Chapter 8 Solutions (Global Edition)

Prob. 8.1
For the p-i-n photodiode in figure 8-7,
(a) explain why the photodetector does not have gain.
An electron hole pair created within W by absorption of a photon is collected as the
electron is swept to the n side and the hole is swept to the p side. Since only one
electron-hole pair is collected per photon, there is no gain.

(b) explain how making the device more sensitive to low light levels degrades speed.
If W is made wider to receive more photons, the transit time to collect the electron hole
pairs will be longer; so, response speed will be degraded.

(c) choose a material and substrate to detect light with λ=0.6μm.

In order to detect the light, the band gap must be smaller than the photon energy. A
1.24eV ⋅ μm
λ=0.6μm photon has an energy = = 2.07eV . From figure 1-13, In 0.5 Ga 0.5 P
0.6μm
grown on GaAs or AlAs 0.55 Sb 0.45 grown on InP each have a band gap energy slightly
below the photon energy (2eV and 1.95eV, respectively).

Prob. 8.2
We make a quantum well by sandwiching a 60A layer of GaAs (E G = 1.43 eV) between
AlAs with a bandgap of 2.18 eV? We can assume 2/3 of the bandgap difference appears
as conduction band discontinuity, and the rest in the valence band. The electron and hole
effective masses in GaAs are 0.067m 0 and 0.5m 0 , respectively. IF we make an LED out
of this heterostructure, what is the lowest energy photon that can be emitted from this
GaAs layer? IF we make a photodetector out of this, what is the longest wavelength that
can be detected? You can assume the infinite potential well approximation for this
calculation. How many confined states can you have in the conduction and valence bands
in the GaAs layer? Qualitatively sketch the electron and hole probability density
functions for these states. How far from the heterointerfaces is the hole most likely to be
in the second excited state?
Assuming an infinite square well,
ћ 2n 2 2
n th subband energy for electron in GaAs, ε en = π
2m*e a 2
⇒ ε en = n 2 ( 2.48 ×10−20 J ) = n 2 ( 0.155 eV )
Similarly, ε hm = m 2 ( 3.32 ×10−21 J ) = m 2 ( 0.021 eV )
ε g ( AlAs ) − ε g ( GaAs ) = 0.75 eV
⇒ ∆E C = 0.5 eV and ∆E V = 0.25 eV
Minimum energy photon emitted during e−h recombination
ε min = ε g ( GaAs ) + ε1e + ε1h = 1.43 eV + 0.155 eV +0.021 eV
⇒ ε min = 1.61 eV
Longest wavelength λ max ⇔ minimum energy ε min

∴
hc
= ε min ⇒ λ max =
( )(
6.63 ×10−34 J ⋅ s 3 ×108 m/s )
= 774 nm
λ max 1.61×1.6 ×10−19 J
Assuming infinite square wells, ε en = n 2 ( 0.155 eV ) ≤ 0.5 ⇒ n ≤ 1.8
Since n is an integer, n = 1
Similarly, ε hm = m 2 ( 0.021 eV ) ≤ 0.25 ⇒ m ≤ 3.45 ⇒ m = 1,2,3
n the second excited state for holes, i.e. m = 3,
2  mπx  2 2  mπx 
ψ hm ( x ) = sin  m (x) =
 ⇒ f
h
sin  
a  a  a  a 
prob. density

f 3h is maximum for x = a , a , and 2a

3 2 3

Prob. 8.3
Find the corresponding voltage at current of 100 mA.

Here, I th = 2 x10 −9 A ; I SC = 150 x10 −3 A and I op = 0.1x10 −3 A

KT  I + I SC  100 x10 −3 + 150 x10 −3 

V = ln  + 1 − I OP = 0.0259 ln  −
+ 1 − 0.1x10 −3
Voltage, q  I th   2 x10 6
 .
= 0.30386Volt
Prob. 8.4
Plot I-V for a Si solar cell with I th =5nA and I sc =200mA.
From Equation 8-2,
kT  I+Isc   I+0.2A 
V= ⋅ ln  +1 - Iop = 0.0259V ⋅ ln  +1
 5 ⋅10 A 
-9
q  I th 

Prob. 8.5
Repeat problem 8.3 with a 1Ω series resistance.
Given current I and terminal voltage V a = V+IR, the voltage across the diode is reduced
by IR.
 q⋅(Va -IR)   (Va -I⋅1Ω ) 
I = I th ⋅  e kT -1 - Iop = 5 ⋅10-9 A ⋅  e 0.0259V -1 - 0.2A
   
Prob. 8.6
What is the main limiting factor in increasing the efficiency of a solar cell?

