phrase or sentence in a
piece of writing to show that what is between them should be considered as
separate from the main part
Dictionary examples:
square/round brackets
Biographical information is included in brackets.

brake /breɪk/

VERB [I]

to make a vehicle stop or move more slowly

Dictionary example:
I tried to brake but it was too late.

Learner example:
The motorcyclist cut in dangerously, so we had to brake.

branch /brɑːntʃ/

NOUN [C]

SUBJECT

a part of a subject
Dictionary example:
Immunology is a branch of biological science.

122
 Learner example:
As a matter of fact, in[n]ovations have taken place quite frequently in every branch of science.

brand /brænd/

NOUN [C]

a type of product made by a particular company

Dictionary examples:
a best-selling/popular brand of toothpaste
This isn't my usual brand of deodorant.

Learner example:
My computer brand is Acer.

bravery /ˈbreɪv.ə.ri/

Word family:
Nouns: bravery
Adjectives: brave
Adverbs: bravely

NOUN [U]

when someone is brave

Dictionary example:
He was awarded a medal for his bravery in battle.

Learner example:
Of course my bravery disappeared and I felt my heart beating faster and faster.

break /breɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: break, outbreak
Verbs: break
Adjectives: breakable, broken

VERB (broke, broken)

END

[I or T] to come to an end or make something come to an end

Dictionary examples:
Eventually someone spoke, breaking the silence.
The factory brought in outside workers in an attempt to break the strike.

123
 Learner example:
George was looking outside when something broke the silence.

break a record
to do something better, faster, etc. than anyone else
Dictionary example:
Usain Bolt broke the world record for the 200 metres.

Learner example:
I personally think that nobody will ever break his record of being champion seven times.

break an agreement/promise, etc.

to not do what you should do
Dictionary example:
She agreed not to tell anyone but she has broken her promise.

Learner example:
I am very surprised that such a reputable theatre [as] yours has been able to break all [the]
promises that appeared in the advertisement.

break the law

to do something illegal
Dictionary example:
He didn't know he was breaking the law by smoking inside the building.

Learner example:
Jem, the youngest brother, is a horse-thief, so he breaks the law as well, but his crime is a minor
one.

break the ice

to make people feel more relaxed in a social situation
Dictionary example:
I told everyone a joke, which helped to break the ice.

Learner example:
And, of course, don't forget that a warm smile is one of the best ways to break the ice.

break sb's heart

to make someone feel extremely sad
Dictionary examples:
She really broke his heart when she left.
It breaks my heart when I hear the terrible things that have been said about him.

Learner example:
I thought that the hamster would live forever but I was wrong and that mistake broke my heart.

124
 breakable /ˈbreɪk.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: break, outbreak
Verbs: break
Adjectives: breakable, broken

ADJECTIVE

easy to break
Dictionary example:
That vase is breakable so be careful.

breakdown /ˈbreɪk.daʊn/

NOUN [C]

ILLNESS

a short period of mental illness when people are too ill to continue with their
normal lives
Dictionary examples:
Later that year she had a breakdown.
a nervous breakdown

Learner example:
Instead of that I almost end[ed] up in hospital suffering [a] nervous breakdown.

NOT WORKING

when a vehicle or machine stops working for a period of time

Dictionary example:
I had a breakdown in the middle of the road.

Learner example:
On Friday we went to Scotland but unfortunately we had a breakdown. By chance a very nice
farmer fixed our car and [as] it was late he suggested we should spend the night on his farm.

breakthrough /ˈbreɪk.θruː/

NOUN [C]

an important discovery or event that helps to improve a situation or provide an

answer to a problem

125
 Dictionary examples:
Scientists are hoping for a breakthrough in the search for a cure for cancer.
A major breakthrough in negotiations has been achieved.

Learner example:
For me the main technology breakthrough has been in computers.

breath /breθ/

Word family:
Nouns: breath
Verbs: breathe

NOUN [U]

be out of breath
to be breathing quickly because you have been running, walking fast, etc.
Dictionary example:
He burst into the room, red-faced and out of breath.

Learner example:
I find that shopping is very good exercise too! By the time you have completed the whole High
Street, you will be out of breath.

hold your breath

to keep air in your lungs and not let it out
Dictionary example:
How long can you hold your breath under water?

Learner example:
My heart was beating fast. I was holding my breath.

take your breath away

If something takes your breath away, you feel surprise and admiration because it
is so beautiful or exciting.
Dictionary example:
The view from the window took my breath away.

Learner example:
The landscape just takes your breath away sometimes.

take a deep breath

to fill your lungs with air
Dictionary example:
Take a deep breath and relax.

126
 Learner example:
But if you took a deep breath after reading the question, don't worry.

breathtaking /ˈbreθˌteɪ.kɪŋ/

ADJECTIVE

very beautiful or surprising

Dictionary example:
breathtaking scenery/views

Learner example:
For me it is a very beautiful country, with amazing and breathtaking scenery.

breed /briːd/

VERB (bred, bred)

KEEP ANIMALS

[T] to keep animals for the purpose of producing young animals

Dictionary example:
His main income comes from breeding cattle.

Learner example:
We can keep animals, breed them, observe, and protect [them].

NOUN [C]

a type of dog, sheep, etc.

Dictionary examples:
This rare breed of sheep is particularly good for wool.
What's your favourite breed of dog/dog breed?

Learner example:
After she had seen pictures of the show animals, she de[c]ided to buy a small male kitten of the
Cornish rex breed.

brick /brɪk/

NOUN [C]

a small, hard, rectangular block used for building walls and houses
Dictionary example:
a brick wall

127
 Learner example:
Future homes might not be built out of bricks at all!

brief /briːf/

Word family:
Adjectives: brief
Adverbs: briefly

ADJECTIVE

in brief
using only a few words
Dictionary example:
world news in brief

Learner example:
In brief, I have had a marvellous week.

bright /braɪt/

Word family:
Adjectives: bright
Adverbs: brightly

ADJECTIVE

INTELLIGENT

clever
Dictionary examples:
They were bright children, always asking questions.
She was enthusiastic and full of bright ideas and suggestions.

Learner example:
Rony had the bright idea of calling the firemen.

HAPPY

happy or full of hope

Dictionary examples:
You're very bright and cheerful this morning!
She's an excellent student with a bright future.

Learner example:
I think I'm [a] very bright kind of person, friendly with lots of energ[y].

128
 brightly /ˈbraɪt.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: bright
Adverbs: brightly

ADVERB

with a lot of strong colour or light

Dictionary examples:
brightly coloured clothes
a brightly lit room

Learner example:
The sun was shining brightly over the white mountain tops.

brilliantly /ˈbrɪl.i.ənt.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: brilliant
Adverbs: brilliantly

ADVERB

in a very skillful way

Dictionary example:
He seems to do everything brilliantly - piano playing, skiing, sailing.

Learner example:
Although they are not very famous like JULIE BLOOM, they sang brilliantly.

bring /brɪŋ/

VERB [T] (brought, brought)

bring out sth or bring sth out PHRASAL VERB

to produce something to sell to the public

Dictionary example:
They've just brought out a new, smaller phone.

Learner example:
Everybody knows how difficult it is to direct movies here in Greece because only [a] few movies
are brought out every year.

bring up sth or bring sth up PHRASAL VERB

to start to talk about a particular subject

129
 Dictionary examples:
There are several points I'd like to bring up at tomorrow's meeting.
She's always bringing up her health problems.

Learner example:
This matter has always brought up some problems.

broadband /ˈbrɔːd.bænd/

NOUN [U]

a type of Internet connection that allows large amounts of information to be sent

or received very quickly
Dictionary example:
We've got broadband at home.

broadcast /ˈbrɔːd.kɑːst/

VERB [I or T] (broadcast, broadcast)

to send out a programme on television, radio or the Internet
Dictionary examples:
Radio Caroline used to broadcast from a boat in the North Sea.
The tennis championship is broadcast live to several different countries.

Learner example:
Unfortunately most of the programmes that channels broadcast are not quality programmes.

broken /ˈbrəʊ.kən/

Word family:
Nouns: break, outbreak
Verbs: break
Adjectives: breakable, broken

ADJECTIVE

a broken heart
when you are very sad because of the end of a relationship
Dictionary example:
They said she died of a broken heart.

Learner example:
He will split up with you and [you] will get a broken heart!

130
 brother-in-law /ˈbrʌð.ər.ɪn.lɔː/

NOUN [C] (PLURAL brothers-in-law)

the man married to your sister or the brother of your husband or wife
Dictionary example:
It's my brother-in-law's birthday today.

browse /braʊz/

Word family:
Nouns: browser
Verbs: browse

VERB

LOOK

[I] to look through a book or magazine without reading everything, or to walk

around a shop looking at several things without intending to buy any of them
Dictionary examples:
I was just browsing through some fashion magazines.
"Are you looking for anything in particular, Madam?" "No, I'm just browsing."

Learner example:
If I want to buy a nice pair of shoe[s], I'll have to go into [the] city centre and browse around from
shop to shop until I find the shoes I like.

COMPUTING

[I or T] to look at information on the Internet

Dictionary example:
It's a good site to browse.

Learner example:
Furthermore people read when the[y] browse on the internet, whet[h]er for entertainment or
educational and business affairs.

browser /ˈbraʊ.zər/

Word family:
Nouns: browser
Verbs: browse

131
NOUN [C]

a computer program that makes it possible for you to read information on the
Internet
Dictionary example:
a Web browser

Learner example:
It is important to install an Internet browser, that could be Internet Explorer, as well as the free
Mozilla Firefox.

bruise /bruːz/

NOUN [C]

a dark area on your skin where you have been hurt

Dictionary examples:
His arms and back were covered in bruises.
She had a few cuts and bruises but nothing serious.

Learner example:
I entered the room and saw him, covered in bruises, but I couldn't see his face because he was
sleeping turned to the other side.

brush /brʌʃ/

NOUN

ACTION

[NO PLURAL] the action of using a brush

Dictionary example:
I need to give my hair a quick brush.

VERB

TOUCH

[I or T] to lightly touch someone or something as you move past

Dictionary examples:
Charlotte brushed against him as she left the room.
His lips gently brushed her cheek and he was gone.

Learner example:
A soft, cool breeze brushed my skin.

132
 budget /ˈbʌdʒ.ɪt/

NOUN [C]

AMOUNT

the amount of money a person or organization has available to spend

Dictionary examples:
an annual budget of £40 million
They are over/under/on/within budget.
They have a very tight budget.

Learner example:
Finally, as I am a student on a very tight budget I would prefer a cheap B and B or a family rather
than a local campsite.

ADJECTIVE

very cheap
Dictionary example:
a budget airline

bug /bʌg/

NOUN [C]

ILLNESS

a bacteria or a virus causing an illness that is usually not serious

Dictionary examples:
I had a tummy/stomach bug last week.
There's a bug going around.

COMPUTER

a mistake or problem in a computer program

Dictionary example:
A bug had caused the company's computer system to crash.

Learner example:
For instance, the millennium bug [might] make all computers confuse[d], and banks will lose
money.

133
 bulb /bʌlb/

NOUN [C]

a glass object which produces light from electricity

Dictionary example:
an energy-saving light bulb

Learner example:
We use the bulb everywhere and [for] almost everything.

bullet /ˈbʊl.ɪt/

NOUN [C]

a small, metal object that is shot from a gun

Dictionary example:
A bullet had lodged in the boy's leg.

Learner example:
After this, she [was] working for the FBI until she received a bullet in [the] shoulder.

bump /bʌmp/

VERB

HURT

[T] to hurt part of your body by hitting it against something hard

Dictionary example:
I bumped my head on the shelf as I stood up.

bump against/into sth

to hit something with force
Dictionary example:
She bumped into his tray, knocking the food onto his lap.

Learner example:
A young man ran after the ball and bumped into her.

134
 bumper /ˈbʌm.pər/

NOUN [C]

a bar fixed along the front or the back of a vehicle to protect it in an accident
Dictionary example:
a front/rear bumper

Learner example:
The cars were bumper to bumper.

bun /bʌn/

NOUN [C]

a small, round cake or piece of bread

Dictionary examples:
an iced bun
a hamburger bun

Learner example:
I was selling sweet buns and coffee in the coffee shop.

burglar /ˈbɜː.glər/

Word family:
Nouns: burglar, burglary
Verbs: burgle

NOUN [C]

a person who illegally enters buildings and steals things

Dictionary example:
I saw someone climbing in through a window and assumed it must be a burglar.

Learner example:
Was it possible that a burglar was trying to break into the house?

burglary /ˈbɜː.glər.i/

Word family:
Nouns: burglar, burglary
Verbs: burgle

135
NOUN [C or U]

the crime of illegally entering a building and stealing things

Dictionary example:
He was charged with burglary.

Learner example:
It makes the shops more secure against burglary and vandalism.

burgle /ˈbɜː.gl/

Word family:
Nouns: burglar, burglary
Verbs: burgle

VERB [T]

to get into a building illegally and steal things

Dictionary example:
They've been burgled twice recently.

