Writing for the Screen

Screenwriting has long been considered a “glamour” position among wordsmiths.

Since the early 20th century, when silent movies began to emerge as popular
entertainment, writers have played an integral role in the creation of cogent,
compelling stories.

If movies are dreams brought to life on cellulose and screen, someone must channel
those fantasies in a practical way. After all, the actors need to know their lines. The
set designer needs to know what the setting should look like. The production crew
needs to know where to point the camera. The editors need to know how to order
the scenes to tell the story.

It is the responsibility of the screenwriter to know how to translate the vision of the
story into the technical language of movie making. This article serves as an
introduction to that process. It explores the various elements of screenwriting, such
as the importance of economy of dialogue, and the relationship between character
development and context. It also introduces the characteristics that distinguish
screenwriting from other forms of writing, including the strict guidelines for
structure and formatting.

Finally, the article examines how writing a screenplay can teach key lessons about
the craft and business of writing, complete with tips on how to build a career as a
screenwriter.

What Is a Screenplay?

According to Merriam-Webster, a screenplay is “the script and often shooting

directions of a story prepared for motion-picture production.” The distinction often
is made between a script, which is written for stage production, and a screenplay,
which is written specifically for film production.
Screenplays can be used to tell original stories or to adapt existing stories for a
feature film or TV show.

Today’s screenplays include story elements such as settings, character descriptions,

descriptions of actions, dialogue, and specific instructions for production such as
lighting, camera angles, scene transitions, and more. When done right, a screenplay
is simultaneously a set of instructions and a distinct work of art.

The History of Screenplays

When film began to be used for public storytelling in the late 19th century,
screenplays were known as scenarios. These were loose outlines of stories, which
typically were only one or two minutes long and — because the films did not have
sound — included virtually no dialogue.
Although scripts written for the stage and scripts written for film shared many
similarities, the lack of sound for films was an obvious key difference between the
two genres.

Screenplays evolved in the early 20th century as filmmaking technology advanced

and demand for movies increased. Communities across the United States responded
to the early movie boom by opening theaters — more than 10,000 were in operation
by 1910, according to an article published by The Script Lab, “The History of the
Screenplay.”

Screenwriting remains a vital pillar of the $50 billion film industry — as well as a
dreamer’s longshot avenue into the movie business. What often separates the
dreamers from the professionals is insider knowledge of the essentials of how to
write a screenplay.

Balancing Dialogue and Description

One of the most important technical features of a screenplay is the interplay the
writer establishes between description and dialogue.

Description is used to establish a setting within a scene and to convey the actions of
the characters. Dialogue is defined as speech or revealed thought (known as internal
dialogue) and is used to:

 Establish character
 Build conflict and drama
 Provide subtext or misdirection
 Convey emotion
 Reveal motivation
 Advance the plot

A rule for dialogue is to avoid having characters simply “shoot the breeze” when they
talk, according to an article published by Script Reader Pro, Script Dialogue Should
Be More Than ‘Just Talking.’”
Rather, dialogue should consist of words that are “hard to say or hard to hear.” In
other words, dialogue should be used economically to put a character under some
form of pressure or into conflict.
As important as it is to employ dialogue with a purpose, writer Lauren McGrail of
Lights Film School emphasizes the need for a believable world in her article “4
Examples of Good Visual Writing in a Movie Script.” According to McGrail, “Dialogue
must exist in a world so real that it has its own beating heart, capturing the reader.”

Screenplay Structures

During the heyday of the Hollywood studio period, when cost-efficiency became the
driving force in screenwriting, standardized structures and lengths were established
to create efficiency and to dictate how much film would be needed to complete the
shoot.

Even though the system has changed and most movies use digital recording as
opposed to film, these standards remain in place today.

In general, a screenplay should be 90 to 120 pages. The number of pages

corresponds to the length of the movie: A comedy (90 pages) is around 90 minutes.
A drama (120 pages) is around two hours, or 120 minutes. The 90- to 120-page
length can take on myriad structures. The structure of a screenplay determines how
the story’s plot is unveiled to the audience. Here are a few, as described in the
Screencraft article “10 Screenplay Structures That Screenwriters Can Use”:

Three-Act Structure

This is the classic “beginning, middle, end” flow. It begins with a setup, moves to a
confrontation, and then reveals the resolution. This is the most common structure
used by screenwriters.

