Javanese script

The Javanese script (natively known as Aksara Jawa, Hanacaraka, Carakan, and Dentawyanjana)[1] is one of Indonesia's traditional scripts
developed on the island of Java. The script is primarily used to write the Javanese language, but in the course of its development has also
been used to write several other regional languages such as Sundanese, Madurese, and Sasak; the lingua franca of the region, Malay; as well
as the historical languages Kawi and Sanskrit. Javanese script was actively used by the Javanese people for writing day-to-day and literary
texts from at least mid-15th Century CE until the mid-20th Century CE, before its function was gradually supplanted by the Latin alphabet.
Today the script is taught in DI Yogyakarta, Central Java, and the East Java Province as part of the local curriculum, but with very limited
function in everyday use.[2][3]

The Javanese script is an abugida writing system which consists of 20 to 33 basic letters, depending on the language being written. Like
other Brahmic scripts, each letter (called an aksara) represents a syllable with the inherent vowel /a/ or /ɔ/ which can be changed with the
placement of diacritics around the letter. Each letter has a conjunct form called pasangan, which nullifies the inherent vowel of the previous
letter. Traditionally, the script is written without space between words (scriptio continua) but is interspersed with a group of decorative
punctuation.

History …

Javanese script is one of the Brahmi descendants in Indonesia in which its evolutionary history can be traced fairly well due to the numerous
inscriptional evidences that permitted epigraphical studies. The oldest root of the Javanese script is Indian Brahmi script which evolves into
Pallava script in Southern India and Southeast Asia between 6th and 8th ce. Pallava script, in turn, evolved into Kawi script which was
actively used throughout Indonesia's Hindu-Buddhist period between 8th and 15th ce. In various parts of Indonesia, Kawi script would evolve
into one of Indonesia's traditional scripts, among them, Javanese script.[4] Modern Javanese script evolved over time from the late Kawi
script between the 14th and 15th ce, a period in which Java began to receive significant Islamic influence.[5][6][7]

For at least 500 years, from 15th ce until the mid 20th ce, Javanese script was actively used by the Javanese people for writing day-to-day
and literary texts with a wide range of a theme and content. Javanese script was used throughout the island at a time when there was no
easy means of communication between remote areas and no impulse towards standardization. As a result, there is a huge variety in
historical and local styles of Javanese writing throughout the ages. The ability of a person to read a bark-paper manuscript from the town of
Demak, say, written around 1700, is no guarantee that the same person would also be able to make sense of a palm-leaf manuscript written
at the same time only 50 miles away on the slopes of Mount Merapi. The great differences between regional styles almost makes it seem
that the "Javanese script" is in fact a family of scripts.[8] Javanese writing traditions are especially cultivated in the Kraton environment, but
Javanese texts are known to be made and used by all layers of society. Javanese literature is almost always composed in metrical verses
that are designed to be sung, thus Javanese texts are not only judged by their content and language but also by the merit of their melody
and rhythm during recitation sessions.[9] Javanese writing tradition also relied on periodic copying due to deterioration of writing materials in
the tropical Javanese climate; as a result, many physical manuscripts that are
Javanese
available now are 18th or 19th century copies, though their contents can usually be Aksara Jawa
traced to far older prototypes.[7] ꦄꦏ ꦫ ꦗꦮ

Media … Script type Abugida

Time period c. 15th–present

Direction left-to-right 

Languages Javanese, Sundanese,

Madurese, Sasak,
Indonesian, Kawi,

Serat Yusuf in palm leaf (lontar) form, Sanskrit

Tropenmuseum collection
Related scripts

Parent Proto-Sinaitic script[a]

systems
Phoenician alphabet[a]
Aramaic alphabet[a]
Brahmi script
Tamil Brahmi
Pallava alphabet
Kawi script
Javanese
Serat Yusuf in paper codex form, Museum
Sister systems Balinese alphabet
Sonobudoyo collection
Batak alphabet
Baybayin scripts
Lontara alphabet
Makasar
Javanese script has been written with numerous media that have shifted over time.
Sundanese script
Kawi script, which is ancestral to Javanese script, is often found on stone
Rencong alphabet
inscriptions and copper plates. Everyday writing in Kawi was done in palm leaf form
Rejang alphabet
locally known as lontar, which are processed leaves of the tal palm (Borassus Surat Ulu
flabellifer). Each lontar leaf has the shape of a slim rectangle 2.8 to 4 cm in width
ISO 15924
and varied length between 20 and 80 cm. Each leaf can only accommodate around
4 lines of writing, which are incised in horizontal orientation with a small knife and ISO 15924 Java, 361 , Javanese
then blackened with soot to increase readability. This media has a long history of
Unicode
attested use all over South and Southeast Asia.[10]
Unicode alias Javanese
In the 13th Century CE, paper began to be used in the Malay archipelago. This
introduction is related to spread of Islam in the region, due to the Islamic writing Unicode range U+A980–U+A9DF (htt
tradition that is supported by the use of paper and codex manuscript. As Java ps://www.unicode.org/c
harts/PDF/UA980.pd
began to receive significant Islamic influence in the 15th Century CE, coinciding
f)
with the period in which the Kawi script began to transitioned into the modern
Javanese script, paper became widespread in Java while the use of lontar only a. The Semitic origin of the Brahmic scripts is not
[11] universally agreed upon.
persisted in a few places. There are two kinds of paper that are commonly used
in Javanese manuscript: locally produced paper called daluang, and imported
paper. Daluang (also spelled dluwang) is a paper made from the beaten bark of the saéh tree (Broussonetia papyrifera). Visually, daluang
can be easily differentiated from regular paper by its distinctive brown tint and fibrous appearance. A well made daluang has a smooth
surface and is quite durable against manuscript damage commonly associated with tropical climates, especially insect damage. Meanwhile, a
coarse daluang has a bumpy surface and tends to break easily. Daluang is commonly used in manuscripts produced by Javanese Kratons
(palaces) and pesantren (Islamic boarding schools) between 16th to 17th Centuries CE.[12]

Most imported paper in Indonesian manuscripts came from Europe. In the beginning, only a few scribes were able to use European paper
due to its high cost—paper made with using European methods of the time could only be imported in limited number.[a] In colonial
administration, the use of European paper had to be supplemented with Javanese daluang and imported Chinese paper until at least the
19th ce. As paper supply increased due to growing imports from Europe, scribes in palaces and urban settlements gradually opted to use
European paper as the primary media for writing, while daluang paper was increasingly associated with pesantren and rural manuscripts.[11]
Alongside the increase of European paper supply, attempts to create Javanese printing type began, spearheaded by several European
figures. With the establishment of printing technology in 1825, materials in Javanese script could be mass-produced and became
increasingly common in various aspect of pre-independence Javanese life, from letters, books, and newspapers, to magazines, and even
advertisements and paper currency.[13]

Usage …
 Usage of the Javanese Script

Opening pages of Serat Jatipustaka copied in 1830, Opening page of Babad A Javanese type sample Cover of the Kajawèn Kekancingan document
Denver Museum collection Tanah Jawi copied in from the Amsterdam type magazine, issue 65, 16 issued by the Kraton of
1862, Library of Congress foundry, 1910 August 1933 Yogyakarta in 1935,
collection Dewantara Kirti Griya
Museum collection

Serat Babad Tuban

published by Tan Khoen
Swie in 1936
Details Serat Selarasa manuscript copied in Surabaya, 1804. The two leftmost figures can be seen reciting a text.

For at least 500 years, from the 15th century until the mid 20th century, Javanese script was used by all layers of Javanese society for
writing day-to-day and literary texts with a wide range of theme and content. Due to the significant influence of oral tradition, reading in pre-
independence Javanese society is usually a performance; Javanese literature texts are almost always composed in metrical verses that are
designed to be recited, thus Javanese texts are not only judged by their content and language, but also by the merit of their melody and
rhythm during recitation sessions.[9] Javanese poets are not expected to create new stories and characters; instead the role of the poet is to
rewrite and recompose existing stories into forms that are suitable to local taste and prevailing trends. As a result, Javanese literary works
such as the Cerita Panji do not have a single authoritative version referenced by all others, instead, the Cerita Panji is a loose collection of
numerous tales with various versions bound together by the common thread of the Panji character.[14] Literature genres with the longest
attested history are Sanskrit epics such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, which have been recomposed since the Kawi period and
which introduced hundreds of characters familiar in Javanese wayang stories today, including Arjuna, Srikandi, Ghatotkacha and many
others. Since the introduction of Islam, characters of Middle-Eastern provenance such as Amir Hamzah and the Prophet Joseph have also
been frequent subjects of writing. There are also local characters, usually set in Java's semi-legendary past, such as Prince Panji, Damar
Wulan, and Calon Arang.[15]