Learner example:
One night she burgled my friend's home and stole the painting.

burn /bɜːn/

Word family:
Verbs: burn
Adjectives: burning

VERB (burnt or burned, burnt or burned)

COPY

[T] to copy music, information or images onto a CD

Dictionary example:
He's burnt all his favourite records onto a CD.

Learner example:
Microsoft Vista is [such a] complex system that there is no need for the additional programs for
viewing websites, watching movies, listening [to] music or burning your own CDs or DVDs.

ENERGY

[T] (ALSO burn up) to use fuel to produce heat or energy

Dictionary example:
to burn calories/fuel

136
 Learner example:
In this way, our organism is provided with oxygen which is essential in order to burn fat and
produce the energy we need every day.

burst /bɜːst/

VERB [I or T] (burst, burst)

BREAK APART

to break open or apart suddenly, or to make something do this

Dictionary examples:
The balloon burst and frightened the children.
Suddenly the door burst open and police officers carrying guns rushed in.
If I eat any more cake I'll burst!

Learner example:
We had a lovely lunch there and ate so much that we nearly burst.

bury /ˈber.i/

Word family:
Nouns: burial
Verbs: bury

VERB [T]

HIDE

to put something into a hole in the ground and cover it

Dictionary examples:
The dog trotted off to bury its bone.
buried treasure

Learner example:
I was really frightened, so I decided to bury the money in the back garden.

bush /bʊʃ/

NOUN [C]

a short, thick plant with a lot of branches

Dictionary example:
a rose bush

137
 Learner example:
There were so many flowers and bushes, [and] the water of the lake was so fresh.

business /ˈbɪz.nɪs/

NOUN

be none of sb's business

If something is none of someone's business, they do not need to know about it,
although they want to, because it does not affect them.
Dictionary example:
I'm certainly not going to tell Lara how much money I've spent - it's none of her business!

Learner example:
You might think it's none of my business, but I simply have to say this.

by /baɪ/

PREPOSITION

HOLDING

holding a particular part of someone or something

Dictionary example:
She grabbed me by the arm.

by far
by a great amount
Dictionary example:
They are by far the best students in the class.

Learner example:
I have travelled to many countries, but New Zealand is by far the best.

by heart
so that you can remember all of something
Dictionary example:
We had to learn the whole poem off by heart.

Learner example:
I know all his songs by heart and I was singing all the time.

day by day/little by little/one by one, etc.

used in particular phrases to mean 'gradually' or 'in units of'

138
 Dictionary example:
Day by day he grew stronger.

Learner example:
The weather gets warmer and warmer day by day and noone miss[es] the rain and the severe cold
of winter.

AMOUNT

used to show measurements or amounts

Dictionary examples:
twelve by ten metres of floor space
Interest rates have been increased by 0.25%.
I'm paid by the hour.
Copies have sold by the million.

Learner example:
Therefore you will see that this festival attracts people by the truckload.

139
 C

cabinet /ˈkæb.ɪ.nət/

NOUN [C]

a cupboard with shelves or drawers to store or show things in

Dictionary examples:
a bathroom/medicine cabinet
a glass-fronted cabinet

Learner example:
By the way I found your watch in the bathroom cabinet, so you don't have to worry about it.

cable /ˈkeɪ.bl
̩/

NOUN

WIRE

[C or U] a set of wires, covered by plastic, that carries electricity, telephone signals,

etc.
Dictionary examples:
The road had been dug up in order to lay cables.
overhead power cables

Learner example:
A mouse had eaten the cable so that there was no contact any more.

cake /keɪk/

NOUN [C or U]

be a piece of cake
INFORMAL to be very easy
Dictionary example:
The exam itself was a piece of cake.

140
 Learner example:
The article was a piece of cake though I didn't expect to win.

calculate /ˈkæl.kjʊ.leɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: calculation, calculator
Verbs: calculate

VERB [T]

MATHS

to discover an amount or number using mathematics

Dictionary examples:
Have you calculated the cost of the project?
He's calculated that it would take him two years to save up enough for a car.
At some stage we need to calculate when the project will be finished.

Learner example:
First of all, you say that we must do 80 kilometres on Saturday, but I have calculated the distance
and [it is] only 50 kilometres.

calculation /ˌkæl.kjʊˈleɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: calculation, calculator
Verbs: calculate

NOUN [C or U]

when you use mathematics to discover an amount or number

Dictionary example:
I did some quick calculations to see if we could afford it.

Learner example:
Just a simple calculation: the living space an elephant has got in a zoo is about 500m2.

call /kɔːl/

VERB

DESCRIBE

[T] to describe someone or something in a particular way

141
 Dictionary examples:
Are you calling me a liar?
He called it a disgrace.

Learner example:
You work too hard and you could be called [a] work[a]holic.

call in sick
to telephone the place where you work and report that you are sick and unable to
work
Dictionary example:
Three people called in sick this morning.

Learner example:
A few minutes after the concert began, a backstage assistant called in sick who was responsible
for checking w[h]ether everything is going well according to the timetable.

calm /kɑːm/

Word family:
Verbs: calm
Adjectives: calm
Adverbs: calmly

VERB [T]

calm down (sb) or calm (sb) down PHRASAL VERB

to stop feeling upset, angry, or excited, or to stop someone feeling this way
Dictionary examples:
Calm down, Lily, and tell me what's wrong.
She was angry at first but we managed to calm her down.
She sat down and took a few deep breaths to calm herself down.

Learner example:
When I got in my car, I told myself to calm down and take a deep breath.

calmly /ˈkɑːm.li/

Word family:
Verbs: calm
Adjectives: calm
Adverbs: calmly

ADVERB

in a quiet or relaxed way

142
 Dictionary example:
She reacted surprisingly calmly to the news of his death.

Learner example:
Very calmly, I closed my book and put it on the table which was on my left.

camp /kæmp/

Word family:
Nouns: camp, camping
Verbs: camp

NOUN

an army/prison/refugee, etc. camp

an area containing temporary buildings or tents used for
soldiers/prisoners/refugees
Dictionary example:

Learner example:
This year I think I'd rather go to a refugee camp to organise a program for children.

campus /ˈkæm.pəs/

NOUN [C or U]

the buildings of a college or university and the land that surrounds them
Dictionary example:
There's accommodation for about five hundred students on campus.

Learner example:
You [should] visit Kamakura City, which is 30 minutes from our campus by train.

can2 /kæn/

MODAL VERB

TYPICAL

used to talk about how someone often behaves or what something is often like
Dictionary example:
She can be really rude at times.

143
 Learner example:
When you choose to travel by car there can be a lot of traffic.

SOMETIMES HAPPENING

used to say that something sometimes happens or is true

Dictionary examples:
Smoking can cause cancer.
The nights can be very cold.

Learner example:
But overworking is also bad. It has lots of disadvantages, and can cause lots of problems,
including health problems.

candidate /ˈkæn.dɪ.dət/

NOUN [C]

JOB/ELECTION

a person who is competing to get a job or elected position

Dictionary example:
There are three candidates standing in the election.

Learner example:
I am the appropriate candidate for this job.

canned /kænd/

Word family:
Nouns: can
Adjectives: canned

ADJECTIVE

used to describe food or drink that has been put into metal containers in a factory
Dictionary example:
canned tomatoes

Learner example:
A new way of of eating has sprung [up] - fast food and canned vegetables are all around us.

144
 capable /ˈkeɪ.pə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: capability
Adjectives: capable, incapable

ADJECTIVE

GOOD AT DOING THINGS

able to do things effectively and achieve results

Dictionary examples:
She's a very capable young woman.
He's very capable.

Learner example:
I had a little farm when I was in Italy so I think I'm quite capable and have more experience than
others.

capable of sth/doing sth

having the ability, power or qualities to be able to do something
Dictionary examples:
She is certainly capable of running the business.
She was capable of great cruelty.

Learner example:
And although I've never had to cook [for] myself, I suppose I would be capable of cooking if
needed.

capacity /kəˈpæs.ə.ti/

NOUN

AMOUNT

[C or U] the largest amount or number that a container, building, etc. can hold

Dictionary examples:
a restaurant with a capacity of 200
The new stadium has a seating capacity of 50 000.
The ground was filled to capacity.

Learner example:
I would recommend the use of the state stadium next year for the concerts, in order to support
the capacity of the crowd.

ABILITY

[C] the ability to do, experience, or understand something

145
 Dictionary examples:
She has a great capacity for hard work.
What impresses me is his capacity to absorb information.

Learner example:
On the other hand, I think [films] reduce your capacity [for] imagination.

captain /ˈkæp.tɪn/

NOUN [C]

SHIP/AIRCRAFT

the person in charge of a ship or an aircraft

Dictionary example:
This is your captain speaking. We expect to be landing at London Heathrow in an hour's time.

Learner example:
At his third attempt the captain succe[e]ded in landing the plane on the air-strip.

capture /ˈkæp.tʃər/

VERB [T]

CATCH

to catch someone and make them your prisoner, or to take something into your
possession, especially by force
Dictionary examples:
Two of the soldiers were killed and the rest were captured.
Rebel forces captured the city after a week-long battle.

Learner example:
Joe, the serial killer, was captured.

DESCRIBE

to show or describe something successfully using words or pictures

Dictionary example:
His book really captures the spirit of the place.

Learner example:
Firstly, let me tell you that your report is really good. I think you capture in a few lines the whole
expression of a Mexic[an] town['s] life.

capture sb/sth on camera/film, etc.

to record someone or something on camera/film, etc.

146
 Dictionary example:
He was captured on film swearing at the referee.

Learner example:
Another event that should absolutely be captured on film is the preparation of the meals in the
canteen.

carbon /ˈkɑː.bən/

NOUN [U]

a chemical element present in all animals and plants and in coal and oil
Dictionary example:
Diamonds are formed from carbon.

carbon dioxide /ˌkɑː.bən.dɑɪˈɒk.sɑɪd/

NOUN [U]

the gas formed when carbon is burned, or when people or animals breathe out
Dictionary example:
carbon dioxide emissions

Learner example:
If we use up carbon dioxide with balloon clothes there will be less carbon dioxide on Earth, so
there is no worry about [the] Ozone.

carbon footprint /ˌkɑː.bənˈfʊt.prɪnt/

NOUN [C]

the amount of energy that a person or organization uses in order to exist or

operate
Dictionary example:
Many of us could reduce our carbon footprint by taking fewer flights and insulating our homes
better.

Learner example:
I also included some possible precautions to reduce our carbon footprints.

147
 carbon monoxide /ˌkɑː.bən.məˈnɒk.sɑɪd/

NOUN [U]

a poisonous gas that is produced by burning some types of fuel, especially petrol
Dictionary example:
The cause of death was given as carbon monoxide poisoning.

Learner example:
Cars also emit carbon monoxide and make the air unfit to breath.

cardboard /ˈkɑːd.bɔːd/

NOUN [U]

material like very thick stiff paper, usually pale brown in colour, which is used
especially for making boxes
Dictionary example:
a cardboard box

cardigan /ˈkɑː.dɪ.gən/

NOUN [C]

a piece of clothing often made from wool, which covers the upper part of the body
and fastens at the front
Dictionary example:
My worst present ever was an orange and green knitted cardigan from my aunt.

Learner example:
I lost my favourite pink cardigan.

care /keər/

Word family:
Nouns: care, carelessness
Verbs: care
Adjectives: careful, careless, caring
Adverbs: carefully, carelessly

148
NOUN

PROTECTION

[U] the process of protecting and looking after someone or something

Dictionary examples:
The standard of care at our local hospital is excellent.
Nurseries are responsible for the children in their care.

Learner example:
In zoos, there are many people who look after them, of course, and so many people think that this
care is enough.

VERB

Who cares?
INFORMAL used to emphasize that you do not think something is important
Dictionary example:
"Chelsea should have reached the final!" "Who cares?"

Learner example:
"Who cares?" he answered.

carelessly /ˈkeə.ləs.li/

Word family:
Nouns: care, carelessness
Verbs: care
Adjectives: careful, careless, caring
Adverbs: carefully, carelessly

ADVERB

in a careless way
Dictionary example:
He told me off for driving carelessly.

Learner example:
I broke your beautiful vase carelessly while I ran to answer the door.

carelessness /ˈkeə.ləs.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: care, carelessness
Verbs: care
Adjectives: careful, careless, caring
Adverbs: carefully, carelessly

149
NOUN [U]

the state of being careless

Dictionary example:
It's the carelessness with which he just throws stuff on the floor that annoys me.

Learner example:
Please forgive my carelessness. I'd like to bring a new one like yours when I come to you next
time.

caring /ˈkeə.rɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: care, carelessness
Verbs: care
Adjectives: careful, careless, caring
Adverbs: carefully, carelessly

ADJECTIVE

describes someone who is kind and gives emotional support to others

Dictionary example:
I've always thought of Jo as a very caring person.