The 3-act structure is an old principle widely adhered to in storytelling today. It can
be found in plays, poetry, novels, comic books, short stories, video games, and the
movies. It was present in the novels of Conan Doyle, the plays of Shakespeare, the
fables of Aesop, the poetry of Aristotle, and the films of Hitchcock. It’s older than
Greek dramaturgy.

Act I: The Setup

The first act is where all the major characters of the story are introduced, plus the
world where they live in, and the conflict that will move the story forward. In Act I,
the writer has the freedom to create any setting and reality that he so wishes. It’s in
the first pages of the script that he defines the reasoning and logic of the story. This
early in the script, anything is possible.

The story may happen in the distant future or long time ago in a galaxy far far away.
It may take place in downtown New York or in an African jungle. The first act also
establishes genre. It may be a drama about a widow that struggles to re-encounter
love, or a suspense about a young trainee summoned out of the FBI academy in a
special assignment to interview a dangerous psychopath.

The writer may even distort reality or create his own. Toy Story (1995) opens with a
young boy, Andy, playing with his toys. As soon as Andy exits the bedroom, leaving
the place unsupervised, his toys promptly gain life. Yet we don’t frown or disapprove
of it. At the movie’s very beginning, the audience has their mind open for practically
anything. As the movie progresses, the viewer unconsciously forms a frame for the
story, and their suspension of disbelief narrows, limiting what they will accept as
plausible and congruent.

Ideally, your main character can never be lucky further down in the script. But while
the story is introduced, this gimmick is acceptable if done right. In Three Days of the
Condor (1975), CIA employee Joseph Turner (Robert Redford) survives a massacre
that kills all of his colleagues while he steps out of the office to get lunch. In Dances
With Wolves (1991), Lieutenant John J. Dunbar (Kevin Costner), learning that he
must have his injured leg amputated, decides to commit suicide. He steals a cavalry
horse and runs it into the infantry of the Confederate army. In doing so, he incites his
fellow Union soldiers to rally, which leads to an unexpected victory. His plan to die
fails, but he becomes a hero.

Act I must also present a strong hook – an exciting scene early in the script that grabs
the audience’s interest and hooks them. Steven Spielberg’s Raiders of the Lost
Ark (1981) starts with an action-packed, attention-grabbing sequence that
introduces Indiana Jones (Harrison Ford) performing acrobatic stunts while
penetrating a cave and lost temples to find a valuable artifact.

Part of that hook is the inciting incident that takes place somewhere in the beginning
of Act I. This inciting incident often provokes a change in the protagonist’s routine –
something new they experience that could either challenge or encourage them.
In The Silence of the Lambs (1991), FBI trainee Clarice Starling (Jodie Foster) meets
with Dr. Hannibal “the Cannibal” Lecter (Anthony Hopkins). The confrontation of
both parties is nerve-wracking.

Act I ends with the first plot point of the movie. In Thelma & Louise (1991), Plot
Point I happens when Louise shoots dead a man who was on the verge of raping
Thelma. This action completely changes the course of the story . Thelma and Louise
were up until now just trying to have some off-time away from their tedious lives.
But when Thelma kills that guy, they become criminals. Quickly, the police are
brought into the picture.

Act II: Confrontation

The second act is by far the longest, encompassing half of the movie and taking place
between the first and third acts. For some screenwriters, Act II is the hardest one to
squeeze out. This happens because after the initial boost of a new story, the writer is
left without plot elements to introduce. The story, its characters and conflict are all
established. At this point, the writer has created a solid frame for his narrative. Yet
he’s still roughly sixty pages away from the ending.

With so many blank pages remaining, the writer faces the challenge of keeping the
story moving forward and not boring the audience. One device to accomplish this
feat is the creation of subplot. The subplot is a minor story layered under the main
narrative. It often adds a three-dimensionality aspect to the characters by allowing
them to engage in a behavior that is not necessarily connected to the main plot, but
still relevant in the overall narrative and often linked to a central theme.