A solar cell made up of certain solar cell material provides a fixed band gap. As we
know, light having, photon energy > Energy band gap of the semiconductor can only
being absorbed by the semiconductor. Rest of the photons incident are lost and do not
take part in the photo-generation. This limits in the increament of efficiency.

Prob. 8.7
Find the current density change for 2.5V and 2500V.

for 2.5V, ε =
V 2.5V
= = 5 ⋅103 cmV
L 5 ⋅10 cm
-4

V⋅s ⋅ 5 ⋅10 cm = 7.5 ⋅10

2 3 V 6
electron velocity = vdn = 1500 cm cm
s

V⋅s ⋅ 5 ⋅10 cm = 2.5 ⋅10

2 3 V 6
hole velocity = vdp = 500 cm cm
s

with light Δn = Δp = g op ⋅ τ = 1020 1

cm3
⋅10-7s = 1013 cms 3
ΔJ = q ⋅ Δn ⋅ vdn + q ⋅ Δp ⋅ vdp = 1.6 ⋅10-19 C ⋅1013 cms 3 ⋅1.0 ⋅107 cm
s = 0.16 cmA2

for 2500V,
electron velocity = vd = vs = 107 cm
s

hole velocity = vd = vs = 107 cm

s

with light → ΔJ = q ⋅ Δn ⋅ vs + q ⋅ Δp ⋅ vs = 1.6 ⋅10-19 C ⋅1013 cms 3 ⋅ 2.0 ⋅107 cm

s = 0.32 cmA2
Prob. 8.8
(a) Why must a solar cell be operated in the 4th quadrant of the junction I-V
characteristics?
Power is only generated in the 4th
quadrant (-I,+V). Power is consumed
in the 1st (+I,+V) and 3rd (-I,-V) quadrant.

(b) What is the advantage of a quaternary alloy in fabricating LEDs for fiber optics?
A quaternary alloy allows adjustment of both bandgap, and therefore wavelength, and
lattice constant for epitaxial growth on convenient substrates.

(c) Why is a reverse-biased GaAs p-n junction not a good photoconductor for light of
λ=1μm?
h ⋅c 4.14 ⋅10-15eV ⋅ s ⋅ 3 ⋅1010 cms
E photon = = = 1.24eV
λ 10-4 cm
Since the bandgap of GaAs is 1.43eV, the photon is not absorbed; so, GaAs is not a good
photoconductor for this light.

Prob. 8.9
Find I sc and V oc for the solar cell.
From Equation 8-1,
Isc = Iop = q ⋅ A ⋅ g op ⋅ (L p +L n +W) = 1.6 ⋅10-19 C ⋅ 4cm 2 ⋅1018 1
cm3
⋅ (2μm+2μm+1μm) = 0.32mA
From Equation 8-3,
kT  Iop   0.32 ⋅10-3 A 
Voc = ⋅ ln 1+  = 0.0259V ⋅ ln 1+  = 0.24V
q  I th   32 ⋅ 10 -9
A 
Prob. 8.10
(a) Derive the expression for the voltage at maximum power.
Equation 8-2 can be written as
 qkT⋅V 
I = I th ⋅  e -1 -Isc
 
 qkT⋅V 
P = I ⋅ V = I th ⋅  e -1 ⋅ V - Isc ⋅ V
 
dP  qkT⋅V  q qkT⋅V
= I th ⋅  e -1 + I th ⋅ V ⋅ ⋅ e -Isc = 0 for maximum
dV   kT
q⋅Vmp
 q  I
e kT
⋅  Vmp ⋅ +1 = 1+ sc
 kT  I th
kT
assuming Isc ? I th and Vmp ? ,
q
q⋅Vmp
q I
e kT
⋅ Vmp ⋅ = sc
kT I th

(b) Rewrite this equation in the form ln x = C – x.

 q⋅Vmp q  I 
ln  e kT ⋅ Vmp ⋅  = ln  sc 

 kT   I th 
 q  q ⋅ Vmp I 
ln  Vmp ⋅ + = ln  sc 
 kT  kT  I th 
 q   Isc  q ⋅ Vmp
ln  Vmp ⋅  = ln  -
 kT   I th  kT
q  Isc   100 ⋅10-3 A 
substitute x = Vmp ⋅ and ln   = ln  -9  = 18
kT  I th   1.5 ⋅10 A 
ln x = 18 - x

(c) Find a graphical solution for V mp and the maximum power delivered.