Learner example:
Of course I enjoyed staying with you. It was really a remarkable experience being able to live with
a caring family like yours.

carnival /ˈkɑr.nɪ.vəl/

NOUN [C]

a public celebration where people wear special clothes and dance and play music
in the streets
Dictionary example:
I took the kids to the local carnival.

Learner example:
Of course it is not as good as the carnival of Rio!

150
 carry /ˈkær.i/

VERB [T]

TRANSPORT

to move someone or something from one place to another

Dictionary examples:
The plane was carrying 300 passengers.
The bus was carrying children to school.
Underground cables carry electricity to all parts of the city.
Police think that the body was carried down the river.
Rubbish left on the beach during the day is carried away at night by the tide.

Learner example:
Jay's swimming trunks got carried away by that huge wave.

case /keɪs/

NOUN

be the case
to be true
Dictionary examples:
Bad diet can cause tiredness, but I don't think that's the case here.
I take it that the booking includes breakfast - if that isn't the case, please let us know.

Learner example:
Could you also please let me know if you're coming back in time for dinner because if that's the
case I'll make a sp[lendid] dinner for us.

in any case
used to give another reason for something you are saying, or that you have done
Dictionary example:
I don't want to go and in any case, I haven't been invited.

Learner example:
I suggest that you should in any case leave your car at home and take buses or other public
means of transport.

in that case
because of the mentioned situation
Dictionary example:
There's no coffee left? In that case I'll have tea.

151
 Learner example:
You could try [k]ayaking. In that case, of course, you need to pay for the equipment.

CRIME

[C] a crime that police are trying to solve

Dictionary examples:
a murder case
Police in the town have investigated 50 cases of burglary in the past month.
The detective on the case has been suspended from duty.

Learner example:
They succeeded in solving a case too difficult even for the police.

COURT OF LAW

[C] a matter to be decided by a judge in a court of law

Dictionary examples:
The case will go before the European Court next month.
She accused her employer of unlawful dismissal and won/lost her case.

Learner example:
To summarize, we lost the case on the ground that he had [a] criminal background and that the
girl's testimony wasn't reliable because she was in love with the man, as she confessed herself in
court.

cast /kɑːst/

NOUN [C + SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERB]

all the actors in a film, play or show
Dictionary examples:
After the final performance, the director threw a party for the cast.
Part of the film's success lies in the strength of the supporting cast.

Learner example:
Unfortunately as soon as I came to the theatre I was told that there had been a change in the cast
and Danny Brook was not part of it anymore.

casual /ˈkæʒ.ju.əl/

ADJECTIVE

NOT PLANNED

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] not planned, or without particular meaning or importance

152
 Dictionary example:
a casual meeting/remark

Learner example:
It was last summer, when I had a casual meeting with someone.

casually /ˈkæʒ.ju.li/

ADVERB

in a casual way
Dictionary example:
She was dressed casually in shorts and a T-shirt.

Learner example:
I suggest that you and your group go dressed casually.

catalogue /ˈkæt.əl.ɒg/

NOUN [C]

a book with a list of items, such as pictures on display or goods that you can buy
from a business
Dictionary example:
a mail-order catalogue

Learner example:
I would be very grateful if you [could] send me the catalogue for the next auction.

catch /kætʃ/

VERB (caught, caught)

catch sb's attention, interest, etc.

to make someone notice something and feel interested
Dictionary example:
A ship out at sea caught his attention.

Learner example:
The first thing that caught my attention in the advert was "... eight people from different
countries...".

DISCOVER

[T] to discover someone who is doing something wrong or something secret

153
 Dictionary examples:
He caught her reading his old love letters.
She was caught cheating in the exam.

Learner example:
I [learnt] a good lesson when I was caught cheating on a test at school last year.

CRIMINAL

[T] If the police catch a criminal, they find them and take them away.

Dictionary example:
These terrorists must be caught.

Learner example:
The issue had been forgotten and the burglar was never caught.

category /ˈkæt.ə.gər.i/

NOUN [C]

a group of people or things of the same type

Dictionary example:
There are three categories of accommodation - standard, executive and deluxe.

Learner example:
I belong to the category of people who think that society needs zoos.

catering /ˈkeɪ.tər.ɪŋ/

NOUN [U]

providing food and drinks for people

Dictionary examples:
Who did the catering for the party?
a high-class catering company

Learner example:
All food, appetizers and refreshments will be provided by a catering company.

cause /kɔːz/

NOUN

REASON WHY

[C] the reason why something, especially something bad, happens

154
 Dictionary examples:
The police are still trying to establish the cause of the fire.
She had died of natural causes.

Learner example:
Overworking can be a cause of many problems.

VERB [T]

to make something happen, especially something bad

Dictionary examples:
The difficult driving conditions caused several accidents.
Most heart attacks are caused by blood clots.
The bright light caused her to look away.

Learner example:
Admittedly, using your car is more convenient and easier [than] using public transport but, in my
opinion, the advantages of using public transport outweigh the disadvantages it can cause.

cautious /ˈkɔː.ʃəs/

Word family:
Nouns: caution
Verbs: caution
Adjectives: cautious

ADJECTIVE

taking care to avoid risks or danger

Dictionary examples:
He's a very cautious driver.
We take a more cautious approach.
She is cautious about lending money to anyone.

Learner example:
You should be cautious and sensible.

cease /siːs/

VERB [I or T] FORMAL

to stop
Dictionary examples:
He ordered his men to cease firing.
The company has decided to cease all UK operations after this year.
She never ceases to amaze me.

155
 Learner example:
I thought the ring was just inside my head, in the dream. But it didn't cease, making me realize it
was something else, from outside the room.

cell /sel/

NOUN [C]

ORGANISM

the smallest basic unit of a plant or animal

Dictionary examples:
brain/blood cells
cancer cells

Learner example:
[...] such as, us[ing] gamma rays to damage the cancer cell or to treat people's short sight and so
on.

ROOM

a small room in a prison or police station where a prisoner is kept

Dictionary example:
He was kept in a prison cell for four months.

Learner example:
That's why six years after this I'm writing the story in my cold wet cell.

cellar /ˈsel.ər/

NOUN [C]

a room under the ground floor of a building, usually used for storage
Dictionary example:
He keeps his wine in the cellar.

Learner example:
We were in the cellar of the old castle without a candle or even matches.

cello /ˈtʃel.əʊ/

NOUN [C]

a large, wooden musical instrument with four strings that you hold between your
knees to play

156
 Dictionary example:
She plays the cello.

Learner example:
It was Beethoven, the 9th symphony. The cellos [and] violins, followed by the timpani...

cemetery /ˈsem.ə.tri/

NOUN [C]

a place where dead people are buried

Dictionary example:
She went to the cemetery where her grandfather was buried.

Learner example:
It was Halloween night and almost midnight, and Steve had the idea of going out to the nearest
cemetery to catch some ghosts or vampires.

centigrade /ˈsen.tɪ.greɪd/

NOUN [U]

a measurement of temperature in which water freezes at 0° and boils at 100°

Dictionary example:
Water boils at 100° centigrade.

Learner example:
The last few days I prefer[red] to go swimming, because the temperature was above thirty degrees
centigrade.

certain /ˈsɜː.tən/

Word family:
Nouns: certainty, uncertainty
Adjectives: certain, uncertain
Adverbs: certainly

ADJECTIVE

a certain
used before a noun when it is difficult to describe something exactly or give its
exact amount
Dictionary example:
He's got a certain charm.

157
 Learner example:
There was still that gleam and a certain kind of pride which let me assume once she must have
been a strong lady.

certainty /ˈsɜː.tən.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: certainty, uncertainty
Adjectives: certain, uncertain
Adverbs: certainly

NOUN

BEING SURE

[U] when you are completely sure about something

Dictionary example:
I'm unable to answer that question with any certainty.

Learner example:
I can say with certainty that this town is just a treasure of Polish culture.

chain /tʃeɪn/

NOUN

EVENTS

[C] a series of things that happen one after the other

Dictionary examples:
a chain reaction
His arrival set off a surprising chain of events.

Learner example:
The problem began to increase because all her friends knew her secret. It was like a "chain
reaction".

challenge /ˈtʃæl.ɪndʒ/

Word family:
Nouns: challenge
Verbs: challenge
Adjectives: challenging

158
VERB [T]

to express disagreement with ideas, rules, or someone's authority

Dictionary example:
Children challenge their parents' authority far more nowadays than they did in the past.

Learner example:
His daughter had just challenged him and he was struggling for a decision.

chance /tʃɑːnts/

NOUN

RISK

[C] a risk

Dictionary examples:
I'm delivering my work by hand. I'm not taking any chances.
There's a chance of injury in almost any sport.

Learner example:
The chances of [having] an accident [on a] bicycle are bigger than [in a] car.

change /tʃeɪndʒ/

Word family:
Nouns: change
Verbs: change
Adjectives: unchanged, changeable

VERB

change the subject

to start talking about a different subject
Dictionary example:
I'd tried to explain the situation, but he just changed the subject.

Learner example:
Well, changing the subject, I accidentally broke your beautiful vase. I'm really sorry, I'll try to find
[another] vase that looks similar.

159
 chaos /ˈkeɪ.ɒs/

Word family:
Nouns: chaos
Adjectives: chaotic

NOUN [U]

a state of total confusion with no order

Dictionary examples:
Snow and ice have caused chaos on the roads.
Ever since our secretary walked out, the office has been in a state of total chaos.

Learner example:
There was chaos at the school.

character /ˈkær.ɪk.tər/

Word family:
Nouns: character, characteristic
Adjectives: characteristic

NOUN

INTERESTING QUALITIES

qualities that are interesting or unusual

Dictionary example:
a hotel of character

Learner example:
There [are] many very old house[s] with a lot of character and charm, [which are] just perfect for a
photographer.

characteristic /ˌkær.ɪk.təˈrɪs.tɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: character, characteristic
Adjectives: characteristic

NOUN [C]

a typical or noticeable quality of someone or something

Dictionary examples:
Unfortunately a big nose is a family characteristic.
Sentimentality seems a characteristic of all the writers of that period.
The male bird displays several characteristics which distinguish him from the female.

160
 Learner example:
Orwell gives the animals human characteristics and we can identify with them.

charge /tʃɑːdʒ/

VERB

ACCUSE

[T OFTEN PASSIVE] If the police charge someone, they accuse them officially of a crime.

Dictionary example:
She's been charged with murder.

Learner example:
While Jem is accused of [a] minor crime, Joss is charged with smuggling.

ATTACK

[I or T] to attack someone or something by moving forward quickly

Dictionary examples:
The bull lowered its horns and charged.
The violence began when the police charged at a crowd of demonstrators.

Learner example:
They had water bombs and water pistols at the ready. They started charging down the field
towards the fire and once in range everyone thew their balloon as far as they could.

ELECTRICITY

[I or T] to put electricity into something

Dictionary example:
My mobile needs charging.

NOUN

take charge
to take control of or make yourself responsible for something
Dictionary example:
I was happy to let her take charge of the holiday arrangements.

Learner example:
I am 21 years old which means that I can take charge of school children.

161
 charm /tʃɑːm/

Word family:
Nouns: charm
Adjectives: charming

NOUN

QUALITY

[C or U] a quality which makes you like or feel attracted to someone or something

Dictionary examples:
a woman of great charm
The building has a certain charm.
I had to use all my charms to get them to lend us the hall.

Learner example:
It's an extremely severe and rugged sort of landscape with its own very special charm.

chart /tʃɑːt/

NOUN

DRAWING

[C] a drawing which shows information in a simple way, often using lines and
curves to show amounts
Dictionary example:
a sales chart

Learner example:
Now I can create special charts at home.

the charts
an official list of the most popular songs each week
Dictionary example:
They're currently at the top of the charts with their single 'Enough'.

Learner example:
She get[s] to the people's hearts by music and she is now [at] the top [of the] charts with the song
"Love me".

162
 chase /tʃeɪs/

VERB

RUN AFTER

[I or T] to run after someone or something in order to catch them

Dictionary examples:
The dog was chasing a rabbit.
She was chasing after her two-year-old son.

Learner example:
I could feel that the man was chasing after me.

chase sb/sth away/off/out, etc.

to run after a person or animal to make them leave a place
Dictionary example:
I chased the cat away.

Learner example:
But one day, Napoleon said that his rival Snowball was a spy of the farmers and chased him away.

chat /tʃæt/

Word family:
Nouns: chat
Verbs: chat
Adjectives: chatty

VERB [I] (-tt-)

chat sb up or chat up sb PHRASAL VERB

to talk to someone in a way that shows them that you are sexually attracted to
them
Dictionary example:
He spends hours in cafés, chatting up the waitresses.

Learner example:
Then he started to chat her up.

cheat /tʃiːt/

VERB [I or T]

to behave in a dishonest way in order to get what you want

163
 Dictionary examples:
Anyone caught cheating will be immediately disqualified from the exam.
She was caught cheating in her French exam.
He cheats at cards.