When studies of Javanese language and literature began to attract European attention in the 19th century, an initiative to create a Javanese
movable type began to take place in order to mass produce and quickly disseminate Javanese literary materials. One of the earliest
attempts to create a movable Javanese type was by Paul van Vlissingen. His typeface was first put in use in the Bataviasche Courant
newspaper's October 1825 issue.[16] While lauded as a considerable technical achievement, many at the time felt that Vlissingen's design
was a coarse copy of the fine Javanese hand used in literary texts, and so this early attempt was further developed by numerous other
people to varying degrees of success as the study of Javanese developed over the years.[17] In 1838, Taco Roorda completed his typeface
based on the hand of Surakartan scribes[b] with some European typographical elements mixed in. Roorda's font garnered positive feedback
and soon became the main choice to print any Javanese text. From then, reading materials in printed Javanese using Roorda's typeface
became widespread among the Javanese populace and were widely used in materials other than literature. The establishment of print
technology enabled a printing industry which, for the next century, produced various materials in printed Javanese, from administrative
papers and school books, to mass media such as the Kajawèn magazine which was entirely printed in Javanese in all of its article and
columns.[13][19] In the governmental context, one application of the Javanese script was the multilingual legal text on the Netherlands Indies
gulden banknotes circulated by De Javasche Bank.[20]
Decline
E…
As literacy and demand for reading materials increased in the beginning of the 20th century, Javanese publishers paradoxically began to
decrease the amount of Javanese script publication due to a practical and economic consideration: printing any text in Javanese script at the
time required two times the amount of paper compared to the same text rendered in the Latin alphabet, so that Javanese texts were more
expensive and time-consuming to produce. In order to lower production costs and keep book prices affordable to the general populace,
many publishers (such as the government-owned Balai Pustaka) gradually prioritized publication in the Latin alphabet.[21][c] However, the
Javanese population at the beginning of the 20th century maintained the use of Javanese script in various aspects of everyday life. It was,
for example, considered more polite to write a letter using Javanese script, especially one addressed toward an elder or superior. Many
publishers, including Balai Pustaka, continued to print books, newspapers, and magazines in Javanese script due to sufficient, albeit declining,
demand. The use of Javanese script only started to drop significantly during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia beginning in 1942.[23]
Some writers attribute this sudden decline to prohibitions issued by the Japanese government banning the use of native script in the public
sphere, though no documentary evidence of such a ban has yet been found.[d] Nevertheless, the use of Javanese script did decline
significantly during the Japanese occupation and it never recovered its previous widespread use in post-independence Indonesia.

Contemporary use
E…
In contemporary usage, Javanese script is still taught as part of the local curriculum in Yogyakarta, Central Java, and the East Java Province.
Several local newspapers and magazines have columns written in Javanese script, and the script can frequently be seen on public signage.
However, many contemporary attempts to revive Javanese script are symbolic rather than functional; there are no longer, for example,
periodicals like Kajawèn magazine that publish significant content in Javanese script. Most Javanese people today know the existence of the
script and recognize a few letters, but it is rare to find someone who can read and write it meaningfully.[25][26] Therefore, as recently as 2019,
it is not uncommon to see Javanese script signage in public places with numerous misspellings and basic mistakes.[27][28] Several hurdles in
revitalizing the use of Javanese script includes information technology equipment that does not support correct rendering of the Javanese
script, lack of governing bodies with sufficient competence to consult on its usage, and lack of typographical explorations that may intrigue
contemporary viewers. Nevertheless, attempts to revive the script are still being conducted by several communities and public figures who
encouraged the use of Javanese script in the public sphere, especially with digital devices.[29]

Form …

Letter
E…
A basic letter in the Javanese script is called an aksara which represents a syllable. Javanese script contains around 45 letters, but not all of
them are used equally. Over the course of its development, some letters became obsolete and some are only used in certain contexts. As
such, it is common to divide the letters in several groups based on their function.

Wyanjana
E…
The Aksara wyanjana (ꦲꦏ ꦫ ꦮꦾꦚꦤ) are consonant letters with an inherent vowel, either /a/ or /ɔ/. As a Brahmi derived script, the
Javanese script originally had 33 wyanjana letters to write the 33 consonants that are used in Sanskrit and Kawi. Their forms are as
follows:[30][31]
 Aksara Wyanjana (old sequence)
Pancawalimukha
Place of
Unvoiced Voiced Semivowel Sibilant Fricative
articulation Nasal
Unaspirated Aspirated Unaspirated Aspirated

ꦏ ꦑ ꦒ ꦓ ꦔ ꦲ
Velar

ka kha ga gha ṅa ha/a1

ꦕ ꦖ ꦗ ꦙ ꦚ ꦪ ꦯ
Palatal

ca cha ja jha ña ya śa

ꦛ ꦜ ꦝ ꦞ ꦟ ꦫ ꦰ
Retroflex

ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa ra ṣa

Dental ꦠ ꦡ ꦢ ꦣ ꦤ ꦭ ꦱ

ta tha da dha na la sa

Labial ꦥ ꦦ ꦧ ꦨ ꦩ ꦮ

pa pha ba bha ma wa
Notes
^1 may represent /ha/ or /a/ in the Kawi language

Over the course of its development, the modern Javanese language no longer uses all letters in the Sanskrit-Kawi inventory. The modern
ꦼ ꦺꦒꦤ). Some of the remaining letters
Javanese script only uses 20 consonants and 20 basic letters known as aksara nglegéna (ꦲꦏ ꦫ ꦔ
are repurposed as aksara murda (ꦲꦏ ꦫ ꦩꦸ
ꦂ ꦢ) which are used for honorific purposes in writing respected names, be it legendary (for
ꦶ ꦩ) or real (for example Pakubuwana ꦦꦑꦸꦨꦸꦮꦟ).[32] From the 20 nglegéna basic letters, only 9 have corresponding
example Bima ꦨ
murda forms. Because of this, the use of murda is not identical to capitalization of proper names in Latin orthography;[32] if the first syllable
of a name does not have a murda form, the second syllable would use murda. If the second syllable also does not have a murda form, the
third syllable would use murda, and so on. Highly respected names may be written completely in murda if possible, but in essence, the use
ꦶ (without murda), ꦓꦤ
of murda is optional and may be inconsistent in traditional texts. For example, the name Gani can be spelled as ꦒꦤ ꦶ
ꦶ (with murda on all syllables) depending on the background and context of the writing. The
(with murda on the first syllable), or ꦓꦟ
remaining letters that are not classified as nglegéna or repurposed as murda are aksara mahaprana, letters that are used in Sanskrit and
Kawi texts but obsolete in modern Javanese.[30][e]
 Aksara Wyanjana (modern sequence)
ha/a1 na ca ra ka da ta sa wa la pa dha ja ya nya ma ga ba tha nga

Nglegena
ꦲ ꦤ ꦕ ꦫ ꦏ ꦢ ꦠ ꦱ ꦮ ꦭ ꦥ ꦝ ꦗ ꦪ ꦚ ꦩ ꦒ ꦧ ꦛ ꦔ

Murda
ꦟ ꦖ2 ꦬ3 ꦑ ꦡ ꦯ ꦦ ꦘ ꦓ ꦨ

Mahaprana
ꦣ ꦰ ꦞ ꦙ ꦜ
Notes
^1 may represent /ha/ or /a/ depending on the word
^2 only attested in conjunct form,[3] the glyph for its basic letter is a contemporary reconstruction
^3 ra agung, has the same function as other murda letters but is not widely known due to its limited use in the Kraton environment[30]

Swara
E…
Aksara swara (ꦲꦏ ꦫ ꦱꦫ) are letters that represent pure vowels. Javanese script has 14 vowel letters inherited from the Sanskrit
tradition. Their forms are as follows:[31]

Aksara Swara
Place of Velar- Velar-
Velar Palatal Labial Retroflex Dental
articulation Palatal Labial

ꦼ
ꦄ
Short ꦄ ꦆ ꦈ ꦉ ꦊ ꦌ ꦎ
e

a i u ṛ/re1 ḷ/le2 é3 o

Long ꦄꦴ ꦇ ꦈꦴ ꦉꦴ ꦋ ꦍ ꦎꦴ ꦼ ꦴ
ꦄ

ā ī ū ṝ4 ḹ5 ai6 au7
Notes
^1 pa cerek, represents the syllable /rə/
^2 nga lelet, represents the syllable /lə/
^3 /e/ as e in the word "dress"

The following pronunciations are not used in modern Javanese:

^4 pa cerek dirgha, a Sanskrit innovation that is used in a few analogically generated morphological
categories[35]
^5 nga lelet raswadi, not an actual Sanskrit sound, but rather a graphic convention included among
the written vowels to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters[35]
^6 diphthong /aj/
^7 diphthong /aw/

Similar to wyanjana letters, modern Javanese language no longer uses the whole inventory of swara letters, only short vowel letters are now
commonly used and taught. In modern orthography, swara letters may be used to replace wyanjana ha ꦲ (which may have caused
ambiguous readings between /ha/ or /a/) to disambiguate the pronunciation of unfamiliar terms and names.[36]
Pa cerek ꦉ, pa cerek dirgha ꦉꦴ, nga lelet ꦊ, and nga lelet raswadi ꦋ are syllabic consonants that are primarily used in specific Sanskrit
cases.[35] When adapted to languages outside of Sanskrit, the function and pronunciation of these letters tend to vary. In modern Javanese
language, only pa cerek and nga lelet are used; pa cerek is pronounced /rə/ while nga lelet is pronounced /lə/. Both letters are usually re-
categorized into their own class called aksara gantèn in modern tables. These letters are mandatory shorthand that replace every
ꦼ → ꦉ) and la pepet (ꦭ
combination of ra pepet (ꦫ ꦼ → ꦊ).[37]

Rékan
E…
Aksara rékan (ꦲꦏ ꦫ ꦺꦫꦏꦤ꧀) are additional letters used to write foreign sounds.[38] This type of letters were initially developed to write
Arabic loanwords, later adapted to write Dutch loanwords, and in contemporary usage are also used to write Indonesian and English
loanwords. Most rékan letters are formed by adding the cecak telu diacritic on the native letters that are considered closest-sounding to the
꦳ is formed by adding cecak telu over the wyanjana letter pa ꦥ. The combination of
foreign sound in question. For example, rékan letter fa ꦥ
wyanjana letter and corresponding foreign sounds for each rékan may be different between sources. Some rékan letters are as follows:[39]

Aksara Rékan
ḥa kha qa dza sya fa/va za gha 'a

Javanese
꦳
ꦲ ꦳
ꦏ ꦐ1 ꦳
ꦢ ꦳
ꦱ ꦳
ꦥ ꦳
ꦗ ꦳
ꦒ ꦳
ꦔ

Arabic ‫ح‬ ‫خ‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫ش‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ز‬ ‫غ‬ ‫ع‬
Notes
^1 ka sasak, only used in the Sasak language

Diacritics
E…
Diacritics (sandhangan ꦱꦤꦔꦤ꧀) are dependent signs that are used to modify the inherent vowel of a letter. Similar to Javanese letters,
Javanese diacritics may be divided into several groups based on their function.

