ISSN 2394-966X
International Journal of Novel Research in Life Sciences
Vol. 9, Issue 2, pp: (18-25), Month: March - April 2022, Available at: www.noveltyjournals.com
FINGER MILLET (ELEUSINE CARACARA
(SUBSPECIES CORACANA) (L.) GAERTN)
PRODUCTION AND TISSUE CULTURE: A
REVIEW
Kalkidan Tesfu1,*, Nitsuh Aschale1
1
Ethiopian Institutes of Agricultural Research, National Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, P.O.Box. 249,
Holeta, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Corresponding author: Kalkidan Tesfu: Email:
[email protected], Phone: +251 920707939
Abstract: Finger millet is one of neglected crops and it’s native to east Africa. The yields of finger millet are low in
Ethiopia due to different constraints including: lack of improved varieties, little research emphasis given to the
crop, non-adoption of improved technologies, poor attitude to the crop, disease, lodging, threshing and milling
problem are some of the most serious production constraints in finger millet production in Ethiopia. The main
objective of this review is to know finger millet production and its applications.
Keywords: Finger millet, Regeneration, somatic embryogenesis, Ethiopia.
1. INTRODUCTION
The term “millet” is given to different warm-season annual grass crops around the world that are harvested as grain for
human food or animal feed. Millets are similar to sorghum forage in their productivity and feed value. There are several
advantages of millets more than sorghum when grown for forage, including non-prussic acid potential. In addition to this,
they are tolerant to soil with high pH conditions. Millets are generally considered as negligible crops in another place, but
in India, Africa, and China they have a great importance and solve hunger problem of many people in those countries.
When compared to other cereal grains, millets can grow well on less fertile soils and non-suitable growing conditions
(Upadhyaya et al., 2008), such as in dry areas, temperate, subtropical and tropical regions (Baker, 1996). Millets are the
third most important cereal crops in Africa after maize and sorghum. They are grown in the harsh semi-arid tropics of
Africa where inadequate rainfall and lack of irrigation make production of other cereal crops difficult to sustain. A general
impression is that research to improve millets has generally lagged worldwide because they are not grown as food crops in
the developed world and in Africa, they are considered as "poor man‟s crops"(Mywish et al.,1998).
The millets consist of five genera of the Panaceae family (Panicum, Setaria, Echinochloa, Pennesetum and Eleusine). The
most important cultivated species are: Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum), Foxtail millet (Setaria italica), Japanese
barnyard millet (Echinochlo afrumentacea), Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and Kodo millet (Paspalum
scrobiculatum) (Pragya and Rita, 2012). Finger-millet (Eleusine coracana) gains its name from the head of the plant,
which bears some similarity to splayed hand (Roger, 2012). Finger millet is one of the most cultural foods and native to
East Africa. However, in spite of its importance to the livelihoods of millions of small-holder farmers in East Africa, its
valuable nutritional and processing properties, the growing demand exceeding supply, and its regional and international
trade potential, finger millet has largely been neglected by national and international research organizations and major
donors to agricultural research in sub-Saharan Africa. This neglect has contributed to a lack of realization of the potential
productivity of finger millet.
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International Journal of Novel Research in Life Sciences
Vol. 9, Issue 2, pp: (18-25), Month: March - April 2022, Available at: www.noveltyjournals.com
Increased production, utilization and trade of finger millet in East Africa are currently limited by a number of constraints
(Mgonja et al., 2005).Crop damage by insects is minimal but pests such as birds and Striga weed are a constant serious
threat to the crop (Esele, 1989). The most serious biotic constraint is the blast disease caused by the fungus Magnaporthe
grisea. Blast affects finger millet at all growth stages, particularly causing major losses through neck and Panicle
infections (Mgonja et al., 2005). Finger millet blast disease is by far the most devastating, causing over 50% yield loss
(Esele, 1989). Other constraints to finger millet production include poor incentives and marketing arrangements – low
pricing, poor and inaccessible market channels, inaccessibility to credit facilities and inadequate improved processing and
product development facilities at commercial levels (Mgonja et al., 2005).