Learner example:
She also didn't want to cheat during the exam because it wouldn't be fair to anyone.

check /tʃek/

VERB

ASK

[I] to ask someone for permission to do something

Dictionary example:
I'd like to stay overnight, but I need to check with my parents.

Learner example:
I'll be there at 4.00 the next day which will be the 5th. Would you check with your neighbours
again, please?

cheeky /ˈtʃiː.ki/

ADJECTIVE

slightly rude or showing no respect, but often in a funny way

Dictionary examples:
She's got such a cheeky grin.
Don't be so cheeky!

Learner example:
Don't get angry, but I think your husband is a very cheeky man!

cheer /tʃɪər/

Word family:
Nouns: cheerfulness
Verbs: cheer
Adjectives: cheerful
Adverbs: cheerfully

VERB [I]

to give a loud shout of approval or encouragement

164
 Dictionary examples:
Everyone cheered as the winners received their medals.
He was cheering for the other side.

Learner example:
When she had finished, she felt satisfied and so did the audience who cheered for Louise.

cheerful /ˈtʃɪə.fəl/

Word family:
Nouns: cheerfulness
Verbs: cheer
Adjectives: cheerful
Adverbs: cheerfully

ADJECTIVE

MAKING YOU FEEL HAPPY

describes a place or thing that is bright and pleasant and makes you feel positive
and happy
Dictionary example:
The doctor's waiting room was bright and cheerful with yellow walls and curtains.

Learner example:
We can have [a] mixed colour[ed] carpet to make the reception area more cheerful.

cheerfully /ˈtʃɪə.fəl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: cheerfulness
Verbs: cheer
Adjectives: cheerful
Adverbs: cheerfully

ADVERB

in a cheerful way
Dictionary example:
She walked down the road, whistling cheerfully.

Learner example:
But Mr Robertson recognised Jane and greeted her very cheerfully.

165
 Cheers! /tʃɪəz/

EXCLAMATION

THANK YOU

used to mean 'thank you'

Dictionary example:
"I've bought you a drink." "Cheers, mate."

chemical /ˈkem.ɪ.kəl/

Word family:
Nouns: chemical, chemist, chemistry
Adjectives: chemical

NOUN [C]

a basic substance that is used in chemistry or produced by chemistry

Dictionary examples:
The government has pledged to reduce the amount of chemicals used in food production.
Each year, factories release millions of tonnes of toxic chemicals into the atmosphere.

Learner example:
There are a lot of chemicals and sewage in the river Dollmitz and the lakes, too.

ADJECTIVE

relating to chemicals
Dictionary examples:
a chemical reaction
chemical weapons
The chemical industry produces such things as petrochemicals, drugs, paint and rubber.

Learner example:
In the latter many chemical reactions may be reproduced to show the students the final
compounds generated.

cherry /ˈtʃer.i/

NOUN [C]

a small, round, soft red or black fruit with a single hard seed in the middle
Dictionary example:
cherry trees

166
 Learner example:
There was a big cherry tree, and there, on the top, was Trouble [the cat]!

chest /tʃest/

NOUN [C]

BODY

the front part of your body, between your neck and your waist, containing your
heart and your lungs
Dictionary examples:
He was shot in the chest.
Peter has a very hairy chest.
She went to the doctor complaining of chest pains.

Learner example:
She tried to get her weapon, but then a bullet hit her chest like a hammer.

chew /tʃuː/

VERB [I or T]

EAT

to crush food into smaller, softer pieces with the teeth so that it can be swallowed
Dictionary examples:
This meat is difficult to chew.
You don't chew your food enough - that's why you get indigestion.

Learner example:
Next, when you eat something, please chew [it] for a long time.

BITE

to repeatedly bite something without swallowing it

Dictionary examples:
She was chewing gum.
Our dog loves a bone to chew (on).
She sat in the dentist's waiting room, nervously chewing (at) her nails.

Learner example:
Students couldn't chew bubble-gum, smoke or eat swe[e]ties in school, but they do now.

167
 chief /tʃiːf/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

MOST IMPORTANT

most important or main

Dictionary examples:
The chief problem we have in the area now is the spread of disease.
The weather was our chief reason for coming here.

Learner example:
This is the chief argument of those who do not agree with zoos.

HIGHEST IN RANK

highest in rank
Dictionary example:
He is the chief economic adviser to the government.

Learner example:
Bob Wilson, the chief accountant, had resigned.

NOUN [C]

the person in charge of a group or organization

Dictionary examples:
a police chief
A new chief of the security forces has just been appointed.

Learner example:
I saw her one day, and she [told] me that she had been promoted to chief of section.

childish /ˈtʃaɪl.dɪʃ/

Word family:
Nouns: child, childhood
Adjectives: childish

ADJECTIVE

SILLY

Childish behaviour is silly, like that of a small child.

Dictionary example:
Don't be so childish!

Learner example:
In comparison with other countries' tourists, they seem to be a little childish, just like a group of
duckling[s] or chickens.

168
 OF A CHILD

typical of a child
Dictionary example:
childish handwriting

Learner example:
I heard a childish voice saying to me "Take my hand."

chill /tʃɪl/

Word family:
Nouns: chill
Adjectives: chilly

VERB [I or T]

chill out PHRASAL VERB INFORMAL

to relax completely, or not allow things to upset you

Dictionary example:
Chill out, Dad - if we miss this train there's always another one.

Learner example:
I just can't wait to get there, grab some Coke and chill out!

chimney /ˈtʃɪm.ni/

NOUN [C]

a hollow structure that allows the smoke from a fire inside a building to escape to
the air outside
Dictionary example:
Factory chimneys belched dense white smoke into the sky.

Learner example:
The reason is half for my own health and fitness and half for the health of my town, which is
polluted by lead, the smoke from chimneys and other artificial poisons.

chip /tʃɪp/

NOUN [C]

COMPUTER PART

a very small part of a computer that stores information

169
 Dictionary example:
a silicon chip

Learner example:
Even in cars and wash[ing] machines there're computer chips.

choir /kwaɪər/

NOUN [C + SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERB]

a group of people who sing together, often in a church or a school
Dictionary examples:
He sings in the church choir.
choir practice

Learner example:
I have sung in the church's choir for three years, and I have had singing classes at school since
first grade.

chop /tʃɒp/

VERB [T] (-pp-)

to cut something into pieces with an axe, knife, or other sharp instrument
Dictionary examples:
He was chopping wood in the yard.
Add some fresh parsley, finely chopped.
Chop (up) the onions and carrots roughly.

Learner example:
You would use them to chop vegetable[s].

circle /ˈsɜː.kl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: circle, circulation
Verbs: circle
Adjectives: circular

NOUN [C]

GROUP

a group of people with family, work or social connections

170
 Dictionary examples:
She's not one of my close circle of friends.
It's a technical term used in medical circles.

Learner example:
His name is Omar Naber and he has quite [a] big circle of fans in Slovenia, although most of them
are kids.

circular /ˈsɜː.kjə.lər/

Word family:
Nouns: circle, circulation
Verbs: circle
Adjectives: circular

ADJECTIVE

SHAPE

shaped like a circle

Dictionary example:
a circular rug

Learner example:
People who congratulate the marrying [couple] take a circular sweet.

circumstance /ˈsɜː.kəm.stɑːnts/

NOUN [C USUALLY PLURAL]

a fact or event that makes a situation the way it is

Dictionary examples:
I think she coped very well under the circumstances.
She died in suspicious circumstances.
We oppose capital punishment in/under any circumstances.
Under no circumstances should you approach the man.
The meeting has been cancelled due to circumstances beyond our control.

Learner example:
This party is being organised by my class for your husband's birthday, but there is something you
should know, this party is a surprise so under no circumstances should you inform your husband
about this.

171
 citizen /ˈsɪt.ɪ.zən/

NOUN [C]

TOWN/CITY

someone who lives in a particular town or city

Dictionary example:
The citizens of Moscow woke up this morning to find they had a new government.

Learner example:
I think that it is a really good idea to make a film about our town and its citizens.

LEGAL RIGHT

someone who has a legal right to live in a particular country

Dictionary example:
He applied to become an American citizen.

Learner example:
I'm an American citizen because my mother comes from Queens, New York.

civilization (ALSO civilisation) /ˌsɪv.əl.aɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: civilization, civilian
Adjectives: civil

NOUN

SOCIETY

[C or U] human society with its well developed social organizations, or the culture
and way of life of a society or country at a particular period in time
Dictionary examples:
Some people think that nuclear war would mean the end of civilization.
Cuzco was the centre of one of the world's most famous civilizations, that of the Incas.
ancient civilizations

Learner example:
Since the beginning of civilization, man has been looking for co[m]fort and better ways to do
things.

172
 claim /kleɪm/

VERB

SAY

[T] to say that something is true or is a fact, although you cannot prove it and other
people might not believe it
Dictionary examples:
The company claims (that) it is not responsible for the pollution in the river.
He claims to have met the President, but I don't believe him.
An unknown terrorist group has claimed responsibility for this morning's bomb attack.
All parties have claimed success in yesterday's elections.

Learner example:
Bicycle supporters claim that it is silent and keeps owners fit.

DEMAND

[I or T] to ask for something because it belongs to you or you think you have the
right to have it
Dictionary examples:
She claimed £1,500 in expenses.
Don't forget to claim (for) your travelling expenses after the interview.
The number of people claiming unemployment benefit has risen sharply this month.
If the shop won't give me a replacement TV, I'll claim my money back.

Learner example:
I also would like to claim [a] refund for the evening.

NOUN [C]

DEMAND

a written request asking an organization to pay you a sum of money which you
believe they owe you
Dictionary examples:
an insurance claim
a claim for compensation
I've made a claim on my insurance.

Learner example:
This wasn't "my perfect evening out", and I [would like to] make a claim for half the money back.

173
 class /klɑːs/

NOUN

ECONOMIC GROUP

[C or U] a group of people within society who have the same economic and social
position
Dictionary examples:
The Labour Party has lost a lot of support among the working class.
We live in a middle class neighbourhood.
She belonged to the rich American upper class.

Learner example:
The second film is called "Upper class first" and it describes how rich people live.

classic /ˈklæs.ɪk/

ADJECTIVE

A classic book, film, etc. is one that has been popular for a long time and is
considered to be of a high quality.
Dictionary example:
a classic film/novel/story

Learner example:
I am fond of reading different books, especially classic literature.

NOUN [C]

a piece of writing, a musical recording or a film which has been popular for a long
time and is considered to be of a high quality
Dictionary examples:
Jane Austen's 'Pride and Prejudice' is a classic of English literature.
Many of the Rolling Stones' records have become rock classics.

Learner example:
Wuthering Heights [is] a classic, which everybody knows about.

clause /klɔːz/

NOUN [C]

a group of words containing a subject and a verb, that is usually only part of a
sentence

174
 Dictionary examples:
In the sentence 'I can't cook very well but I make quite good omelettes', both 'I can't cook very
well' and 'I make quite good omelettes' are main clauses.
In the sentence 'I'll get you some stamps if I go to town', 'if I go to town' is a subordinate clause.

clear /klɪər/

Word family:
Verbs: clear
Adjectives: clear, unclear
Adverbs: clearly

VERB

clear up (sth) or clear (sth) up PHRASAL VERB

MAKE TIDY

to make a place tidy by removing things from it or putting them where they should
be
Dictionary example:
Dad was clearing up the kitchen.

Learner example:
I also helped to clear up the place after the concert.

clear up sth or clear sth up PHRASAL VERB

to give an explanation for something, or to deal with a problem or argument

Dictionary example:
Before we sign the contract, there are a few points we should clear up.

Learner example:
I hope this will clear up your problem.

clear up PHRASAL VERB

If the weather clears up, the cloud and rain disappears.

Dictionary example:
I hope the weather clears up before this afternoon.

Learner example:
For the first two days the weather was so bad that we couldn't reach the beach but finally the sky
cleared up.

175
 client /ˈklaɪ.ənt/

NOUN [C]

someone who pays someone else for services or advice

Dictionary example:
We're losing a lot of our clients.

Learner example:
The mot[t]o of the staff there is: "the client is always right."

climate change /ˈklaɪ.mɪtˌtʃeɪndʒ/

NOUN [U]

the way the Earth's weather is changing

Dictionary example:
Climate change is the greatest environmental challenge facing the world today.

climb /klaɪm/

Word family:
Nouns: climbing
Verbs: climb

VERB

climb into/out of/through, etc.

to move into or out of a small space, often with difficulty or effort
Dictionary examples:
The baby had managed to climb out of his cot.
They climbed into the truck and drove away.

Learner example:
I went to my car, climbed into it and wanted to drive, but nothing happened.

MOVE HIGHER

[I] to go up, or to go towards the top of something

Dictionary examples:
The plane climbed quickly to a height of 30 000 feet.
As it leaves the village, the road climbs steeply up the mountain.
The sun climbed higher in the sky.

176
 close

Word family:
Nouns: closure
Verbs: close
Adjectives: closed

VERB /kləʊz/

STOP OPERATING

[I or T] If a business or organization closes, or if someone or something closes it, it

stops operating.
Dictionary examples:
The factory closed over ten years ago.
A lot of restaurants/shops are closing because they can't afford to pay the rent.