18
18-x solution at x = 15.3
Vmp = 15.3 ⋅ 0.0259V = 0.396V
I = 10-9 A ⋅ e15.3 -10-1A = -96mA
ln x
x
15.3 18
(d) Find the maximum power at this illumination.
Pmax = -I ⋅ V = 37.9mW

Prob. 8.11
For the solar cell in 8.10, plot the I-V curve and draw the maximum power rectangle.
 0.1A+I 
V = 0.0259eV ⋅ ln 1+ -9  100
m.p.
 1.5 ⋅10 A 
I (mA) V (mV)

- I (mA)
0 467
-25 459
-50 449 50
-75 431
-90 407
-95 389
-98 365
-100 0 0 0.2 0.4
V (volts)

Prob. 8.12
Calculate and plot the fill factor for the solar cell.
Prob. 8.13
During the absorption spectra measurement of an unknown semiconductor material, the
peak of the spectra appears around 364 nm. What is the band gap of the device and what
material is this? If the majority carrier in that material will be able to move with 5 x 105
cm/sec velocity, what will be the carrier mass for that material?

Absorption peak more or less signifies the band gap of the material. Thus,

1.24 1.24
E g (eV ) = = = 3.41 eV.
λ (mm ) 364 x10 − 9

Material: GaN.

h
From wave-particle duality: p = = mv
λ

6.626 x10 − 34
= 0.036 x10 − 31 kg
h
m= =
v.λ 5 x10 x364 x10
5 − 9

Prob. 8.14
A semiconductor material of band gap 1.2 eV is used to make a device. At what
wavelength it will emit radiation? Is the emitted radiation in the optical range? From
these, can you predict the band gap nature of the semiconductor material under
observation?

Emitted radiation,

1.24
λ= = 1107 nm
1.12
Optical range: 400 – 800 nm. That means the emitted radiation of the semiconductor
material is in IR region, hence not in the optical range. So the semiconductor is indirect
bandgap semiconductor.
Prob. 8.15
Explain how degeneracy prevents absorption of the emission wavelength.
Since absorption requires promotion of an electron from a filled state in the valence band
to an empty state in the conduction band, absorbed photons must have hν>F n -F p .
Emitted photons must have hν<F n -F p . This is true only in the inversion region, and
absorption becomes important away from the junction.

Prob. 8.16
Show B 12 =B 21 at high temperature.
B12 ⋅ n1 ⋅ ρ(ν12 ) = A 21 ⋅ n 2 +B21 ⋅ n 2 ⋅ ρ(ν12 )
 A 21  - E2kT-E1
B12 =  + B21  ⋅ e
 ρ(ν12 ) 
E 2 -E1
-
As T → ∞, e kT
→ 1 and ρ(ν12 ) → ∞
B12 = ( 0 + B21 ) ⋅1 = B21

Prob. 8.17
Use Planck’s radiation law to find A 21 /B 12 .

A 21 n 2 n 2 A  - hν12
ρ(ν12 ) = ⋅ + ⋅ ρ(ν12 ) =  21 +ρ(ν12 )  ⋅ e kT
B12 n1 n1  B12 
A 21  hν12  8π ⋅ hν12
3
= ρ(ν12 ) ⋅  e kT - 1 =
B12   c3
Prob. 8.18
In a compound Al x Ga 1-x As material, calculate the energy band gap for the AL
concentration of 0.40 using linear interpolation method at 300 K temperature. Calculate
the minimum carrier concentration n = p for population inversion in AlGaAs at 300 K if
the intrinsic carrier concentration is 2.1 x 103 /cm3.

E g = x.E gAlAs + (1 − x ).E gGaAs = 0.40 x 2.12 + 0.60 x1.424 = 1.7024eV

For population inversion, Fn − FP = E g = 1.7024eV

1.7024
For n = p, Fn − Ei = Ei − F p = = 0.8512 eV
2

Fn − Ei / KT  0.8512 
Thus, np = ni .e = 2.1x103 x exp 17
 = 3.92 x10 /cm3.
 0.0259 

Prob. 8.19
Calculate the excess hole distribution for the long diode at a distance of twice the
diffusion length from the junction at the n side of the junction.

Here, N a = 1018 /cm3, D p = 10.36 cm2/sec, µ p = 400 cm2/V-sec, V = 0.7 V; g op = 1014

/cm3 and τ p = 10 ns.

ni 2 2.25 x10 20
Now, pn = = = 2.25 x103 /cm3.
Na 1017

Diffusion length, L p = D p .τ p = 10.36 x10 x10 − 9 = 10.18 x10 − 3 cm

Now excess hole concentration at x = 2Lp ,

( )
 −6  −6
20 103.63 x10 ( −2) 20 103.63 x10
δp( xn ) =  p 2.25 x10 x e
3 0.7 / 0.0259
− 1 − 10 . .e + 10 .
 10.36  10.36
3
= 10.2994 x1014 / cm