Swara
E…
Sandhangan swara (ꦱꦤꦁ ꦔꦤ ꦫ) are diacritics that are used to change the inherent /a/ into different vowels. Their forms are as follows:[40]
 Sandhangan Swara
Short Long

-
-a -i -u -é[1] -o -e[2] -ā -ī -ū -ai[3] -au[4] [5][6]
eu

-
◌ꦶ ◌ꦸ ꦺ◌ ꦺ◌ꦴ ꦼ◌ ◌ꦴ ◌ꦷ ◌ꦹ ꦻ◌ ꦻ◌ꦴ ꦼ ◌ꦴ

dirga
taling- wulu suku dirga pepet-
- wulu suku taling pepet tarung muré-
tarung melik mendut muré tarung
tarung

ka ki ku ké ko ke kā kī kū kai kau keu

ꦶ
ꦏ ꦏ ꦏꦸ ꦺꦏ ꦺꦏꦴ ꦼ
ꦏ ꦏꦴ ꦷ
ꦏ ꦏꦹ ꦻꦏ ꦻꦭꦴ ꦼ ꦴ
ꦏ
Catatan
^1 /e/ as e in the word "dress"
^2 /ə/ as a in the word "about"

The following pronunciations are not used in modern Javanese:

^3 diphthong /aj/
^4 diphthong /aw/
^5 represents /ɨ/ in the Sundanese language
^6 romanized as ö in the Kawi language[31]

Similar to swara letters, only short vowel diacritics are taught and used in contemporary Javanese, while long vowel diacritics are only used
in Sanskrit and Kawi writing.

Panyigeging wanda
E…
ꦶ ꦒ
Sandhangan panyigeging wanda (ꦱꦤꦁ ꦔꦤ ꦚ ꦼ ꦒ ꦮꦤ) are diacritics used to write closed syllables. Their forms are as follows:[41]

Sandhangan Panyigeging Wanda

nasal[1] -ng -r -h virama[2]

ꦀ◌ ◌ꦁ ◌ꦂ ◌ꦃ ꧀

panyangga cecak layar wignyan pangkon

kam kang kar kah k

ꦏ
ꦀ ꦁ
ꦏ ꦏ
ꦂ ꦏꦃ ꦏ꧀
Notes
^1 usually used in transcription of Balinese lontars for writing the
sacred syllable ong ꦎ
ꦀ
^2 not used in closed syllables that occur in the middle of words
or sentences (see conjunct)

Wyanjana
E…
Sandhangan wyanjana (ꦱꦤꦁ ꦔꦤꦚꦤ) are diacritics that are used to write consonant cluster with semivowels that occur in a single syllable.
Their forms are as follows:[42]
 Sandhangan Wyanjana
-re -y- -r- -l- -w-

◌ꦽ ◌ꦾ ◌ꦿ ◌ ◌

panjingan
keret pèngkal cakra gembung
la

kre kya kra kla kwa

ꦏꦽ ꦏꦾ ꦏꦿ ꦏ ꦏ

Conjunct
E…
The inherent vowel of each basic letter can be suppressed with the use of the virama, natively known as pangkon. However, the pangkon is
not normally used in the middle of a word or sentence. For closed syllables in such positions, a conjunct form called pasangan (ꦥꦱꦔꦤ꧀)
is used instead. Every basic letter has a pasangan counterpart, and if a pasangan is attached to a basic letter, the inherent vowel of the
attached letter is nullified. Their forms are as follows:[43]

Aksara and Pasangan

ha/a na ca ra ka da ta sa wa la pa dha ja ya nya ma ga ba tha nga

Aksara
ꦲ ꦤ ꦕ ꦫ ꦏ ꦢ ꦠ ꦱ ꦮ ꦭ ꦥ ꦝ ꦗ ꦪ ꦚ ꦩ ꦒ ꦧ ꦛ ꦔ
Nglegena
Pasangan
◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌

Aksara
ꦟ ꦖ ꦬ ꦑ ꦡ ꦯ ꦦ ꦘ ꦓ ꦨ
Murda
Pasangan
◌ ◌1 ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌

Aksara
ꦣ ꦰ ꦞ ꦙ ꦜ
Mahaprana

Pasangan
◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌
Notes
^1 often used as part of pepadan punctuation with no phonemic function
^2 the conjunct forms in this table are used for writing modern Javanese. Some letters have different conjunct forms when used for writing Sanskrit and Kawi

Examples of pasangan use, using characters from the Unicode Standard for Javanese script (which is used in this article), are as follows:

component result remark

+ + + + = a + (ka + (pangkon + sa)) + ra → a + (ka + (pasangan sa)) + ra = a(ksa)ra

+ + + + = ka + (na + (pangkon + tha) + -i) → ka + (na + (pasangan tha) + -i) = ka(nthi)

Note that the pasangan of a letter can be produced by typing the pangkon followed by the letter in its aksara/basic form. This appeals to the
idea that a pangkon mutes the vowel of previous letter, and that adding a pasangan is phonetically equivalent to first muting the vowel of the
previous letter and then adding a new letter.

Numerals
E…
ꦁ ꦏ) that behave similarly to Arabic numerals. However, most Javanese numerals has
The Javanese script has its own numerals (angka ꦲ
the exact same glyph as several basic letters, for example the numeral 1 ꧑ and wyanjana letter ga ꦒ, or the numeral 8 ꧘ and murda letter
pa ꦦ. To avoid confusion, numerals that are used in the middle of sentences must be enclosed within pada pangkat or pada lingsa
ꦶ or ꦠ
ꦁ ꦒꦭ꧀꧇꧑꧗꧇ꦗꦸꦤ
punctuations. For example, tanggal 17 Juni (the date 17 June) is written ꦠ ꦶ . Enclosing punctuation
ꦁ ꦒꦭ꧀꧈꧑꧗꧈ꦗꦸꦤ
may be ignored if their use as numerals is understood by context, for example as page numbers in the corner of pages. Their forms are as
follows:[44][45]

Angka
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

꧐ ꧑ ꧒ ꧓ ꧔ ꧕ ꧖ ꧗ ꧘ ꧙

Punctuation
E…
Traditional Javanese texts are written with no spaces between words (scriptio continua) with several punctuation marks called pada (ꦥꦢ).
Their form are as follows:

Pada
epistolary correction
adeg-
lingsa lungsi adeg pisélèh rerenggan pangkat rangkap tirta isèn-
adeg andhap madya luhur guru pancak
tumétès isèn

꧈ ꧉ ꧊ ꧋ ꧌...꧍ ꧁...꧂ ꧇ ꧏ ꧃ ꧄ ꧅ ꧋꧆꧋ ꧉꧆꧉ ꧞꧞꧞ ꧟꧟꧟

In contemporary teaching, the most frequently used punctuations are pada adeg-adeg, pada lingsa, and pada lungsi, which are used to open
paragraphs (similar to pillcrow), separating sentences (similar to comma), and ending sentences (similar to full stop). Pada adeg and pada
pisélèh may be used to indicate insertion in the middle of sentences similar to parenthesis or quotation marks, while pada pangkat has a
similar function to the colon. Pada rangkap is sometimes used as an iteration mark for reduplicated words (for example kata-kata ꦏꦠꦏꦠ
→ kata2 ꦏꦠꧏ).[46]

Several punctuation marks do not have Latin equivalents and are often decorative in nature with numerous variant shapes, for example the
rerenggan which is sometimes used to enclose titles. In epistolary usage, several punctuations are used in the beginning of letters and may
also be used to indicate the social status of the letter writer; from the lowest pada andhap, to middle pada madya, and the highest pada
luhur. Pada guru is sometimes used as a neutral option without social connotation, while pada pancak is used to end a letter. It should be
noted however that this is a generalized function. In practice, similar to rerenggan these epistolary punctuation marks are often decorative
and optional with various shape used in different regions and by different scribes.[46]

When errors occurred during manuscript copying, several Kraton scribes used special correction marks instead of crossing out the
erroneous parts: tirta tumétès normally found in Yogyakarta manuscripts, and isèn-isèn found in Surakarta manuscripts. These correction
marks are directly applied following the erroneous part before the scribe continued writing. For example, if a scribe wanted to write pada
luhur ꦥꦢꦭꦸꦲ
ꦂ ꦸ but accidentally wrote pada hu ꦥꦢꦲꦸ before realizing the mistake, this word may be corrected into pada hu···luhur
ꦥꦢꦲꦸ꧞꧞꧞ꦭꦸꦲ ꦂ ꦸ.[47]
ꦂ ꦸ or ꦥꦢꦲꦸ꧟꧟꧟ꦭꦸꦲ

Pepadan
E…
ꦼ ꦥꦢꦤ꧀), a series of highly ornate verse
Other than the regular punctuation, one of Javanese texts' distinctive characteristics is pepadan (ꦥ
marks. Several of their form are as follows:

Pepadan
minor pada major pada

꧅ ꧅ꦧ꧅

The series of punctuation marks that forms pepadan have numerous names in traditional texts. Behrend (1996) divides pepadan into two
general groups: the minor pada which consist of a single mark, and the major pada which are composed of several marks. Minor pada are
used to indicate divisions of poetic stanzas, which usually came up every 32 or 48 syllables depending on the poetic metre. Major pada are
used to demarcate a change of canto (which includes a change of the metre, rhythm, and mood of the recitation) occurring every 5 to 10
pages, though this may vary considerably depending on the structure of the text.[48] Javanese guides often list three kinds of major pada:
purwa pada ꧅ ꦧ ꧅ which is used in the beginning of the first canto, madya pada ꧅ ꦟ ꧅ which is used in between
different cantos, and wasana pada ꧅ ꦆ ꧅ which is used in the end of the final canto.[46] But due to the large variety of shapes
between manuscripts, these three punctuations are essentially treated as a single punctuation in most Javanese manuscripts.[49]

Pepadan is one of the most prominent elements in a typical Javanese manuscript and are almost always written with high artistic skills,
including calligraphy, coloring, and even gilding.[50] In luxurious royal manuscripts, the shape of the pepadan may even contain visual puns
that gave clues to the readers regarding the canto of the text; a pepadan with wings or bird figure resembling a crow (called dhandhang in
Javanese) indicates the dhandhanggula metre, while pepadan with elements of a goldfish indicates the maskumambang metre (literally
"gold floating on water"). One of the scribal centers with the most elaborate and ornate pepadan is the scriptorium of Pakualaman in
Yogyakarta.[51][52]

Order …

Modern Javanese script is commonly arranged in the Hanacaraka sequence, named in accordance to the first five letters in the sequence.[f]
In this sequence, the 20 consonant letters that are used in the modern Javanese language formed a perfect pangram that is often linked to
the myth of Aji Saka.[53][54] This sequence has been used by pre-independence Javanese people from at least the 15th CE when the island
of Java started to receive significant Islamic influence.[55] There are numerous interpretations on the supposed philosophical and esoteric
qualities of the hanacaraka sequence.[56][57]
Hanacaraka Sequence

ꦲꦤꦕꦫꦏ ꦢꦠꦱꦮꦭ ꦥꦝꦗꦪꦚ ꦩꦒꦧꦛꦔ

(h)ana caraka data sawala padha jayanya maga bathanga

There were two who disagreed with each they are both equally and thus here are their
emissaries other powerful in fight bodies

The hanacaraka sequence is not the only collation scheme that is used to arrange the Javanese script. For Sanskrit and Kawi orthography
that requires 33 basic letters, the Javanese script can be arranged phonologically by its place of articulation in accordance to the Sanskrit
principle established by Pāṇini.[31][55] This sequence, sometimes called the Kaganga sequence based on its first four letters, is a standard
sequence used by other Brahmi descendant scripts such as Devanagari, Tamil, Thai, and Khmer.

Sanskrit Sequence (Kaganga)

Pancawalimukha

Kaṇṭya Tālawya Mūrdhanya Dantya Oṣṭya

Ardhasuara Ūṣma Wisarga

ꦏꦑꦒꦓꦔ ꦕꦖꦗꦙꦚ ꦛꦜꦝꦞꦟ ꦠꦡꦢꦣꦤ ꦥꦦꦧꦨꦩ ꦪꦫꦭꦮ ꦯꦰꦱ ꦲ

ka kha ga gha ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ta tha da dha pa pha ba bha
ca cha ja jha nya ya ra la wa śa ṣa sa ha
nga ṇa na ma

Sample texts …

Below is an excerpt of Serat Katuranggan Kucing printed in 1871 with modern Javanese language and spelling.[58]
 Javanese
Pada English
Javanese script Latin

꧅ꦭꦩꦸꦤ ꦶ ꦫꦔ
ꦶ ꦔꦸꦏꦸꦕ꧈

ꦶ ꦉꦁꦱꦢꦪ꧈
ꦲꦮꦺꦏꦲ
Lamun sira ngingu kucing, awaké ireng A completely black cat with white tèmbong
ꦶ ꦮꦺꦠꦺꦩꦴꦁꦥꦸꦠ
ꦭꦩꦁ ꦏ ꦶ ꦃ꧈ sadaya, lambung kiwa tèmbong putih, (spots) on its left belly is called wulan krahinan. It
7 ꦶ ꦫ ꦥꦺꦪꦴꦒ꧈
ꦊꦏ ꦤꦤ leksan nira prayoga, aran wulan is a cat that would bring good fortune and

ꦶ ꦤꦤ꧀꧈
ꦲꦫꦤꦭꦤꦲ krahinan, tinekanan sasedyan nira ipun, accomplishment to all wishes. It is better if its tail
yèn buṇḍel langkung utama is bundhel (short, rounded).
ꦶ ꦤ
ꦠ ꦼ ꦏꦤꦤ ꦱ ꦶ ꦥꦸꦤ꧀꧈
ꦼ ꦢꦾꦤ

ꦼ ꦭ
ꦺꦪꦤꦟ ꦁ ꦏꦸ
ꦁ ꦲꦸꦠꦩ꧈

ꦶ ꦫꦔ
꧅ꦲꦗꦱ ꦶ ꦔꦸꦏꦸꦕ꧈

ꦶ ꦏ ꦶ ꦉꦁꦧꦸꦤꦠ ꦚ
ꦭꦸꦫ ꦁ ꧈
Aja sira ngingu kucing, lurik ireng buntut A striped black cat with long tail should not be
ꦶ ꦏꦲꦺꦮꦴꦤꦩꦺꦠ꧈
ꦥꦸꦤ panjang, punika awon lamaté, sekelan kept as pets. This cat is called dhadhang
8 ꦼ ꦏ
ꦱ ꦼ ꦭꦤ ꦿ ꦠꦸꦏ
ꦂ ꦫꦤ꧀꧈ sring tukaran, aran ḍaḍang sungkawa, sungkawa. Your life would encounter frequent

ꦁ ꦱꦸ
ꦲꦫꦤꦣ ꦁ ꦏꦮ꧈ pan adoh rijeki nipun, yèn buṇḍel nora arguments and limited wealth. But if its tail is
ngapa bundhel, then there is no problem.
ꦥꦤ ꦶ ꦗ
ꦺꦢꦴꦃꦫ ꦶ ꦤ
ꦼ ꦏ ꦶ ꦥꦸꦤ꧀꧈

ꦼ ꦺꦭꦴꦫꦔꦥꦲ꧈
ꦺꦪꦤꦟ

Below is an excerpt of Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa printed in 1900 using Kawi language and spelling.[59]

Javanese
Pada English
Javanese script Latin

ꦷ ꦪꦴꦲꦠꦭꦒꦏꦢ
꧅ꦗꦲ ꦶ ꦭꦔ
ꦶ ꦠ꧀꧈
Jahnī yāhning talaga kadi langit, mambang The clear water of the lake reflects the sky, a
XVI ꦩꦩꦁ ꦠ ꦶ ꦏꦴ꧈
ꦁ ꦥꦴꦱꦭꦤꦸꦥꦩꦤ tang pās wulan upamanikā, wintang tulya turtle floats therein as if the moon, the stars
ꦶ ꦤꦁ ꦠꦸꦭ
ꦁ ꦏꦸ ng kusuma ya sumawur, lumrā pwekang are scattered blossoms, spreading their
31 ꦮ ꦾ ꦱꦩ
ꦸ ꦪꦱꦸꦩꦮꦸꦫ꧀꧈
sari kadi jalada. scents as if the clouds.
ꦶ ꦏꦢ
ꦁ ꦱꦫ
ꦭꦸꦩꦴꦺꦥꦏ ꦶ ꦗꦭꦢ꧉

Comparison with Balinese …

The closest relative to the Javanese script is the Balinese script. As direct descendants of the Kawi script, Javanese and Balinese still retain
many similarities in terms of basic glyph shape for each letter. One noticeable difference between both scripts is in their orthography;
Modern Balinese orthography is more conservative in nature than Modern Javanese counterpart.[60][61][62]

Modern Balinese orthography retains Sanskrit and Kawi conventions that are no longer used in modern Javanese. For example, the word
désa (village) is written in Modern Javanese orthography as ꦺꦢꦱ. According to Balinese orthography, this may be deemed as coarse or

incorrect because désa is a Sanskrit loanword (दे श, deśa) that should have been spelled according to its original spelling: déśa ꦺꦢꦯ/

ꦺꦢꦯ, using sa murda instead of sa nglegéna. The Balinese language does not differentiate between the pronunciation of sa nglegéna
and sa murda, but the original Sanskrit or Kawi spelling is retained whenever possible. One of the reason for this spelling practice is to
 differentiate homophones in writing, such as between the word pada (ꦥꦢ, earth/ground), pāda (ꦥꦴꦢ, foot), and padha (ꦥꦣ, same), as

well as asta (ꦲꦱ, is), astha (ꦲꦱ, bone), and aṣṭa (ꦄꦰ, eight).

Modern Javanese orthography use aksara murda (ꦲꦏ ꦫꦩꦸ

ꦂ ꦢ) which are used for honorific purposes in writing respected names,
while Modern Balinese orthography does not have a such rule.