Learner example:
In addition, I would like you to know that the Hotel Astrid closed last year.

ADJECTIVE /kləʊs/

RELATIONSHIP

seeing or communicating with someone a lot

Dictionary examples:
I'm still in close contact with my school friends.
Our school has close links with a school in China.

Learner example:
Being in close touch with me for such a long time, you should have known everything about the
band.

closely /ˈkləʊ.sli/

Word family:
Adjectives: close
Adverbs: closely

ADVERB

CONNECTED

in a way that is directly connected or has a strong relationship

Dictionary examples:
English and German are closely related.
Both politicians have been closely associated with the movement for some time.
We are working closely with the police.

177
 Learner example:
The main reason I am applying for this job is that this job would be very rewarding on [a] personal
level and would give me useful experience closely related to my field of study.

cloth /klɒθ/

NOUN

MATERIAL

[U] material made from cotton, wool, etc. and used, for example, to make clothes
or curtains
Dictionary example:
a piece/length of cloth

Learner example:
We [will] probably be wearing dresses made of synthetic cloth in 2100.

FOR CLEANING

[C] a small piece of material used for cleaning or drying things

Dictionary example:
a washing-up cloth

clothing /ˈkləʊ.ðɪŋ/

NOUN [U]

clothes, especially of a particular type

Dictionary examples:
Protective clothing must be worn at all times.
You can only take three articles/items of clothing into the changing room.

Learner example:
Nowadays the aim in clothing is not just for covering and protecting ourselves.

cloud /klaʊd/

Word family:
Nouns: cloud
Verbs: cloud
Adjectives: cloudy

178
NOUN

SMOKE/DUST

[C] a mass of something such as dust or smoke that looks like a cloud

Dictionary example:
A huge cloud of smoke from burning oil tanks stretched across the sky.

Learner example:
Some of them leave behind a large cloud of smoke and it damage[s] our health.

clue /kluː/

NOUN [C]

SIGN

a sign or some information that helps you to solve a problem or answer a question
Dictionary examples:
Police are searching the area for clues to the murder.
Police are still looking for clues in their search for the missing girl.
I'm never going to guess the answer if you don't give me a clue.

Learner example:
They found it and they started looking for more clues.

not have a clue

INFORMAL to be completely unable to guess, understand, or deal with something
Dictionary example:
I haven't a clue what you're talking about.

Learner example:
I haven't a clue about it.

clumsy /ˈklʌm.zi/

Word family:
Nouns: clumsiness
Adjectives: clumsy

ADJECTIVE

Clumsy people move in a way that is not controlled or careful enough, and often
knock or damage things.
Dictionary example:
That's the third glass you've smashed this week - you're so clumsy!

179
 Learner example:
I was cleaning the house, and as you know, I'm very clumsy, so I was dusting the table, and,
accidentally, I dropped the vase.

coach /kəʊtʃ/

Word family:
Nouns: coach, coaching
Verbs: coach

VERB [I or T]

to teach someone so they improve at a sport, skill, or in a school subject

Dictionary example:
She coaches students in French, usually for exams.

Learner example:
I have also been coaching a girls team for 3 years.

coaching /ˈkəʊtʃ.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: coach, coaching
Verbs: coach

NOUN [U]

additional teaching of a sport, a skill or a school subject

Dictionary example:
She has extra coaching in maths.

Learner example:
In Poland basketball is getting more and more popular and we feel the lack of coaching.

coastal /ˈkəʊ.stəl/

Word family:
Nouns: coast
Adjectives: coastal

ADJECTIVE

situated on, or relating to the coast

Dictionary example:
a coastal town

180
 Learner example:
I love to spend time at the beach and that is the reason why I live in a coastal area.

code /kəʊd/

NOUN

SECRET MESSAGE

[C or U] a system of words, letters or signs which is used to represent a message in

secret form
Dictionary examples:
The message was written in code.
She managed to break/crack the code.

Learner example:
Everyone had already heard of me getting the secret access code for the 'Secret Society'
organisation.

coincidence /kəʊˈɪnt.sɪ.dənts/

Word family:
Nouns: coincidence
Verbs: coincide

NOUN [C or U]

when two very similar things happen at the same time but there is no reason for it
Dictionary examples:
You chose exactly the same wallpaper as us - what a coincidence!
Just by coincidence, I met my old school-mate again fifty years later.
It was pure coincidence that we met.

Learner example:
What a coincidence, don't you think so?

collapse /kəˈlæps/

VERB [I]

OBJECT

to fall down suddenly because of pressure or having no strength or support

181
 Dictionary examples:
Thousands of buildings collapsed in the earthquake.
The chair collapsed under her weight.

Learner example:
Then a sudden wave of fire made their heads explode and many buildings collapsed instantly.

PERSON

If someone collapses, they fall down, usually because they are ill or weak.
Dictionary example:
He collapsed and died of a heart attack.

Learner example:
He desperately tried to keep the stalking sharks at bay, but he couldn't succeed, for the long fight
exhausted him and he collapsed.

NOUN [C or U]

the sudden failure of a system, organization, business, etc.

Dictionary examples:
A poor economy has caused the collapse of thousands of small businesses.
Negotiations between the two countries are on the brink/verge of collapse.
He suffered a mental collapse after ten years' teaching.

Learner example:
After your nervous collapse last year I really worry about you.

collar /ˈkɒl.ər/

NOUN [C]

ON AN ANIMAL

a strap made of leather or other strong material which is put around the neck of
an animal, especially a dog or cat
Dictionary examples:
a dog collar
I grabbed the dog by its collar and dragged it out of the room.

collect /kəˈlekt/

Word family:
Nouns: collection, collector
Verbs: collect

182
VERB

MONEY

[I or T] to ask people to give you money for something, for example a charity

Dictionary examples:
I'm collecting on behalf of Oxfam.
We're collecting (money) for the homeless.

Learner example:
And I think it's a perfect way to collect money for our poor people.

collection /kəˈlek.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: collection, collector
Verbs: collect

NOUN

TAKING AWAY

[U] when something is taken away from a place

Dictionary example:
rubbish collection

Learner example:
We need a different organisation for the waste collection.

collector /kəˈlek.tər/

Word family:
Nouns: collection, collector
Verbs: collect

NOUN [C]

someone who collects objects because they are interesting or beautiful

Dictionary examples:
a collector of modern art
a stamp collector

Learner example:
Anne has been a collector for many years and she knows almost everything about Swedish
stamps.

183
 collocation /ˌkɒ.ləˈkeɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [C]

a word or phrase that sounds natural or correct when it is used with another word
or phrase, or the combination formed when two or more words are frequently
used together in a way that sounds natural
Dictionary example:
'Heavy traffic' is a collocation.

colon /ˈkəʊ.lɒn/

NOUN [C]

a mark (:) used before a list, an example, an explanation, etc.

Dictionary example:
There's a colon missing in that sentence.

colourful /ˈkʌl.ə.fəl/

Word family:
Nouns: colour
Adjectives: colourful

ADJECTIVE

UNUSUAL

interesting and unusual

Dictionary example:
a colourful character

Learner example:
Computers make our modern life more colourful.

column /ˈkɒl.əm/

NOUN [C]

PRINTING

one of the blocks of print into which a page of a newspaper, magazine, or

dictionary is divided

184
 Dictionary example:
I didn't have time to read the whole article - just the first column.

Learner example:
To the editor, I am puzzled by the report which appeared on yesterday's page 2, second column,
concerning the Westfield Music Festival.

BUILDING

a tall, solid, usually stone post which is often used to support a roof or as
decoration in a building
Dictionary examples:
The roof of the temple was held up by a row of thick stone columns.
Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square

Learner example:
There are a lot [of] columns outside and inside the restaurant, in Doric [style].

combination /ˌkɒm.bɪˈneɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: combination
Verbs: combine

NOUN [C or U]

the mixture you get when two or more things are combined
Dictionary examples:
Strawberries and cream - a perfect combination.
A combination of tiredness and boredom caused me to fall asleep.
This drug can be safely used in combination with other medicines.
Her experience and energy are a winning combination in business.

Learner example:
It has the winning combination of adventure in strange, far-off places, scientific discovery and
humour.

combine /kəmˈbaɪn/

Word family:
Nouns: combination
Verbs: combine

VERB [I or T]

to become mixed or joined, or to mix or join things together

185
 Dictionary examples:
My wages combined with your savings should just about pay for it.
The band combines jazz rhythms and romantic lyrics.

Learner example:
Boys wear jeans or longer shorts than girls, combined with patterned, cotton shirts.

come /kʌm/

VERB [I] (came, come)

HAPPEN

to happen
Dictionary examples:
Spring has come early.
The worst problems are still/yet to come.
The announcement came at a bad time.

Learner example:
But worse was yet to come!

comedian /kəˈmiːd.iː.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: comedian, comedy

NOUN

someone who entertains people by telling jokes

Dictionary example:

Learner example:
Then, he went to London to become a comedian and now he is one of the [most] famous stars [in]
that field.

comfort /ˈkʌm.fət/

Word family:
Nouns: comfort, discomfort
Verbs: comfort
Adjectives: comfortable, uncomfortable, comforting
Adverbs: comfortably, uncomfortably

186
NOUN

NO PAIN

[U] a pleasant feeling of being relaxed and free from pain

Dictionary examples:
She evidently dresses for comfort.
It's a little too hot for comfort.
Now you can watch the latest films in the comfort of your own room.

Learner example:
When the weather is bad, I need the comfort of my car.

comfortable /ˈkʌmpf.tə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: comfort, discomfort
Verbs: comfort
Adjectives: comfortable, uncomfortable, comforting
Adverbs: comfortably, uncomfortably

ADJECTIVE

WITHOUT WORRIES

If you are comfortable in a situation, you do not have any worries about it.
Dictionary example:
I don't feel comfortable about leaving the children here alone.

Learner example:
Those children maybe they don't feel comfortable away from home.

comfortably /ˈkʌmpf.tə.bli/

Word family:
Nouns: comfort, discomfort
Verbs: comfort
Adjectives: comfortable, uncomfortable, comforting
Adverbs: comfortably, uncomfortably

ADVERB

in a comfortable way
Dictionary example:
We slept very comfortably that night.

187
 Learner example:
I was sitting comfortably on the couch watching TV when suddenly all the lights went out, [and]
everything became silent.

command /kəˈmɑːnd/

Word family:
Nouns: command, commander

NOUN

ORDER

[C] an order to do something, especially one given by a soldier

Dictionary examples:
He hated being in the army because he had to obey commands.
When I give the command, fire!

Learner example:
Under the red lights of his command room, the first question that the captain wanted to a[sk] was
to know if the boat was safe.

KNOWLEDGE

[U] knowledge of a subject, especially a language

Dictionary example:
She had a good command of Italian.

Learner example:
Besides, I have a good command of French and I speak English fluently, which might be useful
during the voyage around the world.

comment /ˈkɒm.ent/

VERB [I or T]

to make a comment
Dictionary examples:
My mum always comments on what I'm wearing.
He commented that the two essays were rather similar.
The official refused to comment on the matter.

Learner example:
I will only comment on some points, the others may be viewed as agreed upon.

188
 commerce /ˈkɒm.ɜːs/

Word family:
Nouns: commerce, commercial
Adjectives: commercial

NOUN [U]

the activities involved in buying and selling things

Dictionary example:
the world of commerce and industry

Learner example:
In the old days, when the only mean[s] of transport were horses, there were many difficulties in
communication between people, in commerce, [and] in life generally.

commercial /kəˈmɜː.ʃəl/

Word family:
Nouns: commerce, commercial
Adjectives: commercial

NOUN [C]

an advertisement on the radio, on television, etc.

Dictionary example:
I tend to switch off during the commercials.

Learner example:
Nearly every one of us has to confess that on some days it is simply relaxing to sit in front of the
TV just watching without using the brain at all, but we have to wonder if television is also able to
educate us, especially regarding the senseless commercials.

ADJECTIVE

BUYING AND SELLING

related to buying and selling things

Dictionary examples:
a commercial organization/success
The commercial future of the company looks very promising.

Learner example:
Unfortunately, as long as their private life is interesting for ordinary people and it brings
commercial gain to publishers, journalists and photographers, famous people will just have to get
use[d] to this living "under a microscope".

189
 commit /kəˈmɪt/ (-tt-)

Word family:
Nouns: commitment
Verbs: commit
Adjectives: committed

VERB [T]

DO

to do something that is considered wrong, or that is illegal

Dictionary examples:
He was sent to prison for a crime that he didn't commit.
to commit suicide
to commit a crime/an offence/murder

Learner example:
She is willing to be [a] witness for the prosecution and states that her husband [was] not with her
at the time the crime was committed.

commitment /kəˈmɪt.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: commitment
Verbs: commit
Adjectives: committed

NOUN

LOYALTY

[C or U] when you are willing to give your time and energy to something that you
believe in, or a promise or firm decision to do something
Dictionary examples:
She is known chiefly for her commitment to human rights.
I'd like to thank the staff for having shown such commitment.