To fulfill the strong upsurge in demand of cereal globally, it is necessary to adopt innovative technologies and approaches
for new varieties generation, among which is transgenic plants creation with desirable traits. Although especially in the
developing world, millets are economically essential, there has been observed little genetic improvement on the specific
use of wide- or cross- hybridization among species that are closely related. Direct transfer of the desirable traits to millets
via efficient or optimum transformation technique has helped to alleviate the incompatibilities resulting from inter-
specific hybridization. Thus, it is possible to overcome crossing barriers and asexually introduce genes from unrelated
sources into crop plants. At first, owing primarily to their recalcitrance to in vitro regeneration along with their resistance
to Agrobacterium-mediated infection, it was challenging to genetically engineer monocots generally and cereals
specifically. However, for major cereals like rice and maize, there have been established efficient transformation
protocols. As soon as efficient or optimum regeneration has been developed, the prerequisite of gene transfer to millets
would be facilitated (Plaza-Wüthrich and Zerihun Tadele, 2012).
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. DESCRIPTION AND TAXONOMY OF FINGER MILLET (ELEUSINECORACANA)
Finger millet (Eleusine coracana subsp. coracana) and its wild relatives are the members of Chloridoidea, one of the
primary subfamilies of the grass (Poaceae) family. The cultivated E.coracana is a tetraploid species (2n=4x=36) derived
from its wild ancestor E. coracana subspecies Africana. It is highly self-pollinated and has 36 or 72 (2N) chromosomes
(Rachie, 2011).Finger millet has different common names in different countries such as ragi and mandua (India); koddo
(Nepal); finger horse (Germany); petit mil, eleusine cultivee, coracan, koracan (France); bulo (Uganda); kambale,
lupoko, mawele, amale, bule (Zambia); poho, rapoko, zviyo, njera, mazhovole (Zimbabwe); finger millet, African millet,
koracan (England); in different localitieis of Ethiopia it is known by different names dagussa, tokuso (Amara region),
barankiya (Borena), dagusha (Tigray), daguja (oromia) and wimbi, mugimbi (Kenya). It is an important staple food in
parts of eastern and central Africa and India (Yilma Kebede and Abebe Menkir, 1986).
2.2. MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF FINGER MILLET
Finger millet is a feathered annual crop, which grows to a height of 30–150 cm and is harvested in 75–160 days. Leaves
are narrow, grass-like and able to produce many tillers and nodal branches. The panicle comprises a group of digitally
arranged spikes often known as fingers. The spikelets are made up of four to ten florets arranged on the finger. All florets
are perfect flowers with the exception of the terminal ones which may sometimes be infertile. The grain is oblong to
round and oval shape, reddish brown, creamy white, and dark brown in color with the grains‟ surface finely roughened.
Finger millet grain has a good aroma when roasted or cooked and understandably possess a number of health promoting
qualities. The grain is a crop that is particularly valuable for areas experiencing famine as it can be stored for years
without insect damage (Prem, 2012).
2.3. ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF FINGER MILLET
Recent reports indicated that the diversity of finger millet is originated in East Africa (FAO, 1998). It is widely known in
African highlands, especially Ethiopia and/Uganda, recognized as the main center of origin, while the Indian sub-
continent was mentioned as secondary center. For more than 5000 years, the crop has been cultivated on both continents
but separated both morphologically and genetically. Wild finger millet (subspecies africana) is native to Africa but has
migrated to several warmer parts of Asia and America (Prem, 2012).
In the late Aksumite period (100 BC to 300 AD), the crop was one of the dominant crops. Further, it is on record that the
late Aksumite populations were largely occupied with food processing and production and that the cultivated crops range
which includes finger millet was notably like that exploited in the region in more recent times. In Ethiopia, especially in
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the northern part of the country, finger millet has an old history of domestication, and its cultivation has been from time
immemorial. The strong relation and values that the crop has to the livelihood of the people in the Tigray region of
Ethiopia is expressed in the traditional songs, sayings and poems that are transferred from generation to generation
through oral traditions and continues to expand the crop‟s biological adaptation and use value attributes (National
Research Council, 1996).
