The Kinetic Theory

The thermal energy (heat energy) of an object is mainly the result of the motion of the particles
within the object. Because the theory describes motion it is called the kinetic theory. The theory
states that matter is made up of particles which are always in motion and that there are
forces between these particles. Some potential energy is also associated with the bonding
between, and the arrangement of, the atoms in materials.

The Kinetic Theory makes the following assumptions about matter:

• Matter is made up of tiny particles, such as molecules.

• The particles of matter are always in motion.

• There are strong forces between particles separated by very short distances.

• Collisions between these particles are perfectly elastic. This means that, overall, energy is not
lost by particles during collisions.

The Kinetic Theory can be used to explain some of the macroscopic properties and behaviours
of matter, such as temperature, pressure, states of matter, change of state and thermal
expansion.

Temperature

The degree of ‘hotness’ or ‘coldness’ of an object, which are both relative terms, is called its
temperature. That is, the hotter a body is, the higher the temperature. However, the Kinetic
Theory does not associate temperature with the highly subjective impression of hotness or of
coldness. It relates temperature to the average kinetic energy of the particles of an object. Thus,
at high temperatures, particles are moving at high speeds. At low temperatures, they are
moving at low speeds. At the absolute zero of temperature, particle motion would cease.

States of matter: solids, liquids and gases

Solids
The molecular theory suggests that, in a solid, the particles are close together and that, at such
close distances, the force of attraction between particles is large. The fixed shape of solids can
be explained on the basis of this powerful force of attraction. That is, the particles cannot move
away from one another because the attractive forces between them are so large. Additionally, if
a solid (such as a wooden block) is squeezed, the volume hardly changes at all because the
particles move scarcely any closer to one another. Therefore, we say that solids are
incompressible.

The fixed shape of solids suggests that the attractive and repulsive forces between
neighbouring molecules balance each other at a set distance apart. Since, according to the
Kinetic Theory, the particles are always in motion, each particle vibrates about a fixed position

Liquids

When a solid is given sufficient heat energy, the solid may change to a liquid. The particles
vibrate with greater speed, and with larger amplitude. Even though the mean separation
distance between the particles increases, but not by much, the separation distances are large
enough to cause the force of attraction between particles to be reduced.

Because the force of attraction between the molecules is now so weak in comparison to that of
a solid, the particles in a liquid easily move around relative to each another. Therefore, the
shape of a substance in the liquid state may therefore be easily changed. Thus, a liquid will
‘pour’ easily and take the shape of the container it is being poured into.
Even though it takes the shape of the container it is poured into, the liquid will, have a definite
volume since the force is still strong enough to keep the particles together, causing the volume
of liquid to remain the same.

Any attempt to squeeze a liquid results in very little change in volume of the liquid. This is
because the particles are still fairly close to each other and the repulsive force between them is
still large. Thus, like solids, liquids are incompressible.

Gases

When liquids are heated, the particles may receive enough kinetic energy to move away from
one another completely. Consequently, the average distance between particles is now so large
that there is hardly any force of attraction between them. Therefore, the particles now move
independently of one another at high speeds, and in many different directions.

Particles can travel throughout the entire volume of any container until they hit the walls of the
container. Thus, a gas will fill any size or shape of container into which it is put. Therefore, a
gas, like a liquid, has no fixed shape, but unlike a liquid, it will not retain a particular volume.

Because the mean distance between molecules is very large, the force of repulsion between
molecules is small. Therefore, molecules of a gas can be brought closer to each other easily by
applying a force. This shows that gases are compressible.

Kinetic Theory and Boiling and Evaporation

In a liquid, the particles are moving about with a variety of speeds, and therefore with a variety
of kinetic energies, even though the liquid as a whole is at a uniform temperature. Some of the
faster moving particles, when present at the surface, have enough energy to enable them to
break loose from the liquid and move independently above the liquid as a vapour.

Thus, evaporation can take place at any temperature but the rate at which it takes place
increases as temperature increases, since, at high temperatures, more of the particles have the
energy needed to break free from the liquid.

Boiling

When a liquid boils, some molecules gain enough energy to form a vapour within the liquid.
Bubbles containing this vapour are seen rising. If the pressure of the vapour within the bubbles,
called the vapour pressure, is less than the pressure outside, the bubbles collapse. (The outside
pressure is usually due to the atmosphere, and will vary.) So if the bubbles are to survive and
rise to the top of the liquid, the vapour pressure inside them must be at least equal to the
outside pressure.

Therefore, for boiling to occur, the vapour pressure inside the bubbles must be equal to the
pressure outside and will then rise to the top of the liquid.

Although evaporation may take place at any temperature, boiling will take place at a specific
temperature for a particular value of external pressure. Therefore, to maintain boiling, energy
must be supplied continuously to the liquid.

As mentioned with latent heat, once boiling starts, the temperature of the liquid does not change
even though heat energy is being supplied. The energy supplied is used to do work in moving
molecules of the liquid far apart from each other, in changing the state from liquid to vapour.