Learner example:
I really admire your stamina, your commitment and your eagerness to pursue a career as one of
the youngest vice presidents ever in the company (and the only female I guess), but is it really
worth it?

ACTIVITY

[C] something that you must do or deal with that takes your time

Dictionary examples:
family/work commitments
I've got too many commitments at the moment to do an evening class.

190
 Learner example:
Please tell me also the terms of [the] possible job so I can plan my future work commitments.

committee /kəˈmɪt.i/

NOUN [C+ SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERB]

a small group of people chosen to represent a larger organization and either make
decisions or collect information for it
Dictionary examples:
She is on the school's development committee.
The local council have just set up a committee to study recycling.

Learner example:
I'm pleased to help and to present these films to the club committee.

common /ˈkɒm.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: common
Adjectives: common, uncommon
Adverbs: commonly

ADJECTIVE

common knowledge
something that a lot of people know
Dictionary example:
It's common knowledge that he spent time in jail.

Learner example:
It is common knowledge that such attention [in the mass-media] inevitably tells on relationships
in the family.

communicate /kəˈmjuː.nɪ.keɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: communication
Verbs: communicate
Adjectives: communicative

191
VERB

BE UNDERSTOOD

[I] to be understood by someone when you tell them about your feelings and
thoughts
Dictionary example:
He can't communicate with his parents.

Learner example:
I think I can communicate with children and make them happy.

communicative /kəˈmjuː.nɪ.kə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: communication
Verbs: communicate
Adjectives: communicative

ADJECTIVE

open and willing to talk to people

Dictionary example:
She's never very communicative in the morning.

Learner example:
First of all, I would like to say I am a very communicative person and I enjoy being surrounded by
many people.

community /kəˈmjuː.nə.ti/

NOUN [C]

IN ONE AREA

the people living in one particular area

Dictionary examples:
a rural/small community
He's well-known in the local community.
Drug trafficking is a matter of considerable concern for the entire international community.

Learner example:
He supported some projects in our community.

GROUP OF PEOPLE

[+ SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERB] a group of people with the same interests, way of life,
nationality, job, etc.

192
 Dictionary examples:
the black/white/Chinese/Jewish community
the business community

Learner example:
As a member of our academic community, and a representative of [the] student's senate, I'm very
glad to hear that our college will have a surplus in its annual budget.

companion /kəmˈpæn.jən/

NOUN [C]

someone you spend a lot of time with or go somewhere with

Dictionary examples:
a travelling companion
Dan has been her constant companion these past ten years.

Learner example:
Jane and her companion felt absolutely foolish and muttered something about a wrong address.

company /ˈkʌm.pə.ni/

NOUN

OTHER PEOPLE

[U] when you are with a person or people, or the person or people you are with

Dictionary examples:
I just enjoy his company.
Do you want company or would you rather go on your own?
I didn't realize you had company.
Margot came to stay for a week as company for my mother while I was away.

Learner example:
Fortunately a friend of mine came with me for company.

keep sb company
to stay with someone so that they are not alone
Dictionary example:
Come and keep me company, Isabel.

Learner example:
Usually I went with him to keep him company and because I liked it.

193
 compare /kəmˈpeər/

Word family:
Nouns: comparative, comparison
Verbs: compare
Adjectives: comparable, comparative
Adverbs: comparatively

VERB

compared to/with sb/sth

used when saying how one person or thing is different from another
Dictionary examples:
This road is quite busy compared to ours.
Children seem to learn more interesting things compared with when we were at school.

Learner example:
To my surprise it was very cheap compared with other restaurants.

comparison /kəmˈpær.ɪ.sən/

Word family:
Nouns: comparative, comparison
Verbs: compare
Adjectives: comparable, comparative
Adverbs: comparatively

NOUN [C or U]

when two or more people or things are compared

Dictionary examples:
They made a comparison of different countries' eating habits.
By/In comparison with the French, the British eat far less fish.
I always drink fresh coffee, not instant. There's no comparison.

Learner example:
Nowadays we can see a very different world from the one our grandparents were living in.
Whereas they used to talk about how their daily life had changed in comparison with previous
generations', we remain astonished [at] how our li[v]es are changing frenetically.

compete /kəmˈpiːt/

Word family:
Nouns: competition, competitor
Verbs: compete
Adjectives: competitive

194
VERB [I]

SUCCESS

to try to be more successful than someone or something else

Dictionary examples:
It's difficult for a small supermarket to compete against/with the big supermarkets.
Both girls compete for their father's attention.

Learner example:
Most small cities like ours think that we have to compete with big cities by building new houses
and shopping centres.

competition /ˌkɒm.pəˈtɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: competition, competitor
Verbs: compete
Adjectives: competitive

NOUN

BUSINESS/JOBS

[U] when someone, or a company, is trying to win something or be more successful

than someone else
Dictionary examples:
Competition for jobs is intense.
There's a lot of competition between computer companies.
The two companies are in competition with each other.

Learner example:
Different opening times mean[s] competition between the shops.

competitive /kəmˈpet.ə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: competition, competitor
Verbs: compete
Adjectives: competitive

ADJECTIVE

SITUATION

involving competition

195
 Dictionary examples:
competitive sports
a highly competitive industry

Learner example:
Nowadays people live in [a] very competitive society.

PERSON

wanting very much to win or be more successful than other people

Dictionary example:
She's very competitive.

Learner example:
I think that I am a very competitive player.

PRICES/SERVICES

as good as or better than other prices, services, etc.

Dictionary example:
They offer good quality goods at competitive prices.

Learner example:
I stayed at Riverside Hotel w[h]ich [is] great value because of the food and the competitive prices
they offer.

complex /ˈkɒm.pleks/

Word family:
Nouns: complexity
Adjectives: complex

ADJECTIVE

involving a lot of different but connected parts in a way that is difficult to

understand
Dictionary examples:
a complex network of roads
a complex procedure
The film's plot was so complex that I couldn't follow it.

Learner example:
It took us two weeks to modify the results in a very complex operation.

196
 compose /kəmˈpəʊz/

Word family:
Nouns: composer, composition
Verbs: compose

VERB

BE MADE OF

[T OFTEN PASSIVE] to be the parts that something consists of

Dictionary example:
The committee was composed of elected leaders and citizens.

Learner example:
It is composed of more than 50 members and they have various taste[s] [in] film: old and modern,
comedy, action and so on.

MUSIC

[I or T] to write a piece of music

Dictionary example:
Who composed the music for the film?

Learner example:
I've been composing music on a computer for over five years and I have a lot of knowledge when
it comes to hardware.

composer /kəmˈpəʊ.zər/

Word family:
Nouns: composer, composition
Verbs: compose

NOUN [C]

someone who writes music

Dictionary example:
a famous composer

Learner example:
I also met a lot of famous composers, singers and even my favourit[e] violin player, Ann Sophie
Mutter, because I had to interview them.

197
 composition /ˌkɒm.pəˈzɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: composer, composition
Verbs: compose

NOUN

MUSIC

[C] a piece of music that someone has written

Dictionary example:
This concerto is one of her later compositions.

Learner example:
He sang Schubert's "Die Winterreise" although it's already Spring - this composition [can be heard
in] every season.

compromise /ˈkɒm.prə.maɪz/

NOUN [C or U]

when you agree to something which is not exactly what you want
Dictionary examples:
It is hoped that a compromise will be reached in today's talks.
You've both got to be willing to make compromises.
In a compromise between management and unions, a 4% pay rise was agreed in return for an
increase in productivity.

Learner example:
I hope that we'll find a compromise.

VERB

AGREE

[I] to agree to something that is not exactly what you want

Dictionary examples:
In a relationship, both people have to compromise.
I'm not going to compromise on quality.

Learner example:
The famous stars and the journalists should compromise and respect each other's rights.

198
 compulsory /kəmˈpʌl.sər.i/

ADJECTIVE

If something is compulsory, you must do it because of a rule or law.

Dictionary examples:
Wearing seat belts in cars is compulsory by law.
Swimming was compulsory at my school.

Learner example:
We have asked participants to wear a typical traditional dress/suit from their country - of course,
this is not compulsory but everyone is warmly invited to do so.

concentration /ˌkɒnt.sənˈtreɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: concentration
Verbs: concentrate

NOUN

THOUGHT

[U] the ability to think carefully about something you are doing and nothing else

Dictionary examples:
The noise outside made concentration difficult.
There was a look of intense concentration on her face.
I find that yoga improves my powers of concentration.
I found it hard to follow what the teacher was saying, and eventually I lost concentration.

Learner example:
First of all, in my opinion, watching a film is more relaxing, because you don't have to concentrate
to[o] much on it. You only have to watch the screen, while books require more concentration.

concept /ˈkɒn.sept/

Word family:
Nouns: concept, conception
Verbs: conceive
Adjectives: inconceivable

NOUN [C]

a principle or idea

199
 Dictionary examples:
the concept of free speech
I failed to grasp the film's central concept.

Learner example:
I had been trying very hard to get the point of the concept.

concern /kənˈsɜːn/

Word family:
Nouns: concern
Verbs: concern
Adjectives: concerned

VERB [T]

INVOLVE

to be important to someone or to involve someone directly

Dictionary examples:
Matters of pollution and the environment concern us all.
There are one or two other matters that don't concern you.

Learner example:
Fitness and health are two important issues in life which concern all of us.

BE ABOUT

to be about a particular subject

Dictionary example:
The next item on the agenda concerns staffing levels.

Learner example:
Your other question concerns clothes.

NOUN [C or U]

WORRY

when you feel worried or nervous about something, or something that makes you
feel worried
Dictionary examples:
Concern for the safety of the two missing teenagers is growing.
There's a lot of public concern about/over dangerous toxins recently found in food.
The situation has been causing concern for some time now.
My concern is that you're not getting enough work done.
There's a matter of some concern that I have to discuss with you.

Learner example:
All those days I put aside all my concerns about my studies.

200
 IMPORTANT THING

something that is important to you, or when something is important

Dictionary example:
Our primary concern is safety.

Learner example:
My concern is what present to buy for Mr Brown.

concerned /kənˈsɜːnd/

Word family:
Nouns: concern
Verbs: concern
Adjectives: concerned

ADJECTIVE

WORRIED

worried
Dictionary examples:
He's very concerned about her health.
I'm concerned that sales figures haven't improved
Concerned parents have complained about the dangerous playground.

Learner example:
We are getting more and more concerned about our health and how to get and keep fit nowadays.

as far as sb is concerned
used to say what someone's opinion is
Dictionary examples:
As far as I'm concerned, feng shui is a load of rubbish.
As far as our customers are concerned, price is the main consideration.

Learner example:
As far as Laura was concerned, he was the most disgusting man in the world.

as far as sth is concerned

used to say what you are talking about
Dictionary example:
As far as money is concerned, we're doing very well.

Learner example:
First of all, I think the Majestic Hotel would be the right location, but I have doubts as far as the
costs are concerned.

201
 concerning /kənˈsɜː.nɪŋ/

PREPOSITION FORMAL

about
Dictionary example:
I've had a letter from the tax authorities concerning my tax payments.

Learner example:
I am writing in reply to your letter concerning the prize I won in your competition, which is two
weeks at Camp California in the U.S.A.

conclusion /kənˈkluː.ʒən/

Word family:
Nouns: conclusion
Verbs: conclude
Adjectives: conclusive
Adverbs: conclusively

NOUN

In conclusion
used to introduce the last part of a speech or a piece of writing
Dictionary examples:
In conclusion, I would like to thank our guest speaker for her fascinating talk.
In conclusion, swimming is an enjoyable form of exercise and an excellent way to keep fit.

Learner example:
In conclusion, music, TV and clothes are very important in a young person's life and can reflect
each person's character.

concrete /ˈkɒŋ.kriːt/

NOUN [U]

a very hard building material made by mixing together cement, sand, small stones
and water
Dictionary examples:
reinforced concrete
a concrete floor/path
a grey concrete building

202
 Learner example:
Some of our children, brought up in modern cities, in a world of concrete, cars, motorways and
supermarkets, when asked: "What is a fish?" are only able to answer: "a square piece of white flesh
we take from the freezer".

condition /kənˈdɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: condition
Verbs: condition
Adjectives: unconditional

NOUN

ILLNESS

[C] an illness

Dictionary examples:
a medical condition
He suffers from a rare heart condition.

Learner example:
Besides, all the fats we eat every day plus the accumulated stress of a job, makes us the perfect
candidates [for] a heart condition.

on condition that
only if
Dictionary example:
I'll come with you on condition that we're back before midnight.

Learner example:
I would like to do this on condition that you will not mention my name [on] the website.

conduct /kənˈdʌkt/

Word family:
Nouns: conductor
Verbs: conduct

VERB

ORGANIZE

[T] to organize and perform a particular activity

Dictionary examples:
We are conducting a survey to find out what our customers think of their local bus service.
The experiments were conducted by scientists in New York.