In Peter Weir’s Witness (1985), the main storyline follows Philadelphia policeman
John Book (Harrison Ford), as he investigates the assassination of a fellow police
officer. His only witness is an Amish boy (Lukas Haas), who saw the murder happen
at a train station restroom in the big city. When Officer Book discovers that someone
from his own precinct ordered the killing, his life is in danger, and, after being shot,
he runs away to the Amish countryside of Lancaster. During the second act
of Witness, John Book and Amish widow Rachel Lapp (Kelly McGillis) engage in a
brief courtship that fails to evolve into an affair. Also during Act II, Book befriends
many members of the Amish community – an event that foreshadows the resolution
in Act III, when the community comes to Book’s rescue .

As epitomized in Witness, the second act may be a moment in which the hero leaves
his comfort zone, which fuels the writer with another set of possibilities. In The Lion
King (1994), after Mufasa dies, Simba runs away. Timon and Pumbaa save him from
the desert, and Simba has to live in the Jungle, eating bugs and beetles! During Act II
in Toy Story, while Andy’s mom’s fills up her vehicle, Woody leaps out of the car in
order to rescue Buzz. But before Woody can convince Buzz to climb back in the car,
Andy and his mom take off, leaving Buzz and Woody stranded in the gas station.
Before the movie’s resolution, the two toys find themselves into an even worse
setting – Sid’s creepy bedroom.

In the second act, the stakes escalate. If the hero is “on the fence” or confused about
what he should do, then something must happen by the midpoint of the script to
make his goal clear. In Thelma & Louise, the two protagonists realize that, with the
police on their tail, they cannot return home and live a normal life. They have to
keep driving towards Mexico.
A pivotal element of this escalation inherent to Act II is Plot Point II, which catapults
the story into the third and final act. Much like Plot Point I, Plot Point II also affects
the main character by changing the direction he’s headed. The difference is that the
stakes are much higher. This is often a moment of crisis, in which all hope seems lost.

Act III: Resolution

The last act, Act III presents the final confrontation of the movie, followed by
the denouement. This act is usually the shortest in length because quickly after the
second turning point of the script, the main character is face to face with the villain
or just about. Showdown ensues and then conclusion.

In The Silence of the Lambs, the third act kicks off when Agent Starling enters the
house of Buffalo Bill (Ted Levine), the criminal who she’s been trying to find. This
moment is tension-packed because little does Starling know the identity of the man
that’s welcoming her. When Starling finally finds out, she’s inside the serial killer’s
domain and unable to call for back-up.

As illustrated by The Silence of the Lambs, Act III contains a moment often labeled as
mandatory – the confrontation between hero and villain, the clash between good
and evil, a duel. In the moment that Clarice Starling walks into Buffalo Bill’s house,
the writer fulfills a promise made by him in the first act, when he set up those two
opposing forces.

The spectators are smart, so don’t underestimate them. Whenever the writer
establishes a prince, a princess, and a dragon, the audience will urge for a
confrontation in which the prince slays the dragon to rescue the princess (like
in Sleeping Beauty). You can always tweak the formula (like in Enchanted), but if the
dragon is not dead by the end of the film, your audience will walk out dissatisfied,
even if they can’t pinpoint the reason.

The third act is also when the writer ties up any loose ends and offers a resolution to
the subplots. In Witness, the third act takes off when the corrupt cops find John
Book hidden in the Amish community. The mandatory confrontation between the
opposing forces takes place, and then Book and Rachel meet. Both have to make a
choice. Either Book stays to be with Rachel or Rachel leaves to be with Book.

In the final moments of Orson Welles’ Citizen Kane, the audience learns what
“rosebud” means – a questions asked in the first act.

The resolution can also give extra information for a more elaborate character arc.
In Titanic (1997), after revealing what happened to the Heart of the Ocean, we cut to
Old Rose’ bedroom. The movement of the camera shows her nightstand with photos
of adventures she did when young – promises kept to Jack.
 Common Screenplay Format

Screenplays are written to fit a rigid format. This is because a screenplay is designed
to be as clear as possible for fast reading. Details as granular as font type and page
size are part of the screenwriting standards practiced by established professionals
and savvy newcomers alike.