2.4. CULTIVATION OF FINGER MILLET
Cultivation of finger millet has become more extensive in lieu of its geographical adaptation and in comparison to other
millets. It is capable of surviving different tropical weather conditions, drought, humidity and heat. In several parts of
eastern and southern Africa, as well as in South Asia, it is an important staple crop. Besides this, the actual estimated area
and global production is not available with the exception of India and Africa. The global annual planting area of finger
millet is estimated at around 4- 4.5 million hectares, with a total production of 5 million tons of grains, of which India
alone produces about 2.2 million tons and Africa about 2 million tons. The rest comes from other countries in South Asia.
The important finger millet growing countries in eastern and southern Africa have been especially the sub-humid regions
of Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Similarly, in South Asia the crop is largely
grown in India, Nepal and, to some extent, in Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Additionally, in both China and Japan, finger millet
is reportedly grown to a limited extent (Prem, 2012). Finger millet is often cultivated in semi-arid and arid agro ecology,
where it is frequently affected by drought (Masresha Fetene et al., 2011). It is extensively cultivated in the tropical and
sub-tropical regions of Africa and India is known to save the lives of poor farmers from starvation at times of extreme
drought (Dagnachew Lule et al., 2012). It is indigenous to Ethiopia and occupies 304,758 ha of land with production of
305,101 tons (CSA, 2008). It is grown more or less throughout the country though mainly cultivated in the mid and low
altitude of regions of Gonder, Gojam, Wollega and Tigray where it constitutes 10 to 20% of the total cereal production
(Yilma Kebede and Abebe Menkir, 1986).
The yields of finger millet are low in Ethiopia due to different production problems including: lack of improved varieties,
little research emphasis given to the crop, non-adoption of improved technologies, poor attitude to the crop, disease like
blast which is the most serious disease, lodging, threshing and milling problem are some of the most serious production
constraints in finger millet production in Ethiopia .The other problems faced by this crop are blast diseases and downy
mildew, which is caused by fungal diseases and drought stress. Hence, the main stresses that the crop suffers are drought
and blast. This can be very severe and the losses could sometimes goes up to 60%. Leaf blast is not very common but
neck and finger blast are common and cause a risk to maximum yield loss (Yemane Tsehaye and Fassil Kebebew, 2002;
Kebere Bezaweletaw et al., 2006; Erenso Degu et al., 2009; Andualem Wolie, 2009)..
The major attributes of finger millet are its adaptability to adverse agro-ecological conditions with minimal inputs,
tolerant to moisture stress, produced on marginal land where other crops cannot perform and tolerant to acidic soil and
termites (Barbeau, and Hilu, 1993). Furthermore, it has high nutritional value and excellent storage qualities (Dida, 2007)
and the grain has high malting properties (Rachie, 2011). Therefore, finger millets represent one of the critical plant
genetics resources for the agriculture and food security of poor farmers that inhibit arid, infertile and marginal lands
(Dagnachew Lule et al., 2012).
Finger millet has a relatively wide range of adaptation within moderate temperatures and moisture ranges. It is most
widely cultivated on hilly, lateritic soils in the 500-1000mm rain fall belt of the tropics and subtropical regions. It has high
yielding potential producing highest mean yield among the millets in Africa and India, and is frequently grown both dry
and irrigated on lands where moisture is insufficient for other crops (Rachie, 2011).
2.5. IMPORTANCE OF FINGER MILLET
Finger millet is used for making a number of dishes and drinks, especially in the rural areas. The non-distilled local beer
(Tella) and the porridge made from the crop allegedly cure diseases like diarrhea and malaria, and assist in the healing of
fractured bones. Although various crops like barley, maize and sorghum can be used in preparing Tella, at wedding
ceremonies and other religious festivals conducted in central and western Tigray, the Tella used must be made of finger
millet. Tella is also essential for labor group workers, at weeding and harvesting. Finger millet is also used by the
Muslims in preparing non-alcoholic local drinks (karibo). The traditional drinks Tella and areki (distilled liquor) are also
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an income source both in certain parts of the rural areas and in small towns. To complement the household income,
women farmers usually engage in these kinds of activities. All of the unleavened bread (kita) and the leftovers after the
purified Tella is taken away is also used in feeding animals. In the rural areas, finger millet is consumed as enjera which
is tasty and easily digested (National Research Council, 1996).