Glyph comparison between the two scripts can be seen below:

Basic Aksara (consonant)

ka kha ga gha nga ca cha ja jha nya ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa ta tha da dha na pa pha ba bha ma ya ra la wa śa

Javanese ꦏ ꦑ ꦒ ꦓ ꦔ ꦕ ꦖ ꦗ ꦙ ꦚ ꦛ ꦜ ꦝ ꦞ ꦟ ꦠ ꦡ ꦢ ꦣ ꦤ ꦥ ꦦ ꦧ ꦨ ꦩ ꦪ ꦫ ꦭ ꦮ ꦯ

Balinese ᬓ ᬔ ᬕ ᬖ ᬗ ᬘ ᬙ ᬚ ᬛ ᬜ ᬝ ᬞ ᬟ ᬠ ᬡ ᬢ ᬣ ᬤ ᬥ ᬦ ᬧ ᬨ ᬩ ᬪ ᬫ ᬬ ᬭ ᬮ ᬯ ᬰ

Basic Aksara (vowel)

a ā i ī u ū ṛ ṝ ḷ ḹ é ai o au

Javanese ꦄ ꦄꦴ ꦆ ꦇ ꦈ ꦈꦴ ꦉ ꦉꦴ ꦊ ꦋ ꦌ ꦍ ꦎ ꦎꦴ

Balinese ᬅ ᬆ ᬇ ᬈ ᬉ ᬊ ᬋ ᬌ ᬍ ᬎ ᬏ ᬐ ᬑ ᬒ

Diacritic
-a -ā -i -ī -u -ū -ṛ -ṝ -é -ai -o -au -e -eu -m -ng -r -h pemati

Javanese - ◌ꦴ ◌ꦶ ◌ꦷ ◌ꦸ ◌ꦹ ◌ꦽ ◌ꦽꦴ ꦺ◌ ꦻ◌ ꦺ◌ꦴ ꦻ◌ꦴ ꦼ ◌ ꦼ ◌ꦴ ꦀ◌ ◌ꦁ ◌ꦂ ◌ꦃ ꧀

Balinese - ◌ᬵ ◌ᬶ ◌ᬷ ◌ᬸ ◌ᬹ ◌ᬺ ◌ᬻ ᬾ◌ ᬿ◌ ᬾ◌ᬵ ᬿ◌ᬵ ◌ᭂ ◌ᭃ ◌ᬁ ◌ᬂ ◌ᬃ ◌ᬄ ᭄

ka kā ki kī ku kū kṛ kṝ ké kai ko kau ke keu kam kang kar kah k

ꦶ ꦏ
Javanese ꦏ ꦏꦴ ꦏ ꦷ ꦏꦸ ꦏꦹ ꦏꦽ ꦏꦽꦴ ꦺꦏ ꦻꦏ ꦺꦏꦴ ꦻꦭꦴ ꦏ
ꦼ ꦏ
ꦼ ꦴ ꦏ
ꦀ ꦁ
ꦏ ꦏ
ꦂ ꦏꦃ ꦏ꧀

Balinese ᬓ ᬓᬵ ᬓᬶ ᬓᬷ ᬓᬸ ᬓᬹ ᬓᬺ ᬓᬻ ᬾᬓ ᬿᬓ ᬾᬓᬵ ᬿᬓᬵ ᬓᭂ ᬓᭃ ᬓᬁ ᬓᬂ ᬓᬃ ᬓᬄ ᬓ᭄

Numeral
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Javanese ꧐ ꧑ ꧒ ꧓ ꧔ ꧕ ꧖ ꧗ ꧘ ꧙

Balinese ᭐ ᭑ ᭒ ᭓ ᭔ ᭕ ᭖ ᭗ ᭘ ᭙

Punctuation
pada lingsa pada lungsi pada pangkat pada adeg-adeg pada luhur
Javanese
꧈ ꧉ ꧇ ꧋ ꧅

carik siki carik parérèn carik pamungkah panti pamada

Balinese
᭞ ᭟ ᭝ ᭚ ᭛
 Sentence example (Kawi language)

ꦷ ꦪꦴꦲꦠꦭꦒꦏꦢ
Javanese ꧅ꦗꦲ ꦶ ꦭꦔ
ꦶ ꦠ꧀꧈ ꦩꦩꦁ ꦠ ꦶ ꦏꦴ꧈
ꦁ ꦥꦴꦱꦭꦤꦸꦥꦩꦤ ꦶ ꦤꦁ ꦠꦸꦭ
ꦮ ꦁ ꦏꦸ
ꦾ ꦱꦩ
ꦸ ꦪꦱꦸꦩꦮꦸꦫ꧀꧈ ꦶ ꦏꦢ
ꦁ ꦱꦫ
ꦭꦸꦩꦴꦺꦥꦏ ꦶ ꦗꦭꦢ꧉

᭛
Balinese ᬫᬫᬂᬢᬂᬧᬵᬲᬮᬦᬸ
ᬸ ᬧᬫᬦᬶᬓᬵ᭞ ᬯᬶᬦᬂ ᬢᬸᬮᬂ ᬓᬸᬲᬫ
ᬸ ᬬᬲᬸᬫᬯᬳᬸᬭ᭄᭞ ᬮᬸᬫᬾᬧᬓᬂ ᬲᬭᬶᬓᬤᬶᬚᬮᬤ᭟
ᬚᬳᬷᬬᬵᬳᬶᬂ ᬢᬮᬕᬓᬤᬶᬮᬗᬶ ᬢ᭄᭞

mambang tang pās wulan wintang tulya ng kusuma ya

Jahnī yāhning talaga kadi langit, lumrā pwékang sari kadi jalada.
upamanikā, sumawur,

(Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa XVI.31)

Usage in another language …

Sundanese Cacarakan
E…
Cacarakan is one of Sundanese language writing system, which means "similar to Carakan". It was officially used from 16 to 20 centuries.
However, there are several places which use cacarakan. There are several orthographic difference to modern Javanese orthography:

Vowel [ɨ] <eu> is written as ꦼ ◌ꦴ or ꦼ ◌ꦵ (paneuleung) in cacarakan (there is no a such vowel in Javanese).

Free vowel in cacarakan is written with aksara sora (Javanese: aksara swara) instead of aspirated ha. For example, a is written as ꦄ in
cacarakan, instead of ꦲ in carakan.

ꦶ in cacarakan. However, it is possible to write it as ꦆ as in carakan.

Free vowel of [i] is written as ꦄ

Consonant [ɲ] <ny> is written as ꦤꦾfor free standing ngalagena, while ◌ as diacritic pasangan. Carakan ꦚ is not used in Cacarakan.

Similar to Balinese wianjana, Cacarakan ngalagena or wianjana consists of 18 letters instead of 20 letters in Carakan nglegena or wianjana.
The two letters are ꦝ <ḍa> and ꦛ <ṭa>. For more details in seeing these differences, below is shown a table of the Sundanese Cacarakan
and Javanese Carakan Ngalagena or Consonant Letters.

Aksara Ngalagena
ha na ca ra ka da dha ta sa wa la pa ḍa ḍha ja jha ya nya ma ga gha ba bha tha nga

Jawa ꦲ ꦤ ꦕ ꦫ ꦏ ꦢ ꦣ ꦠ ꦱ ꦮ ꦭ ꦥ ꦝ ꦞ ꦗ ꦙ ꦪ ꦚ ꦩ ꦒ ꦓ ꦧ ꦨ ꦛ ꦔ

ha na ca ra ka da ta sa wa la pa ḍa/ḍha ja ya nya ma ga ba tha nga

Sunda ꦲ ꦤ ꦕ ꦫ ꦏ ꦣ ꦠ ꦱ ꦮ ꦛ ꦥ ꦗ ꦪ ꦤꦾ ꦩ ꦒ ꦧ ꦔ

From the table it can be seen that the letter /dha/ in Carakan (Javanese) is used to represent the sound "da" in Cacarakan (Sundanese).
Whereas for produces the sound "nya", Cacarakan (Sundanese) uses a series of letters /a/ plus a pengkal (Carakan). Sundanese
Cacarakan uses the same letter pairs as Carakan, with the same writing rules. It's just different at times giving sandhangan (Carakan) or
rarangkén (Cacarakan) used modified rules to produce Sundanese vowel sounds.

Pasangan Ngalagena (consonant)

Latin ka ga nga ca ja nya ta da na pa ba ma ya ra la wa sa ha

Cacarakan ꦏ ꦒ ꦔ ꦕ ꦗ ꦤꦾ ꦠ ꦣ ꦤ ꦥ ꦧ ꦩ ꦪ ꦫ ꦭ ꦮ ꦱ ꦲ

Pasangan ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌ ◌
 Aksara Sora (vowel)
Latin a i u é o e eu

ꦶ /ꦆ
Cacarakan ꦄ ꦄ ꦈ ꦌ ꦎ ꦼ
ꦄ ꦼ ꦴ/ꦄ
ꦄ ꦼ ꦵ

Pasangan ꦳
ꦲ ꦶ꦳
ꦲ ꦳ ꦸ ꦺ◌◌ ꦳
ꦲ ꦳ ꦴ
ꦲ ꦼ꦳
ꦲ ꦼ ꦳ ꦴ/ ꦲ
ꦲ ꦼ꦳ ꦵ

In the Cacarakan swara/sora script the letter /i/ is written with a series of letters /a/ added with wulu (Carakan) or panghulu (Cacarakan). In
the Javanese Carakan alphabet no special vowels are used for the sound /e/ (pepet), while in Cacarakan the letters /e/ pepet are written
independently in a series the letter /a/ is added with pepet (Cacarakan) or pamepet (Cacarakan). Another vowel that appears is to describe
the sound [ö] or the letter / eu / that quite dominant used in Sundanese. The letter /eu/ is written with a series of letters / a / added by
tarung (Carakan) and pepet (Carakan) or simply called paneuleung in the term Sundanese Cacarakan.