203
 Learner example:
This is based on a questionnair[e] conducted in the school and our English department's
investigation.

MUSIC

[I or T] to stand in front of a group of musicians and control their performance

Dictionary example:
The orchestra was conducted by Charles Miller.

Learner example:
The o[r]chestra conducted by Mr Miller was just superb.

conductor /kənˈdʌk.tər/

Word family:
Nouns: conductor
Verbs: conduct

NOUN [C]

someone who stands in front of a group of musicians or singers and controls their
performance
Dictionary example:
a famous conductor

Learner example:
I am fifty five years old and have experience [as] a conductor of a choir.

confess /kənˈfes/

Word family:
Nouns: confession
Verbs: confess

VERB [I or T]

to admit that you have done something wrong or something that you feel guilty or
bad about
Dictionary examples:
She confessed to her husband that she had sold her wedding ring.
He has confessed to the murder.
He confessed to sleeping through most of the film.
I have to confess, I was a little confused at first.
I found it all very confusing, I must confess.

204
 Learner example:
I must confess I've put on four kilos in the last three months and the bicycle will help me to
become fitter.

confession /kənˈfeʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: confession
Verbs: confess

NOUN [C or U]

when you admit that you have done something wrong or illegal
Dictionary examples:
He made a full confession to the police.
I have a confession to make - I've lost that book you lent me.

Learner example:
I also have a confession to make.

confidence /ˈkɒn.fɪ.dənts/

Word family:
Nouns: confidence
Adjectives: confidential

NOUN [U]

CERTAIN

when you are certain of your ability to do things well

Dictionary examples:
He's got the confidence to walk into a room of strangers and immediately start a conversation.
The training has given me the confidence to deal with any situation that arises.
She has ability but she lacks confidence.
I have every/complete confidence in her. She'll be perfect for the job.

Learner example:
As a result of such a bad appearance he lacks confidence.

confident /ˈkɒn.fɪ.dənt/

Word family:
Nouns: confidence, self-confidence
Adjectives: confident, self-confident
Adverbs: confidently

205
ADJECTIVE

CERTAIN

being certain that something will happen

Dictionary examples:
Are you confident that enough people will attend the event?
They don't sound confident about the future of the industry.

Learner example:
All in all, I'm confident that a solution will be found and our town will soon regain its former
attractive look.

confidently /ˈkɒn.fɪ.dənt.li/

Word family:
Nouns: confidence, self-confidence
Adjectives: confident, self-confident
Adverbs: confidently

ADVERB

with confidence or in a confident way

Dictionary example:
Try to act confidently, even if you feel nervous.

Learner example:
I am quite [a] hard worker and I can confidently say that I am quite [a] reliable person.

confirm /kənˈfɜːm/

Word family:
Nouns: confirmation
Verbs: confirm

VERB

PROVE TRUE

[T] to say or show that something is true

Dictionary examples:
His wife confirmed that he had left the house that morning.
The leader's speech was impressive and confirmed her faith in the party.

Learner example:
Besides, it was confirmed by scientists that consum[er]ism may develop [in]to a compulsion.

206
 confirmation /ˌkɒn.fəˈmeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: confirmation
Verbs: confirm

NOUN [C or U]

a statement, often written, that an arrangement or meeting is certain

Dictionary examples:
a letter of confirmation
We've only had five confirmations for the conference so far.
We will send you written confirmation of our offer shortly.

Learner example:
I look forward to receiving your confirmation.

conflict /ˈkɒn.flɪkt/

NOUN [C or U]

DISAGREEMENT

serious disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles

Dictionary examples:
There was a lot of conflict between the two parties.
The Government was in conflict with the unions over pay.
It was an unpopular policy and caused a number of conflicts within the party.

Learner example:
As you know I was in conflict with myself, should I buy a computer or a bicycle?

FIGHTING

fighting between two or more groups of people or countries

Dictionary example:
armed conflict

Learner example:
In these years, Europe was in conflict with China, which meant war.

confuse /kənˈfjuːz/

Word family:
Nouns: confusion
Verbs: confuse
Adjectives: confused, confusing

207
VERB [T]

NOT THINK CLEARLY

to make someone unable to think clearly, or to make something difficult to

understand
Dictionary examples:
You're confusing him! Tell him slowly and one thing at a time.
Stop confusing the issue!

Learner example:
When the corpse was found he - successfully - tried to confuse Mrs. Marple, Scotland Yard and
the members of the family where he was the doctor.

THINK ONE IS ANOTHER

to think that one person or thing is another person or thing

Dictionary examples:
I think you're confusing me with my sister - we look quite similar.
It's easy to confuse his films, because he tends to use the same actors.

Learner example:
I had confused the two words, "uvas", which means grapes, and "huevos", which means eggs and
said "huevas", which unfortunately means testicles, instead...

confused /kənˈfjuːzd/

Word family:
Nouns: confusion
Verbs: confuse
Adjectives: confused, confusing

ADJECTIVE

NOT CLEAR

not clear
Dictionary example:
The witnesses gave confused accounts of what happened.

Learner example:
What can a child [think], hearing such confused explanations about animals that don't live where
they s[h]ould live, that don't live how they should live.

208
 confusion /kənˈfjuː.ʒən/

Word family:
Nouns: confusion
Verbs: confuse
Adjectives: confused, confusing

NOUN

NOT UNDERSTAND

[C or U] when people do not understand what is happening, what they should do or

who someone or something is
Dictionary example:
There seems to be some confusion about/over who is actually giving the talk.

Learner example:
This caused some confusion because the courses were not completely prepared.

SITUATION

[U] a situation, often with a lot of activity and noise, in which people do not know
what to do
Dictionary example:
In the confusion after the bomb blast, I lost my bag.

Learner example:
In the confusion someone pushed her against the wall and she hurt her shoulder.

THOUGHT

[U] a feeling of not being able to think clearly

Dictionary example:
He could see the confusion on Marion's face.

Learner example:
Then I thought he recognised my confusion; therefore, he opened the box, picking up something
from [it].

congratulate /kənˈgræt.jʊ.leɪt/

VERB [T]

to tell someone that you are happy because they have done something good or
something good has happened to them
Dictionary example:
I was just congratulating Ceri on winning her race.

209
 Learner example:
Needless to say, everybody congratulated her and she spent all evening answering questions such
as: "Why did you choose water jumping?" or "Isn't it difficult for a teenager to train five hours a
day and to study?"

conjunction /kənˈdʒʌŋk.ʃən/

NOUN [C]

GRAMMAR

a word such as 'and', 'but', 'while' or 'although' that connects words, phrases and
clauses in a sentence

connection /kəˈnek.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: connection
Verbs: connect

NOUN

INVOLVEMENT

[C or U] when someone or something is involved with or related to someone or

something else
Dictionary examples:
The connection between smoking and heart disease is well known.
He has denied having any connection with the terrorists.
They're sisters, are they? I knew their surname was the same, but I never made the connection.

Learner example:
If you are aware of the connection between food and health you can start changing your eating
habits.

in connection with sth

used to say what something is about
Dictionary examples:
I am writing in connection with the above job advertised in The Daily Press on Monday 12th
February.
A man has been arrested in connection with last month's murder.

Learner example:
Dear Mrs Brown, I am writing in connection with a surprise birthday party for your husband, Mr
Brown.

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 TRAVEL

[C] a train, bus or aircraft that leaves a short time after another arrives, so people
can continue their journey
Dictionary example:
The train was half an hour late and I missed my connection.

Learner example:
Because of bad bus connections it's not easy to get there.

conscious /ˈkɒn.tʃəs/

Word family:
Nouns: consciousness
Adjectives: conscious, unconscious, self-conscious
Adverbs: subconsciously, unconsciously

ADJECTIVE

be conscious of/that
to know that something is present or that something is happening
Dictionary examples:
The tooth doesn't exactly hurt, but I'm conscious of it all the time.
I think she's very conscious of being the only person in the office who didn't have a university
education.
I'm very conscious of the fact that a lot of people disagree with me.

Learner example:
We have to be conscious that we are destroying the world where we are living.

consciousness /ˈkɒn.tʃə.snəs/

Word family:
Nouns: consciousness
Adjectives: conscious, unconscious, self-conscious
Adverbs: subconsciously, unconsciously

NOUN

AWAKE

[U] when someone is awake and can think and notice things

Dictionary examples:
He lost consciousness for several minutes.
He never regained consciousness after the accident.

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 Learner example:
He lost consciousness and lay there on the floor just in front of me.

consequence /ˈkɒnt.sɪ.kwənts/

Word family:
Nouns: consequence
Adverbs: consequently

NOUN [C]

RESULT

the result of a particular action or situation, especially a bad result

Dictionary examples:
The ship sank with disastrous consequences.
Excessive drinking can have serious consequences for a person's health.
If you neglect your relationships like that, you'll suffer the consequences.

Learner example:
My work was the best because I drew a big drawing about [the] consequences of us not caring [for
the] environment.

consequently /ˈkɒnt.sɪ.kwənt.li/

Word family:
Nouns: consequence
Adverbs: consequently

ADVERB

as a result
Dictionary example:
I spent most of my money in the first week and consequently had very little to eat by the end of
the holiday.

Learner example:
Because of their job or school, people are much more stress[ed]. Consequently, they don't take
[the] time to eat correctly.

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 conservation /ˌkɒn.səˈveɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [U]

NATURE

the protection of nature

Dictionary examples:
wildlife conservation
conservation groups

Learner example:
I think that trying to save the wildlife in your area is a great aim because you don't have
conservation areas and people can easily go hunting without telling anyone and in that way they
destroy the wildlife.

consider /kənˈsɪd.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: consideration
Verbs: consider, reconsider
Adjectives: considerate, inconsiderate

VERB

consider sb/sth (to be) sth

to have a particular opinion about someone or something
Dictionary example:
I don't consider myself to be a great athlete.

Learner example:
I consider myself to be punctual, hard-working, reliable and responsible.

considerable /kənˈsɪd.ər.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Adjectives: considerable
Adverbs: considerably

ADJECTIVE

large or important enough to be noticed

Dictionary examples:
It's a considerable sum of money.
The effect on the region has been considerable.

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 Learner example:
I have considerable experience as a worker on [a] farm, having worked on my father's farm from
1956 to 1986.

considerably /kənˈsɪd.ər.ə.bli/

Word family:
Adjectives: considerable
Adverbs: considerably

ADVERB

in a way that is large or important enough to be noticed

Dictionary examples:
Rates of pay vary considerably.
He's considerably fatter than he was when I knew him.

Learner example:
The departures are at 8 am. and 10 a.m. daily, but I suggest that your group be there at the time
of the first departure because it is considerably less crowded.

consideration /kənˌsɪd.əˈreɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: consideration
Verbs: consider, reconsider
Adjectives: considerate, inconsiderate

NOUN

CAREFUL THOUGHT

[U] when you think about something very carefully

Dictionary examples:
After careful consideration, we decided to offer her the job.
The whole matter needs to be given careful consideration.

Learner example:
Please give this your careful consideration.

take sth into consideration

when you think about a particular fact or detail and let it influence your decision
Dictionary example:
It may be cheap to buy, but you've got to take into consideration the money you'll spend on
repairs.

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 Learner example:
For the reasons I have stated and taking into consideration that I am an ambitious and sociable
person, I think I am suitable for the job.

IMPORTANT FACT

[C] something that you have to think about when you make decisions or plans

Dictionary examples:
Safety is our main consideration.
Cost, of course, is another consideration.

Learner example:
The next consideration is the activities.

considering /kənˈsɪd.ər.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: consideration
Verbs: consider, reconsider
Adjectives: considerate, inconsiderate

PREPOSITION; CONJUNCTION

used for saying that you have a particular opinion about something, because of a
particular fact about it
Dictionary examples:
She did really well, considering how little experience she'd had.
Considering the weather, we got here quite quickly.

Learner example:
Considering all the above, I think that your article was completely misleading.

constant /ˈkɒnt.stənt/

Word family:
Adjectives: constant
Adverbs: constantly

ADJECTIVE

A LOT

happening a lot or all the time

Dictionary examples:
He's in constant trouble with the police.
These machines are in constant use.

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 Learner example:
As for me, constant practice in [the] English language is quite important, it is the essence of my
life.

constantly /ˈkɒnt.stənt.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: constant
Adverbs: constantly

ADVERB

all the time or often

Dictionary examples:
He's constantly changing his mind.
She has the television on constantly.

Learner example:
I stood up and walked around the house, constantly bumping into things!

construct /kənˈstrʌkt/

Word family:
Nouns: construction, reconstruction
Verbs: construct, reconstruct
Adjectives: constructive

VERB [T]

to build something from several parts

Dictionary examples:
The building was constructed in 1930.
The walls are constructed of concrete.
You need this information to construct a basic sentence.