Finger millet provides food grain and straw which are appreciated animal feed, particularly in the rain fed areas. Among
the major food grains, finger millet is the most nutritious crops for minerals (calcium and iron), protein, and amino acids
(methionine, an amino acid lacking in the diets of hundreds of millions of the poor who live on starchy foods like
plantain, cassava, maize meal and polished rice); and provides calcium 8-10 times beyond rice or wheat. Finger millet
carbohydrates reportedly possess the unique characteristics of slower digestibility and are potentially food for long
sustenance. The excellent malting qualities have contributed to the grain uniqueness in expanding its range of utility in
value addition and food processing (Prem, 2012).
Nutritionally, finger millet is good source of different nutrients, minerals and fiber. Total carbohydrate content of finger
millet has been reported to be in the range of 72 to 79.5%. About 80 to 85% of the finger millet starch is amylopectin and
remaining 15 to 20% is amylase. Non-starch polysaccharide account for 20 to 30% of the total carbohydrates in finger
millets. Reducing sugar in the range of 1.2 to 1.8% and 0.03% non-reducing sugar is found in finger millet. The in vitro
starch digestibility of native finger millet is 71.67%. Total dietary fiber insoluble dietary fiber and soluble dietary fiber
content in finger millet is 12, 11 and 2%, respectively. Finger millets have hypoglycemic effect, which is attributed to
high fiber content. High fiber diets containing complex carbohydrates are slowly digested and absorbed, thus bring
reduction in postprandial glucose. The second major component of finger millet is protein. It has nearly 7% protein but
large variations in protein content from 5.6 to 12.70% have been reported (Pragya and Rita, 2012). Finger millet is a
popular food among diabetic patients in different countries. Its slow digestion indicates low blood sugar levels after a
finger millet diet thereby reacting as a safer food for diabetics. It has also anti-oxidant and antimicrobial properties
(Palanisamy et al., 2011).
Despite all these positives, at national and global levels, finger millet remains a neglected crop. In many European, South
and North American countries, the crop is hardly known. Recently, there has been a rapid decline in the production of this
neglected crop, raising the apprehension that finger millet grain may become a rare commodity (Prem, 2012). Thus in
vitro culture functions uniquely in competitive and sustainable forestry and agriculture, and is successfully applicable in
plant breeding, as well as in the rapid introduction of improved plants. This becomes true through plant tissue culture
technology.
2.6. PLANT TISSUE CULTURE AND ITS ADVANTAGE
Plant tissue culture is the production of plant cells, tissues, or organs on specially formulated nutrient media under aseptic
environment and controlled conditions of temperature, humidity and light. Under the right conditions, there can be
regeneration of an entire plant from a single cell. Plant tissue culture is a method that has been applied for about more
than 50 years. There are different types of tissue culture techniques based on the part of the plant (explants) used (Evans
et al., 2003). As a fundamental science, plant tissue culture development was closely associated with plant hormones
discovery and characterization, and has further enhanced our comprehension of plant growth and development. In
addition, to be able to have a cultured growth of plant cells and tissues as well as control their development forms the
basis of a number of practical applications in agriculture, horticulture, industrial chemistry and is a prerequisite for plant
genetic engineering (Fowler, 1987).
The green revolution is regarded as resulting, at least partly from Mendelian genetics application to crop improvement.
This has led to yields maximization of most crops cultivated under conditions that reduce disease and insect pressure and
on soils supplemented with inorganic fertilizer. During the 1960s, it was observed that within a few decades, production
of green revolution grains would be overwhelmed by increase in world population. Thus, the advancement of alternate
strategies for boosting plant productivity was regarded as essential. In vitro approaches for manipulating plant
differentiation growth and development, including haploid plants production from cultured anthers, plants regeneration
from cell cultures, isolation of protoplast, culture and fusion of haploids were taken as essential parts of this new
technology. Cell culture coupled with molecular biology for crop improvement has been known as the „genetic
engineering revolution‟ (Wagramer, 2004).