Rarangkén (diacritic)
Latin -a -i -u -é -o -e -eu -ng -h -r -y- -r- pamaéh (ø)

Cacarakan - ◌ꦶ ◌ꦸ ꦺ◌ ꦺ◌ꦴ ꦼ ◌ ꦼ ◌ꦴ/◌

ꦼ ꦵ ◌ꦁ ◌ꦃ ◌ꦂ ◌ꦾ ◌ꦿ ꧀

Latin ka ki ku ké ko ke keu kang kah kar kya kra k

ꦶ ꦏꦸ ꦺꦏ ꦺꦏꦴ ꦏ
Cacarakan ꦏ ꦏ ꦼ ꦏ
ꦼ ꦴ/ꦏ
ꦼ ꦵ ꦏ
ꦁ ꦏꦃ ꦏ
ꦂ ꦏꦾ ꦏꦿ ꦏ꧀

Wilangan (numeral)
Arabic 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Cacarakan ꧐ ꧑ ꧒ ꧓ ꧔ ꧕ ꧖ ꧗ ꧘ ꧙

Punctuation
pipa
koma titik adeg-adeg
(numbers
(comma) (dot) (a starter)
Cacarakan
divider)

꧈ ꧉ ꧇ ꧋

Madurese Carakan
E…
In Madurese language, Javanese script is called Carakan Madhurâ or Carakan Jhâbân (script derived from Javanese). If in Javanese
language each character can represent the sound /a /or /ɔ /, then in Madurese language it represents the sound /a /or /ɤ /. The carakan
Madhurâ form itself consists of aksara ghâjâng (aksara nglegena), aksara rajâ or murdâ (aksara murda), aksara sowara or swara (aksara
swara), and aksara rèka'an (aksara rékan). There is also pangangghuy (sandhangan) which consists of pangangguy aksara (sandhangan
swara), pangangghuy panyèghek (sandhangan panyigeging wanda), and pangangghuy panambâ (sandhangan wyanjana).[63][64][65][66][67]

Comparison with Javanese

Broadly speaking, there is no significant difference with the Javanese. However, in the Madurese language there is no difference in the use
of aspirate and tanaspirate consonants.[68]
 Aksara Ghâjâng (Aksara Nglegena)
ha na ca ra ka da dha ta sa wa la pa ḍa ḍha ja jha ya nya ma ga gha ba bha tha nga

Jawa ꦲ ꦤ ꦕ ꦫ ꦏ ꦢ ꦣ ꦠ ꦱ ꦮ ꦭ ꦥ ꦝ ꦞ ꦗ ꦙ ꦪ ꦚ ꦩ ꦒ ꦓ ꦧ ꦨ ꦛ ꦔ

ha na ca ra ka da/dha ta sa wa la pa ḍa/ḍha ja/jha ya nya ma ga/gha ba/bha tha nga

Madura ꦲ ꦤ ꦕ ꦫ ꦏ ꦢ ꦠ ꦱ ꦮ ꦛ ꦥ ꦝ ꦗ ꦪ ꦚ ꦩ ꦒ ꦧ ꦛ ꦔ

Aksara rèka'an in Madurese language as taught in schools has only five characters, while in Madoereesche Spraakkunst and Sorat tjarakan
Madurah there are seven and nine respectively:[69][70]

Aksara Rèka'an (Aksara Rékan)

ha kha dza fa/va za gha 'a ta sya la

Javanese ꦳
ꦲ ꦳
ꦏ ꦳
ꦢ ꦳
ꦥ ꦳
ꦗ ꦳
ꦒ ꦳
ꦔ ꦳
ꦠ ꦳
ꦯ ꦳
ꦭ

Arabic ‫ح‬ ‫خ‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ز‬ ‫ع‬ ‫غ‬ ‫ط‬ ‫ش‬ ‫ل‬

Dutch h ch f/v g

Example ꦳ ꦴꦺꦏꦴꦩ꧀ ꦲꦺꦏ

ꦺꦲ ꦶ ꦳ ꦺꦏ
꦳ ꦫꦠ꧀ ꦢ ꦳ ꦭ꧀ ꦗ
ꦂ ꦭꦥ ꦳ ꦏꦠ꧀ ꦒ ꦶ ꦧ꧀ ꦔ
꦳ ꦲ ꦳ ꦺꦏꦫꦠ꧀ ꦠ
꦳ ꦺꦫꦏ꧀ ꦯ
꦳ ꦫꦠ꧀ ꦭ ꦶ ꦧ꧀
꦳ ꦲ

Transliteration hokom akhèrat dzikkèr lafal zâkat ghaib 'akèrat tarèk syarat laib

Another difference is the use of wignyan which in Javanese functions as the -h suffix, while in Madurese it becomes the -' as shown in the
following table:[63][71]

Pangangghuy (Sandhangan)
Pangangghuy aksara Pangangghuy panyèghek Pangangghuy panambâ

i è o u e -ng -r -' pemati -r- -re -y- -l- -w-

◌ꦶ ꦺ◌ ꦺ◌ꦴ ◌ꦸ ꦼ◌ ◌ꦁ ◌ꦂ ◌ꦃ ꧀ ◌ꦿ ◌ꦽ ◌ꦾ ◌ ◌

cèthak lèngè lèngè-longo soko petpet cekcek lajâr bisat papatèn pèḍer perper sokomaljâ la rangkep wa rangkep

pi pè po pu pe pang par pa' p pra pre pya pla pwa

ꦶ
ꦥ ꦺꦥ ꦺꦥꦴ ꦥꦸ ꦼ
ꦥ ꦥꦁ ꦥ
ꦂ ꦥꦃ ꦥ꧀ ꦥ ꦥ ꦥꦾ ꦥ ꦥ

Unicode …

Javanese script was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 2009 with the release of version 5.2.

The Unicode block for Javanese is U+A980–U+A9DF. There are 91 code points for Javanese script: 53 letters, 19 punctuation marks, 10
numbers, and 9 vowels:
 Javanese[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UA980.pdf) (PDF)

  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

U+A98x ꦀ◌ ◌ꦁ ◌ꦂ ◌ꦃ ꦄ ꦅ ꦆ ꦇ ꦈ ꦉ ꦊ ꦋ ꦌ ꦍ ꦎ ꦏ

U+A99x ꦐ ꦑ ꦒ ꦓ ꦔ ꦕ ꦖ ꦗ ꦘ ꦙ ꦚ ꦛ ꦜ ꦝ ꦞ ꦟ

U+A9Ax ꦠ ꦡ ꦢ ꦣ ꦤ ꦥ ꦦ ꦧ ꦨ ꦩ ꦪ ꦫ ꦬ ꦭ ꦮ ꦯ

U+A9Bx ꦰ ꦱ ꦲ ◌꦳ ◌ꦴ ◌ꦵ ◌ꦶ ◌ꦷ ◌ꦸ ◌ꦹ ꦺ◌ ꦻ◌ ꦼ◌ ◌ꦽ ◌ꦾ ◌ꦿ

U+A9Cx ꧀ ꧁ ꧂ ꧃ ꧄ ꧅ ꧆ ꧇ ꧈ ꧉ ꧊ ꧋ ꧌ ꧍ ꧏ

U+A9Dx ꧐ ꧑ ꧒ ꧓ ꧔ ꧕ ꧖ ꧗ ꧘ ꧙ ꧞ ꧟

Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 14.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

Gallery …
A stone inscription from around 18th ce in the Kyai A page from Serat Jaya Lengkara Wulang copied in A page from Serat Damar Wulan copied in 1804,
Tumenggung Pusponegoro grave complex, Gresik 1803, British Library collection British Library collection

Five Gulden/Rupiah scrip issued by Dutch East Bromartani newspaper, Title page of a book A page from Serat Bratayudha (an episode of
Indies in 1846, value spelled in Latin, Pégon, and the first newspaper commemorating the Mahabharata) copied in 1902, Widya Budaya
Javanese script printed in Javanese ascension of Queen collection
language and script, Wilhelmina, printed in
circulating between 1855 Semarang in 1898
and 1856
Opening pages of Serat Damar An advertisement for Droste's An advertisement for Osram light 5 Gulden paper currency issued by Pakubuwana X inscription
Wulan copied around the 18th Cacao bulb De Javasche Bank in 1937, with commemorating the
ce, British Library collection multilingual forgery warnings, construction of several
including one in Javanese language gateways in Surakarta in
and script 1938

A patrol car used by the Public Health Service (Dienst der 100 Gulden paper currency issued by A street sign in Surakarta. The word jendral in the sign
Volksgezondheid) circa 1925 De Javasche Bank in 1946, the last has been misspelled and should have used taling in
Gulden series that contains Javanese accordance to how it is pronounced in Javanese,
script. Later reprinted in 1950 jèndral
 Contemporary merchandise The Yogyakarta Sultanate coat of arms
with design elements with the Hamengkubuwana royal
containing Javanese script monogram in Javanese script

See also …

Javanese language

Javanese literature

Javanization (script)