Using the standard format tells the reader that the screenwriter knows the industry
and respects the reader’s time. Failing to use the standard format runs the risk of a
busy reader dismissing a screenplay out of hand.

Components of a Formatted Screenplay

Most screenplays are written using Courier 12-point font and printed on 8 1/2-by-11-
inch bright white three-hole-punched paper. The top and bottom margins are 1 inch.
The left margin is 1 1/2 inches for nondialogue and 3.7 inches from the left for
dialogue blocks.

The title page should include only the title of the work, followed by the words
“Written by” and the author’s name. If necessary, contact information can be
included at the bottom left or bottom right of the title page.

Here are the basic elements of a formatted screenplay, as listed in the Screencraft
article “Elements of Screenplay Formatting”:

 Scene heading — a brief description that denotes the scene number, the
setting as interior (INT) or exterior (EXT), the location, and whether it takes place
during the DAY or at NIGHT
 Action — a detailed description of what the characters are doing in the scene;
also might include instructions for the camera crew, sound crew, and other members
of the production team
 Character name (dialogue) — the name of the character in all capital letters,
centered on the page above the spoken dialogue
 Parentheticals (extensions) — words that describe the dialogue context in
parentheses under the character’s name, often a description of the tone of voice or
gestures used by the character for a line of dialogue
 Dialogue — words spoken by the character, printed as a block under the
character’s name, and any parentheticals
 Transition — if needed, editorial direction for cutting from the current scene
to the next (example: FADE OUT)

Common Screenplay Writing Techniques

One of the most influential thinkers in screenwriting never earned a screen credit.
Joseph Campbell, a professor of comparative religion and mythology, cut the path
for screenwriters such as George Lucas (Star Wars) by authoring the book The Hero
with a Thousand Faces.

In his analysis of mythological and cosmological thinking, Campbell laid out

the hero’s adventure, a journey of departure, experience, and return. It was,
Campbell said, the one story told many times over the centuries.

The pattern of the hero’s adventure can be identified time and again in films and
novels. It is the basic building block for storytelling — a hero sacrifices something,
thereby changing herself or himself and, in doing so, changing the world.

Importance of the Writer’s Attitude and Mindset

In discussing attitude and mindset, we should start with a pause at the ideal stopping
point: the end of the first draft. Once a screenplay’s bones have been filled out, once
every scene is on paper or a computer screen, once every transition is set, once
every conflict is seemingly resolved, the writer should distance herself from the work.
Take time to reset the mind.

Writing a screenplay is a huge commitment of time, emotion, and brainpower. It is

an investment of creativity and energy. With the first draft finished, the writer is free
to turn his attention to other things — for a while.

Eventually, with the mind and body recharged, the writer must return to the work
and look at it with fresh eyes. Only when a bit of distance has been established can
the writer approach the revision process with the right mindset and attitude.

Developing Character Complexity and Goals

To develop complex, believable characters, the writer must give the character goals.

Conflict is plot. Without conflict, there is no story. Without complex characters,

there is no conflict. Identify early in the script what a character needs or wants —
this is the catalyst for conflict. Once the desire is identified, create obstacles for the
character to overcome. This is the building block of every story.

The hero’s adventure is built on the actions associated with the hero overcoming
obstacles to reach a goal. The hero might fall short of the goal, or reach it but then
lose something else important, and this creates even more emotional complexity.

Balancing a Character’s Actions and Goals

The writer should take care not to make it too easy for the character to achieve
conflict resolution. A simple solution robs the audience of suspense and reduces the
level of satisfaction once the goal is reached.

One of Campbell’s milestones on the hero’s journey is the introduction of a guide, or

supernatural aid. The guide is meant to help the character discover personal
characteristics that allow the hero to move on to the next stage of the journey.
The aid the character receives along the way should not ease the path too much. The
writer must establish a balance between what the guide can provide and what the
character needs to reach the final goal. Ultimately, the character must progress
beyond the guide’s ability to provide assistance — thereby forcing the hero to face
the journey alone.