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Plant tissue and cell cultures are usually initiated from pieces of whole plants. During the past few decades tissue culture
techniques have been developed that could be used for the improvement of crop plants. Comparatively, monocotyledons
are regarded as difficult in vitro material. The potential value of cell, tissue culture as tool for use in the improvement of
crop plants has been described (Green, 1977; Vasil, 1987).
Tissue culture technology is used for the production of doubled haploids, cryopreservation, propagating new plant
varieties, conserving rare and endangered plants, difficult to propagate plants, and to produce secondary metabolites and
transgenic plants. The production of high quality planting material of crop plants and fruit trees, propagated from
vegetative parts, has created new opportunities in global trading, benefited growers, farmers, and garden owners, and
improved rural employment. However, there are still major opportunities to produce and distribute high quality planting
material, e.g. crops like banana, date palm, cassava, pineapple, plantain, potato, sugarcane, sweet potato, yams,
ornamentals, fruit and forest trees. The main advantage of tissue culture technology lies in the production of high quality
and uniform planting material that can be multiplied on a year round basis under disease free conditions anywhere
irrespective of the season and weather. However, the technology needs high capital, labor and energy investment.
Although, labor is cheap in many developing countries, the resources of trained personnel and equipment are often not
readily available. In addition, energy, particularly electricity, and clean water are costly. The energy requirements for
tissue culture technology depend on day temperature, day length and relative humidity, and they have to be controlled
during the process of propagation. Individual plant species also differ in their growth requirements. Hence, it is necessary
to have low cost options for weaning, hardening of micro propagated plants and finally growing them in the field.
Plant tissue culture techniques have a vast potential to produce plants of superior quality, but this potential has been not
fully exploited in the developing countries. During in vitro growth, plants can also be primed for optimal performance
after transfer to soil. In most cases, tissue cultured plants outperform those propagated traditionally. Thus in vitro culture
has a unique role in sustainable and competitive agriculture and forestry, and has been successfully applied in plant
breeding, and for the rapid introduction of improved plant. The improved resistance to diseases and pests enables growers
to reduce or eliminate the application of chemicals (Wagramer, 2004).
2.7. REGENERATION AND SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS
Regeneration of whole plants from callus cultures occurs in two general path ways, via organogenesis and embryogenesis.
The later gives rise to most plants of unicellular origin and production of clonal plants, enabling crop improvement by
means of tissue culture to become more effective. Regeneration via somatic embryogenesis of major cereal crops
including corn, rice, sorghum, and wheat has been reported, but embryogenesis and regeneration from callus cultures have
been inconsistent in cereals. Thus an observable challenge for cereal tissue culture workers is to systematically develop in
vitro technologies for faster and more expected production of embryogenesis and plant regeneration. The capability of
gametophyte cells to form in vitro embryos which are competent to develop or to regenerate is a particular characteristic
of plants. In this consideration, microspore and somatic embryogenesis can be regarded as model system to investigate the
mechanisms of plant embryogenesis and development, and the whole process of plant cell differentiation. The fact that the
embryos can develop from microspore or somatic cells also demonstrate the genetic program for embryogenesis can be
completed outside of sexual reproduction (Henry et al., 1994).
Current progress in plant genetics and biotechnology is highly dependent on the use of in vitro cultures. Hence the
establishment of effective in vitro plant regeneration systems enabling a rapid production of fertile, genetically „solid‟
plants is of great interest to plant biotechnologists. Among the various in vitro systems applied, somatic embryogenesis
(SE) is of special importance. It offers opportunities for in vitro production of true to type plants by clonal propagation as
well as regeneration of genetically modified plants by genetic transformation, and somatic hybridization and in vitro
mutant induction and selection. Moreover, SE is a useful tool in basic research on totpotency and on the fundamental
processes of plant morphogenesis. Thus, the possible broad applications of SE in both basic and applied research have
stimulated studies on the determination of in vitro conditions for the induction of somatic embryos, and their further
development into complete plants. According to this, an increasing number of protocols describing efficient in vitro
systems based on regeneration via SE are being published. Remarkable progress in the development of in vitro systems is
enabling induction of SE in many economically important plants, as well as in model species. In recent years efficient
protocols on SE induction and plant regeneration have been accessible also in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh, a model
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organism in plant genetics and embryogenesis (Malgorzata, 2004). One of the most important prerequisites for genetic
manipulation of plants in vitro has been the ability to grow somatic cells in sterile plant growth medium and to regenerate
plants from these cultures (Litz and Gray, 1995).