Notes …

a. VOC established a paper mill in Java between 1665–1681. However, the mill was not able to fulfill paper demands of the island and so stable paper
supply continued to rely in shipments from Europe.[12]

b. Among 19th ce European scholars, the style of the Surakartan scribes is agreed as the most refined among the various regional Javanese hand. So
much so that prominent Javanese scholars such as J. F. C. Gericke frequently suggested that the Surakartan style should be used as the ideal shape
to which a proper Javanese type design could be based upon.[18]

c. In 1920, the director of Balai Poestaka D. A. Rinkes wrote in a foreword for the Javanese book catalog in the collection of Bataviaasch Genootschap
as follow:
 Bovendien is voor den druk het Latijnsche lettertype gekozen, hetgeen de Furthermore, a choice was made for printing in roman letter-type,
zaak voor Europeesche gebruikers aanzienlijk vergemakkelijkt, voor which considerably simplifies matters for European users, and for
Inlandsche belangstellended geenszins een bezwaar oplevert, aangezien de interested Natives presents no difficulty at all, seeing that the
Javaansche taal, evenals bereids voor het Maleisch en het Soendaneesch Javanese language, just as has already been shown for Malay and
gebleken is, zeker niet minder duidelijk in Latijnsch type dan in het Sundanese, can be rendered no less clearly in roman type than in
Javaansche schrift is weer te geven. Daarbij zijn de kosten daarmede the Javanese script. In this way the costs are about one third of
ongeveer ⅓ van druk in Javaansch karakter, aangezien drukwerk in dat type, printing in Javanese characters, seeing that printing in that type,
dat bovendien niet ruim voorhanden is, 1½ à 2 x kostbaarder (en which furthermore is not readily available, is one and a half times to
tijdroovender) uitkomt dan in Latijnsch type, mede doordat het niet op de twice as expensive (and more time-consuming) than in roman type,
zetmachine kan worden gezet, en een pagina Javaansch type sleechts also because it cannot be set on a setting-machine, and one page
ongeveer de helft aan woorden bevat van een pagina van denzelfden tekst in of Javanese type only contains about half the number of words on
Latijnsch karakter.[22] one page of the same text in roman script.

—Poerwa Soewignja dan Wirawangsa (1920:4), quoted by Molen (1993:83) —Robson (2011:25)

d. In comparison, during the Japanese occupation of Cambodia of the same time period, the Japanese government banned the Khmer romanization
scheme proposed by the earlier French colonial government and restored the use of Khmer script as the official script of Cambodia.[24]

e. Several examples of attested Kawi word using mahaprana letters are aṣṭa (ꦄꦰ, eight)[33] and nirjhara (ꦤꦙꦫ, waterfall).[34]

f. Similar naming scheme includes the word "alphabet" which came from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet (A-B, alpha-beta).

References …

1. Poerwadarminta, W.J.S (1939). Baoesastra Djawa (https://books.google.com/books?id=f4G5AAAAIAAJ) (in Javanese). Batavia: J.B. Wolters.
ISBN 0834803496.

2. Behrend 1996, pp. 161.

3. Everson 2008, pp. 1.

4. Holle, K F (1882). "Tabel van oud-en nieuw-Indische alphabetten". Bijdrage tot de Palaeographie van Nederlandsch-Indie. Batavia: W. Bruining.

5. Casparis, J G de (1975). Indonesian Palaeography: A History of Writing in Indonesia from the Beginnings to C. A.D. 1500 (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=cLUfAAAAIAAJ) . Vol. 4. Brill. ISBN 9004041729.

6. Campbell, George L. (2000). Compendium of the World's Languages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge.

7. Behrend 1996, pp. 161–162.

8. Behrend 1996, pp. 162.

9. Behrend 1996, pp. 167–169.

10. Hinzler, H I R (1993). "Balinese palm-leaf manuscripts" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/41017543) . Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en
Volkenkunde. 149 (3): 438–473. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003116 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134379-90003116) .

11. Behrend 1996, pp. 165–167.

12. Teygeler, R (2002). "The Myth of Javanese Paper". In R Seitzinger (ed.). Timeless Paper (https://www.academia.edu/35977126) . Rijswijk: Gentenaar
& Torley Publishers. ISBN 9073803039.

13. Molen 2000, pp. 154–158.

14. Behrend 1996, pp. 172.

15. Behrend 1996, pp. 172–175.

16. Molen 2000, pp. 137.

17. Molen 2000, pp. 136–140.

18. Molen 2000, pp. 149–154.

19. Astuti, Kabul (October 2013). Perkembangan Majalah Berbahasa Jawa dalam Pelestarian Sastra Jawa (https://www.academia.edu/5280381) .
International Seminar On Austronesian - Non Austronesian Languages and Literature. Bali.

20. Pick, Albert (1994). Standard Catalog of World Paper Money: General Issues. Colin R. Bruce II and Neil Shafer (editors) (7th ed.). Krause Publications.
ISBN 0-87341-207-9.

21. Robson 2011, pp. 25.

22. Molen 1993, pp. 83.

23. Hadiwidjana, R. D. S. (1967). Tata-sastra: ngewrat rembag 4 bab : titi-wara tuwin aksara, titi-tembung, titi-ukara, titi-basa (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=jQ0KAQAAIAAJ) . U.P. Indonesia.

24. Chandler, David P (1993). A History of Cambodia (https://books.google.com/books?id=E8BRPgAACAAJ) . Silkworm books. ISBN 9747047098.

25. Wahab, Abdul (October 2003). Masa Depan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Aksara Daerah (http://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/3067/1/Kongres%20Bahasa%20In
donesia%20VIII%20Kelompok%20B%20Ruang%20Rote.pdf) (PDF). Kongres Bahasa Indonesia VIII. Vol. Kelompok B, Ruang Rote. Pusat Bahasa
Departemen Pendidikan Indonesia. pp. 8–9.

26. Florida, Nancy K (1995). Writing the Past, Inscribing the Future: History as Prophesy in Colonial Java (https://books.google.com/books?id=JtXWqGzfz
GgC&q=read+javanese+script&pg=PA37) . Duke University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780822316220.

27. Mustika, I Ketut Sawitra (12 October 2017). Atmasari, Nina (ed.). "Alumni Sastra Jawa UGM Bantu Koreksi Tulisan Jawa pada Papan Nama Jalan di
Jogja" (https://m.solopos.com/alumni-sastra-jawa-ugm-bantu-koreksi-tulisan-jawa-pada-papan-nama-jalan-di-jogja-859202) . Yogyakarta:
SOLOPOS.com. Retrieved 8 May 2020.

28. Eswe, Hana (13 October 2019). "Penunjuk Jalan Beraksara Jawa Salah Tulis Dikritik Penggiat Budaya" (https://suarabaru.id/2019/10/13/penunjuk-jal
an-beraksara-jawa-salah-tulis-dikritik-penggiat-budaya/) . Grobogan: SUARABARU.id. Retrieved 8 May 2020.

29. Siti Fatimah (27 February 2020). "Bangkitkan Kongres Bahasa Jawa Setelah Mati Suri" (https://radarjogja.jawapos.com/2020/02/27/bangkitkan-kongr
es-bahasa-jawa-setelah-mati-suri/) . Bantul: RADARJOGJA.co. Retrieved 9 May 2020.

30. Everson 2008, pp. 1–2.

31. Poerwadarminta, W J S (1930). Serat Mardi Kawi (http://lib.ui.ac.id/file?file=digital/20186831-166.%20Serat%20Mardi%20Kawi%20Jilid%20I.pdf)

(PDF). Vol. 1. Solo: De Bliksem. pp. 9–12.

32. Darusuprapta 2002, pp. 11–13.

33. Zoetmulder, Petrus Josephus (1982). Robson, Stuart Owen (ed.). Old Javanese-English Dictionary (http://sealang.net/ojed/) . Nijhoff. p. 143, entry 4.
ISBN 9024761786.

34. Zoetmulder, Petrus Josephus (1982). Robson, Stuart Owen (ed.). Old Javanese-English Dictionary (http://sealang.net/ojed/) . Nijhoff. p. 1191, entry
11. ISBN 9024761786.

35. Woodard, Roger D (2008). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas (https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC) . Cambridge
University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0521684941.

36. Darusuprapta 2002, pp. 13–15.

37. Darusuprapta 2002, pp. 20.

38. Darusuprapta 2002, pp. 16–17.

39. Hollander, J J de (1886). Handleiding bij de beoefening der Javaansche Taal en Letterkunde (https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ha
ndleiding_bij_de_beoefening_der_Javaansche_Taal_1886.pdf&page=2) . Leiden: Brill. p. 3.

40. Darusuprapta 2002, pp. 19–24.

41. Darusuprapta 2002, pp. 24–28.

42. Darusuprapta 2002, pp. 29–32.

 43. Everson 2008, pp. 2.

44. Everson 2008, pp. 4.

45. Darusuprapta 2002, pp. 44–45.

46. Everson 2008, pp. 4–5.

47. Everson 2008, pp. 5.

48. Behrend 1996, pp. 188.

49. Behrend 1998, pp. 190.

50. Behrend 1998, pp. 189–190.

51. Behrend 1996, pp. 190.

52. Saktimulya, Sri Ratna (2016). Naskah-naskah Skriptorium Pakualaman. Jakarta: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia. ISBN 978-6024242282.

53. Robson 2011, pp. 13–14.

54. Rochkyatmo 1996, pp. 8–11.

55. Everson 2008, pp. 5–6.

56. Rochkyatmo 1996, pp. 35–41.

57. Rochkyatmo 1996, pp. 51–58.

ꦼ ꦫꦠꦠꦸꦫꦁꦒꦤꦏꦸꦠ) (https://books.google.com/books?id=BfRhOG2SfNoC&pg=PP7) , printed by GCT Van

58. Serat Katoerangganing Koetjing (ꦱ
Dorp & Co in Semarang, 1871. Google Books scan from the collection of Dutch National Library, No 859 B33.

59. Kern, Hendrik (1900). Rāmāyaṇa Kakawin. Oudjavaansch heldendicht. ’s Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff.