Learner example:
Using some wood, we constructed small seats and tables.

construction /kənˈstrʌk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: construction, reconstruction
Verbs: construct, reconstruct
Adjectives: constructive

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NOUN

BUILDING WORK

[U] the work of building something, especially houses, offices, bridges, etc.

Dictionary examples:
the construction industry
The next decade saw the construction of many more office blocks.
She works in construction.
This website is currently under construction.

Learner example:
It [is] worth mentioning that a huge gym is under construction.

LARGE BUILDING

[C] something that is built

Dictionary example:
a large steel construction

Learner example:
It would be a pity to build a modern construction there.

WORDS

[C] The construction of a sentence or phrase is the way the words are arranged.

Dictionary example:
Pay attention to sentence construction and check word order.

consultant /kənˈsʌl.tənt/

Word family:
Nouns: consultant, consultation
Verbs: consult

NOUN [C]

someone who advises people on a particular subject

Dictionary examples:
a management/financial consultant
a firm of public relations consultants

Learner example:
I work in a bank as a consultant.

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 consume /kənˈsjuːm/

Word family:
Nouns: consumer, consumption
Verbs: consume

VERB [T]

EAT OR DRINK

FORMAL to eat or drink something

Dictionary example:
People generally consume far too much sugar.

Learner example:
People who eat fresh vegetables and meat tend to have good digestion and tend to consume less
salt.

consumer /kənˈsjuː.mər/

Word family:
Nouns: consumer, consumption
Verbs: consume

NOUN [C]

a person who buys goods or services for their own use

Dictionary examples:
The new telephone rates will affect all consumers including businesses.
consumer rights/advice

Learner example:
Some people might argue that this system is convenient for consumers as they can go shopping
whenever they would like to, and it makes the shops more secure against burglary and vandalism
since the shops are packed with people inside.

contain /kənˈteɪn/

Word family:
Nouns: container
Verbs: contain

VERB [T]

PART

to have something as a part

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 Dictionary examples:
Does this drink contain alcohol?
Try to avoid foods which contain a lot of fat.
The allegations contained in this report are very serious.

Learner example:
[The] food was not wonderful, but it was healthy and contained a lot of vitamins.

container /kənˈteɪ.nər/

Word family:
Nouns: container
Verbs: contain

NOUN [C]

an object such as a box or a bottle that is used for holding something

Dictionary examples:
an airtight container
a plastic drinks container

Learner example:
As a result, a mountain of plastic containers and harmful chemical fluid is [ruin]ing mother earth.

contemporary /kənˈtem.pər.ər.i/

ADJECTIVE

existing or happening now

Dictionary examples:
contemporary music/literature/art/fashion
Although it was written hundreds of years ago, it still has a contemporary feel to it.

Learner example:
I always read a lot of different magazin[e]s and know a lot about contemporary writers.

content

Word family:
Nouns: discontent
Adjectives: content

ADJECTIVE [NEVER BEFORE NOUN] /kənˈtent/

pleased with your situation and not hoping for change or improvement

219
 Dictionary examples:
He seems fairly content with life.
They're content to socialize with a very small circle of people.

Learner example:
He looked really content and happy.

NOUN [NO PLURAL] /ˈkɒn.tent/

IDEAS

the ideas that are contained in a piece of writing, a speech or a film

Dictionary examples:
the content of the article
It's a very stylish and beautiful film, but it rather lacks content.
We've discussed the unusual form of the book - now, what about the content?

Learner example:
I suggest explaining the content of the film.

contents /ˈkɒn.tents/

NOUN [PLURAL]

BOOK

a list in a book that tells you what different parts the book contains
Dictionary example:
a table of contents

context /ˈkɒn.tekst/

NOUN [C or U]

FACTS

all the facts, opinions, etc. relating to a particular thing or event

Dictionary examples:
This small battle is very important in the context of Scottish history.
It is important to see all the fighting and bloodshed in his plays in historical context.

Learner example:
It is interesting to see wild animals in their natural surroundings but for a number of reasons this
is mostly impossible. In this context, I think a zoo is a good alternative.

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 continuous /kənˈtɪn.ju.əs/

Word family:
Nouns: continuity
Verbs: continue
Adjectives: continuous, continual
Adverbs: continuously, continually

ADJECTIVE

GRAMMAR

being the form of a verb used to show that an action is continuing to happen
Dictionary example:
the present/past continuous

Learner example:
The lesson was about the present continuous form.

WITHOUT STOPPING

happening or existing without stopping

Dictionary examples:
continuous pain
My computer makes a continuous low buzzing noise.
A continuous white line in the middle of the road means no overtaking.

Learner example:
Since the development of nuclear weapons, the Earth's fate has been in continuous danger.

continuously /kənˈtɪn.ju.əs.li/

Word family:
Nouns: continuity
Verbs: continue
Adjectives: continuous, continual
Adverbs: continuously, continually

ADVERB

without stopping
Dictionary example:
You can't work continuously for six hours without a break!

Learner example:
They continuously claim that [the] destruction of the environment is totally all human beings'
responsibility.

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 contrary /ˈkɒn.trər.i/

NOUN

on the contrary
used to show that the opposite of what has just been said is true
Dictionary example:
"You're a vegetarian, aren't you?" "On the contrary, I love meat."

Learner example:
As a result, it was not a perfect evening as the advertisement suggested - on the contrary, it
turned out to be a miserable one.

contrast

NOUN [C or U] /ˈkɒn.trɑːst/

DIFFERENCE

an obvious difference between two or more things

Dictionary examples:
The contrast between their lifestyles couldn't be greater.
The busy north coast of the island is in sharp contrast to the peaceful south.

Learner example:
The contrast between the wild mountains and the crowded but charm[ing] beach on the ocean
shore would have pleased you.

by/in contrast
used to show that someone or something is completely different
Dictionary examples:
Their economy has expanded enormously, while ours, by contrast, has declined.
She's quite short, in contrast to her tall sister.

Learner example:
TV, by contrast, is a more passive activity.

contribute /kənˈtrɪb.juːt/

Word family:
Nouns: contribution
Verbs: contribute

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VERB [I or T]

GIVE

to give something, especially money, in order to provide or achieve something

together with other people
Dictionary examples:
Are you going to contribute towards Jack's leaving present?
Her family have contributed £50, 000 to the fund.
Do come to the meeting if you feel you have something to contribute.

Learner example:
Furthermore, it is unfair to judge other performers as second-rate, as they did their best to
contribute.

contribution /ˌkɒn.trɪˈbjuː.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: contribution
Verbs: contribute

NOUN [C or U]

something that you do or give to help produce or achieve something, or to help

make something successful
Dictionary examples:
This invention made a major contribution to road safety.
She didn't make much of a contribution at today's meeting, did she?
All contributions, no matter how small, will be much appreciated.
a generous contribution to charity

Learner example:
I am willing to make a significant contribution to the club.

control /kənˈtrəʊl/

VERB [T] (-ll-)

LIMIT

to limit the number, amount or increase of something

Dictionary examples:
Fire crews struggled to control the blaze.
No attempt was made to control the spread of the disease.

Learner example:
We have to control the [number of] cars, we can't allow as many car[s] as we drive [now].

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 RULE

to rule or govern an area

Dictionary example:
The whole area is controlled by rebel forces.

Learner example:
BRAVE NEW WORLD The part of the book I have read and I remember best is when John, the
savage, comes into the New World [State] controlled by several World Controllers from the savage
reservation.

NOUN

POWER

[C or U] when you make someone or something do what you want, or the power to
do this
Dictionary examples:
She's got no control over that child.
He lost control of the vehicle.
The police are in control of the situation.

Learner example:
Ap[p]arently he lost control of the wheel, so the car crashed into a tree.

beyond your/out of control

If something or someone is beyond control or out of control, you cannot influence,
limit or direct them.
Dictionary examples:
The car skidded and went out of control, crashing into an oncoming truck.
There's nothing we can do - the situation is beyond our control.

Learner example:
I had just driven through Piazza Duomo, when another car came round a corner much too fast,
skidded, and went out of control.

under control
being dealt with successfully
Dictionary example:
Don't worry - everything's under control.

Learner example:
"Everything is under control," said the captain.

EQUIPMENT

[C] a switch or other device used to operate a machine such as a vehicle

224
 Dictionary examples:
Where's the volume control on your stereo?
The main instruments are in the centre of the control panel.
The captain sat at the controls of the aircraft.

Learner example:
He touched a switch on the control panel and heard that characteristic hiss.

take control
to start to rule or govern an area
Dictionary example:
The dictator took control of the country in 1933.

Learner example:
In the first part of the story animals take control of a farm in England.

LAW

[C] a rule or law that limits something

Dictionary example:
He wants the government to impose strict controls on dog ownership.

Learner example:
[It is important] to find a way to regulate the information show[n] [o]n the internet, because right
now there is no control over the information.

OFFICIAL PLACE

[C or U] a place where something official, usually a document, is checked

Dictionary example:
passport/immigration control

Learner example:
I kissed my parents and went to passport control.

controversial /ˌkɒn.trəˈvɜː.ʃəl/

Word family:
Nouns: controversy
Adjectives: controversial

ADJECTIVE

causing disagreement or discussion

Dictionary examples:
a controversial issue/decision/speech/figure
The book was very controversial.

Learner example:
From my point of view it is a very controversial issue.

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 convenience /kənˈviː.ni.ənts/

Word family:
Nouns: convenience
Adjectives: convenient, inconvenient
Adverbs: conveniently

NOUN

BEING EASY

[U] the quality of being convenient

Dictionary examples:
the convenience of credit cards
I like the convenience of living so close to the shops.

Learner example:
I think the first reason is its convenience. [...] Just by sitting in front of it, you can enjoy TV
program[me]s.

at your convenience FORMAL

at a time that is convenient to you

Dictionary example:
We can meet at your convenience.

Learner example:
I look forward to hearing from you at your earliest convenience.

conveniently /kənˈviː.ni.ənt.li/

Word family:
Nouns: convenience
Adjectives: convenient, inconvenient
Adverbs: conveniently

ADVERB

in a way that is convenient

Dictionary example:
The house is conveniently situated near the station and the shops.

Learner example:
First of all, your group has been booked into the Palace Hotel, which is conveniently situated in
the centre of Nymegen.

226
 conventional /kənˈvent.ʃən.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: convention
Adjectives: conventional, unconventional

ADJECTIVE

TRADITIONAL

traditional and ordinary

Dictionary examples:
conventional behaviour/attitudes/clothes
conventional medicine/farming
I find his art rather dull and conventional.

Learner example:
The accommodation wasn't bad, however our rooms were quite small and conventional.

convert /kənˈvɜːt/

Word family:
Nouns: conversion
Verbs: convert

VERB [I or T]

CHANGE

to change the appearance, form, or purpose of something

Dictionary examples:
Could we convert the small bedroom into a second bathroom?
What's the formula for converting pounds into kilos?

Learner example:
Even some medieval castles have been converted into museums.

convinced /kənˈvɪntst/

Word family:
Verbs: convince
Adjectives: convinced, convincing

ADJECTIVE

certain

227
 Dictionary examples:
My boyfriend says I'd enjoy a walking holiday, but I'm not convinced.
I'm convinced (that) she is lying.

Learner example:
I'm convinced that I would benefit from this experience in the future.

cool /kuːl/

Word family:
Nouns: cool, coolness
Verbs: cool
Adjectives: cool

VERB [I or T]

to become less hot, or to make something become less hot

Dictionary example:
Allow the bread to cool before slicing it.

Learner example:
In the summer many people were delighted by fountains which cooled the air.

cooperate (ALSO co-operate) /kəʊˈɒp.ər.eɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: cooperation
Verbs: cooperate
Adjectives: cooperative

VERB [I]

WORK TOGETHER

to work together with someone in order to achieve the same aim

Dictionary examples:
The Spanish authorities cooperated with the British police in finding the terrorists.
Several companies are cooperating in the relief effort.

Learner example:
Lime has become a sort of monster, with no consideration for life any more, and Martins decides
to cooperate with the police to catch and kill him.

HELP

to help someone or do what they ask

Dictionary example:
I find it very hard to dress my two-year-old when she refuses to cooperate.

228
 Learner example:
Moreover, I am in favour of rules at school because it is very important for children to learn how
to cooperate with others.

cooperation (ALSO co-operation) /kəʊˌɒp.ərˈeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: cooperation
Verbs: cooperate
Adjectives: cooperative

NOUN [U]

when you work together with someone or do what they ask you
Dictionary examples:
This documentary was made with the cooperation of Rails UK.
There's very little cooperation between the two countries.
We thank you in advance for your cooperation.
The clubs work in close cooperation with the Football Association.

Learner example:
Thank you in advance for your cooperation in this respect.

cooperative /kəʊˈɒp.ər.ə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: cooperation
Verbs: cooperate
Adjectives: cooperative

ADJECTIVE

willing to help or do what people ask

Dictionary example:
I found them very cooperative.

Learner example:
You can rely on me - I love children and I am energetic and cooperative.

cope /kəʊp/

VERB [I]

to deal successfully with a difficult situation

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