Somatic embryogenesis is developmental process by which somatic cells undergo reorganization to generate embryogenic
cells. These cells then go through a series of morphological and biochemical changes that result in the formation of
somatic or non-zygotic embryo capable of regenerating plants. Somatic embryogenesis represents a unique developmental
pathway that includes a number of characteristic events: dedifferentiation of cells, activation of cell division and
reprogramming of their physiology, metabolism and gene expression patterns. Somatic embryos can develop indirectly,
through callus tissue (ISE) or directly from explants tissue (DSE).Somatic embryos developing via direct somatic
embryogenesis are formed from competent cells of explants, contrary to indirect somatic embryogenesis, are able to
undergo embryogenesis without dedifferentiation or callus formation. It is believed that both processes are extremes of
one continuous developmental pathway (Carman, 1990). Distinguishing between direct somatic embryogenesis and
indirect somatic embryogenesis can be difficult (Emons, 1994) and both processes have been observed to occur
simultaneously in the same tissue culture conditions (Turgut et al., 1998).
Direct somatic embryogenesis called primary somatic embryogenesis, and somatic embryogenesis through callus is called
secondary somatic embryogenesis in the culture of somatic embryos. A much higher efficiency of secondary somatic
embryogenesis over primary somatic embryogenesis has been indicated for many plant species (Raemakers et al., 1995;
Akula et al., 2000; Vasic et al., 2001). Some cultures are able to retain their competence for secondary embryogenesis for
many years and thus provide useful material for various studies, as described for Vitis rupestris (Martinelli et al., 2001).
Somatic embryogenesis on culture of „embryonic‟ explants is the most common method and regular feature of plant
regeneration in all the major species of cereals and grasses (Park and Walton, 1989; Vasil, 1988).
Genetic improvement of the crop depends on the combined manipulation of tissue culture techniques (Das and Misra,
2010). Production of transgenic plants with desired qualities is possible by genetic transformation of the desired genes in
to the selected plants through the methodology of tissue culture. Efficient callus formation and regeneration is an
important requisite to perform Agrobacterium-mediated transformations for producing transgenic plants (Anjaneyulu et
al., 2011). Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated genetic transformation has been successfully demonstrated with a wide
range of important crop species (Litz and Gray, 1995). One of the most important prerequisites for genetic manipulation
of plants in vitro has been the ability to grow somatic cells in sterile plant growth medium and to regenerate plants from
these cultures (Christianson, 1987).Theoretically, the regenerants are derived from single, totipotent cells and this has
been demonstrated with several species. However, under certain growth conditions (and particularly with organogenesis),
morphogenesis can involve more than one cell (Christianson, 1987). It is generally considered that somatic embryos are
derived either from single cells or from single cells within a pro embryonic mass. Somatic embryogenesis, therefore, is a
more efficient pathway for studies involving production of genetically transformed plants. And also Helen et al., 2019
were done somatic embryogenesis of four cultivars and get 95-100% of callus induced. These embryogenic calluses are a
prerequisite for genetic improvements of this crop.
3. CONCLUSSION
Finger millet is one of the most important crops and used to make several dishes and drinks, particularly in the rural areas
of Ethiopia. It cures different diseases such as diarrhea and malaria, and assists healing of broken bones. In addition to
this, it grows at higher temperatures and in soils with higher salinity compared to other cereal crops. Optimum conditions
for growing finger millet are temperatures ranging from 11 to 27 ◦C, soil pH of 5 to 8.2, and mediumrainfall.
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