60. Tinggen, I Nengah (1993). Pedoman Perubahan Ejaan Bahasa Bali dengan Huruf Latin dan Huruf Bali. Singaraja: UD. Rikha. p. 7.

61. Simpen, I Wayan (1994). Pasang Aksara Bali (https://books.google.com/books?id=2YrlOwAACAAJ&q=Simpen,+I+Wayan.+Pasang+Aksara+Bali) .

Upada Sastra. p. 44.

62. Sutjaja, I Gusti Made (2006). Kamus Inggris, Bali, Indonesia (https://books.google.com/books?id=fqRkAAAAMAAJ&q=kamus+inggris+bali+indonesi
a) . Lotus Widya Suari bekerjasama dengan Penerbit Univ. Udayana. ISBN 9798286855.

63. Hamzah, Bambang Hartono; Sayunani, Isya; Gani, Abdul; Dradjid, Rusliy; Zaini, HM (2014). Ghazali, A. Syukur; Poerno, Heru Asri (eds.). Sekkar Anom I
(in Madurese). Dinas Pendidikan Provinsi Jawa Timur. p. 148.

64. Sukardi, A. (2005). Kasustraan Madura Kembang Sataman (in Madurese) (2 ed.). Jember: Dinas Pendidikan Kabupaten Jember.

65. Kiliaan 1897, p. 89.

66. Wedhawati (2001). [http: //repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/16353/ Tata Bahasa Jawa Mutakhir]. Jakarta: Pusat Bahasa. pp. 39–40. ISBN 9796851415.
{{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)

67. Davies, William D. (2010). [https: //books.google.com/books? Id = mflajowwD5oC & pg = PA53 A Grammar of Madurese]. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
p. 53. ISBN 9783110224443. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)

68. Kiliaan 1897.

69. Hamzah, Bambang Hartono; Sayunani, Isya; Gani, Abdul; Dradjid, H.M. (2015). Sekkar Anom 2 (in Madurese). Surabaya: Dinas Pendidikan Provinsi Jawa
Timur. p. 155. {{cite book}}: |first4= missing |last4= (help); |first5= missing |last5= (help)

70. Kiliaan 1897, p. 97.

71. Ashadi, Moh. Makhfud; al Farouk, Ghazi (1992). Kosa Kata Basa Madura (in Madurese). Surabaya: Sarana Ilmu.

Bibliography
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 Arps, B (1999). "How a Javanese Gentleman put his Library in Order" (https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/15216) . Bijdragen
tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 155 (3): 416–469. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003871 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134379-90003
871) .

Behrend, T E (1993). "Manuscript Production in Nineteenth Century Java. Codicology and the Writing of Javanese Literary History" (http
s://www.researchgate.net/publication/41017542) . Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 149 (3): 407–437.
doi:10.1163/22134379-90003115 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134379-90003115) .

Behrend, T E (1996). "Textual Gateways: the Javanese Manuscript Tradition". In Ann Kumar; John H. McGlynn (eds.). Illuminations: The
Writing Traditions of Indonesia (https://archive.org/details/illuminationswri0000kuma) . Jakarta: Lontar Foundation. ISBN 0834803496.

Everson, Michael (6 March 2008). "Proposal for encoding the Javanese script in the UCS" (http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n33
19.pdf) (PDF). Iso/Iec Jtc1/Sc2/Wg2. Unicode (N3319R3).

Molen, Willem van der (1993). Javaans Schrift (https://books.google.com/books?id=8FNTAAAACAAJ&q=javaans+schrift) . Vakgroep

Talen en Culturen van Zuidoost-Azië en Oceanië, Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden (in Dutch). Vol. Semaian 8. Leiden: Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden.
ISBN 90-73084-09-1.

Molen, Willem van der (2000). "Hoe Heft Zulks Kunnen Geschieden? Het Begin van de Javaanse Typografie". In Willem van der Molen (ed.).
Woord en Schrift in de Oost. De betekenis van zending en missie voor de studie van taal en literatuur in Zuidoost-Azie (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=TQjZAAAAMAAJ) (in Dutch). Vol. Semaian 19. Leiden: Vakgroep Talen en Culturen van Zuidoost-Azië en Oceanië,
Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden. pp. 132–162. ISBN 9074956238.

Robson, Stuart Owen (2011). "Javanese script as cultural artifact: Historical background" (https://research.monash.edu/en/publications/ja
vanese-script-as-cultural-artifact-historical-background) . RIMA: Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs. 45 (1–2): 9–36.

Rochkyatmo, Amir (1 January 1996). Pelestarian dan Modernisasi Aksara Daerah: Perkembangan Metode dan Teknis Menulis Aksara
Jawa (http://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/7638/1/PELESTARIAN%20DAN%20MODERNISASI%20AKSARA%20DAERAH.pdf) (PDF) (in
Indonesian). Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan.
Orthographical guides
E…
Koemisi Kasoesastran ing Sriwedari, Soerakarta (1926). Wawaton Panjeratipoen Temboeng Djawi mawi Sastra Djawi dalasan Angka (htt
ps://drive.google.com/file/d/0B3vMqqJNU5HOd3p3ZHFveGpHZW8/view) . Kongres Sriwedari (in Javanese). Weltevreden:
Landsdrukkerij. Also known as Wewaton Sriwedari and Paugeran Sriwedari.

Darusuprapta (2002). Pedoman Penulisan Aksara Jawa (https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbn

xoYW5hY2FyYWthbnxneDoyYmZjNmViZTcyNjI4OWEx) (in Indonesian). Yogyakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Nusantara bekerja sama
dengan Pemerintahan Provinsi Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, Daerah Tingkat I Jawa Tengah, dan Daerah Tingkat I Jawa Tengah.
ISBN 979-8628-00-4.

Sanskrit and Kawi

Poerwadarminta, W J S (1930). Serat Mardi Kawi (https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B4eJ6BhvZbrNZkU2elBWQlRfWHM/view) (in

Javanese). Vol. 1. Solo: De Bliksem.

Poerwadarminta, W J S (1931). Serat Mardi Kawi (https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B4eJ6BhvZbrNaWRUaldrMU94V1E/view) (in

Javanese). Vol. 2. Solo: De Bliksem.

Poerwadarminta, W J S (1931). Serat Mardi Kawi (https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B4eJ6BhvZbrNdXpQR3hZS292Uzg/view) (in

Javanese). Vol. 3. Solo: De Bliksem.

Sundanese
 Holle, K F (1862). Soendasch spel- en lees boek, met Soendasche letter (https://books.google.com/books?id=AupPpeV6EZUC&q=Soend
asch+spel-+en+lees+boek,+met+Soendasche+letter&pg=PP18) . Batavia: Lands-drukkerij.

External links …

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Javanese script.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Manuscripts in Javanese script.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Printed Javanese Script.

Digital collection
E…
British Library manuscript collection (https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/)

National Library of Indonesia manuscript collection (http://khastara.perpusnas.go.id/)

Yayasan Sastra Lestari manuscript collection (https://www.sastra.org/katalog)

Widyapustaka references collection (https://widyapustaka.webnode.com/paugeran/)

Digitized manuscripts
E…
A debt written on a piece of lontar (https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Sloane_MS_1403E) (1708) British Library
collection no. Sloane MS 1403E

Babad Mataram and Babad ing Sangkala (https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=MSS_Jav_36) (1738) koleksi British
Library no. MSS Jav 36

A Malay-Javanese-Maduran language word list (https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=MSS_Malay_A_3) from

early 19th ce, British Library collection no. MSS Malay A 3

An assortment of documents from the Kraton of Yogyakarta (https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=Add_MS_1

2341) (1786–1812) British Library collection no. Add Ms 12341

Papakem Pawukon (https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=Or_15932) from Bupati Sepuh Demak of Bogor

(1814) British Library collection no. Or 15932

Wejangan Hamengkubuwana I (https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Add_MS_12337) (1812) British Library collection

no. Add MS 12337

Raffles Paper - vol III (https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=Add_MS_45273) (1816) a collection of Letters

received by Raffles from the rules of the Malay archipelago, British Library collection no. Add MS 45273

Serat Jaya Lengkara Wulang (https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=MSS_Jav_24) (1803) British Library

collection no. MSS Jav 24

Serat Selarasa (https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=MSS_Jav_28) (1804) British Library collection no. MSS Jav 28

Usana Bali (http://khastara.perpusnas.go.id/web/detail/335633/usana) (1870) a Javanese copy of a Balinese lontar of the same title,
National Library of Indonesia collection no. CS 152

Dongèng-dongèng Pieuntengen (https://books.google.com/books?id=0hm2yOwsEgkC) (1867) a collection of Sundanese tales written

in the Javanese script compiled by Muhammad Musa
Others
E…
Unicode proposal for the Javanese script (http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3319.pdf)

Unicode documentation for the behavior of KERET diacritic (http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3319.pdf)

Unicode documentation for the behavior of CAKRA diacritic (https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17038-cakra.pdf)

Unicode documentation for the behavior of PENGKAL diacritic (https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2019/19083-javanese-pengkal.pdf)

Unicode documentation for the behavior of TOLONG diacritic (https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2019/19003-javanese-tolong.pdf)

British Library Asian-African Studies blog, Javanese topic (https://blogs.bl.uk/asian-and-african/javanese/)

Javanese script transliterator by Benny Lin (https://bennylin.github.io/transliterasijawa/)

Hana - Javanese Script Transliterator by Dan (https://hana.rip/)

Download Javanese fonts in Tuladha Jejeg (https://sites.google.com/site/jawaunicode/main-page) , Aksara di Nusantara (https://aksar

adinusantara.com/fonta/aksara/jawa) , or Google Noto (https://www.google.com/get/noto/)

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